The shortage of feed resources for livestock and poultry feeding diverted majority

of research in the field of animal nutrition to look into all possibilities to overcome this

nutritional crisis. The most viable proposition could be the inclusion new NCFR in ration

with suitable complete feed technology, so as to utilize the feed resources with maximum

efficiency.

The literatures related to the concept of current study have been reviewed as under:

2.1 NON CONVENTIONAL FEED RESOURCES (NCFR)

A major gap exists between the demand and supply of concentrates and green and

dry fodders for feeding livestock in the world. To overcome this shortage, it is essential to

increase the availability of feed and fodder for the different productions and functions of

the animals. One of the solutions is also to exploit the use NCFR in the animal feeding

system. Some of the potentially available NCFR are rubber seed cake, sal seed meal,

tapioca waste, tea waste, babul seeds, slaughter house byproducts, mango seed kernels,

nizger seed cake, karanj cake, guar meal, Prosopis juliflora pods and cassava leaf meal,

Seabuckthorn leaves, cake and pomace, and animal organic wastes (bovine and poultry

excreta) etc. Many of these feed materials are low in energy, protein, minerals and contain

high amounts of lignin, silica and other nutritionally incriminating substances. The main

constraints to the use of nonconventional feed resources are collection, dehydration for

high moisture content and detoxification processes. Processing technologies that are

economic and practical are urgently required. Some of the materials like sal seed meal,

neem seed cake, mahua seed cake, and galas seed cake are available in large quantities but

due to the presence of potent toxic substances, have limited value as animal feeds. Many of

the forest tree seeds contain 15-35 per cent oil and are used for the extraction of oil, after

which the cake is valuable as animal feeds. Animal organic wastes such as dung and

poultry excreta are also potentially available as a part of animal feeds.

This category NCFR includes diverse feeds and by definition it refers to those feeds

that have not been traditionally used in animal feeding and or are not normally used in

commercially produced rations for livestock (Devendra, 1992). Examples are palm leaf

meal, palm press fibre, cassava foliage, spent brewer‘s grains, sugar cane bagasse, rubber

seed meal and aquatic plants. Defined in this manner the NCFR embrace a wide diversity

of feeds and its nutrients contents. A feature about feeds is that the traditional feeds of

tropical origin tend to be mainly from annual crops whereas, the NCFR include commonly,

a variety of feeds from perennial crops and feeds of animal and industrial origin. In this

sense, the NCFR could really be more appropriately termed "new feeds", and this term is

being increasingly used. Thus, the term NCFR has been frequently used to describe such

new sources of feedstuffs as palm oil mill effluent and palm press fibre (oil palm by-

products), single cell proteins, and feed material derived from agro-industrial by-products

of plant and animal origin, poor-quality cellulosic roughages from farm residues such as

stubbles, haulms, vines and from other agro-industrial by-products such as slaughter-house

by-products and those from the processing of sugar, cereal grains, citrus fruits and

vegetables from the processing of food for human consumption. This list can be extended

further by derivatives from chemical or microbial processes, as in the production of single

cell proteins. It is not easy however to draw a distinct demarcation between traditional

feeds and NCFR. This is because in some countries such as India and Pakistan, what may

now be classified NCFR may in fact be traditionally to the extent that it may have been fed

for a long time. A case in point concerns wheat straw which is very widely used in both

these countries. Additionally, the availability of NCFR, especially of plant origin, is

dependent to a large extent on type of crops being cultivated, and the prevalent degree of

application of the crop technology.

2.1.1 Quality / characteristics of NCFR

The NCFR have a number of characteristics that are worth documenting and to

keep in perspective:

a) They are the end products of production and consumption that have not been used,

recycled or salvaged.

b) They are mainly organic and can be in a solid, slurry or liquid form.

c) Their economic value is often less than the cost of their collection and

transformation for use, and consequently, they are discharged as wastes.

d) The feed crops which generate valuable NCFR are excellent sources of fermentable

carbohydrates e.g. cassava and sweet potato and this is an advantage to ruminants

because of their ability to utilize inorganic nitrogen.

e) Fruit wastes such as banana rejects and pineapple pulp by comparison have sugars

which are energetically very beneficial.

f) Concerning the feeds of crop origin, the majority are bulky poor-quality cellulosic

roughages with a high crude fibre and low nitrogen contents, suitable for feeding to

ruminants.

g) Some of the feeds have deleterious effects on animals, and not enough is known

about the nature of the active principles and ways of alleviating the effects.

h) They have considerable potential as feed materials, and for some, their value can be

increased if there were economically justifiable technological means for converting

them into some usable products.

i) More information is required on chemical composition, nutritive value, toxic

factors and value in feeding systems.

2.1.2 Generation of NCFR

The generation of NCFR, essentially from agriculture and various agro-based

industries is a function of many factors. The quantity and quality of the materials produced

is dependent upon prevailing agro-climatic conditions and cropping patterns, type of raw

materials, the production process, the production rate, the type of inputs used, the

regulations affecting product quality use, and the constraints imposed upon residual

discharge.

Many of the NCFR are currently designated as wastes, and this is an inaccurate

description. They are wastes to the extent that they have not been shown to have an

economic value so that if these wastes can be utilized and converted by animals into

valuable products for human benefit, they then become new feed materials of importance.

Additionally, they can alleviate the existing limited feed resources. Recycling,

reprocessing and utilization of all, or a portion of the wastes, offers the possibility of

returning these to beneficial use, as opposed to the traditional methods of disposal and

relocation of the same residues. The demonstration of potential value can thus make many

of these wastes, new feeds of value and importance.

