ch. 10 educational administration and leadership in american schools - dr. william allan kritsonis

CHAPTER 10–EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN AMERICAN SCHOOLINGPAGE 246This book is protected under the Copyright Act of 1976. Uncited Sources, Violators will be prosecuted. Courtesy, National FORUM Journals

CHAPTER 10

EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATIONIN AMERICAN SCHOOLING

KEY POINTS1. The administrative hierarchy provides a chain of command.

2. There are approximately 15,000 school districts in the United States.

3. School boards are usually elected officials that establish school policies and employ a superintendent to implement them. School boards derive their authority from, and work as agents of the state.

4. School superintendents are considered the chief executive officer (CEO) of the school district. Superintendents regulate the district’s decision-making process. Functions include obtaining and developing personnel, managing the district’s funds and facilities, maintaining good community relation-ships, and general instructional leadership.

5. Principals are responsible for all the activities in their buildings.

6. Principals have a variety of roles, foremost of which is instructional leader.

7. Principals also have to be change agents, personnel and program evalua-tors, business managers, and disciplinarians.

8. Functions of the principalship at the building level include budgeting, su-pervision of faculty and staff, instructional leadership, student personnel administration, record management, and other tasks prescribed by law and school board policy.

9. Some schools employ assistant principals who take some of the day-to-day burdens off the principals.

10. School administrators receive better pay and benefits than teachers.

11. Persons become school administrators through university training programs that lead to state certification.

Copyright 2005William Kritsonis

All Rights Reserved / Forever

SCHOOLING (2002)PAGE 247

CHAPTER 10–EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN AMERICAN SCHOOLING

A. OVERVIEWThis chapter presents information about school administrators, school boards, superintendents, central administrative staff, and building-level administrators. A great deal of attention is focused on school principals since they are such critical members of the school team. Also discussed are the roles, responsibili-ties, and characteristics of principals. Various leadership models are presented that have been effective in business, industry, and schools.

B. KEY TERMS–DEFINITIONSAASA - American Association of School Administrators

ADMINISTRATIVE HIERARCHY - administrative organization of a local school district.

ASSISTANT PRINCIPAL - administrative position in an individual school that primarily assists the principal in administrative duties.

BENEFITS - school administrators receive many benefits including: higher salaries than teachers, management responsibilities, opportunities for advance-ment in administration, and leadership opportunities.

BUILDING LEVEL - administration of individual schools. Principals are the key administrators. Many schools employ assistant principals, department heads, and supervisors to assist the principal in carrying out the administrative duties at the building level.

CENTRAL OFFICE - relates to the district administration level of school boards.

CERTIFICATION - teacher licensing. Certification for specialized positions such as principal requires a prescribed amount of graduate level study and suc-cessful teaching experience.

DISTRICT-WIDE - administrative staff that oversees all activities within the district, are all housed in the central office. These include the superintendent and any assistants.

INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERSHIP - leadership that informs and guides teachers’ decisions so that practice can mesh with policy.

LOCAL SCHOOL BOARD - a group of constituents at the top of the hierar-chy. They hire the school superintendent. Local School Boards derive their au-thority from, and work as agents of the state.

CHAPTER 10–EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN AMERICAN SCHOOLINGPAGE 248

NAESP - National Association of Elementary School Principals.

NASSP - National Association of Secondary School Principals.

NCPEA - National Council of Professors of Educational Administration.

NSBA - National School Board Association.

PERSONNEL EVALUATION - evaluation of individual teachers and admin-istrators.

PRINCIPALS - primarily instructional leaders.

PROGRAM EVALUATION - evaluation of specific programs regarding their effectiveness.

SCHOOL POLICIES - give each school a unique personality, affect disci-plinary methods, academic expectations and requirements, dress codes, cur-riculum, and school climate. School policies are written guidelines that give di-rection to the administrator(s) and other employees responsible for carrying them out and also establish decision-making parameters.

SUPERINTENDENTS - chief school administrative officer in local school districts.

SUPERVISORS - administrators responsible for specific programs in public schools, e.g.: supervisor of special education, vocational education supervisor, supervisor of elementary education, supervisors of secondary education, super-visor of buildings and grounds.

UCEA - University Council of Educational Administration.

C. SOME PRECEDING THOUGHTS1. What is an administrative hierarchy?

This is the equivalent to a chain of command, headed by the local school board.

2. How did local control of public schools evolve? Local control of education by lay persons began in the New England colonies. The Massachusetts School Ordinance of 1642 delegated the re-sponsibility for education to the “townsmen” making parents and guardians responsible for children in their care to read and understand the principles of religion and the commonwealth’s laws. This trend was rein-forced with the Massachusetts School Ordinance of 1647 and in subse-quent amendments passed in 1671 and 1683. Even stronger than the Mass-achusetts laws were the Connecticut Laws of 1650. These laws were spe-cific in the description of duties and responsibilities of individuals selected


to oversee the schools. Not until 1721 in Boston, however, were individu-als responsible for overseeing the schools set apart from the local govern-mental structure of the community.

