archeological excavations in jericho, 1995-2010

ROSAPAT 07 Appendix A 269

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS IN JERICHO, 1995-2010

Hamdan Taha 1. Introduction Following the transfer of authorities in 1995 a series of excavations were carried out in the Jericho area. The Palestinian Department of Antiquities has managed to undertake a series of salvage excavations in the last 16 years. More than 50 salvage operations have been carried out in the Jericho area1, especially in the urban center of Jericho and areas under high pressure. These excavations were carried out at the sites of Jiser Abu Ghabush and &uwwanet eth-Thaniya2, Nu’eima camp, Tell es-Sultan3, Tell el-Mafjar4, Tell Deir Abu Ghannam5, Tell el-‡assan6, Tawaheen es-Sukkar7, the site of the Sycamore Tree, Tell Abu Hindi8, and the center of the old town. Moreover, a significant number of tombs from different periods have been rescued, dating back to the Bronze Age, Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine Periods. Three main joint excavations were carried out at Jericho, including the joint Palestinian-Italian excavations at Tell es-Sultan, the joint Palestinian-Norwegian excavations at the Chalcolithic site of Tell el-Mafjar, and the joint Palestinian-American excavations at Khirbet el-Mafjar9. A large program of restorations and rehabilitation was carried out in several sites, including Tell es-Sultan, in cooperation with the University of Rome “La Sapienza”, UNESCO and JICA, and Khirbet el-Mafjar (Hisham’s Palace) in cooperation with UNESCO, Italian Cooperation, Franciscan School in Jerusalem and the University of Chicago. Restoration and rehabilitation works have been carried out at the sites of Tawaheen es-Sukkar, ‘Ain Duq Synagogue, and Shahwan house10.

Deputy Minister, MOTA - DACH, Palestinian National Authority. 1 Taha 2010. 2 Site cat. n. 90. 3 Site cat. n. 85. 4 Site cat. n. 54. 5 Site cat. n. 9. 6 Site cat. n. 46. 7 Site cat. n. 92. 8 Site cat. n. 10. 9 Respectively sites cat. ns 85, 54, 50. 10 Respectively sites cat. ns 92, 62, 53.

270 Hamdan Taha ROSAPAT 07

This introduction presents a brief review of these excavations in chronological order. Thanks go to the staff members of the Department of Antiquities, who supervised the salvage excavations, and prepared the field reports. 2. The joint Palestinian-Italian excavations at Tell es-Sultan (ancient Jericho) Following the transfer of authority, the Palestinian Department of Antiquities, jointly with the University of Rome “La Sapienza” resumed the work at Tell es-Sultan11, within the framework of the joint Palestinian-Italian excavations at Tell es-Sultan. Four seasons of joint excavations and restorations were carried out at the site from 1997 to 2000 under the direction of H. Taha, L. Nigro, N. Marchetti and J. Yasin, and then three seasons from 2009 to 2011 under the direction of H. Taha, L. Nigro, M. Sala and J. Yasin. The main aim of the project was the scientific reassessment and rehabilitation of the archaeological park12. The site of Tell es-Sultan is located in the lower plain of the Jordan Valley, ca. 10 km north of the Dead Sea. At a depth of 250 m below the sea level, and with a history dating back to the Neolithic Period, Tell es-Sultan is the lowest and the oldest town on the earth. The mound rises ca. 21 m of accumulation, and it covers an area of about one acre. It is located close to the perennial Spring of ‘Ain es-Sultan and a mid fertile land of alluvial soil, suitable for agriculture, associated with tropical climate in summer and mild weather in winter. The site of Tell es-Sultan is identified with ancient Jericho. It is mentioned in ancient historical and biblical sources. Recently, the name of Jericho appeared on a 2nd millennia BC scarab excavated by the Palestinian-Italian Expedition. The history of explorations goes back to the end of 19th century, with the first soundings by Charles Warren in 1868, on the behalf of the Palestine Exploration Fund. The first large scale excavation was carried out by the Austro-German Expedition from 1907-1909 under the direction of E. Sellin and C. Watzinger13. The excavation cleared part of the Early Bronze and Middle Bronze Ages fortification systems. The third campaign was directed by J. Garstang in 1930-193614. The excavation was more controlled, but Garstang missed the dating of the Bronze Age fortification. The fourth

11 Site cat. n. 85. 12 Nigro - Taha eds. 2006. 13 Sellin - Watzinger 1913. 14 Garstang - Garstang 1948.

2011 Archaeological excavations in Jericho, 1995-2010 271

major excavation was carried out by K.M. Kenyon between 1952-1958. This excavation managed to fix the stratigraphic history of the site. The result of this excavation was published in five volumes15. The joint Palestinian-Italian Expedition at Tell es-Sultan contributed in a better understanding of the urban fabric of the ancient town, as well as of the fortification system of the Bronze Age city. Results of this joint excavations were published in three volumes of Quaderni di Gerico (now ROSAPAT), as well as in a wide range of articles and Phd dissertations. The successive excavations uncovered the cultural history of the site, stretching 10 thousand years16. The earliest remains of the site belong to the Natufian culture, between 10th-8th millennia BC. The cultural material, consisting of flint tools, attests to the presence of a hunting Natufian camp near the spring. The remains of the early Neolithic settlement are represented by a small settlement with round houses built of mud-bricks, surrounded by a wall and a round tower, illustrating the earliest preserved piece of a fortification system. This phase is known as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A, followed by a second phase, the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B, characterized by rectangular houses, built of elongated mud-brick. The plastered skulls, indicating an ancestral cult, were found below the floor of these houses. The Neolithic Period at Tell es-Sultan represents the transformation for the first time of human history from a prehistoric subsistence pattern, based on hunting and gatherings, to a new subsistence pattern, based on domestication of plants and animals of the earliest settled society. The production surplus of agriculture enabled man to free part of his time, dedicated in the past to secure food, to build houses and to create art. The material culture of this period indicates the growing social complexity of the Neolithic society. After a long abandonment, the site was re-occupied in the Pottery Neolithic Period. The agriculturalists of Tell es-Sultan were the first ones to produce pottery, responding to the increase of their storage needs. Evidence of Chalcolithic Period, preceding the urban stage, was scarcely attested in the site, but rather in the cemeteries. Recently, excavations managed to uncover this cultural horizon at the site of Tell el-Mafjar17. During the Early Bronze II-III, Jericho developed to a major urban center, and several building phases were observed in the fortification area west of the mound. A large number of communal burial tombs was uncovered.