2.1.3 Current Status of Utilization of NCFR

The current status of utilization of the various types of non-conventional feedstuffs

enables following general points to be drawn:

(a) The available data that most laboratories in the Region continue to use the Weende

proximate analysis scheme. Very few laboratories use modern methods of chemical

analyses for constituents that include inter alia: cell wall constituents or neutral

detergent fibre, lignin, in vitro digestibility, alkaloids, tannins and other inhibitors.

(b) No precise quantitative information is available on NCFR.

(c) Most of the work done has been sporadic, uncoordinated, lacking in depth and thus

unable to give precision to the value of individual feedstuffs for either ruminants or

non-ruminants.

(d) What work has been done is evaluation-oriented with the basic objective of

establishing acceptability and potential value.

(e) These exist only limited results from large scale feeding systems involving NCFR

that can demonstrate high production from specific types of animals.

(f) There is an extreme paucity of information, consistent with (e), on profitability and

economic viability

2.1.4 Current Constraints to Utilization of NCFR

The NCFR of the Region are presently underutilized. There are several reasons for

this state of affairs and their enumeration is important:

a) Production is scattered and in some cases, the quality produced is low, especially

for processing.

b) High cost of collection of some of the NCFR e.g. rubber seeds.

c) Non-competitive costs and un-remunerative prices.

d) Tendency to think of some NCFR e.g. palm oil mill effluent in terms of disposal,

non-utilization.

e) Processing is difficult and in any case problematical.

f) Lack of managerial and technical skills to utilize the feeds in situ.

g) Limitations in the end uses of the produced products.

h) Uncertainty about the marketability of the end products.

i) Associated with (e) lack of managerial skills and capital resources for the purchase

and operation of suitable technology, or for the study of new appropriate

technology.

j) Small farmers who from the backbone of traditional agriculture in the Region have

neither the resources and know-how nor the quantities of residue to take individual

action. (Devendra, 1983).

In addition to these and with specific reference to NCFR utilization, there are

additional major constraints that merit attention:

a) Availability in terms of time, location, seasonality, and storage facilities.

b) Convertibility with respect to handling, separation, transportation and physical

processing of the residues.

c) Limited knowledge on the composition of the residues, such as proximate

components (e.g. crude protein, crude fibre and minerals) intake and nutritive value

(e.g. digestible energy and proteins) which are pertinent to the development of

utilization technology.

d) Use of the end product in relation to demand, rate of growth of demand, storage

and markets.

e) Inadequate demonstration of potential value in feeding systems both nationally and

regionally due to low priority research.

f) Economic viability of residue utilization programs involving NCFR also needs to

be demonstrated.

These constraints together emphasize that the opportunities for overcoming these,

and therefore increasing the utilization of NCFR are quite enormous. This can augment the

development of suitable technology, renewable to make NCFR resources and the quantity

of usable feed supplies presently available.

2.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEED INGREDIENTS

2.2.1 Proximate Composition

Sen and Ray (1971) has estimated the composition in maize 10.55, 1.90, 4.39,

80.66 and 1.94 per cent CP, CF, EE, NFE and TA respectively. Sen et al. (1978) reported

the per cent composition of maize as 11.10, 1.90, 4.40, 80.70 and 1.90 for CP, CF, EE,

NFE and TA respectively. Sharma (1990) recorded the CP, CF, EE and TA content of

maize as 8.50, 2.50, 3.30 and 1.80 per cent respectively, while Aufrere et al. (1991)

recorded these values as 10.70, 3.70 and 2.10 per cent for CP, CF, EE and TA respectively.

Bhatt (1993) reported the values for CP, CF and EE as 9.00, 2.50 and 3.20 per cent

respectively while Katoch (1996) recorded the values of CP, EE, CF, NFE and TA as 9.00,

3.00, 3.10, 79.60 and 5.30 per cent respectively. Gupta (2003) reported the values for CP,

CF, EE and TA to be 9.00, 3.11, 3.00 and 5.31 per cent respectively. Katoch (2009)

reported the CP, CF, EE and TA as 10.1, 2.8, 3.9 and 1.7 per cent respectively. Ambatkar

(2009) reported CP, CF, EE and TA values of maize as 9.87, 2.20, 3.90 and 1.55 per cent

respectively. Similarly, Chawla (2010) reported the CP, CF, EE and TA to be 9.50, 2.95,

3.25 and 2.01 per cent respectively. Sharma (2010) reported CP, CF, EE and TA values as

9.50, 2.95, 3.25 and 2.01per cent respectively. Shama (2011) reported CP, CF, EE and TA

values as 9.50, 2.95, 3.25 and 2.01 per cent respectively. Goswamy (2011) reported CP,

CF, EE and TA values of maize as 7.15, 3.65, 3.65 and 2.48 per cent respectively.

Sharma (1990) reported the percentage CP, CF, EE and TA in soya flakes to be

47.70, 6.80, 1.20 and 7.00 respectively while Bhatt (1993) reported these values to be

47.50, 6.90, 3.20 and 7.00 respectively and Katoch (1996) reported the values in soya

flakes as 42.10, 4.00, 45.90 and 7.00 per cent for CP, CF, NFE and TA respectively. Gupta

(2003) reported the values for CP, CF, EE and TA to be 42.63, 3.91, 1.00 and 7.04 per cent

respectively, in soya flakes. Ambatkar (2009) reported CP, CF, EE and TA values of soya

flakes to be 33.85, 7.80, 1.10 and 8.41per cent respectively. Chawla (2010) reported the

CP, CF, EE and TA to be 38.50, 5.40, 2.10 and 7.54 per cent respectively. Sharma (2010)

reported CP, CF, EE and TA values to be 38.50, 5.40, 2.10 and 7.54 per cent respectively

where as, Goswamy (2011) reported the CP, CF, EE and TA to be 45.47, 9.61, 2.12 and

7.04 per cent respectively. Shama (2011) also reported the CP, CF, EE and TA to be 38.50,

5.40, 2.10 and 7.54 per cent respectively, in soya flakes.

