chapters 15-17
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Chapters 15-17. Evolution. Science Definitions. Theory. Modified from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/glossary/index.html. - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
Chapters 15-17
Evolution
Science Definitions
Theory• A well-substantiated explanation of
some aspect of the natural world that typically incorporates many confirmed observations, laws and successfully verified hypotheses.
Modified from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/glossary/index.html
Evolution• Book definition = Gradual accumulation
of adaptations over time. • In genetic terms, the change in the
frequency of alleles in populations from generation to generation. (change over time)
Modified from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/glossary/index.html
Adaptation• Any heritable characteristic (determined
from alleles) of an organism that improves its ability to survive and reproduce in its environment.
• Note: not all characteristics are adaptive
Modified from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/glossary/index.html
Adaptations
http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/
Fitness• The success of an individual in surviving
and reproducing, measured by that individual’s genetic contribution to subsequent generations.
Modified from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/glossary/index.html
Natural Selection
• Charles Darwin’s Theory• Mechanism for change in populations. • Occurs when organisms with certain
traits survive, reproduce and pass their variations to the next generation.
• “Survival of the Fittest”
Natural Selection
1. Variations exist in a population
Natural Selection
2. Some variations improve the ability to survive and reproduce in the particular environment
Sweet! I’m better at surviving because I
blend into my surroundings!
Dang!
Natural Selection
3. The individuals with the adaptive traits are more likely to pass on their genes to future generations
I have more fitness than
you!
Dang!
Natural Selection
4. Over time, the frequency of adaptive alleles increases = evolution.
Tenants of Natural Selection
1. OVERPRODUCTION: Organisms produce more offspring than their environment can support.
2. HERITABLE VARIATION: Offspring vary in their appearance and function; some of these variations are heritable.
3. COMPETITION: Offspring must compete for survival, food and reproduction.
*SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST: Offspring who have the highest fitness for their environment will live longer and/or leave more offspring than those less suited for the environment.
Can we see natural selection in one generation?
• No…• This process occurs very slowly, over many
generations• Natural selection can only be observed as
changes in the characteristics or behaviors in populations over time.
• Is there any variation in pinto beans???
Bean Variation Mini-Lab1. Create Data Table with two three columns:
Bean Number, Mass (g), and Qualitative Observations
2. Work with a partner and choose 10 random beans from the beakers at your station. Try not to be selective for any properties whatsoever
3. Measure each bean’s mass and record, along with qualitative observations
4. Share your data with two other groups to get a total of 30 beans recorded.
Bean Variation Mini-Lab4. In your journal, create a frequency distribution
graph as modeled on the whiteboard. For the x-axis, use bean mass (g), and put number of beans on the y-axis
Answer the following questions in your journal:1. How does your graph compare to the overall class
data?2. What factors do you think are responsible for
causing the variation in the pinto beans?3. What could be advantages of being bigger or
smaller for a bean seed? Identify several.
Natural Selection…
Caterpillars… what is the benefit of looking like bird poop?
Overproduction & Heritable Variation in butterflies…
• How many offspring do butterflies produce?• 1000+ offspring … not that many survive
• What kind of variation could we see in larva (caterpillars)?• Different color patterns• Different sizes• Diet
• Is this variation in color patterns heritable? • Genes control color patterns in all organisms…
• Offspring from a butterfly (caterpillar) that was green as a larva?• Offspring from a butterfly (caterpillar) that was brown and white as a
larva?
Competition & Survival of the Fittest…
• Caterpillars have competition for food, survival & reproduction.• Who will survive the longest?
– Best camouflage = less likely to be seen by predators = longer survival = more reproduction
• If those that look like bird poop survive longer, what will the population start to look like over many generations?– Like bird poop!
• NATURAL SELECTION – the natural selection of characteristics that allow an animal to survive and reproduce (sometimes because of their ability to blend in with their environment)– makes them more fit.
Other examples of selection for survival…
Natural Selection…
Cheetahs… why can they run so fast?