3. What are the specific responsibilities of local boards of education? Local Governance Structure

a. selecting the CEO of the school district–superintendent;b. approving budgets;c. determining school sites and attendance boundaries;d. entering into contracts;e. collective bargaining;f. establishing criteria for employing school district personnel;g. determining the curriculum;h. approving school calendar;i. adopting salary schedules for administrators, teachers, and other school

employees;

Curriculum and Instruction

PersonnelServices

Business Services

SpecialServices

SUPERINTENDENT

PRINCIPALS

TEACHERS

SCHOOL BOARD

LOCAL SCHOOLS


j. acting on the superintendent’s recommendations concerning hiring and termination of employees, and engaging in contracts in behalf of the district;

also

k. delegate responsibility for all administrative functions, except those specifically reserved through board policy for the board chairman to the superintendent;

l. support the superintendent fully in all decisions that conform to profes-sional standards and board policy;

m. hold the superintendent responsible for the administration of the school through regular constructive written and oral evaluations of the super-intendent’s work;

n. provide the superintendent with a comprehensive employment contract;o. give the superintendent the benefit of the board’s counsel in matters re-

lated to individual board members’ expertise, familiarity with the local school system, and community interests;

p. hold all board meetings with the superintendent or designee present;

q. consult with the superintendent on all matters as they arise that concern the school system and on which the board may take action;

r. develop a plan for board-superintendent communications;

s. channel communications with school employees that require action through the superintendent and refer all applications, complaints, and other communications, oral or written, first to the superintendent in or-der to assure that the district processes such communications in aneffective, coordinated fashion and is responsive to students and patrons;

t. take action on matters only after hearing the recommendations of the superintendent;

u. establish a policy on effective management of complaints;

v. provide the superintendent with sufficient administrative help, espe-cially in the area of monitoring teaching and learning.

4. What is the relationship between the superintendent and the board of education? The local school board hires the superintendent as the CEO of the adminis-trative offices.


5. In what roles do superintendents become involved? a. maintain relations with the board;b. educational leader;c. maintain positive relations with the community.

6. What roles do assistant central office staff fill?The duties performed by central staff administrators are determined by their specific roles. For example, in a small district there may be only one assistant superintendent. This individual may be assigned the responsibili-ties for transportation, food services, and the curriculum. In large districts, these duties may be divided among several central office staff members.

7. What are the primary roles of school principals?a. child advocate;b. manager;c. instructional leader;d. disciplinarian;e. human relations facilitator;f. evaluator;g. conflict manager;h. collective bargaining agent;i. adult developer;l. change agent or innovator;k. community relations liaison.

8. What are the major management responsibilities of principals?Although the principal’s role as instructional leader is considered by many to be the primary role, without expertise and leadership in the noninstruc-tional activities, the school would have a difficult time functioning.

9. How do principals influence the school climate?The way the principal carries out his various duties will greatly influence the school climate. See question #7 for duties.

10. How does a typical principal spend a day? Typical day: 33% on paperwork, 13.5% parent conferences, 13.5% person-nel conferences, 9% discipline, 9% scheduling, 9% cafeteria duties, 2.5% instructional leadership. Principals in effective schools are likely to spend more time related to the curriculum and instruction.


11. What expectations do various groups have for principals?Principals are expected to do many different things for many different peo-ple, such as teachers, students, central administration personnel, state de-partments of education, and the local community. Students expect a per-sonal relationship. Teachers expect support with discipline problems, pro-fessional treatment, and being able to participate in the decision-making process. Parents expect instructional leadership, collaborating with parents, and keeping the interest of students foremost. Superiors expect carrying out of school policies, maintenance of a positive relationship with the com-munity, instructional leadership, student discipline, and effective manage-ment of the school. Although principals cannot always meet the expecta-tions of everyone, they must at least determine the feasibility of meeting the expectations that impact on the school. Principals cannot be all things to all people; they must make decisions related to which expectations are in the best interests of the school.

12. What are some group roles that should be supported by the school ad-ministrator?a. The Energizer : provides energy, motivation, and drive to the group;

b. The Procedural Expert : understands how the organization functions and understands its rules and regulations;

c. The Evaluator : is able to dispassionately view group ideas and logi-cally utilize them without negatively impacting group members;

d. The Opinion Seeker : carefully seeks ideas and encourages the partici-pation of all group members;

e. The Initiator : suggests new or different ideas for discussion and ap-proaches to problems;

f. The Opinion Giver : states pertinent beliefs about discussion and oth-ers’ suggestions;

g. The Elaborator : builds on suggestions of others;

h. The Clarifier : gives relevant examples; offers rationale; probes for meaning; restates problems;

i. The Tester : raises questions to “test out” whether group is ready to come to a decision;

j. The Summarizer : reviewers discussion, pulls it together;

k. The Tension Reliever : uses humor or calls for breaks at appropriate times to draw off negative feelings;


l. The Compromiser : willing to yield when necessary for progress;

m. The Harmonizer : mediates differences; reconciles points of view;

n. The Encourager : praises and supports others; friendly; encouraging;

o. The Gate-Keeper : keeps communications open; encourages participa-tion.

Source: Chance, E.W. (1992). Visionary leadership in schools: Successful strategies for developing and implementing an educational vision. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Adapted with permission.

13. What are some group roles that are negative and should not be sup-ported by the school administrator?a. The Sympathizer : attempts to garner the group’s sympathy of com-

plaining, confessing, or condemning certain activities of the organization;

b. The Aggressor : criticizes and deflates others; disagrees with others ag-gressively;

c. The Blocker : stubbornly disagrees; rejects others’ views; cites unre-lated personal experiences; returns to topics already resolved;

d. The Withdrawer : won’t participate; converses privately; self-appoint-ed note-taker;

e. The Recognition Seeker : boasts; excessive talking; conscious of his/ her status;

f. The Topic Jumper : keeps changing the subject;

g. The Dominator : tries to assert authority; manipulate group;

h. The Special-Interest Pleader : uses group’s time to plead his/her own case;

i. The Playboy/girl : wastes group’s time showing off; story teller; non-chalant; cynical;

j. The Devil’s Advocate : more devil than advocate.Source: Chance, E.W. (1992). Visionary leadership in schools: Successful strategies for developing

and implementing an educational vision. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Adapted with permission.