Negi et al. (1989) reported the CP content of mustard oil cake as 43.05 per cent.

Sahoo (1992) reported CP, EE, CF, NFE and TA as 34.50, 1.20, 8.53, 43.11 and 12.66 per

cent respectively in mustard oil cake. Dutta and Singh (1994) recorded the CP and TA

content of mustard oil cake as 35.76 and 9.60 per cent respectively. Ambatkar (2009) also

reported CP, CF, EE and TA values of mustard cake to be 35.10, 9.20, 1.43 and 9.02 per

cent respectively. Sharma (2010) also reported CP, CF, EE and TA values of mustard cake

to be 32.50, 12.50, 5.86 and 6.78 per cent respectively.

Sen et al. (1978) reported the proximate composition values of sunflower cake as

36.40, 10.70, 11.20, 35.70 and 15.90 per cent CP, CF, EE, NFE and TA respectively.

Ranjhan (1991) recorded the values as 26.20, 22.90, 20.50, 23.60 and 6.80 per cent CP,

CF, EE, NFE and TA respectively. Sibanda et al. (1993) reported the values as 35.63,

14.80 and 95.80 per cent CP, EE and OM respectively. Sharma (1990) documented the

values of per cent CP, CF, EE, and TA in de-oiled sunflower cake as 34.50, 19.50, 2.20

and 10.50 respectively, whereas, Bhatt (1993) reported the values as 34.20, 20.00 and 2.10

per cent CP, CF and EE and similarly Katoch (1996) reported the values as 29.60, 9.00,

8.20, 44.20, 9.00 per cent CP, EE, CF, NFE and TA. Kuldip et al. (1995) recorded the

values as 26.75, 25.32, 6.37, 27.50 and 14.60 per cent CP, CF, EE, NFE and TA

respectively in a decorticated sunflower cake. Sharma (2010) reported CP, CF, EE and TA

values of it to be 25.63, 12.54, 4.45 and 9.10 per cent respectively.

Gupta (2003) reported the values of CP, CF, EE and TA to be 51.38, 2.01, 4.55 and

6.07 per cent respectively, in fish meal. Katoch (2009) also reported the CP, CF, EE and

TA to be 43.1, 3.6, 4.3 and 10 per cent respectively. Similarly, Chawla (2010) reported the

CP, CF, EE and TA to be 40.00, 3.54, 4.21 and 13.50 per cent respectively. Goswamy

(2011) reported the CP, CF, EE and TA as 41.85, 3.30, 5.70 and 38.9 per cent respectively.

Shama (2011) also reported the CP, CF, EE and TA to be 40.00, 3.54, 4.21 and 9.92 per

cent respectively, in fish meal.

Ambatkar (2009) reported CP, CF, EE and TA values of DORB to be 14.73, 14.08,

1.28 and 9.92 per cent respectively. Sharma (2010) reported CP, CF, EE and TA values to

be 14.73, 14.08, 1.28 and 9.92 per cent respectively. Goswamy (2011) reported the CP,

CF, EE and TA to be 15.11, 7.54, 0.72 and 9.18 per cent respectively where, Shama (2011)

reported the CP, CF, EE and TA as 14.73, 14.08, 1.28 and 3.40 per cent respectively, in

DORB.

2.2.2 Cell Wall Composition of Feed Ingredients

Sharma (1990) reported the per cent NDF, ADF, hemicelluloses and Cellulose in

maize as 19.05, 3.00, 16.05 and 3.95 respectively. Aufere et al. (1991) recorded the ADF

content of maize as 3.5 per cent. Sibanda et al. (1993) reported the ADF and NDF content

in maize as 17.50 and 5.10 per cent respectively. However, Di Lella et al. (1995) reported

the corresponding values as 12.00 per cent, 3.70 per cent respectively. Katoch (1996)

recorded the per cent NDF, ADF, HC, cellulose and lignin content for maize as 19.10,

3.10, 16.10, 3.75 and 1.10 respectively.

Sharma (1990) reported the per cent NDF, ADF, hemi cellulose and cellulose content

of soya flakes as 25.70, 13.20, 12.50 and 6.50 per cent respectively, whereas Bhatt (1993)

reported the corresponding values as 25.20, 13.10, 12.90 and 6.50 per cent respectively. Di

Lella et al. (1995) reported the NDF and ADF content of soya flakes as 23.00 and 13.20

per cent respectively. Katoch (1996) recorded the per cent NDF, ADF, hemi cellulose,

cellulose, and lignin as 25.50, 13.00, 12.50, 6.50 and 2.10 respectively.

2.3 PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF SEABUCKTHORN CAKE

Kaushal (2004) determined suitability of utilizing berries of SBT (Hippophae sp.) for

the preparation of various value added products viz., ready to serve beverage, appetizer

(spiced squash), fruit leather, pulp concentrate (paste) and seed oil. The seed cake left after

oil extraction contained a good proportion of CP (27.7 to 33.2 %), CF (15.0 to 21.9 %) and

total ash (2.7 to 3.6 %) which suggested its utilization in the manufacturing of various feed

supplements for lkivestock. Sharma (2010) reported the DM, CP, EE, CF, TA, NFE, AIA,

Ca, P and ME values of Seabuckthorn cake as 90.06, 26.00, 4.50, 14.00, 2.50, 53.00, 0.75,

1.25 per cent and 2906 kcal/kg respectively. The similar values of Seabuckthorn cake were

also reported by Shama (2011).