Overproduction & Heritable Variation in cheetahs…
• How many offspring do cheetahs produce?• 5-6 offspring per year … not that many survive
• What kind of variation could we see in cheetahs?• Size of the heart• Length of the legs• Color patterns• + many others
• Is this variation in length of legs heritable? • Genes control length of limbs …
• Offspring from a cheetah with long legs?• Offspring from a cheetah with short legs?
Competition & Survival of the Fittest…
• Cheetahs have competition for food, survival & reproduction.• Who will survive the longest?
– Those that can run fast enough to catch prey to survive = longer survival = more reproduction.
• If those that run faster eat more, what will the population start to look like over many generations?– Fast runners!
• NATURAL SELECTION – the natural selection of characteristics that allow an animal to get more food within their environment – makes them more fit.
Sexual Selection…
The male peacock… why waste so much energy producing feathers?
Overproduction & Heritable Variation in peacocks
• How many offspring do they produce?– 6-8 per year are hatched… not that many survive
• What kind of variation could we see in male peacocks?– Different color patterns– Different feather sizes– Size of bird
• Is this variation in feather size heritable? – Genes control how large feathers will get…
• Offspring from a peacock with large feathers?• Offspring from a peacock with short feathers?
Competition & Survival of the Fittest…
• Peacocks have competition for food, survival & reproduction.• Who will reproduce the most?
– Largest feathers = more reproduction
• If those with large feathers reproduce more, what will the population start to look like over many generations?– Larger feathers, on average.
• SEXUAL SELECTION – the natural selection of secondary sex characterizes in males is WORTH the energy they spend because it increases levels of reproduction – makes them more fit.
Other interesting secondary sex characteristics….
Natural Selection in recent years…
Bt-resistant Cotton Bollworm
Antibiotic Resistance
AZT-Resistant HIV (AIDS virus)
AZT-Resistant HIV (AIDS virus)
Resistance to AZT has evolved in all patients taking the drug (usually in ~6 months)!
How does HIV evolve so rapidly?1. High mutation rate• HIV’s mutation rate is 106 higher than ours!2. Short generation time• 1 year 300 viral generations.≅10 years of viral 2-3 x 10≅ 6 years of human evolution!
Natural Selection
Over the past few weeks we did a lab demonstrating natural selection… you just didn’t know about it.
??
What is a species?
A group of interbreeding populations that cannot breed with other groups.
Giraffes and Elephants?German Shepards and Poodles?
Speciation
Hurricane
http://evolution.berkeley.edu
Speciation
The populations diverge: Ecological conditions are slightly different on the island, and the island population evolves under different selective pressures and experiences different random events than the mainland population does. Morphology, food preferences, and courtship displays change over the course of many generations of natural selection.
http://evolution.berkeley.edu
Speciation
So we meet again: When another storm reintroduces the island flies to the mainland, they will not readily mate with the mainland flies since they’ve evolved different courtship behaviors. The few that do mate with the mainland flies, produce inviable eggs because of other genetic differences between the two populations. The lineage has split now that genes cannot flow between the populations.
http://evolution.berkeley.edu
Speciation
Because of “geographic” isolation,“maltose flies” preferred other “maltose flies,” and “starch flies” preferred other “starch flies” when choosing mates
Speciation
• One species splits into two due to isolation (geographic, reproductive, etc…)
• Also known as Divergent Evolution… results in homologous structures between groups
Speciation
http://evolution.berkeley.edu
Direction of Natural Selection and Species Formation
• Stabilizing – extremes not favored (example – human birth weight)
• Disruptive – extremes favored (example - short or long beaks not medium beaks)
• Directional – extremes at one end favored
Isolation
• Geographic Isolation: separated by a physical barrier of some kind
• Behavioral Isolation: Differences in courtship displays prevent reproduction
• Temporal Isolation: separated by differences in the timing of reproduction
Genetic Drift
• Random changes in numbers of individuals in a population can lead to allele frequency changes in a population
• This is called Genetic Drift
Assignment #1• Complete the following chart using pages 398
& 399DefinitionDefinition ExampleExample PicturePicture
Directional Selection
Stabilizing Selection
Disruptive Selection
Assignment #2• Complete the following chart using pages 404
& 405
DefinitionDefinition ExampleExample PicturePicture
Behavioral Isolation
Geographic Isolation
Temporal Isolation
Phylogeny
Figure 1: A diagram of Mimi's immediate family. The passage of genes from parents to offspring is indicated by the green lines.