15 Kenyon 1960; 1965; 1981; Kenyon - Holland 1982; 1983. 16 Taha - Qleibo 2010. 17 Site cat. n. 54.


Following a transitional period with no permanent dwellings, the urban life revolved again in the Middle Bronze II, with a fortification consisting of a massive wall built of stones and a glacis, with a wall built on the top of it. The Palestinian-Italian excavations uncovered a huge mud-brick building outside the Middle Bronze Age fortification wall, indicating an occupation outside the city-wall. The Middle Bronze Age tombs in Jericho preserve a unique testimony of people domestic life as evidenced in their pottery vessels, personal belongings and furniture. The town was deserted in the Late Bronze Age, and the city-walls of Jericho, during Joshua’s invasion, were not found by archaeologists, indicating the contradiction between the biblical narratives and the archaeological evidence. Sparse remains belong to the Iron Age and very scanty remains were attested from Persian Period, when the site was fully abandoned. The centre of ancient Jericho, in fact, shifted to Tulul Abu el-‘Alayiq in the following Greco-Roman Period. Rehabilitation works were carried out at the site of Tell es-Sultan by the Palestinian Department of Antiquities in cooperation with the University of Rome “La Sapienza”, UNESCO, the Japanese Agency for International Cooperation, and the American Ambassador Fund. The works consist of new excavations and restorations in selected areas, walking paths, signage, presentation of the site, interpretation panels, a brochure, and the production of a film screened in the interpretation centre built at the entrance of the site. 3. Excavations at Jiser Abu Ghabush The site of Jiser Abu Ghabush is located ca. 3 km north of Tell es-Sultan, on the southern bank of Wadi en-Nu’eima. The site was not identified precisely in previous surveys and the whole area is referred generally in the SWP with the name &uwwanet eth-Thaniya (coordinates 193.34/143.30). Jiser Abu Ghabush lies ca. 300 meter west of the Chalcolithic site of Tell el-Mafjar, on the eastern bank of Wadi en-Nu’eima. Previous archaeological investigations were carried out in 1968 by G.M. Landes, from the Albright School. It was a salvage excavation during the construction of the new road to Hisham’s Palace at Khirbet el-Mafjar. Six areas were opened on the tell, a series of one-meter wide trenches spaced at irregular intervals. G.M. Landes18 distinguished three main strata in the area, dated respectively to the early Roman Period, the Iron Age II, and the Late Chalcolithic Period. 18 Landes 1968, 131-133.


A small salvage excavation (fig. 1) was carried out at the site of Jiser Abu Ghabush between 14/9-14/10/1994. It was the first excavation organized by the new established Department of Antiquities following the transfer of authorities in the Jericho area to the Palestinian side. The salvage excavation was funded by the Jericho Motels company. Excavations were carried out on the behalf of the Palestinian Department of Antiquities in two fields under the direction of Dr. H. Taha, assisted by I. Saca, M. Ghayadah and J. Nairouz, as square supervisors, Y. Abu Ta‘a as photographer, in addition to the volunteers from the Institute of Archaeology at Birzeit University. For this purpose locus sheets, tags, and identification cards were developed. The main objective of the excavation was to conduct an archaeological assessment study for the area, to identify the boundary of the archaeological site, and to protect its archaeological resources to the west of the area excavated by G. Landes in 1968. The area was severely damaged by the construction of a road, as well as by agricultural activities. Two main strata were distinguished in the two squares: - stratum I: below the topsoil and composed of wall foundations and plaster floors, dated to the early Roman Period. At the northern edge of the excavated area a small cistern was uncovered, measuring 2.88 m in length, 2.70 m in width and 1.42 m in depth, with three steps. - stratum II: a shallow layer of occupation, composed of earth floors, one course of mud-bricks, hard and compacted surfaces, dated to the Late Chalcolithic Period was attested, including mud-brick walls, hearths and compacted surfaces. This layer of occupation was associated with pottery sherds, lithic materials and a few stone objects.

Fig. 1 - View of salvage excavation at Jiser Abu Ghabush.


4. The joint Palestinian-Norwegian excavations at Tell el-Mafjar, 2002-2003 The site of Tell el-Mafjar19 is located 2 km north of the city centre of Jericho, ca. 200 meters south of the Umayyad Palace at Khirbet el-Mafjar excavated by R.W. Hamilton and D.C. Baramki in the 1930-1940s. It extends ca. 150 meter east-west along the northern bank of Wadi en-Nu’eima. Tell el-Mafjar is a relatively flattened, low mound, partly overlaid by ruins of the Umayyad Palace. The main objective of the joint Palestinian-Norwegian excavations at Tell el-Mafjar was to explore the Chalcolithic culture in the Jericho area, including its settlement pattern, subsistence, social system, technology and other aspects of Chalcolithic life within its wider setting in the lower part of the Jordan Valley. The site of Tell el-Mafjar was mentioned in the Survey of Western Palestine as part of Ard el-Mafjar. But the first systematic survey and sounding were carried out by J. Mellaart in 1953. The survey was conducted as part of the archaeological impact study for the Point Four Irrigation Scheme of the Jordan Valley. A preliminary result of the survey was published in 196220. Part of the survey and soundings at the sites of Tell es-Saideyh et-Tahta, Tell Abu Habil and Tell esh-Shuneh were published by H. de Contenson in 1960. Mellaart conducted a single sounding at the centre of Tell el-Mafjar and reached virgin soil at the depth of 2 meters below the surface of the site. The results of the sounding excavated by Mellaart were published 40 years later by A. Leonard21. The survey and sounding carried out by Mellaart showed the great potential of the site for the study of the Chalcolithic Period in the lower Jordan Valley. 4.1. Excavations of the site Two seasons of excavations were carried out in 2002-2003 by the joint Palestinian-Norwegian Expedition within the framework of the joint work between the Palestinian Department of Antiquities and the University of Bergen in Norway22. The excavations were undertaken under the general direction of Dr. H. Taha and Dr. R. Halland, assisted by J. Yasin and N. Anfinset as field directors, and M. Ghayadah, M. Sayel, K. Khanfar, Nils Anfinset, J. Kafafi and I. Dababessa as square supervisors, H. Afssas as 19 Site cat. n. 54. 20 Mellaart 1962. 21 Leonard 1992. 22 Taha et al. 2004; Anfinset et al. 2011.


square assistant, M. Zawahera as zoo-archaeologist, M. Diab as conservator, I. Iqtait as surveyor and draftsman, M. Ghayadah as camp manager, N. Sharia as assistant camp manager, and I. Abu Ghush as research assistant. Field registration was done by K. Khanfar, and bone analyses was done by M. Zawahira. In the first season, a field consisting of six squares was plotted in western shoulder of the mound, east of the road leading to Hisham’s Palace and cutting the western end of the sites (fig. 2). This part of the site shows a section cut by the road during the 1950s. The Chalcolithic accumulations were visible in this cut. The main objective of this field was to explore the stratigraphy of the site near the road. 4.1.1. Stratigraphy In three squares (ns 3, 6 and 11) excavations reached the origin soil ca. 2.20 m below the surface. A sequence of six main layers was distinguished in these squares. The upper layers are mainly agricultural deposits. The successive layers are characterized of alternating floors composed of compacted clay, ashy pits and stone-lined silos. The lower floors are made of a layer of small pebbles, and they may have served as an occupational phase. The lowest layer has evidence of some fallen mud-bricks, indicating its association with some forms of mud-brick architecture.

Fig. 2 - General view of Palestinian-Norwegian excavations at the Chalcolithic site of Tell el-Mafjar.