2.4 SEABUCKTHORN PLANT AND ITS DISTRIBUTION

Seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L., Elaeagnaceae) is a hardy, deciduous,

dioecious, and usually spinescent shrub (Rousi 1971). It reaches 2–4 m in height in natural

habitats and bears yellow or orange-red berries, referred to as ―Siberian pineapple‖ in

Russia, because of its taste and juiciness (Abartene and Malakhovskis 1975). The natural

habitat of sea buckthorn extends widely in China, Mongolia, Russia, and most parts of

Northern Europe. It is a unique and valuable plant currently cultivated in various parts of

the world, including Canada (Li and Shroeder 1996). It can withstand extreme

temperatures from –43° to 40°C and is considered to be drought resistant. However,

irrigation is needed in regions receiving less than 400 mm (16") of rainfall annually (Li and

Shroeder 1996). Sea buckthorn develops an extensive root system rapidly, and is therefore

an ideal plant for soil erosion control (Lu 1992), land reclamation because of its ability to

fix nitrogen and conserve other essential nutrients, wildlife habitat enhancement, and farm

stand protection (Li and Schroeder 1996). Sea buckthorn is mentioned in the writings of

ancient Greek scholars such as Theophrastus and Dioscorides.

Seabuckthorn (Hippophae sp. Family- Elelagnacea) grows abundantly in the dry

temperate Himalayas-Lahoul-Spiti. In the Nubra valley of Leh district, large number of

semi- wild bactrian camels survives largely on seabuckthorn and their health is

significantly better than the domestic ones (Gurmet 2008). Since the 1950s, many

medicinal preparations of seabuckthorn (SBT), from wild and cultivated materials have

been clinically used to treat radiation damage, burns, oral inflammation and gastric ulcers

in China and the former Soviet Republics (Lebedeva et al. 1989; Jiang et al. 1989; Fu et al.

1993). It was used as medicinal plant in Tibetan and Mongolian traditional medicines

(Rongsen 1992). Hippophae is wonderful plant for livestock and is particularly enjoyed by

sheep, goat, and camels. Sea buckthorn was known as a remedy for horses, and leaves and

young branches were added to fodder, to induce rapid weight gain and a shiny coat, and in

fact, the generic name Hippophae means shining horse (Lu 1992). Sea buckthorn has been

used for centuries in both Europe and Asia for food and pharmaceutical purposes (Bailey

and Bailey 1978; Li and Schroeder 1996). The information on nutritional and medicinal

value of sea-buckthorn is relatively new in North America. The medicinal value was

recorded as early as the 8th

century in the Tibetan medical classic rGyud Bzi. Recently, sea

buckthorn has become the source of important medicinal and nutritional products in

Eurasia and its nutritional and medicinal values is being noticed and explored in North

America (Li 1999). The sea buckthorn industry has been thriving in Russia since the 1940s

when scientists began investigating the biologically active substances found in the berries,

leaves, and bark. The first Russian factory for sea buckthorn product development was

located in Bisk. These products were utilized in the diet of Russian cosmonauts and as a

cream for protection from cosmic radiation (Xu et al. 2001). The Chinese experience with

sea buckthorn fruit production is more recent, although traditional uses date back many

centuries (Lu 1992). Research and plantation establishment were initiated in the 1980s.

Since 1982 over 300,000 ha of sea buckthorn have been planted in China. In addition, 150

processing factories have been established producing over 200 products. Recently, sea

buckthorn has been recommended for orchard-type cultivation in Canada. As a relatively

new cultivated crop, some important characteristics which need improvement in the future

are yield, fruit size, thornlessness, fruit quality, and early maturity. Knowledge of

mechanical harvesting, and crop management techniques including soil fertility, cultivation

techniques, pruning, and pest, disease, and weed controls, and nitrogen-fixing ability are

also needed urgently (Li and Schroeder 1996).

The ratio of male to female plants is important for maximizing fruit set of SBT.

Recommendations for male: female ratios vary with plant density and region. In British-

Columbia, an orchard planting of 2500 trees/ha, a 1 male: 6–8 females ratio is considered

to be the adequate. Sea buckthorn flowers are wind pollinated. Moderate pruning is

required to maximize yield and reduce yearly fluctuations. The crown should be pruned

annually to remove overlapping branches, and long branches should be headed to

encourage lateral shoot development. Weed control is very important in sea buckthorn

planting, especially for promoting growth of newly planted seedlings (Li and Schroeder

1996).

2.5 COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF SEABUCKTHORN PLANT

The cake of the SBT leaves, a residue after the extraction of oil for the cosmetic

industries, is a nutritive feed and can be added to the animal feed to improve the different

production functions of livestock. The research work carried out at the institute of

Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Research Designing and Technological Institute of

Animal Husbandry and Byisk Vitamin factory, in Russia, found that SBT leaf cake has

about 30- 33 per cent oil, which is the main source in fodder. The energy yield of per kg

leaf cake forms 7417- 7667 kcal that is practically 3-times more than the common fodder

(2500 kcal per kg of fodder). SBT cake is also rich in freely available proteins (12.3- 13.3

per cent). According to the statement of Solonenko et al. (1993), SBT has well balanced

amino acid composition and content of essential amino acids (34.2- 35.4 g per 100 g of

protein), containing vital amino acids including lysine (5.9- 6.8 g per 100 g of protein), the

main amino acid which limits the nutritive value of plant protein, content of which is even

three times higher than wheat grain (2.0- 2.5/ 100g of protein).

Seabuckthorn has been reported to contain more than 190 compounds in the seeds,

pulp, fruit, and juice. These compounds include fat soluble vitamins (A, K, E), 22 fatty

acids, 42 lipids, organic acids, amino acids, carbohydrates, vitamins C, B1, B2, folic acid,

and flavanoids, phenols, terpenes, and tannins (Katiyar et al., 1990; Yang et al., 2002; Li

and Schroeder, 1996). It also contains 20 mineral elements. Many of the substances that

are found in SBT are known to have beneficial effect on health (Katiyar et al., 1990). Due

to presence of variety of vitamins and other bioactive substances in its berries and leaves,

the plant is widely being used in many countries as raw material for drugs, cosmetics and

health food products (Rongsen, 1992).