Figure 2: The genetic relationships for the last three generations of beetles under Mimi's log.
Figure 3: Genetic relationships for a segment of Mimi's beetle population over a number of generations. The last three generations of beetles under Mimi's log are shown in the blue frame.
Figure 4: Genetic relationships between two closely related species, Bembidion levettei and Bembidion zephyrum. Recent generations of beetles in Mimi's species are indicated with the blue frame. The arrow points to the common ancestor of the two beetle species.
Figure 5: A phylogenetic tree of beach beetles. Some branches have gone extinct in the past, while others represent species living today.
Figure 6: Genetic connections flowing along the branches of the Tree of Life.
??????
Figure 7: The Tree of Life
Some Evidence of Evolution• Geographic Locations• Anatomical Similarities• Developmental Similarities• Molecular (biochemical) Similarities
Some Evidence of Evolution• Geographic Locations (and Convergent
Evolution)
Convergent Evolution – when species become more alike
• Animals live apart but in similar environments
• Desirable traits are same
• Example – rabbit and squirrel color
Some Evidence of Evolution• Anatomical Similarities
–Homologous Structures = structural features with a common evolutionary origin (inherited from same common ancestor). Similar in arrangement, function or both.
Some Evidence of Evolution• Anatomical Similarities
–Homologous Structures—inherited from the same ancestors
Not the same thing as…–Analogous Structure = A structural or functional similarity of a body feature, but not related.
Example: Insect & bird wings are similar in function, but not structure*Instead, this would demonstrate convergent evolution
Some Evidence of Evolution• Anatomical Similarities
–Can also be seen in fossils• Evidence of an organism that lived long ago. • Most fossils are found in sedimentary rock. • Many different types
http://www.earthhistory.org.uk/wp-content/crayfish.jpg
Trace Fossils
https://courseware.e-education.psu.edu/courses/earth105new/graphics/L02_fossil_hpl922.jpg
Imprints
http://www.hopefossils.co.uk/Fossil%20photos/Trilobite%20under%20x10%20magnification%20-%20Placoparia%20cambriensis.JPG
Cast/Molds
http://www.ammonoid.com/mcE-m.jpg
Petrified
http://www.legendsofamerica.com/photos-arizona/PetrifiedWood.jpg
Amber-Preserved & Frozen
http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2007/10/08/gallery/amber_zoom.jpg
Some Evidence of Evolution• Fossils can show
homologous structures• Pteranodon—same sequence
of bones in forelimb as other vertebrates, suggesting common ancestry
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/
Some Evidence of Evolution• Anatomical Similarities
–Homologous StructuresArchaeopteryx—shared
characteristics of reptiles and birds (e.g. teeth and feathers). “Transitional species” with homologous structures to existing species can suggest possible common ancestry of two different groups
Some Evidence of Evolution• Anatomical Similarities
–Vestigial Structures = a body structure that has no function in a present-day organism but was probably useful to an ancestor.
Some Evidence of Evolution• Anatomical Similarities
–Vestigial Structures
Some Evidence of Evolution• Developmental Similarities
–Comparative embryology• Early developmental stages are compared.• Related embryos look similar, suggesting
common use of the same hox genes during development
Some Evidence of Evolution• Developmental Similarities
–Comparative embryology
Some Evidence of Evolution• Molecular (biochemical) Similarities
Some Evidence of Evolution• Molecular (biochemical) Similarities
Geologic Time Scale – Page 421Notice the short amount of time that humans have been a part of Earth’s history.
http://www.life.illinois.edu/mcb/419/images/GeoTimeSpiral.jpg