4.1.2. Material culture Excavations at Tell el-Mafjar yielded significant stratigraphic material from the Chalcolithic Period. The material culture consists of pottery sherds, lithic material, stone artefacts, bone tools, animal bones and human bones. The ceramic finds consist mainly of pottery sherds, indicating a limited repertoire of the Chalcolithic pottery. The pottery is predominantly hand-made. The pottery repertoire includes bowls, cups, hole-mouth vessels, pithoi, small necked globular jars, spouted jars, basins, chalices and footed vessels. Different forms of handles were found, including loop, lug, multiple and ledge handles. Cornets, a diagnostic form of the Ghassulian pottery, is extremely rare at Tell el-Mafjar. The pottery forms bear decorations, consisting of rope decorations, thumb indentation, and lines of incision with red slip. Many vessels have a matt impression on the base. The wide variety of pottery forms indicates a certain level of pottery specialization in the Chalcolithic economy. A painting representing probably a gazelle was found on a Chalcolithic pottery sherd. A series of terracotta animal figurines were found at the site. Four figurines were found. Mellaart reported two figurines in his report, but the larger quantity was found in season 2003. More than 35 clay animal figurines were uncovered. A wide range of lithic material was collected in the first season of excavation at Tell el-Mafjar. More than one hundred of artefacts were found. The number of flakes and cores is extremely low, which do point in direction of utilization of the tools at the site rather than the actual tool production. In addition no hammer-stones used for tool production were found. However, the occurrence of some flakes may indicate that there was a secondary production or trimming of tools at the site. The majority of lithic material is made of various types of flints, except some of the small finds and large stone objects made of basalt and limestone. There are several types of borers, but the most numerous categories seem to be blades of various types, both retouched and unretouched. In addition there are several bladelets identified both with and without retouch. Several tabular fan scrapes were also discovered. This type of tool is well known from other Chalcolithic sites in the region, generally dated to the Late Pottery Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Periods. Several flint celts of at least two different typological types have been identified. These flint celts are also known from Pottery Neolithic and Chalcolithic contexts in the region. There are several retouched flakes and some flakes with notches were found. In addition, a spheroid stone of limestone was found, though it does not seem to have been used as a hammer-stone. One


important feature is that no arrowheads were identified, but arrowheads are extremely rare on other sites throughout the region in both Chalcolithic and Neolithic Periods. In general, the lithic material seems to indicate preparation of skin and hides, as well as food production in terms of retouched sickle blades and bladelets. This seems to indicate cereal harvesting as well, as tools used for cutting, chopping and boring. Most of the lithic material, based on a preliminary identification, seems to date within Late Pottery Neolithic and Chalcolithic Periods (ca. 5000-3300 BC). A wide variety of small and large stone objects was found, including basins and bowls of different sizes. Most of these stone vessels was made of local limestone and basalt. The occurrence of basalt stone artefacts may indicate the development of a specialized economy based on simple forms of trade and beyond the domestic mode of production. A considerable number of polished bone tools was found at Tell el-Mafjar, including awls, borers and gravers. In the probe excavated by J. Mellaart eight polished bone tools were found. Bone tools include fine samples of Chalcolithic polished tools. Comparative examples are known from different Chalcolithic sites in Palestine. During the first season of excavation more than 10 examples of polished bone tools were found in Area A. There is evidence of other specialized industries in Chalcolithic Tell el-Mafjar, as indicated by beads and bone tools. No evidence of metal was found during the first season. A few spindle whorls were also found. 4.1.3. Animal bones A considerable amount of animal bones in a relatively good state of preservation was uncovered. Approximately 10 medium-sized cartoons of bones were collected, either picked by hands or through sifting techniques. The state of preservation is generally good except the bones recovered from sandy red soil contexts. Preliminary investigations of this large bone samples indicate various species including sheep, goat, cattle, pig, gazelle, dogs and molluscan shells. But the most distinctive feature of the assemblage is the dominance of the pig specimens, more than half of the sample. Their bones have mostly unfused ends and the skulls and the mandibles have at least one milk tooth still not replaced by the permanent ones. Moreover, one pig fetus scapula bone was recovered. On the contrary, cattle bones are almost fused. No equid, horse or donkey bones could be detected among the assemblage. Pigs were primarily raised and consumed at the site. Their main function was for meat production. Cattle on contrary were used for secondary production, while sheep and goat were used for both primary and secondary production. The dominance of pigs at the site of Tell el-Mafjar


indicates a husbandry settled mode of life based mainly on raising pigs, sheep and goats. Hunting was also practiced but of a minor role. Pig remains give more evidence about the environment of the region. Their presence, both domestic and wild, indicates a humid climate and a moderate rainfall precipitation 4.1.4. Jar burial: human bones Besides rich animal assemblage, a human fetus and a skull fragment of an adult were found from the same square. The fetus was found inside a jar, indicating the practice of subfloor jar burials, a mortuary practice known in other Chalcolithic sites, including Tuleilat el-Ghassul and Tell Abu Hamid. 4.1.5. Dating Two C-14 dates were taken from Field A (squares 10 and 3), as follows: Area A, square 10, locus 7e 4560; and Area A, square 3, locus 9b 4720. These dates match perfectly with the material excavated and other sites23. 4.1.6. Conclusion The main features of the material culture of the Chalcolithic Period at Tell el-Mafjar are pits, circular silos lined with stones, and pebble surfaces. It is characterized also by abundant animal bones, clay figurines and the occurrence of an infant jar burial. The material culture indicates an economy based primarily on agriculture combined with sheep, goat and big husbandry. The excavations have shown without doubt that Tell el-Mafjar is the major Chalcolithic settlement in the Jericho area. A second season of excavation was carried out in 2003, with two major fields, one to the west of the road and the other one to the east of the road, near the centre of the site. 5. &uwwanet eth-Thaniya (Nu’eima camp) Remains from the early Roman Period were uncovered at the site of &uwwanet eth-Thaniya24, one and a half kilometres north of Tell es-Sultan, on the southern bank of Wadi en-Nu’eima, west of the Jericho-Beisan road. The area is now occupied by the Police College, west of Jiser Abu Gabbush. The building was originally a school built by the UNRWA after the establishment of the two refugee camps, ‘Ain es-Sultan and ‘Ain en-Nu’eima, following the Nakba in 1948. After the abandonment of Nu’eima camp in 1967, the building was no longer used as a school. In the early 1970s the building was used as an agricultural station, until the Palestinian National Authority turned it into a police college. The salvage excavation 23 Garfinkel 1999. 24 Site cat. n. 90.


was carried out on the behalf of the Palestinian Department of Antiquities in 1997, following bulldozing activities in the courtyard of the school. The archaeological remains date to the first century AD (figs. 3-4).

Fig. 3 - &uwwanet eth-Thaniya: salvage excavation, squares A3 and B3.

Fig. 4 - &uwwanet eth-Thaniya: plan of excavation in squares A3 and B3.


5.1. Excavations The excavation was carried out on the behalf of the Palestinian Department of Antiquities, between 30/4-25/5/1997, under the direction of Dr. H. Taha, with W. Hamamrah as field supervisor and A. Najjar as draftsperson. I. Iqtait drew artefacts. The excavation was carried out within the framework of the Emergency Clearance Campaign of Archaeological Sites Palestine, funded by the Dutch Government. The field report was prepared by W. Hamamrah. After the notification to the Department of Antiquities of unlicensed digging in the site, a salvage operation was organized. The salvage operation (figs. 3-4) was carried out following bulldozing 15 holes in the courtyard of the school. The holes, measuring1.4 × 1.5 m, 1.20 m deep, were dug for the construction of a new wing for the school. The whole area was scattered with pottery sherds, in one hole a broken jar and several clay loomweights were found. Four squares (5 × 5 m) were plotted in the western part of the damaged area: squares A2, A3, B2 and B3. The main objective of the excavation was to rescue the site from further damage and to verify the stratigraphy of the site. 5.1.1. Stratigraphy Three main strata may be distinguished: - stratum I: early Roman Period; - stratum II: 1948; - stratum III: recent, post 1948 war. Stratum I This stratum is featured by a group of four rooms, ns 1-4, located in squares A3 and B3. It forms apparently a distinct domestic unit and consists of two living rooms, a storage room and a bath, south-north oriented. To the east of the walls is an open courtyard. The courtyard contains a tabun (L.47).This stratum represents the main occupational level in the history of the site. Here follows a brief description of these rooms. Room 1 It is located in the southern part of the excavated area, within square B3. The room was not completely uncovered. The excavated area measures 2.5 × 2.2 m, mostly in the north-eastern part. Wall W.30 represents the eastern wall of the room, built of two rows of wadi stones of elongated small, medium and big sizes. The space in between was filled with rubble and earthen mud. The wall is SW-NE oriented with its extension in the north-east direction appearing in square A3 and the eastern baulk. The south-west extremities of this wall continue below the southern baulk. The wall measures 3 m long inside the room, 70 cm in width and preserved to a