Seabuckthorn leaves contain flavonoids, carotenoids, free and esterified sterols,

triterpenols and isoprenols, which support its medicinal properties such as anti-cancerous,

anti-bronchitis, anti-inflammatory, anti-flatulence, soothing effect, prevents cold and

cough, appetizer, energizer, memory vitalizer and analgesic properties (Chen et al., 1991;

Goncharova and Glushenkova, 1996). The SBT leaves were considered to be rich source of

flavonoids containing isorhamnetin and quercetin and have been found to possess antiviral

and antimicrobial activities (Shipulina et al., 1995).

Chauhan et al. (2001) have pointed out that the fruits of the SBT are rich source of

vitamin C, carotenoids and mineral matter. It contains substantial amount of vitamin P and

K. Due to high acidic nature and exotic flavor, SBT berries are having good potential for

producing various processed products like ready to serve beverage, squash, syrup, jam and

jelly. The effect of SBT on the life of the people has been widely studied by Lal et al.,

(2001), Uniyal and Uniyal (2001), Agarwal (2001), Patro et al., (2001) they have studied

the anti-oxygenic and antioxidant activity of the SBT. SBT leaves based salty herbal tea is

useful to overcome common health problems due to nutrients and bioactive substances

present in SBT leaves (Thomas, 2001).

Seabuckthorn leaf extract has a potentiality to protect the immune cells from

chromium (Cr) induced oxidative injury. The alcoholic extract of SBT was found to inhibit

chromium (VI) induced free radical production, apoptosis, and DNA fragmentation and

restored the antioxidant status of cells. In addition, the extract was also able to arrest the

chromium- induced inhibition of lymphocyte proliferation (Geetha et al., 2002).

Sankhyan and Sehgal (2003) determined the chemical composition of de-oiled cake

from seeds of SBT species of Himachal Pradesh. Fully matured berries of Hippophae

rhamnoides, H. salicifolia and H. tibetana were collected from 3 localities. Results showed

that de-oiled cake of all three SBT species had low percentage of soluble sugars and crude

protein, but high starch content.

Seabuckthorn berries processing and its products

Seabuckthorn Seed oil has tonic effect to cerebral-cardiovascular systems. Total

flavonoids increase blood flow of the coronary artery and nutrients in the blood supply to

heart muscles, lower oxygen consumption, strengthen muscle contraction, thus improving

the heart function and to increase the anti- hypoxia under normal or below normal blood

pressure. Sitosterol softens the blood vessels, their tenacity, improves its elasticity, thus

preventing its hardening (arteriosclerosis). Vitamin E and other antioxidants remove

wastes including peroxides, ailing and dead cells from the blood, and avoid damages; the

wastes may do to the artery walls. 5-Serotonin and betaine protect the cerebral

cardiovascular functions by comprehensive regulation and coordination of the nervous,

endocrine and the immune systems (Xiao, 2003, Cheng, 2003, Yang et al., 2002).

Antioxidant effect of SBT on chromium induced oxidative stress in- vivo was studied by

Geetha et al. (2003). They demonstrated that the alcoholic leaf extract of this plant protects

the male albino rats from the chromium induced oxidative injury in serum significantly

(Geetha et al., 2003).

Manisha (2004) determined suitability of utilizing berries of sea buckthorn

(Hippophae sp.) for the preparation of various value added products viz., ready-to-serve

beverage, appetizer (spiced squash), fruit leather, pulp concentrate (paste) and seed oil was

evaluated. The seed cake left after oil extraction contained a good proportion of crude

protein (27.7-33.2 per cent), crude fibre (15.0-21.9 per cent) and total ash (2.7-3.6 per

cent), which suggests its utilization in the manufacturing of various feed supplements.

Seabuckthorn is claimed to be a rich source of vitamins, trace elements, amino

acids and other bioactive substances. The medicinal products made from it include simple

preparations to complex ones such as oil solution, soft extract, membranous preparations,

aerosols, etc. (Mingyu 1991). SBT fruits are rich in flavonoids, polyphenols, vitamin C,

vitamin E, other antioxidants, unsaturated fatty acids, etc. The leaves are also rich source

of polyphenols, flavonoids, antioxidants and dietary fibre. The plant is reputed to have

considerable medicinal value being useful for the treatment of various health problems.

Owing to these attributes SBT could become a food ingredient of high value for the

development of functional/ health foods, nutraceuticals and other value added products

(Bawa 2004).

Bawa (2004) stated that because of high contents of vitamin C, SBT fruit is

generally used to make soft drinks and other similar food products. The juice is good

source of several amino acids and minerals. The pulp and the seed of SBT contain high

quality oil, which is considered to be a carrier of many concentrated bioactive substances.

SBT products prepared from fruit pulp or juice are rich in vitamin C, provitamin A, and

other vitamins, especially of the B group and phytochemicals and are therefore considered

to have therapeutic and chemo preventive activities. SBT juice is known to block the

endogenous formation of nitroso compounds more effectively than ascorbic acid and

thereby prevents tumor production. SBT fruits are used for the preparation of jelly and are

used against pulmonary complaints.

There is an ample scope to produce number of products from air dried SBT leaves

but the most important are herbal tea and tea powders. Tender healthy leaves of (male)

SBT are used in for the production of refreshing tea. SBT tea is rich in flavonoides,

vitamins etc. and has medicinal value viz. soothing, energizer, anti stress, stimulant,

restores memory, useful in cold and cough and is a health tonic (Chaurasia et al. 2004). A

herbal tea formulation has been made at DFRL, Mysore with seabuckthorn leaves as the

major ingredient. The formulation was fed to rats that were made hypercholesterolemic by

feeding cholesterol at 2 per cent level. The formulation was found to reduce serum

cholesterol and LDL levels and also found to increase the antioxidant defense enzyme

activities in vivo (Swamy et al. 2004).

