Bentley, Ch 19

Ch 19

I. Kush (1800 BCE-150 CE): first African civilization after Egypt, south of Egypt, on Nile’s 3rd Cataract, Capital—Kerma, major trading center for goods traveling north from southern regions of Africa, (1700-1500 BCE) greatest power and cultural height, (1000 BCE) rose in power again, Conquered Nubia (north), Obtained gold mines, Moved capital to Napata, Society (Considered themselves Egyptians, Assumed Egyptian royal titles, Architecture and art was based upon Egyptian lines, Pyramids—smaller and steeper, (750s BCE) Invaded Egypt but was kicked out by the Assyrians (664 BCE), Forced farther south (Closed off contact w/ Egypt, ME, & Europe, Moved capital to Meroe, 591 CE), Isolation (Turned to Sub-saharan world, Middle man in good b.w northern Af., ME and Eur, New forms of art and culture), Government (King elected from royal family, Descent was through mother’s line, Series of female monarchs), Religion (Polytheistic, Major Egyptian gods, Regional gods, Lion warrior god (S. Af)), Technology (New writing style, Spread iron technology), Why decline? (Loss of fertility in land?, Lost control of trade routes?, Rival state—Aksum?)

Ch 19

I. Kush (1800 BCE-150 CE):

II. Aksum: Ethiopia, south of Kush, b/w trade routes of Red Sea and interior Africa, Trade (War elephants, rhinoceros horns, tortoise shells, incense, spices, (330 CE) King Ezana of Aksum defeated the Kush and established Aksum as the new kingdom, Converted to Christianity, Previous to Christianity—polytheistic, gods controlled nature, Aksumite Christianity (Replaced Greek and spoke their own native tongue in rituals (Ge’ez), Carried amulets or charms to protect them from evil spirits), Controlled the African side of the Red Sea trade until 700s when Muslims came to town, Decline (Loss of trade to the Persians and Arabs, Over exploitation of land)

Ch 19I. Kush (1800 BCE-150 CE):

II. Aksum:

III. Arab Invasions: Conquest of Egypt (640 CE, Egypt was ruled by Byzantium, Egyptians offered no resistance to the Arab conquest b/c Byz. rule was corrupt and oppressive, By 642 CE, Arab armies had expelled the Byz. Administrators), Built the new capital—Cairo (Allowed them to dominate the Nile valley to the south, Keep open their trade links w/ Syria & Arabia), Aksum in south (Huge army of archers, Confined the Arabs to north of the 1st cataract, Treaty—lengthy period of peaceful coexistence and profitable trade), The Maghrib (coastal region of north Africa west of Egypt, Arabs faced opposition from both the Byz. and the north African Berbers, By 690s, Arabs were ready to attack) Destruction of Carthage (Note: the Byz. had recaptured Carthage from the Vandals in 533 CE) , Near ruins built Tunis), Attack on Berbers (Unable to resist the attacks by Arabs, Lack of unity and coordination, Arabs had unity, By 711 CE, Islamic army had reached the Atlantic coast of Morocco and was ready to cross into Spain), Arab rule in northern Africa (Arab policy—subject peoples should be given a choice: pay a tax, Convert, Die, no widespread attempt at conversion), Mostly Arabs and Islam was seen in the coastal towns (Had slave labor to work the farming estates, Slaves were from Berbers that were captured in war and from people that were raided or traded from the central and southern Sahara, Early Arab rulers made little effort to conquer the highlands and desert fringes to the south, As long as a tax tribute was paid, Berber chiefdoms were left alone), How did Islam spread among Berbers? (Membership in the army, Became great soldiers and ardent followers of Islam, Profited from the expansion of the Islamic empire), Arab rule in Egypt (Arabs were administrators, merchants and landlords, Majority of peasants kept possession of their land, Arabs regarded Egypt as a major source of wealth (food), Taxes were less oppressive than the Greeks and Romans, Revived irrigation projects to improve agricultural production, Arabic language & faith gradually spread t/o population (immigration of peasants in 8th & 9th centuries, Gradual process of education (Arabic was the language of the educated & govt), By end of 9th century old Coptic language (descendant of Ancient Egyptian) was the language of a small minority), The Growth of Muslim states in Northern Africa (North African Muslims were asserting their independence from the Caliphs of the Arab world, Arabs retained a strong sense of racial and religious superiority which was resented by the Berbers, Kharijites—opponents of the caliphate, Criticized the exclusive Arab culture of orthodox Islam, Emphasized the equality of all professing Muslims , Provided a stimulus for Berber resistance to eastern Arab rule)