14. What are some effective traits and skills of the effective school admin-istrator?

Traits Skills

Adaptable to situation Clever

Alert to social environment Intelligent

Ambitious andachievement-oriented

Conceptually skilled

Assertive Creative

Cooperative Diplomatic and tactful

Decisive Fluent in speaking

Dependable Knowledgeable about group tasks

Dominant (desire toinfluence others)

Organized (administrative ability)

Energetic (high activity level) Persuasive

Persistent Socially skilled

Self-confidentTolerant of stressWilling to assume responsibilitySource: Yukl, G.A. (1989). Leadership in organizations (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,

Inc. Adapted with permission.

15. What do superior school administrators have in common?a. trust and have confidence in both the capabilities and the motivation of

subordinates and believe that they want to accept responsibility and work hard;

b. believe that shared authority and participation is both desirable and useful;

c. seek achievement and legitimate power;

d. are reasonably self-confident, assured, optimistic, sensitive, and alert.Source: Sayles, L.R. (1979). LEADERSHIP - What effective managers really do . . . and how they

do it. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Adapted with permission.


16. According to the literature, what are some characteristics for school leadership?

Characteristics Reference

A vital and clear vision Bogue 1985; Covey 1989; Duke 1987; Gardner 1987, 1988; Levine 1987; Manasse 1986

A strong and positive self-concept Bogue 1985; Covey 1989

Decision making and judgment in action

Bogue 1985; Gardner 1988; Man-asse 1986

Honesty, integrity, and strong moral components

Covey 1989; Daugherty 1987; Larkin 1986; Manasse 1986;

Communication skills Bingham 1986; Clark & Teddlie 1987; Daugherty 1987; Papalewis & Brown 1989; Quate 1986

17. According to the literature, what are some leadership characteristics specific to women?

Leadership Characteristics Found in the Literature

Value system that stresses caring, service, and relationships

Shakeshaft 1986, 1987b; Helgesen 1990, 1995; Dorn, O’Rourke, & Pa-palewis 1997

Focus on instruction andinstructional issues

Shakeshaft 1986, 1987b, 1989b, 1995; Smith 1994; Eakle 1995; Mims 1992

Focus on supporting, on sense of community, consensus build-ing, cooperation

Shakeshaft 1986, 1987b, 1989b, 1995; Schaef 1985; Helgesen 1990, 1995; Dorn, O’Rourke, & Papalewis 1997

Orderly, organized Shakeshaft 1989b, 1995; McGrath 1992; Eakle 1995; Woo 1985

Openness; depth of feeling Loden 1985; Helgesen 1990, 1995; Schaef 1985

Listening skills, clarity, communi-cation skills

Dorn, O’Rourke, & Papalewis 1997; Papalewis & Brown 1988; Hanson 1991; Papalewis 1995

Table continues


Leadership Characteristics Found in the LiteratureInterpersonal skills Helgesen 1990, 1995; Loden 1985;

Cooper 1992; Hanson 1991; Cartwright 1994

Vision; Global; Big Picture Helgesen 1990, 1995; Loden 1985; Schaef 1985

Persistency; Determination Marshall 1986; Mims 1992; Hill & Ragland 1995

Inner strength Schaef 1985; Smith 1994; Helgesen 1995; Marshall 1986

Relationships are central Schaef 1981, 1985; Loden 1985; Helgesen 1990, 1995; Shakeshaft 1986, 1987, 1989b, 1995; Hill & Ragland 1995

Source: O’Rourke, C. (1998). Women’s leadership skills, attitudes, and experiences: A descriptive ethnographic multiple case study of women in the superintendency in the public schools in the state of California. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of La Verne, La Verne, CA. Adapted with permission.

18. According to experts, what leadership characteristics, skills, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences are published in the literature?

Leadership Characteristics Authors in the Literature

Physical energy, stamina, per-sonal mastery

Covey 1989; Gardner 1988

Decision-making and problem-solving skills

Gardner 1988; Tosi, Rizzo, & Car-roll 1994

Personal values, and personal and shared vision

Covey 1989; Kouzes & Posner 1987; Manasse 1986; Senge 1990; Senge et al. 1994

Enthusiasm for life and for the job as reflected in positive attitudes and actions, intuition and per-ception of mistakes as ways to learn

Cangemi 1986; Covey 1989; Kouzes & Posner 1987; Jones & Bearley 1996; Hall, 1996; Helgesen 1990, 1995; Senge 1990; Senge et al. 1994

Possession of listening skills, peo-ple skills, managerial skills, technical skills

Jones & Bearley 1996; Hanson 1991; Lutz 1986; Obermeyer 1996

Table continues

Table continued


Leadership Characteristics Authors in the LiteratureAbility to evaluate people and

programs, strong morals, and ethical principles which are ad-hered to in actions and attitudes

Lutz 1986; Tosi, Rizzo, & Carroll 1994; Covey 1989; Kouzes & Pos-ner 1987; Larkin 1986; Peck 1992