Tyagi et al. (2005) evaluated the effect of SBT seed oil on the development of

gastric erosions and ulcerations and its healing course in dogs. Twelve adult healthy dogs

were randomly divided into three equal groups. The gastric erosions and ulcers were

induced by the administration of a steroidal anti-inflammatory drug ‗Dexametasone‘ @ 1

mg/kg I/M once a day to all the animals for a period of 15 days. Results of the trial showed

that SBT seed oil had good healing activity.

Russian workers have also reported high values of water and salt soluble vitamins

(vitamin P, E, C and carotenoids). A wide range of mineral substances has also been found

in the leaf cake. All micro and macro elements of the leaf cake were found to be in optimal

relation. (Singh and Sharma, 2008).

Recently, the antioxidant and cytoprotective properties of alcoholic leaf extract of

SBT against hypoxia induced oxidative stress in C-6 glioma cells were studied by

(Narayanan et al. 2005). It inhibited hypoxia induced cytotoxicity, mitochondrial integrity,

ROS production DNA damage better than vitamin C and also maintained the cellular

antioxidant levels. Due to its spiky thorns, the most common use is as bio- fencing for

plantation areas, orchards and agriculture lands which are effectively protected with SBT

bio- fences (Gurmet 2008).

Aqueous and 70 per cent ethanol extracts of SBT (Hippophae rhamnoides L.,

Elaeagnaceae) dry leaves were examined in rats for their dose dependent effect on active

avoidance learning, if any. Avoidance learning was studied during endurance performance

in multiple stressful environments consisting of light, noise and electric shock (10 mili

Volt) by using Runimex, a circular runway animal model. Neither of the evaluated extracts

showed activity in rats to enhance cognitive functions with reference to avoidance learning

during exposure to stressful conditions of multiple stressors. But both extracts were found

to possess physical performance enhancing activity during the studied stressful conditions

(Saggu and Kumar 2008).

2.6 SEABUCKTHORN PRODUCTS, ITS PROCESSING, CHEMICAL

COMPOSITION AND SOME PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

There, potentially, is a wide array of products possible from sea buckthorn fruit for

use as food, fresh fruit, nutraceuticals, pet foods, cosmetics, and skin preparations for

improving the health and appearance of the skin.

2.6.1 Juice and its extraction

The fruit of the sea buckthorn plant weighs between 270 and 480 mg and averages

350 mg depending upon cultivar and maturity (Li 1999). Pressing these berries yields 60

per cent to 85 per cent juice. Juice yield of 67 per cent has been reported derived from

centrifugal methods (Heilscher and Lorber 1996). The juice is very high in organic acids as

reflected in the high levels of titratable acidity, and has a low pH (near 2.7). Quantitatively

the most important organic acid is malic acid, but there several other minor acids have

been reported (Beveridge et al. 1999). Protein levels are fairly high for a fruit juice and this

probably explains the fact that sea buckthorn juice is a cloudy or opalescent product.

Vitamin C content has been reported as high as 600 mg/100 g of fruit. Vitamin E content is

160 mg/100 g of fruit (Bernath and Foldesi 1992). Pulp and seeds contain triglyceride oils

with important medicinal value such as superoxide dismutase activity in mice, which

enhance the activity of NK cells in tumor bearing mice (Dai et al., 1987; Chen 1991;

Degtyareva et al., 1991).

If fresh pressed juice is allowed to stand one or two days it will separate into three

phases: an upper floating particulate phase, a center liquid portion, and sinking particulate

sediment. This separation is undesirable from a consumer point of view (Kleinschmidt et

al. 1996). If pulp oil is left in the juice, it will result in the formation of an oil layer on the

juice surface, creating an oil ring that remains on the package surface after the juice is

removed. This oil ring remaining on the package is unsightly and undesirable. Centrifugal

reduction of the juice oil content below about 0.1 per cent will eliminate the floating oil

problem. As the oil is removed by the disk stack centrifuge, the coarse sediment will be

deposited to the bottom of the bowl and can be removed automatically by the dislodging

mechanisms present in the centrifuge (Beveridge et al. 1999). Alternatively the crushed

berries or extracted juice may be treated with a preparation containing

pectinmethylesterase (PME) (Liu and Liu 1989), or perhaps treated with one of the many

commercially available hydrolytic enzyme preparations. For preservation purposes, it is

necessary that the juice be sterilized/ pasteurized. High-temperature-short time (HTST)

processes of 80°–90°C for several seconds are preferred (Liu and Lui 1989). This is

because the juice is somewhat delicate and will sustain a loss of flavor and develop an off-

flavor if heated beyond the conditions indicated. Furthermore, vitamin C is destroyed by

heating so maximum retention is promoted by HTST processing. The juice turns brown

after about 6 months at 15°–20°C, and this browning is reduced under non-oxidative

conditions. Reducing storage temperatures to 4°C prolongs storage life (Zhou and Chen

1989) and enzymes and sunlight are important sources of browning initiation. Normally,

sea buckthorn juice is an opalescent, to very turbid juice depending upon the amount of

suspended solids remaining after centrifugation. However, ultra filtration may be used to

remove all particulate and produce a clear juice (Heilscher and Lorber 1996). The ultra

filtration membrane can have a molecular weight cutoff of 100,000 or more and the

process produces an oil-free permeate and an oil rich retentate which can be utilized for

production of pulp oil rich in vitamin E and a solid material rich in carotenoids which may

be used as an isolation source for the pigment or as a dietary supplement.