height of 40 cm. This preserved part is most likely the stone foundation of a brick wall. The two walls, W.30a and W.49, form the corner of the room in the western part of square B3. Wall W.49 is constructed using the same building technique of wall W.30a. It is east-west oriented and continues below the western baulk. The wall measures 2.5 m long and 65 cm in width. In a later stage, wall W.10 was built on the top of its southern extremity. The floor (L.50) of the room is bordered by the walls W.30a, W.49 and W.10, and it is composed of gray reddish soil mixed with rubble. The area uncovered was 2.5 × 5 m. A few coins were found in this area. Room 2 Room 2 is located between squares A3 and B3. The excavated area measures 3.40 × 2.20 m. It is surrounded by Rooms 3 and 4 to the north and Room 1 to the south. The doorway of the room (L.30b) exists more likely to the east. This is indicated by a set of even laid stones forming a threshold. The door, ca. 75 cm wide, opens to the courtyard. Wall W.27 was built of medium-sized wadi stones. It overlays wall W.30a. Although it rises 40 cm, it has the same construction technique of wall W.30a. This wall was cut by the bulldozer. The northern wall of the room consists of walls W.24 and W.22. Wall W.24 in square A3 is built of mud-brick and forms a corner with wall W.30a. The wall forms a small exedra which is part of Room 3. This wall is 1.80 m long and 70 cm wide, and only its eastern extremities have been uncovered. Wall W.22 in square A3 is constructed of wadi stones of different sizes. It overlays the mud-brick wall W.24. It forms a corner with wall W.30a to the east and wall W.7a to the west. The wall is 3.50 m long and 60 cm wide. Only one course of this wall has been preserved. The western extension of the room was not uncovered, since it lies below the western baulk. To the south it was bordered by wall W.49, which forms the northern wall of Room 1. The pavement (L.51) of Room 2 consists of compacted grey-yellowish soil, mixed with rubble and small stones. Above the floor surface a cache of loomweights, a small juglet and a few coins were found. Room 3 This small irregular room is located in square A3, and it has a L-form. It measures 2.20 × 1.30 m. It may have been used for storage, since good quantities of pottery vessels were uncovered in this room. The room consist of wall W.23 in the northern part of square A3, constructed using the same construction techniques of wall W.30a, and forms with it corner in its western part. The wall continues east-west; part of the wall was cut by the bulldozer before the excavation. Its northern


part was superimposed by wall W.2 in a later period. The wall was exposed ca. 2 meters of its length and 50 cm of its width. It continues toward west close to wall W.38, the northern wall of Room 4. The southern wall of Room 3 consists of the northern wall of Room 2; walls W.22 and W.24 mentioned earlier. The eastern wall consists of wall W.30a, which is 3.40 m long. The western wall W.24 of the room contains a small semi-circle exedra, 70 cm wide. Constructed of mud-bricks, of which 2 courses, 40 cm high, are preserved. The mud-brick wall is well constructed. In the western part of the room is a high platform, measuring 1.80 m × 0.80 m. It is a stone pavement, constructed of small rough stone and small wadi stones and compacted soil. Room 4 This room, featuring a small bath room, is located in square A3, south of Room 2 and west of Room 3. The excavated portion measures 1.5 × 2 m. The walls were built of wadi stones. Two building phases may be discerned. A clay panio (L.32), rectangular in shape, and 50 cm in depth, was found in this room. The structure was built of mud-bricks, 60 × 20 cm, and casted by a layer of white plaster. A small juglet, for dipping water, was found inside the panio. The courtyard The courtyard (L.20) lies in squares A3 and B3, in the eastern part of the excavated area, east of walls W.30a, W.30b and W.27, adjoining with Rooms 1, 2, 3 and 4. The courtyard extends in the eastern and southern bulks. It was approached with entrance of Room 2, L.30b. The pavement is composed of reddish fine soil. In the southern side of the courtyard a tabun (L.47b) was uncovered. The clay tabun is circular in shape, 1 m in diameter. Stratum II This stratum is featured by one room and two walls. Two phases can be discerned, Phase A and Phase B. Phase A This stratum is attested in four squares, including wall foundations in squares B2 and B3, in addition to two parallel walls in squares A2 and A3. Room 1, measuring 5 m east-west and 3 m south-north, was built roughly on top of Room 1 of the stratum I. The walls W.10a and W.10b were built of tow sides of small and medium-sized wadi stones, 70 cm in thickness. The room opens to the east (L.37b). Remains of a plaster layer, 2 cm, thick, is visible on walls. The pavement is composed of compacted earth. Remains of two parallel walls, W.7b in square A3 and W.42 in square A2, belong to this stratum.


Phase B This phase is represented by a thick layer of debris, composed of soil, small stones, and brick. The thick accumulation of this layer indicates the long time span of abandonment. Stratum III This layer represents the final occupational phase in the site. It consists of foundations of a relatively modern rectangular building between square A2 and square B3. It was apparently part of the school built by the UNRWA for the refugee camps following the war of 1948. The room measuring 5 × 3.20 m was demolished partially, especially the four corners of the room. Walls of the room were built of two rows of irregular medium-sized and big stones. The walls, 65 cm in width, were filled with small stones, rubble mixed with lime. The external joints were filled with modern cement. These walls are preserved to a height ranging between 50-80 cm. The extension of these walls is buried under northern and eastern baulks. Locus 5 represents the floor of the room. This locus extends in all squares, but it is cut in various places. The floor consists of a thin layer of whitish earth, mixed with rubble. A trunk of a tree was uncovered in the eastern part of square B3 between the walls W.10a and W.10b, indicating some agricultural activity in the area. Recent digging was indicated by electricity installations. 6. Hellenistic tomb at Wadi en-Nu’eima In 2002 a burial (fig. 5) dating to the Late Hellenistic Period was excavated at the northern bank of Wadi en-Nu’eima, west of Tell el-Mafjar. The burial cave hewn in the rock is of arcosolium type. The tomb was uncovered during bulldozing work at the northern bank of Wadi en-Nu’eima. It is located on the eastern northern bank of Wadi en-Nu’eima, ca. 1.5 above the bed of the wadi. The tomb comprised a single square burial chamber (A), surrounded by four arcosolia, C, D, E and F, hewn into three sides of its walls. Each arcosolium contain one burial trough. The cave was breached by a bulldozer right near the opening. The original entrance opens to the south. The entrance, the main chamber as well as arcosolia C and F were partly cut by the bulldozer. The burial cave was intact and its content undisturbed. Remains of several individuals, all completely disarticulated, were found in the tomb. The excavation was carried out by M. Zawahera, M. Ghayadah and J. Yasin, under the supervision of H. Taha. Arcosolium C is a very small and shallow trough, ca. 50 cm in depth, suggesting a child burial. The bones were disarticulated and consist of


bone fragments, including one milk tooth. Arcosolium D is located north of arcosolium C. It measures, 170 cm in length. One skeleton was found laying on its back, without a skull, east-west oriented. A skull found in the chamber may belong to the deceased. Arcosolium E is a small shallow, ca. 65 cm in length, located at the eastern side of the chamber. No bones were found inside the tomb. A few bones were found near the entrance, in addition to a bracelet and a glass vessel. Arcosolium F is located at the northern side of the chamber, west of arcosolium E. The entrance was blocked by a large stone. The tomb contains remains of four skull fragment and bone fragments of adults, including one adult female. Most of the bones were found inside the arcosolia, and a few in the chamber. The burial was in secondary use. This is evidenced by arcosolia C and F, and by the accumulation of the disarticulated bones at the southern side of the chamber. It indicates that the burial was used through a long period of time. The gender of the individual could not be determined, due to the bad preservation of the bones, except for the articulated skeleton found in cist F. Milk teeth were found in cist C and F, indicating a family burial.