Caring about and belief in people, as shown through empathetic, helpful and nonconflictive ac-tions

Cangemi 1986; Harvey & Drolet 1994; Helgesen 1995; Kouzes & Posner 1987; Peck 1992; Yukl 1994

Ability to integrate and to be help-ful

Cangemi 1986; Peck 1992; Yukl 1994

Ability to learn and to grow from experience and problems

Jones & Bearley 1996; Covey 1989; Katzenbach & Smith 1993; Kouzes & Posner 1987; Harvey & Drolet 1994; Helgesen 1995; Manasse 1986; Peck 1992; Senge 1990; Senge et al. 1994

Vital and clear vision Bogue 1985; Duke 1987; Endeman 1990; Gardner 1987, 1988; Levine 1987; Manasse 1986; Senge 1990; Senge et al. 1994

Decision making and judgment in action

Bogue 1985; Gardner 1988; Konnert & Augenstein 1990; Konnert 1995; Manasse 1986

Honesty, integrity, and strong moral components

Covey 1989; Daugherty 1987; Kon-nert & Augenstein 1990; Konnert 1995; Larkin 1986; Manasse 1986; Peck 1992

Communication skills Bingham 1986; Clark & Teddlie 1987; Papalewis & Brown 1989; Pa-palewis 1995; Quate 1986; Shake-shaft 1995

Table continued


19. What are some female and male patterns of leadership?

Females Males

Gender as a Variable in Team Building

Competence valued before trust in team membership (Shakeshaft 1995)

Trust valued before competence in team membership (Shakeshaft 1995)

Trust for women: “an expectancy that the word, promise, or writ-ten statement of another indi-vidual or group could be relied on” (Garfinkel 1988; Schaef 1985)

Trust for men: “ability and comfort to say what they wished to say – confident that others would not repeat.” (Garfinkel 1988; Schaef 1985; Shakeshaft 1995)

Men do not see untrustworthiness if not delivered on time (Shakeshaft 1995)

Expect and value discussion of is-sues related to work. Expect subordinate to talk about issues discussed (Schaef 1985; Shake-shaft 1995)

Expect that conversation/informa-tion not be divulged unless soinstructed (Schaef, 1985; Shake-shaft 1995)

Loyal and ethical behavior con-ceptualized as loyal team mem-ber speaking up when there was disagreement with course of ac-tion taken by boss

Loyalty shown by not disagreeing with the boss, except privately (Helgesen 1995; Schaef 1985; Shakeshaft 1995)

Gender as a Variable in Evaluation/Feedback

Women have to work harder to get men to “hear” them (Shake-shaft 1995)

Men receive more feedback and more types of feedback in conver-sations, than women (Shakeshaft 1995)


Women listen for feeling (Gilli-gan 1982; Shakeshaft 1987b, 1995)

Men listen for facts (Gilligan 1982; Shakeshaft 1987b, 1995)

Females Males

Gender as a Variable in Evaluation/Feedback (Con’t)

Women focus on instruction (Hall 1996; Shakeshaft 1987b, 1995)

Collaborative, consulting (Hall 1996; Helgesen 1995; Shake-shaft 1995)

Male administrators are less likely to give direct feedback to females but more likely to give it to males; if a female errors males not likely to give feedback to fe-male but to correct mistake with-out her knowledge (Shakeshaft 1987b, 1995)

Women are evaluated less favor-ably than equally competent men (Shakeshaft 1987b, 1995)

Males evaluate females more harshly than females evaluate fe-males (Hall 1996; Shakeshaft 1987b, 1995)

Women more likely to get nonevaluative feedback or neu-tral responses (Shakeshaft 1995)

Men receive both more positive and more negative responses (Shake-shaft 1995)

Women take criticism hard. “They tended to think it was an assessment of their very essence” (Shakeshaft 1995)

Men fail to give women important corrective feedback that would have allowed women to improve performance (Shakeshaft 1995)

Source: O’Rourke, C. (1998). Women’s leadership skills, attitudes, and experiences: A descriptive ethnographic multiple case study of women in the superintendency in the public schools in the state of California. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of La Verne, La Verne, CA. Adapted with permission.

20. What are some questions that need to be answered in developing a personal vision as a school administrator?

Table continuesTable continued


a. What are my five greatest strengths?

b. What are my five greatest weaknesses?

c. What are three things I most value in my professional life?

d. With what style of leadership am I most comfortable?

e. What are the most important things I want to accomplish in this school district?

f. What do I want to prove as an administrator?

g. How would I like to be remembered as an administrator?

21. What are the classical notions of Frederick Taylor’s organizational theory?a. Be a hierarchical chain of command.

b. Be various levels of authority.

c. Be established divisions of labor.

d. Be clearly defined tasks.

e. Be established rules of behavior.

f. Be a system of punishments that are personally costly if one violates the rules or fails to complete the assigned task.

g. Employees must be recruited on the basis of their ability and technical knowledge.

h. Employees must be expected to perform the tasks in the same manner since all tasks have been standardized.

Taylor strongly believed his theory would result in every job being per-formed efficiently, productively, and with the least effort.

22. What are some general characteristics of social systems?Social systems have boundaries, a purpose for survival, and interact within their environment. Social systems have both bureaucratic and organiza-tional expectations, informal norms, and are comprised of individuals hav-ing needs, wants, desires, and aspirations. Internal and external forces, de-mands, and expectations reinforce appropriate responses.