Ch 19

I. Kush (1800 BCE-150 CE):

II. Aksum

III. Arab Invasions

IV. Ghana: Primary Source

V. Almoravids and Mali: Almoravids (Berbers living in the desert north of Ghana, fervent Muslims and they declared holy war, or jihad, against the kingdom of Ghana, Why was Ghana weakened previous to Almoravids? Sahara had spread, Overuse of land, (1224) one of the chiefs that had seceded from Ghana, attacked the capital city of Kumbi-Saleh and seized the royal family, (1234) a legendary magician and a royal hostage named Sunjata overcame the usurper and began a new empire: Mali, Location (Further south of Ghana, Better land, Upper Niger river (bulk of gold trade went up Niger)), Economy (Monopolized the Trans-Saharan trade network, Taxed the trade but did not control the gold mines, Sent tribute payments to remain indep of govt) Dependent upon agriculture (Food was produced by independent peasant farmers in small villages, Paid a portion to village chief who forwarded the rest to govt, State farms—worked by slaves, Cowry shells—currency but gold and salt still main form of exchange), Sunjata (r. 1230-1255) (Magician and slave of Soso, Seized major territories through which gold was traded & built Mali, Introduced the cultivation and weaving of cotton), Mansa Musa (r. 1312-1337) (Expanded influence over the large Niger city-states of Timbuktu, Gao, Djenne, Devout Muslim—built mosques, pilgrimage to Mecca, Timbuktu—built libraries, universities, meeting place of poets & scholars, major Islamic center in Sub-Saharan Africa), Government (Muslims as ministers, Outlaying districts—traditional rulers kept in place in return for $, Standing army—Protected from outside invaders & trade routes), Decline (Weak rulers & short reigns , Subject states began to break off & d/n pay tribute $, 1430, Tuareg Berbers in north seized Timbuktu, 1440, Mossi kingdom in south seized Mali’s southern territories, Kindom of Gao grew and became Kingdom of Songhay)

Ch 19

I. Kush (1800 BCE-150 CE):

II. Aksum

III. Arab Invasions

IV. Ghana: Primary Source

V. Almoravids and Mali:

VI. Songhay: Under Sonni Ali the Great (r. 1464-92) [Songhay became an empire (1468), Conquered Timbuktu from the Tuareg, Reign was occupied with fighting off the Tuareg raiders in the south and Expanding the empire through military conquest, Powerful army of horsemen & war canoes, Criticized by Arabic historians (Raids on Muslim Timbuktu, Lack of respect for Islam, Tyrant & oppressor, Scholarship in Timbuktu suffered during his reign), Succeeded by his general Muhammad Ture (Strengthened the administration of the empire, Used Islam to reinforce his authority and unite the empire, Went on a pilgrimage to Mecca, In Cairo he persuaded the caliph of Egypt to recognize him as caliph of the Sudan, Revived Timbuktu as a center of Islamic learning, Did not force Islam on the common people, Great revival of trans-Saharan trade & the effect was an increase in the wealth of Songhay, Government Administration (provincial governors appointed by the king , positions were not hereditary and were dependent upon the king, governor—recruited his own army to ensure collection of taxes), Economy (income—taxes from the provinces, royal farms, taxes on trade, currency—salt (long-distance trade) & cowry shells (internal trade), goods traded—gold, kola nuts, slaves, cloth) Fall of Songhay (Following Muhammad Ture—short reigns & dynastic disputes, 1580s, Civil war, drought, disease, Lost control over trade networks, Army was not modernized (firearms)) 1591, Moroccan invasion of Songhay (Wanted the trans-Saharan trade route, Moroccan sultan, Ahmad al-Mansur attacked with muzzle-loading guns (4,000 soldiers), Songhay was surprised, Battle of Tondibi, 12 March 1591—Songhay army threw into confusion and disorder b/c of Moroccan’s use of guns, Moroccans went on to capture Timbuktu and Jenne but failed in the long run b/c Songhay launched a guerilla resistance which wore down the resources and resolve of the Moroccans)