Fig. 5 - Wadi en-Nu’eima: plan of Late Hellenistic tomb (2002).


7. A tomb at eth-Thiniya In 2010 a tomb was excavated on the behalf of the Department of Antiquities in the area of eth-Thiniya, west of Tell es-Sultan and north of Tell es-Samarat, along the cliff north of Tawaheen es-Sukkar. The excavation was carried out under the supervision of Mr. I. Hamdan, the archaeological inspector of Jericho area, assisted by N. Khatib, I. Hawamdeh, S. Ghazal and A. Salama. The burial cave hewn in the kurkar is of arcosolium type (fig. 6). It consists of a square chamber, surrounded by several arcosolia, hewn into three sides of its walls. Each arcosolium contained 2-3 ossuaries. The tomb was apparently blocked with a sealing stone or brick stone and earth masonry. Different burial methods were used, including primary burial in wooden coffins; secondary burial in ossuaries; secondary burial in loculi; and secondary burial in ossuaries. Pottery, glass vessels, and coins were found in these tombs. A group of 10 ossuaries and one wooden coffin were found in this tomb. Tow ossuaries have inscriptions, written in Greek. The closest parallel to this tomb are the tombs found in the large necropolis located at the northern edge of Tulul Abu el-‘Alayiq, south of Tell es-Samarat. The cemetery excavated by R. Hachlili between 1975-1977 dates from the middle of the first century BC to the first century AD25.

Fig. 6 - Eth-Thiniya tomb. 25 Hachlili 1979.


5. Joint Palestinian-Russian excavations at the site of Sycamore Tree Jericho played a major role in the early stages of Christianity. In the Late Roman and Byzantine Periods, the town was reduced to the area of modern Jericho. Jericho was mentioned in several classical sources. Jericho was depicted on the sixth century Madaba Mosaic map, marked by the symbol of a church and a palm tree, along with the inscription “Of St. Elisha” marking a domed church flanked by two towers. The church likely represents the place of ancient Jericho, close to the Spring of ‘Ain es-Sultan. But the Byzantine city was marked with the name Jericho, enclosed by a wall and surrounded by palms. A large number of churches from the Byzantine Period have been found in the vicinity of Jericho. The archaeological excavations in the last century revealed archaeological remains from various sites in the historic core of modern Jericho, which shed light on the history of Jericho during the Byzantine Period. A considerable number of churches from the Byzantine Period was found in the vicinity of Jericho, including the Nea Theotokos Church at Tell el-‡assan26, the Coptic Church, the Greek Orthodox Church of Abuna Anthimos, and Khirbet en-Nitla27. Other Byzantine remains were found in the church of Abuna Philip, belonging to the Coptic Orthodox cleric, and located on the northern side of Wadi Qelt28; the mosaic pavement was recorded by Fathers Bagatti and Augustinović29. Byzantine remains, including a colourful mosaic pavement, were uncovered in 1962 at Tell el-Ma#lab30, on the Qasr Hisham road. At Tell el-‡assan31, in a piece of land, east of the Hisham’s Palace road, just opposite to the Arab Bank, a series of buildings were excavated in 2010 dating to the Roman-Byzantine Period. Remains were uncovered in different spots within the boundaries of the old town of Jericho, particularly in the area of the Russian convent. A mosaic floor dating to the Byzantine Period was uncovered by a Russian team. In 2010, within the framework of the project for construction of the Russian museum in Jericho, a salvage excavation (fig. 7) was carried out in the area in June-September 2010 by a Palestinian-Russian Expedition, 26 Baramki 1936a. 27 Respectively sites cat. ns 46, 47, 11, 66. 28 Site cat. n. 12. 29 Augustinović 1950, 265; 1951, 77-83. 30 Site cat. n. 58. 31 Site cat. n. 46.


under the direction of Dr. H. Taha and Dr. L.A. Beliaev, from the Institute of Archaeology in the Russian Academy, assisted by I. Hamdan, S. Edaiss and a Russian research team. More architectural remains associated with mosaic floors were discovered. Just north of the Russian compound, remains of a mosaic floor appeared during bulldozing works. An assessment study was carried out by a team from the Palestinian Department of Antiquities and the University of Jerusalem. The excavation was carried out in three areas, with supervision of digging for construction of trenches and foundations. A series of buildings, and mosaic pavements were uncovered, dating to early Roman, Byzantine, Umayyad, Medieval and Ottoman Periods.

Fig. 7 - View of Sycamore Tree excavation, showing the mosaic floors. 6. A salvage excavation at Tell Deir Abu Ghannam A salvage excavation was carried out at the site of Tell Deir Abu Ghannam32 (fig. 8) in 2004, under the supervision of W. Hamamrah, the archaeological inspector of Jericho area, following some digging activities by the Palestine Red Crescent. Eight squares (5 × 5 m) were plotted in the area. The excavation uncovered two churches, dating to the Byzantine Period in the monastery compound. Only one course of its wall was preserved. The first church contained a mosaic pavement, with geometric design. Its frame is adorned with small crosses. The second church, located to the south of the 32 Site cat. n. 9.


first church, contained two pavements made of colourful mosaics (red, black, grey and white). The construction technique in this church is more elaborate than the first one. The first church was reused during the Crusader Period, indicated by three phases of re-building activities in the church. The mosaic floor has been restored by a team from the Department of Antiquities and covered with a layer of sand for protection.

Fig. 8 - Tell Deir Abu Ghannam: site plan.


7. ‘Ain Duq Synagogue The site of ‘Ain Duq Synagogue is located on the northern bank of Wadi en-Nu’eima33, north-west of Jericho. The site was exposed in 1918 by a shell fired by the Turks at the British fort at Wadi en-Nu’eima. It consists of a mosaic floor decorated with menorahs and Aramaic inscription. The site was examined by R. Engelbach and J. MacKay in 1919. In the same year the Dominican fathers L.H. Vincent and M. J. Lagrange recorded some of the mosaic remains. In 1921 Vincent excavated the synagogue. The synagogue consists of a main hall, a narthex and an adjoining courtyard surrounded by a wall. The entrance of the courtyard was to the north. The hall had a basilical plan and was divided by two rows of six columns into a nave and two aisles. The entire hall was paved with mosaics. The narthex was paved with a white mosaic laid in black frame. A series of conservation activities were carried out at the Synagogue of ‘Ain Duq by the Department of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in 2002 and 2004. The main objective was to maintain the mosaic pavements of the site. 8. Restoration of the mosaic floor at Shahwan house In 1936, D.C. Baramki34 excavated a synagogue north of Tell es-Sultan35. It has a rectangular plan, divided into a nave and two aisles by two rows of square pillars. The pavement of the building is made of mosaic with stylized geometric and floral designs. The site is located now in the house basement of the Shahwan family. A series of restoration were carried out in the site in 2008, including the restoration of the mosaic pavement. 9. New excavations at Khirbet el-Mafjar, 2006 The site of Hisham’s Palace is located on the northern bank of Wadi en-Nu’eima, ca. 4 km north of city of Ariha (Jericho) in the Jordan Valley. It is identified with the ruins of Khirbet el-Mafjar. The site was attributed to Caliph Hisham bin Abed el-Malik (724-743 AD/105-125H) on the basis of some epigraphic materials, but today it is believed that his heir el-Walid II built the palace between 743-744 AD36. The site was not the official residence of the Caliph, but it was used as a winter resort. The spectacular palace, which was never completed except the bath, was destroyed in a severe earthquake ca. 749 A.D/131H. 33 Site cat. n. 62. 34 Baramki 1938b. 35 Site cat. n. 53. 36 Hamilton 1959, 61-66; 1993.