23. What career opportunities are there for school administrators?Most administrators start out as classroom teachers. This seems to be the best way to become a school administrator. Most states have specific certi-fication requirements for administrators that go beyond the requirements for a teaching certificate, supervisor certificate, and superintendent certifi-


cate. The requirements for these certificates vary from state to state, but usually include college coursework at the graduate level and experience as a teacher. Some states do not require a specific license for administrators.

24. What are the rules for supervisory conferences with teachers?“The Worst Things To Do”a. Always hold conferences at the end of a hard day. Friday afternoon is

hard to beat.

b. Make administrators look pretty inadequate. But be subtle.

c. When talking to a teacher, blame other teachers. When talking to more than one teacher, blame counselors or psychologists. Never be afraid to take sides in an argument among teachers. It brings them closer to-gether.

d. If a teacher begins to understand you, try using more pedagogics. If the teacher himself has held a position similar to yours, you are in trouble.

e. Try to do most of the talking. It may be hard to stop a teacher once he gets started. If necessary, interrupt him “Just a minute, I disagree.”

f. Explain your superior experience in teaching–especially if the teacher has transferred from another school or is new.

g. Always stress existing departmental or grade level organization prob-lems. It will help the teachers see what you are up against.

h. Let other teachers or secretaries overhear the conversation. Maybe they will try to make something of themselves.

i. If the teacher is tired, conduct the interview standing up. It may shorten the whole thing, and the teacher probably wants to get home anyway.

j. Ask if there has been any insanity in the family. This will get a chuckle when the going gets rough.

k. Tell teachers about other difficult cases that are even worse than theirs. Supply names, where needed, but indicate that “I don’t want to be un-professional.”

l. Try staring out the window.

25. What are eight irritating habits of supervisors?a. Supervisor says something and then denies it at the next meeting.


b. Passes the buck on problems.

c. Says, “We’ll have to think about it.”

d. Doesn’t give me a chance to talk.

e. Belittles my suggestions.

f. Interrupts me when I talk.

g. Argues with everything I say.

h. Rephrases and puts words in my mouth.Source: Walker, J.J. (January 1976). Georgia teachers list of irritating supervisory habits. Phi Delta

Kappan, 57, 350. Adapted with permission.

26. What are the elements of having a good committee?a. Facts About Delegation

1. delegate authority–to horde it is to lose it;

2. delegate authority with responsibility;

3. work through channels; don’t destroy the right to hold him or her accountable by unnecessarily interfering with work;

4. delegate only if you have confidence;

5. assigning responsibility does not lessen your responsibility;

6. clearly define the responsibility to each subordinate;

7. follow-up delegation; don’t over supervise;

8. delegate so employee is supervised by one person;

9. never assign distasteful duties because they are unpleasant, correct-ing, discharging, or disciplining;

10. when you delegate authority over others, back him or her up when authority is challenged;

11. be sure to straighten out any complaints about an employee over-stepping his or her authority;

12. let every subordinate know just what decisions he or she has au-thority to make.

b. Why Committees Fail

1. committee has no clear-cut assignment, no reason to exist;

2. chairperson is not qualified by experience, desire, or ability;

3. members get appointed who are neither interested nor experienced;


4. group has no orderly plan, no time schedule;

5. members talk, talk, talk, talk, without decisions;

6. work of the committee is not publicly recognized by the organiza-tion;

7. committee’s recommendations are not acted on;

8. members do not show up for meetings;

9. staff sends agenda out late or distributes it at the meeting;

10. staff does not provide needed documentation;

11. minutes are sent out late or not at all;

12. five to fifteen members is a reasonable number for a committee.

c. On Being A Good Committee Member

1. is receptive and open to ideas;

2. has perspective on subject of concern to the committee;

3. is familiar with the aims of the organization and agrees with them;

4. enjoys the give and take of committee discussion;

5. is able to express ideas clearly;

6. is willing to give the needed time for meeting attendance;

7. has good judgment, is not narrow and arrogant;

8. can think in terms of the welfare of the group rather than own in-terests.

d. What Makes A Good Chairperson

1. starts and ends the meeting on time;

2. allows the group to get well acquainted;

3. sees to it that as many as possible participate in discussion;

4. keeps the discussion directed to the topic and toward the objective;

5. acts as a guide and leader;

6. summarizes the decisions from time to time;

7. does not talk about an individual on the committee;

8. is seen as sincere and thoughtful by the committee;

9. summarizes the meeting and the actions to be taken by the mem-bers;


10. works with members between meetings.

e. Logistics of the Meeting

1. agenda is sent out in advance of meeting;

2. documentation for the agenda is also provided in advance;

3. meeting place should be carefully selected;

4. meeting room is comfortable;

5. meeting room should be set up in round or oval arrangement;

6. paper, pencils, glasses and water pitchers, etc., provided if necessary;

7. food or dinner–if served–should be light;

8. whenever possible, the group should act by consensus;

9. people somewhat unfriendly to each other should not be seated op-posite each other. Members who are very friendly to each other should not be seated side by side.

D. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES1. What is leadership?

In general, leadership is helping others toward common goals or purposes.

2. Why do we have school administrators? Schools are complex organizations that must have leaders. In schools, leaders are called administrators. Without administrators, schools would have no direction. They would be institutions without leadership function-ing in a haphazard fashion.