2.6.2 Oil and its extraction

There are two sources of oil in sea buckthorn fruit: the seed which contains 10 per

cent–15 per cent (w/w) oil and the pulpy fruit parts surrounding the seed which contains 29

per cent–48 per cent oil (T.S.C. Li, unpublished data). Both pulp and seed oils from sea

buckthorn vary in vitamin E content depending on whether derived from seed oil (64.4 to

92.7 mg/100 g seed), juice oil (216 mg/100 g berry), or from the pulp after juice and seed

removal (481 mg/ 100 g berry). Carotenoids also vary depending upon the source of the

oil. The seed oils are highly unsaturated with up to 73 per cent or more of the fatty acids

making up the oil being linoleic or linolenic (Oomah et al. 1999). Pulp oil is more

saturated with about 38 per cent of the fatty acids being palmitic, and 14 per cent–50 per

cent of the fatty acids being palmitoleic acid. The difference between seed and pulp oil

seems to lie in the relatively high content of C16 fatty acids in the pulp oil and the relatively

high proportion of C18 fatty acids in the seed oil.

Seabuckthorn offers two possibilities for oil extraction. Pulp oil exists in the juice

pulp and is isolated as a cream layer by centrifugal technology. The usual methods for

manufacturing oil commercially require countercurrent (usually) extraction of the oil

bearing material, seed or pulp, with an organic solvent, commonly hexane. Increasingly,

consumers are demanding fewer residues in their foods. Newer extraction techniques such

as supercritical fluid extraction (SCE) especially carbon dioxide under high pressure can be

used to reduce oil residues. Sea buckthorn oil may be a secondary product since it is

specialty oil used in medicine, as a nutraceutical supplement, and in cosmetics (Beveridge

et al. 1999).

2.6.3 Phytosterols

Phytosterols are plant sterols with structures related to cholesterol and which are

capable of lowering plasma cholesterol on consumption by humans. Elevated blood

cholesterol is one of the well established risk factors for coronary heart disease and

lowering this indicator can presumably impact heart disease incidence. Phytosterols are the

major constituents of the un-saponifiable fraction of sea buckthorn oils. The major

phytosterol in sea buckthorn oil is sitosterol (β-sitosterol), with 5-avenasterol second in

quantitative importance. Other phytosterols are present in relatively minor quantities. The

total quantity of phytosterol is quite high in sea buckthorn and may exceed soybean oil by

4–20 times. It was reported that the total sterol content, varied between subspecies and

collection sites, in the seeds, fresh pulp/peel, and the whole berries were 1200–1800, 240–

400, and 340–520 mg/kg respectively (Yang et al. 2001). Clearly, as a source of dietary

sterol, SBT is of worthy to be used.

2.6.4 Pigment

A pigment termed ―sea buckthorn yellow‖ can be extracted from sea buckthorn

waste material. The waste material could be the press cake remaining after juice extraction

or the sediments remaining after centrifugation. In one process the pigment is extracted

with low concentrations of alcohol (Liu et al., 1989) after concentrating the suspension to

11°–13° Brix. The waste material is spray dried to yield a yellow powder. It not only

contains flavones but also, carotene and vitamin E. Supercritical CO2 has also been used to

extract a yellow coloring material from sea buckthorn waste. Pressure had the greatest

influence on extraction with yields increasing with extraction pressure. A yield of 64 per

cent total carotenoids was achieved under processing conditions of 60 MPA, 85°C.

2.6.5 Teas

Sea buckthorn leaves contain nutrients and bioactive substances. These include

flavonoids (Chen et al., 1991), carotenoids, free and esterified sterols, triterpenols, and

isoprenols (Goncharova and Glushenkova 1996). Numerous products can be made from

the air dried leaves including teas and tea powders.

2.6.6 Animal feeds

One potentially large market for sea buckthorn, are nutraceutical products for

animals. The large volume of ―waste‖ material from sea buckthorn, such as leaves, fruit,

pulp, and seed residues from juice and oil extraction, could be developed into a value-

added product. Sea buckthorn leaves contain approximately 15 per cent protein and berry

and seed residues still contain valuable chemical substances at low concentrations.

2.7 CONSTITUENTS OF SEABUCKTHORN

Seabuckthorn-the golden bush has the potential nutrient that was being exploited.

The constituents of Seabuckthorn per 100 gms of fresh berries including Vitamin C, E,

Folic acid and other vitamins can be tabulated as follows:

SL Constituents of Seabuckthorn Amount (per 100 grams fresh

berries)

1. Vitamin C 200-1500 mg (typical amount:

600 mg)

2. Vitamin E (mixed tocopherols) Up to 180 mg (equal to about

270 IU)

3. Folic acid Up to 80 mcg

4. Carotenoids, including beta carotene, lycopene,

zeaxanthine; these contribute the yellow-orange-

red colors of the fruit

30-40 mg

5. Fatty acids (oils); the main unsaturated fatty acids

are oleic acid (omega-9), palmitoleic acid (omega-

7), palmitic acid and linoleic acid (omega-6), and

linolenic acid (omega-3); there are also saturated

oils and sterols (mainly β-sitosterol)

6-11% (3-5% in fruit pulp, 8-

18% in seed); fatty acid

composition and total oil

content vary with subspecies

6. Organic acids other than ascorbic (e.g. quinic acid,

malic acid; ingredients similar to those found in

cranberries)

Quantity not determined;

expressed juice has pH of 2.7-

3.3

7. Flavonoids (e.g. mainly isorhamnetin, quercetin

glycosides, and kaempferol; these are the same

flavonoids as found in Ginkgo biloba.

100-1000 mg (0.1% to 1.0%)

2.8 FEEDING SEABUCKTHORN LEAVES AND CAKE TO ANIMALS AND

POULTRY

The fruit residue of SBT is quite rich in protein, fat, amino acids, vitamin C and fat

soluble vitamin contents as high as 426-503 mg/100 g has been reported in SBT foliage

(Garnovich 1980).The long term feeding with these supplementary additives promoted

growth and improved immunity in animals (Xuchuan et al. 1989).