The excavation at Khirbet el-Mafjar was carried out by the Palestinian Department of Antiquities between 1935 and 1948 under the direction of D.C. Baramki and R.W. Hamilton. The excavation uncovered a significant part of the palace complex. Following the transfer of authority to the Palestinian side in Jericho, a large restoration and rehabilitation program was carried out by the Palestinian Department of Antiquities at the site, in cooperation with UNESCO, Italian Cooperation, ANERA and USAID. The archaeological park now includes a modern interpretation centre, a mosaic laboratory, a site museum, as well as a new bridge and access roads. The excavation carried out in 1960 in the northern section of the palace was unfortunately never published. In December 2006 a small scale excavation was carried out in the bath area, under the direction of H. Taha. Four main strata were distinguished, with two architectural phases, indicating occupation of the site after the earthquake. 9.1. History of excavations The excavation at Khirbet el-Mafjar was carried out by the Department of Antiquities of Palestine for twelve seasons, between 1935 and 1948, under the direction D.C. Baramki and R.W. Hamilton37. The excavation uncovered a significant part of the palace complex, composed of a palace, a thermal bath complex, a mosque, and a monumental fountain within a perimeter wall that was never completed38. The three first principal buildings were arranged along the west side of a common forecourt, with a fountain in its center. The area to the north was partially excavated and revealed a series of rooms that were identified probably as a caravanserai (Khan). The excavation reports were published in the QDAP by D.C. Baramki between 1936-1942 and his report on the pottery in 1942. The final report was never published due to the events of 1948. In 1959, R.W. Hamilton presented the architectural publication of the palace and other buildings including the bath. A large scale excavation was carried out in the northern section of the palace area in early 1960. But unfortunately the result of this excavation was never published. A series of restorations were carried out in the palace during the Jordanian rule. During the Israeli occupation between1967-1994 the palace was left abandoned. Rehabilitation work was resumed directly after the transfer of authorities to the Palestinian side in 1996 within the framework of the project for the conservation of Hisham’s Palace. The work

37 Hamilton 1959; 1993; Baramki 1936b; 1937; 1938a; 1942a; 1942b; 1947. 38 Hamilton 1959; 1993, 922; Grabar 1955, 228-235; Taha 2005; Whitcomb 2011.


was carried out on the behalf of the Department of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in cooperation with the UNESCO, the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, and it was funded by the Government of Italy39. The previous excavation of the bath complex was carried out along five seasons, between 1944-1948, following the clearance of the palace and mosque. Hamilton reports that it was not until 1944 that excavations of the northern ruins begun40. Following the publications of the preliminary reports of D.C. Baramki and the monumental publication of R.W. Hamilton, Khirbet el-Mafjar was a subject of intensive archaeological research from art historic perspective. The key studies includes the works by K. Creswell, O. Grabar, D. Whitcomb41, and many others. However, the incomplete nature of Khirbet el-Mafjar publications is due to the fact that only the preliminary reports were published and the final archaeological report was never published. The other inherited problem is related to the “architectural” method of excavation and the level of the stratigraphic control. However, the last 60 years yielded a great amount of comparative stratigraphic material from a large number of sites in the area. In 1986 D. Whitcomb reanalysed virtually the ceramic stratigraphy in the palace area, based on Baramki’s measurements of the find spots. He reinterpreted Baramki’s data in the palace and derived the following stratigraphic sequence, with chronological divisions between four periods. Whitcomb described the pottery assemblages associated with each period, concluding a stratigraphic sequence of the corpus of pottery published by D.C. Baramki in 1942. This method has been proved to be effective in reconstructing the occupational history of Hisham’s Palace, based on the preliminary results of the new excavations. After 60 years from the last season at the site, a small scale excavation was carried out in December 2006 by the Palestinian Department of Antiquities in the northern part of the main bath. 9.2. Description of the bath The bath occupies the northern part of the palace, and it is located 40 m north of the palace. Most of the bath was uncovered, including the square hall, the main entrance with the projecting porch to the east side, the secondary entrances at the end of the east wall and in the south-west corner. The last one provides a direct access between the palace and the

39 Taha 2005. 40 Hamilton 1959, 45. 41 Creswell 1932; Grabar 1955; Whitcomb 1986.


bath through a covered passage. To the south, a barrier furnished with steps on the outside enclosed a swimming pool. Along the northern side of the hall a series of small rooms, marked A, B, C, and D were uncovered42, to which three doors gave access. Two of these rooms were heated by hypocausts connected with two furnaces. The stoke-rooms serving these had separate entrances on the north side. At the north-east corner of the hall a L-shaped room with latrines was located. It was evident that the bath, unlike the palace, had been completed and put to use some time before the earthquake, indicating that building the bath preceded building the palace43. The area to the north and to the east of these rooms was not excavated, and the plan suggests that any structures belonging to the bath in that direction would have housed the menial services connected with heating and cleaning or storage of fuel44. 9.3. Excavation of the bath area, 2006 The excavation was carried out on the behalf of the Palestinian Department of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in November-December 2006, within the framework of the project “Stone Conservation at Hisham’s Palace”, funded by the UNESCO Office in Ramallah. The work was conducted under the scientific direction of H. Taha, assisted by J. Yasin as field supervisor and M. Ghayadah, S. Tawafsheh, and W. Hamamrah as square supervisors. Photos were made by J. Yasin and H. Taha. The site plans and artefacts were drawn by I. Iqtait. The specific objective of the excavation was to explore the northern extension of the bath area housing the menial services connected with storage of fuel, heating and cleaning within the framework of an assessment study for building a shelter on the top of the bath. Four main strata were discerned in this area (fig. 9), with two architectural phases, indicating a continuous occupation of the area after the earthquake. The excavation managed to fix preliminarily the stratigraphic history of the bath area. 9.3.1. Stratigraphy Four main strata were discerned in the excavated area, squares I and II: - stratum I: topsoil layer (represented by locus 1 in square I and locus 1 in square II) covers the whole area of excavations. It is ca. I5-35 cm in thickness and consists of soft, loose soil mixed with pottery sherds. It is a layer of dark brown soil mixed with small and medium sized stones. A