3. Describe the administrative hierarchy in a middle-sized school district. At the top of the hierarchy is the local school board, a group of con-stituents. The local board hires the school superintendent, who is the chief local school officer. The superintendent, in turn, employs other central of-fice administrative staff, as well as building principals. Each level of the hierarchy serves a specific purpose involving the administration of the public schools.

4. What are the major roles of principals? Do they differ at the elemen-tary and secondary levels? If so, how?Principals are expected to perform many varied roles in today’s schools, including manager, instructional leader, child advocate, disciplinarian, hu-man relations, facilitator, evaluator, conflict manager, change agent or inno-


vator, community relations, and adult developer. The major role of school principals remains the same, regardless of the age level of the students.

5. What are the essential 10 attributes for success as a school administra-tor?a. develop style relative to interpersonal relations;

b. develop patience;

c. develop a systematic approach to discipline;

d. develop the ability to delegate authority and responsibility;

e. develop skills to observe and evaluate teaching performance;

f. develop a philosophy of education;

g. develop a “style” or “approach”;

h. develop a method to check the use of time;

i. develop goals and develop objectives to attain them;

j. develop a model for decision making.

6. What are some descriptors of autocratic and democratic leadership styles?

Autocratic DemocraticBossCommandPowerPressureDemanding cooperationImposing ideasDominationCriticismFaultfindingPunishingI tell youI decide, you obey

LeaderInvitationInfluenceStimulationWinning cooperationSelling ideasGuidanceEncouragementAcknowledge achievingHelpingDiscussionI suggest, you decide

7. What are the components of Frederick Herzberg’s Motivation-Hy-giene Theory?


Herzberg’s theory has been widely accepted by administrators. Its basic postulate is that one set of rewards contributes to job satisfaction and a separate set to job dissatisfaction.

The Motivation-Hygiene Theory is based on Herzberg’s findings from his study of industrial employee motivation to work. In interviews with 203 accountants and engineers, Herzberg used a critical-incidents procedure that essentially asked each person interviewed to describe events experi-enced at work that had resulted in either a marked improvement or a sig-nificant reduction in job satisfaction.

The study found that positive events were dominated by references to achievement, recognition (verbal), the work itself (challenging), responsi-bility, and advancement (promotion). Negative events were dominated by reference to interpersonal relations with superiors and peers, technical su-pervision, company policy and administration, working conditions, and personal life.

Representation of the Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Job Satisfaction

Dissatisfaction (–) (+) Satisfaction

MOTIVATORS OR SATISFIERSAchievementRecognitionWork itselfResponsibilityAdvancement

HYGIENES OR DISSATISFIERSInterpersonal relations–subordinatesInterpersonal relations–peersSupervision–technicalPolicy and administrationWorking conditionsPersonal life

Dissatisfaction (–) (+) Satisfaction

MOTIVATORS1. Achievement2. Recognition3. Work itself4. Responsibility

HYGIENES (NON-MOTIVATORS)6. Salary7. Possibility of growth8. Interpersonal relations–subordinates9. Status


5. Advancement 10. Interpersonal relations–superiors11. Interpersonal relations–peers12. Supervision–technical13. Company (school) policy and

administration14. Working conditions15. Personal life16. Job security

8. What are the components of Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and The-ory Y?Douglas McGregor stressed the importance of understanding the relation-ship between motivation and human nature. In observing the practices of traditional managers, McGregor believed that managers usually attempt to motivate employees by one of two basic approaches. He referred to these approaches as Theory X and Theory Y. Theory X is the traditional view of management that suggests that managers are required to coerce, con-trol, or threaten employees in order to motivate them. In contrast, McGre-gor proposed an alternative philosophy of human nature, which he referred to as Theory Y. Theory Y is a view of management by which a manager believes people are capable of being responsible and mature. Employees do not require coercions or excessive control by the manager in order to perform effectively. McGregor’s belief was that Theory Y is a more realis-tic assessment of people.

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory YTheory X Theory Y

The average person inherently dis-likes work and will avoid it if possi-ble.

The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest.

Because of the dislike of work, most people must be coerced, controlled, directed, and threatened with punish-ment to get them to perform effect-ively.

People will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which they are com-mitted.

The average person lacks ambition, avoids responsibility, and seeks secu-rity and economic rewards above all else.

Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with achievement.

Most people lack creative ability and are resistant to change.

The average person learns, under proper conditions, not only to ac-


cept but to seek responsibility.Since most people are self-centered, they are not concerned with the goals of the organization.

The capacity to exercise a rela-tively high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the so-lution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly, distrib-uted in the population.

Source: Based on McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill. Adapted with permission

9. How can Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy be satisfied by the school system as an organization?

MASLOW’SHIERARCHY

EXAMPLES OF HOW NEEDS CAN BE SATISFIED BY THE ORGANIZATION

Self-Actualization Needs

(Realizing one’spotential growth using cre-

ative talents)

Challenging work allowing creativity, oppor-tunities for personal growth and advancement

Esteem Needs

(Achievementrecognition and status)

Title and responsibility of job, praise, and recognition for work done, promotions, competent management, pay as related status, prestigious facilities

Social Needs

(Love, belonging,affiliation, acceptance)

Friendly associates, organized em-ployee activities such as bowling or softball leagues, picnics, parties, coffee

Safety Needs

(Protection against danger,freedom from fear, security)

Benefit programs such as insur-ance and retirement plans, job se-curity, safe and healthy working conditions, competent consistent and fair leadership

Physiological Needs


(Survival needs, air, water, food,clothing, shelter and sex)

Pay, benefits, workingconditions

Copyright © 1970 by Abraham H. Maslow. Reprinted by permission of Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc.