Ch 19I. Kush (1800 BCE-150 CE):

II. Aksum

III. Arab Invasions

IV. Ghana: Primary Source

V. Almoravids and Mali:

VI. Songhay:

VII. Swahili & Zimbabwe: Eastern coast of Africa—Swahili city-states (a distinctive coastal society that was Islamic in religion and culture but primarily African in language, Swahili civilizations expanded southward until they reached Kilwa in Zanzibar, Kilwa most important Swahili town (out of 40 Swahili towns), Controlled the southern trade, Sent ships south to form a small trading settlement at Sofala, People of interior brought gold from the emerging societies of the Limpopo valley and the Zimbabwe plateau, Established control over the overseas trade of gold, Effect—powerful and wealthy), Structure of Swahili towns (Most were small and only contained a few stone houses, a mosque, a Muslim ruling family, and a predominantly non-Muslim population, Larger towns (Mogadishu, Zanzibar, Kilwa) built almost entirely of coral stone and showed signs of great wealth), Government (Independent, under rule of their own Muslim sultan, Some larger towns exercised control over neighboring towns), Social Hierarchy (Arabic ruling class—sultan & family, top government officials, advisors, wealthy merchants (all were Muslim & claimed some descent from Arab rulers), Bulk of townspeople—non-Muslim craftsmen, artisans, clerks, minor court officials, captains of ships (distinctly African w/ little or no claim to Arab ancestry), Slaves—Non-Muslim and did the work on farms and factories), Relations b/w coastal Swahili and interior Africans (Depended upon each other, Interior—supplied Swahili with ivory, furs, gold, Swahili—supplied Interior w/ cloth, beads, imported pottery, Interior chieftains were known to attack or besiege Swahili cities, Cause was Swahili raids into the interior for livestock and slaves), Relations b/w Swahili city-states (Generally peaceable, Rivalry over trade but seldom attacks on each other, Piracy was unknown before the Portuguese ), Decline (Portuguese trade disrupted the old trade routes and made the Swahili commercial centers obsolete, Portuguese began to conquer the Islamic city-states along the eastern coast, Oman in the 17th century conquered all the Portuguese cities along the coast and the eastern African coast was controlled by the Omani sultanate), Great Zimbabwe (Bantu-speaking people in south-eastern Africa, Zimbabwe was rich in gold, Exposed to Chinese, Persian, and Indian crafts and culture, Centralized their government, So far inland that they never felt the political or cultural impact of Islam, Fully African civilization, known for their elaborate stone buildings, Purpose is unknown, Possibly for defense or to emphasize the mystery, power and prestige of the king, Wealthy due to the livestock grazing in their territory, timber & fertile soil, strategic spot for trade), Trade (Coincided with the rise of Kilwa, Supplied the Swahili of Kilwa with the gold and ivory for their trade, Started as a center of trade for cattle and farming but led to divisions in wealth, Taxation of trade & tribute payments, Center of craft manufacture—gold and copper into jewelery, weaving of cloth), Decline (1450 CE, abandoned, Natural resources were exhausted, Shortage of salt, Land could not support the population, Trade was shifting to north)