42 Hamilton 1959, 46, pl. CIV. 43 Hamilton 1959, 45. 44 Hamilton 1959, 46-47.


complete lamp was found in the south-eastern corner of square II. The debris is mixed with pottery sherds and glass fragments. Below that, there was a layer of ash mixed with stones, represented by loci 2 in squares I and II. A further stratum consists of a layer of lime, ca. 15-50 cm in thickness, and it was represented by locus 3 in squares I and II. Below the lime layer is another layer consisting of loci 8, 10 and 11 in square I, and loci 5 and 10 in square II. This stratum includes a layer of scattered stones represented by locus 9 in square I and locus 4 in square II; - stratum II: this stratum features the last major architectural phase in the history of the complex. It is represented by the walls W.6 and W.7 in square I and wall W.5a in square II. Wall W.5a features a secondary use of the palace stones. It was built above an earlier wall, dating most probably to the Umayyad Period. It is the same wall of the hot room and furnace. The new wall took the same north-south direction. But the construction techniques differ remarkably. Part of the wall was built on earth, projecting ca. 10 cm. The secondary nature of the wall is indicated by the use of carved stones for the earlier period, as well as using the tile fragments in filling the wall. The size of the stone ranges between 30 to 56 cm, two courses of the wall were preserved, with an average height of 26 cm, and 66-57 cm in width. The wall continues in the southern and northern directions. The wall can be associated with the room corner in square I (loci 6 and 7). Against the wall a layer of rubble and small stones, 10-16 cm in thickness (L.11) contains fragments of pottery and glass. In the same level, locus 10 consists of a stone pavement, 10 cm in thickness. The two loci 10 and 11 represent the living surfaces of this occupational period; - stratum III: period of abandonment represented by locus 7 in square I and loci 8 and 9 of square II. Another layer of light brownish soil above the layer of falling tile was represented by L.12 in square I. This layer of debris is mixed with large quantities of lime fragments of the plaster casting the tile roof and the surrounding wall, as well as fragment of tile and stones of different sizes. This layer covers the whole excavated area, and is about 70 cm in thickness. It contains pottery sherds, glass fragments, animal bones and an iron ring; - stratum IV: a layer of falling tile represented by locus 14 of square I and locus 13 in square II. It features evidence of the earthquake which struck the site. This dramatic moment in the history of the site is represented by a heavy layer of accumulation of fallen roof tile (50 cm in thickness) covering the whole area. The average size of the tile is 33 × 33 cm, and 25 × 25 cm, and 5 cm in thickness. The red coloured tile was made of rough clay mixed with straw and small stones as a temper. The tile bears different


signs, indicating probably a sort of production signs, including simple incisions, wavy lines, imprints, net designs and in one case an Arabic inscription. In certain cases, foot imprints were indicated, as well as imprints of mosaic pavements. These signs could give some valuable information about production and processing of building material during the Umayyad Period. It is evident from the large bulks of tile, with a layer of mortar 2-4 cm in between, that it was used for roofing domes and building arches. An example is visible in the furnace area, with the beginning of a springing arch. However, a thick layer of plaster (5 cm) was indicated by a large fragment of white plaster found associated with this layer of destruction, 2.5 cm in thickness, mixed with soil, ash and charcoal; - stratum V: burnt layer below the falling tile, represented by locus 15 in square I and locus 14 in square II. A small area was excavated in the south-east corner of the square. This layer represents the period of use of the bath, connected with the activities of burning and firing wood; - stratum VI: this layer is represented by the earliest architectural elements in this area, represented by the eastern wall, W.5a in square I, the earthen surface, L.15 and the collapsed pilaster in the western part of square I.

Fig. 9 - Khirbet el-Mafjar: general view of squares I, II.


The fallen pilaster was built of ashlar stones, and it was a free standing column, falling to the north direction, partly over the falling tile L.14. The pilaster was built of four courses of ashlar stones; one stone bears engraved decorations. The thickness of these courses ranges between 24-40 cm, and the stone pilaster was caped with a stone, triangular in shape, indicating a beginning of a springing arch. It is on the same line of the arch on the other side of the furnace, indicating that the area was roofed. 9.3.2. Finds The objects (fig. 10) includes pottery sherds, one lamps, and one sphero-conical juglet, two coins, glass fragments, and a few metal objects; a large amount of brick and plaster fragments was found.

Fig. 10 - Khirbet el-Mafjar: objects from 2006 excavation in the bath area.

Pottery A scanty amount of pottery was uncovered, consisting mainly of pottery sherds and a few complete vessels. The earliest pottery is composed mainly of sherds of dark red ware, with white paint, mainly of jars, but also of very thin hard ware of small pots, such as juglets, beakers and bowls. The pottery sherds of stratum II are composed mainly of fragments of large basins and jars with incised decorations and hatching. The pottery of stratum III consists of jars with incised decoration, cream ware and pots with moulded design, especially moulded handles and necks. The pottery sherds associated with the last stratum consist of a few painted and glazed ware. Pottery still needs further investigations, but generally it matches with the four main periods of Whitcomb45. 45 Whitcomb 1986.


Sphero-conical vessels One sphero-conical vessel (grenades), undecorated, with ribbed body, was found in locus 5, square II. It is a small closed container, 10.8 cm high, with a short narrow neck, simple everted rim and rounded base. The opening is 3 cm in diameter. This from appears in the Umayyad Period. A vessel still containing mercury was discovered at Beisan (Beth Shean) in a goldsmith’s shop under the destruction level of the earthquake of 749 AD. More elaborate glazed form occurred during the Medieval Period, confined to Crusader, Ayyubid and Mamluk contexts46. Umayyad oil lamps A small-pear shaped body, reddish brown in colour, was found in locus 3, square II. The nozzle bears a trench with a branch design inside. The decoration on the shoulder consists of three volutes on each side of the lamp47. Coins Two coins were found, a silver dirham and a lead fils. Umayyad silver dirham One silver dirham of the post-reform Umayyad coins was found in locus 11, square II, at Khirbet el-Mafjar. The coin was found in fragile state of preservation, but it was possible to clean it and to read the obverse, mentioning Demashq (Damascus) as a city of struck and the date of struck (86 H=705 AD), which marks the last year of the reign of Caliph Abdul-Malik bin Marwan and the first year of the reign of Al-Walid bin Abdul-Malik.

الوجهوسط: ال اله اال هللا وحده ال شريك له.ال

المدار: بسم هللا ضرب ھذا الدرھم بدمشق سنة ست وثمنين

الظھر الوسط: هللا احد هللا الصمد لم يلد ولم يولد ولم يكن له كفوا احد.

المدار: محمد رسول هللا ارسله بالھدى ودين الحق ليظھره على الدين كله ولو كره المشركون. Obverse Field: there is no God but God alone. He has no partner. Margin: in the name of God this dirham was struck at Demashq in the year 86 (H).