An individual’s needs at any level on the hierarchy emerge only when the lower-level needs are reasonably satisfied. According to Maslow’s hierar-chy of needs theory, an individual’s needs are arranged in a hierarchy from the lower-level physiological needs to the higher-level needs for self-actual-ization. The physiological needs are the highest priority because until they are reasonably satisfied, other higher-level needs will not emerge to moti-vate behavior.

10. How are Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy and Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory related?

Maslow’s Hierarchy Herzberg’s Motivators

Self-Actualization Needs □ Achievement□ Work Itself□ Recognition□ Responsibility□ Opportunity for Growth and

Advancement

(Realizing one’spotential growth using cre-

ative talents)

Esteem Needs

(Achievementrecognition and status)

Social Needs

(Love, belonging,affiliation, acceptance)

Herzberg’s Hygiene Factors□ Interpersonal Relations□ Company Policies and

Administrative PracticesSafety Needs □ Working Conditions

□ Supervision□ Status□ Job Security□ Pay□ Benefits

(Protection against danger,freedom from fear, security)

Physiological Needs


(Survival needs, air, water, food,clothing, shelter and sex)

11. What are the components of Porter’s Hierarchy of Work Motivation?

SELF-ACTUALIZATIONWorking at full potential

Feeling successful at workAchieving goals viewed as significant

AFFILIATIONBelonging to formal and informal work groups, friendships, professional association and unions,

acceptance by peers beyond the immediate organization

SELF-ESTEEMTitles, feeling self-respect, evidence of respect by others,

status symbols, recognition, promotions,awards, being part of “insiders” group

AUTONOMYControl of work situation, influence in the organization,

participation in important decisions, authorityto utilize organizational resources

SECURITYPay, union, seniority, retirement plan, tenure, such legal concepts as “due process” and “fairness,” statutory and policy protections establishing orderly evaluation and

“RIF” procedures, the negotiated contract, insurance plans


12. What are the components of David McClelland’s Needs Theory?McClelland emphasized that there are certain needs that are learned and socially acquired as the individual interacts with the environment. McClel-land’s needs theory is concerned with how individual needs and environ-mental factors combine to form three basic human motives: the need for achievement, the need for power, and the need for affiliation.

Need for AchievementA person with a high need for achievement tends to be characterized as an individual who

wants to take personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems;

is goal oriented;

seeks a challenge–and establishes moderate, realistic, and attainable goals that involve risk but are not impossible to attain;

desires concrete feedback on performance;

has a high level of energy and is willing to work hard.

For these people, the value of goal accomplishment is enhanced if the goals are at least moderately difficult to achieve and if there is a significant degree of risk involved. Individuals are better able to “manage” them-selves and satisfy the basic drive for achievement.

Need for PowerA high need for power means that an individual seeks to influence or con-trol others. Such an individual tends to be characterized as a person who

is concerned with acquiring, exercising, or retaining power to influence over others;

likes to compete with others in situations that allow him or her to be dominant;

enjoys confrontations with others.

McClelland said that there are two basic aspects of power: positive and negative. Positive use of power is essential if a manager is to accomplish results through the effort of others. The negative face of power is when an individual seeks power for personal benefit, which may prove detrimental to the organization.


Need for AffiliationThe need for affiliation is related to the desire for affection and establish-ing friendly relationships. A person with a high need for affiliation tends to be characterized as one who seeks to establish and maintain friendships and close emotional rela-

tionships with others; wants to be liked by others; enjoys parties, social activities, and bull sessions; seeks a sense of belonging by joining groups or organizations.

According to this theory, the probability that an individual will perform a job effectively and efficiently depends on a combination of:

the strength of the motive or need relative to other needs;

the possibility of success in performing the task;

the strength value of the incentive or reward for performance.

13. What are the components of William Ouchi’s Theory Z?Theory Z is the belief that a high degree of mutual responsibility, loyalty, and consideration between companies and their employees will result in higher productivity and improved employee welfare. Theory Z companies tend to practice a system of lifetime employment and avoid layoffs. The companies usually enjoy low employee turnover, low absenteeism, and high employee morale. The workers are more involved in their jobs with the company, a factor that leads to increased productivity and perfor-mance. Theory Z companies tend to develop their own traditions, ideals, and culture, and foster somewhat of a “family environment.” This “family” or culture within the organization tends to bond its members–employees and manager–thereby facilitating decision making and communications within the company.

14. What are the components of a Job Enrichment Model?Job enrichment refers to basic changes in the content and level of respon-sibility of a job so as to provide greater challenge to the worker. The indi-vidual is provided with an opportunity to derive a feeling of greater achievement, recognition, responsibility, and personal growth in perform-ing the job. There are a number of principles applicable for implementa-tion:

a. Increasing job demand : Changing the job in such a way as to in-crease the level of difficulty and responsibility of the job.


b. Increasing a worker’s accountability : Allowing more individual control and authority over the work while retaining accountability of the manager.

c. Providing work scheduling freedom : Within limits, allowing individ-ual workers to schedule their own work.

d. Providing feedback : Making timely periodic reports on performance to employees (directly to the worker rather than to the supervisor).

e. Providing new learning experiences : Work situations should encour-age opportunities for new experiences and personal growth of the indi-vidual.