46 Avissar - Stern 2005, 119-121. 47 For parallel lamps see Adler 2004, 162-164.


Reverse Field: god is one. God is eternal. He begat not nor was He born and He has no equal. Margin: Mohammad is the prophet of God. He sent him with guidance and the true religion to prevail over all other religions, even though idolaters may object. Other artefacts Two metal artefacts were found, including a simple ring and a buckle. 9.3.3. Dating The excavation in the northern extremity of the bath area furnishes a primary source of information on the stratigraphic history of the site. Two main occupational layers were distinguished in the area, ranging from the early 8th century to the early Medieval Period. The first layer dates to the Umayyad Period, followed by a period of abandonment. The dirham dated to 705AD/86H points to the last year of the reign of Abdul-Malik bin Marwan, or possibly the first year of the reign of Al Walid bin Abdul-Malik. The second layer of occupation is represented by a shallow horizon of architecture, dates to the early Medieval Period. The dates ranges from the early 8th to the 12th century. 9.4. Joint Palestinian-American Excavations Following the small scale excavation in 2006 by the Department of Antiquities, work was resumed in 2010 in the area within the framework of the Palestinian-American joint Expedition under the direction of Dr. D. Whitcomb and Dr. H. Taha48. The first season, from mid-December 2010 through mid-January 2011 succeeded in uncovering the north gate of the palace complex and began the exploration of the Umayyad town in the northern part of the site. This will lead to a more precise stratigraphic history of the site and understanding of the spatial relationship between the palace and the Umayyad town. 10. Excavations at Tawaheen es-Sukkar The sugar industry flourished as one of the main economic activities during the Medieval Period in Palestine and Jordan. Sugar mills were in use during the Fatimid, Crusader, Ayyubid and Mamluk Periods. The plantation of sugar cane in the Jordan Valley and the coastal areas was already known before its utilization for sugar production. The cultivation of sugar cane and the production of sugar require abundant water for irrigation, and for 48 Whitcomb 2011.


powering the mills49; therefore, it was generally associated with ample sources of water and water installations. Jericho’s sugar cane and mills were mentioned in several early Medieval, Arab and Frankish sources. The sources of the Fatimid Period refer to the plantation of sugar cane in the Jordan Valley. Al-Maqdesi50 and Ibn Hawqal described the plantation of sugar cane in the Jordan Valley. In 1116 a general reference was made to a mill in Jericho, without specification, but sugar mills were in use there during the Crusader and Ayyubid Periods. Yaqut al-Hamawi described Jericho in 1225 as a city famed for sugar cane and dates51. He wrote that the best quality of sugar is manufactured in Jericho. The whole production process was described by Burchard of Mount Sion in 128352, and by al-Nuweiri in 139153. The sugar mills were in use during the Mamluk Period and they were mentioned by al-Maqrisi in 1442 and by Felix Fabri in year 148454. The technology of sugar production was transferred to Europe during the Crusader Period, as indicated by the large numbers of sugar refineries in Cyprus55. Archaeological surveys and excavations record dozens of sugar refineries in Palestine and Jordan56. A general survey of the data about sugar industry was provided by R. Abu Dalu, P. Brigitte-Porëe, E. Stern, and N. Barakat57. In the last two decades, a series of sites were excavated in the Jordan Valley58, including the site of Tawaheen es-Sukkar59. These excavations provided new information about different aspects of sugar cane industry in the Jordan Valley. Tawaheen es-Sukkar features a relatively well preserved industrial site for manufacturing sugar (fig. 11). Clermont-Ganneau described the site in 189660. Three sugar mills were recorded at the beginning of the 20th century; one of them is preserved today. The site is located at the lower

49 Benvenisti 1970, 253; Galloway 1989. 50 Al-Maqdesi 1967 (originally 985 AD). 51 Yaqut 1995, 217. 52 Benvenisti 1970, 253. 53 Al-Nuweiri 1976, 264-266. 54 Benvenisti 1970; Hamarna 1978; Ashtor 1981; Abu Dalu 1991; 1995. 55 Riley-Smith 1967; von Wartburg 1983; Phillips 1986. 56 Glueck 1934-1935; Ibrahim et al. 1976; MacDonald et al. 1987; Jones et al. 2000; Biran - Shoram 1987; Biran 1993. 57 Abu Dalu 1991; 1995; Brigitte-Porëe 1995; Stern 1999; Barakat 1999. 58 De Haas et al. 1992; Jones et al. 2000; LaGro - de Haas 1991-1992. 59 Site cat. n. 92. Taha 2001; 2004. 60 Clermont-Ganneau 1986, 37-39.


foot of the eastern slope of Mount Quruntul (Mount of Temptation) near Jericho, ca. one km west of Tell es-Sultan61. The original function of the site is still preserved in the name of the site, which means literarily sugar mills. The Arabic name “massara”, meaning press, was used also alternatively to indicate the same function. 10.1. Archaeological remains The excavations at Tawaheen es-Sukkar62 in Jericho have furnished new archaeological evidence on sugar industry in the Jordan Valley. Two seasons of excavations and restoration works were carried out at the site in 2000 and 2001. Excavation were conducted on the behalf of the Palestinian Department of Antiquities, under the direction of H. Taha, with W. Hamamrah as field supervisor. The first season was carried out within the framework of the project “Protection of Ecology, Historical and Natural Landscape” funded by the Dutch Government, and the second season was carried out in the framework of a project funded by the Norwegian government through UNESCO Office in Ramallah. The main objectives of the excavation were to verify the stratigraphy of the site, to understand the operational sequence of its sugar industry, as well as the preservation and presentation of the site. An important result of this excavation was the recovery of the ancient sugar installation. The excavation was carried out in two main fields, Field A and Field B. Three main strata were distinguished in the excavated area. 10.2. Production process of sugar The production of sugar consists of several stages: plantation of sugar cane, harvesting the cane, shredding, crushing, pressing, boiling the juice, pouring it off and finally removing the crystallized sugar from the containers63. The whole production process of sugar was described briefly by the Dominican Burchard de Monte Sion in 128364 and in a comprehensive way by al-Nuweiri in 139165. The site of Tawaheen es-Sukkar is composed of three main components: the water system, the refinery and the agricultural land66. The preserved

61 Brigitte-Porëe 1995; Barakat 1999. 62 Taha 2001; 2004. 63 Peled 1999, 252. 64 Benvenisti 1970, 253-254. 65 Al-Nuweiri 1976, 264-266. 66 Taha 2009.


remains of the industrial installations for sugar production consist of the water aqueduct, the press, the mill house, the refinery, the kitchen, the furnace, the courtyard and the house for sugar cane. The refinery is situated on five man-made terraces of considerable size on the slope below the higher aqueduct. The mill at Tawaheen es-Sukkar was powered by water that was brought by aqueducts from the springs of ‘Ain en-Nu’eima and ‘Ain Duq67 at the north-eastern foot of Mount of Temptation. The material objects found during the excavation attest to different activities related to sugar production. They consist primarily of pottery vessels, pottery lamps, metal artefacts, coins, and a few Arabic inscriptions. The most typical find is represented by the conical sugar vessel, known in classical Arabic sources as abloug, pl. abaleeg. These wheel-made sugar pots were placed on top of molasses jars. The large number of broken vessels attests to the large scale of sugar production at Tawaheen es-Sukkar. The most intriguing finds are represented by a hoard of copper artefacts found in the kitchen area. The metal finds consist of a wide variety of items, including a large number of hinges, hammered and perforated sheets of metal, needles, rings, chains, nails, and jewellery. The large number of slag found in association with the furnace may indicate activities in a smithy on the site. A considerable number of coins were found in the same locus. The earliest coins bear dates from the Roman and Byzantine Periods, but the latest coins are clearly Ayyubid. One coin bears the name of the Ayyubid king al-Adil (1199-1218 AD), and another bears the name of king as-Saleh Ismael (1237-1249 AD). The mill system can be dated from the Crusader/Ayyubid Period to the end of the Mamluk Period. A more precise date was provided by several coins from the early Ayyubid Period. The last phase in the history of the factory is associated with Mamluk pottery. The excavation has revealed that Jericho was one of the main production centres in the Jordan Valley for sugar during the Crusader, Ayyubid and Mamluk Periods. References ABU DALU, R. 1991 Sugar mills in the Jordan Valley, in the 12th and 14th centuries AD in the light

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archeological excavations in jericho, 1995-2010

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