15. What are the components of a Job Enlargement?Job enlargement is the changes in the scope of a job so as to provide greater variety to the worker. Job enlargement provides a horizontal ex-pansion of duties. Increased responsibility means providing the worker with increased freedom to do the job–make decisions and exercise more self-control over the work.

16. What are the components of the Model of the Organization as a Social System (Getzels-Guba Model)?

Source: Adapted from Getzels, J.W., & Guba, E.G. (1957 Winter). Social behavior and the administrative process. The School Review, 65, 423-441. Reprinted with permission.

Institution Role Expectation

Individual Personality Need-Disposition

Social ObservedSystem Behavior


17. What are the components of the Guba & Getzels Model?

The administrator has

ACTUATING FORCE(AUTHORITY)

which derives from

Role Dimension Person Dimension(nomothetic) (ideographic)

Delegates status Achieved prestigeand authority and authority

which enables him to influence the

BEHAVIOR OF SUBORDINATES

toward

GOALS OF SCHOOL

Source: Getzels, J.W., & Guba, E.G. (1957 Winter). Social behavior and the administrative process. The School Review, 65, 423-441. Adapted with permission.


18. What are the nine components of Kritsonisms?1. We don’t hire good people, we make them.

We allow them feedback, direction, hire potential.

Marriage, we don’t find good partners, we make ourselves a good partner.

Diamond polishers, we develop them. Do we chip or do we polish?

2. High risk and failure is BETTER than low risk and success.

Try new things.

High effort risk.

3. Never ask for volunteers.

Ask people personally to volunteer.

Know your people.

Go ask them. Do not call them on the telephone.

4. Do tough jobs first.

Tough job first, 80% or the total work.

Toughest job.

Easy last.

Use the cheese cake theory–take a bite out of it. Do tough jobs first.

5. Sometimes we do things we are not good at.

Most people know if they are not doing a good job.

6. Good ideas must be sold as better ideas.

Sell good ideas.

A new idea isn’t a good idea until it is sold.

7. Keep it simple.

Keep ideas simple.

Don’t let it get complex.

Keep it big and keep it simple.

8. Be problem conscious.

Look down the road.

Solve problems before they get out-of-hand.


9. Let people see you as a person.

Open yourself up.

If more than 25% of your people are deadwood, then look at your-self.

19. What are the major components of the Kritsonis Balanced Teeter Tot-ter Model?The Kritsonis Balanced Teeter-Totter Model emphasizes the utilization of more effective technical skills, human skills, and conceptual skills. Krit-sonis asserts that technical, human, and conceptual skills should be devel-oped and refined through experience.

The teetering component illustrates that when educators function produc-tively, the model remains balanced. The educator exhibits competency. When the teetering component is not functioning productively, it teeter-totters, swings back-and-forth causing frustration, insecurities, and multi-ple dysfunctions resulting in low-level production, and in some cases in-competency.

Dr. William Kritsonis has served education in the roles of teacher, principal, superintendent of schools, director of student teaching and field experiences, editor, and university professor.

E. REVIEW ITEMSTrue-False1. The local school board is at the top of the school system’s administrative

hierarchy.

2. The principal is the chief local school officer.


3. Local control of schools by lay persons began in the New England colonies.

4. Local school boards are regulated by state statutes.

5. Requirements established by local school boards may exceed state require-ments in various areas, such as graduation criteria and teacher pay.

6. The superintendent is an employee of the school board.

7. The chief executive officer of the local school district is the superinten-dent.

8. The district superintendent is a key individual in the functioning of any lo-cal school district.

9. The principal reports directly to the school board regarding the function of the school.

10. Many people consider the principal’s primary role to be an instructional leader.

11. Students seem to want more rather than fewer rules.

12. Studies indicate that the largest part of a principal’s time is spent on disci-plinary matters.

13. The career ladder to administration usually starts in the classroom.

14. Most states lack specific certification requirements for administrators.

Multiple Choice 1. The powers and responsibilities of local school boards are established by

_______.

a. local citizenry b. local school board c. state statutesd. federal law

2. The following are all duties of the school board except _______.

a. enforcing state and federal laws b. designing schoolsc. staffing schools d. all of the above are included

3. Local school board members can be _______.

a. elected b. appointed c. either a or b d. none of the above

4. The income group most heavily represented on typical school boards is _______.

a. lower b. middle c. upper middle d. upper


5. The typical board member possesses _______ education.

a. high school b. some college c. bachelors degree or higherd. masters degree or higher

6. The key administrative figure at the building level is the _______.

a. school board member b. superintendent c. principal d. administrative assistant

7. The role of the principal is _______.

a. disciplinarian b. instructional leader c. managerd. all of the above

8. The text cites that a feature of an effective discipline program is _______.

a. a philosophy of discipline clearly stated in the student handbook b. swift and severe punishment c. more principal time on discipline d. all of the above

9. Principals can encourage an attitude favorable to change through _______.

a. encouraging collaboration among staff b. taking responsibility for change efforts c. narrowing communication channels to those directly involvedd. all of the above

10. Students’ expect a _______ from principals.

a. personal relationship b. instructional guidance c. counselor/client relationship d. none of the above

11. The majority of the principal’s time is probably spent on _______.

a. discipline b. paperwork c. evaluation of staff or programsd. instructional leadership

12. Most school administrators _______.

a. start as classroom teachersb. have masters degrees or abovec. hold specific certifications in administrationd. all of the above