In a study carried out on the leaves yield in a young stand of SBT growing on river

side in Lahaul valley, dry temperate Himalayas, it was found that fresh biomass of leaves

increased from 17 g/plant to 367g in plants of 132 and 350 cm heights respectively, where

as percentage of leaves to total weight of plant first increased from 6.7 per cent to 10.1 per

cent, then declined to 5.6 per cent (Singh and Dogra, 1996). Thus it is clear after certain

age of plants, there was more biomass accumulation towards woody components. The long

term feeding with these additives promoted growth and improved immunity of animals

(Xuchan, 1989).

The foliage leaves and fruits residue of SBT can also be utilized as supplementary

feed to the livestock and poultry. The fruit residue is quite rich in protein, fat, amino acids,

vitamin C and fat soluble vitamin contents as high as 426-503 mg/100 g has been reported

in SBT foliage (Garnovich, 1980).The long term feeding with these supplementary

additives promoted growth and improved immunity in animals (Xuchuan, 1989). These

results are supported by the experiences of the local herdsmen. In northern Ganehu

provience, a large area is covered by SBT foliage, which fattens their livestock (Rongsen,

1994). Rongsen (1991) found that all the species of SBT were quite rich in protein. Among

them, H. rhamnoides sp.gyantsensis contained the highest amount of crude protein 22.9

percent and fat 6.1 per cent whereas, H. neurocarpa had the lowest amount of CP 11.5 per

cent and fat 3.7 per cent.

Zhanmong (1992) compared the productivity of SBT with fodder shrubs and

grasses and concluded that growing of SBT was more beneficial than other species of the

fodders. In northern Ganehu provience, a large area is covered by SBT foliage, which

fattens their livestock (Rongsen 1994). Singh (1994) has published a report on arboreal

SBT. Singh (1995) has also evaluated the utilization, biomass and nutritional value of the

seabuckthorn available in the dry temperate Himalayas.

The Seabuckthorn cake also contains a wide range of minerals, which are optimal

for ideal feed species. Thus the cake of SBT leaves is quite rich in biologically active

nutrients and provides high energy, revealing the significance of SBT as a quality feed for

the livestock (Solonenko et al.,1993).

Singh (1994) has published a report on arboreal SBT. Singh, (1995) has also

evaluated the utilization, biomass and nutritional value of the SBT available in the dry

temperate Himalayas. Tiwari and Singh (2001) have reported the biomass production and

nutritional values of SBT fruit and seed. The crude protein values of exotic (22.3 per cent)

and local (22.8 per cent) SBT leaves are as much higher as compared to that of 11.5- 19.3

per cent in different Chinese SBT species (Rongsen et al., 1998).

Singh (1998) stated that due to its multilateral potentialities and utilities in

ecological and economic aspects it may be called as wonder plant of the dry temperate

Himalayas. Its importance is mentioned in the writings of an ancient Greek scholar such as

Discorid and Theophrastus. Wherein, SBT was known as a beneficial dietary supplement

for domestic animals and is equally liked by beers, birds etc.

A growth trial was conducted in 8 calves of about 3 months of age divided them in

four groups in a switch over design. They were fed four test diets consisting of setaria

grass + calf grower ration (T1), setaria grass + 25 per cent CP of calf grower ration replace

with the CP of seabuckthorn leaves (T2), setaria grass + 50 per cent CP of calf grower

ration replace with the CP of seabuckthorn leaves (T3), setaria grass + 75 per cent CP of

calf grower ration replace with the CP of seabuckthorn leaves (T4). At the end of the 90

days study the gain (g/d) found was 105.3, 140.0, 168.8 and 190.0 in T1, T2, T3 and T4

treatment groups respectively. The maximum weight gain was found in T4 and minimum in

the T1 group. The dry matter intake was found to be maximum in T1 and minimum in T4

treatment group. Similarly the dry matter intake per cent was maximum in the T1 and

minimum in the T4 treatment group. It showed the maximum gain at the lowest DM intake

and where maximum replacement of CP was done with the Seabuckthorn leaves CP. All

the SBT leaves group have shown more gain in weight. This showed that the calf grower

ration CP can be replaced with any levels level of CP of Seabuckthorn leaves (Sharma,

2007).

Besides browsing on the foliage, leaves and fruit residue can also be utilized as

supplementary feed to the livestock and poultry. A number of studies have been carried out

to determine the effects of SBT leaves and residues on the livestock and poultry at

traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine Institute and Chinese Academy of Agricultural

Science, Lanzhou (Singh and Sharma, 2008).

Literature has been reviewed for the nutritional value of foliage, effect on growth

and digestibility of animals, along with productivity of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae

rhamnoides) forests and impact on rural economy. The leaves of SBT are highly rich in

crude protein (17-23 per cent), fat (3-9 per cent), vitamin C (426-503 mg /100g,) amino

acids and minerals which are comparable to quality feed like clover and alfalfa, which

make SBT an ideal additive to fodder of the livestock. Fodder of SBT stimulated the

growth and milk production in animals. Body weight value in pigs increased from 9.4

to21.3 per cent. Milk production in goats increased by 6.2- 6.8 per cent, where as egg

production by hen increased by 8.7-13.3 per cent. However, its value and benefits as high

quality supplements to low quality roughages in ruminant feeding systems have neither

been widely distributed nor fully exploited (Singh and Sharma, 2008).

Studies also revealed that exploitation and utilization of SBT forest is of great

economic importance. With annual yield of 3 to 5 tons of leaves from tender branches per

hectare from man- made and natural forest respectively, the utilization rate of about 50 per

cent with an output of 4 tons. If a sheep unit requires 10 kg of grass per day or 2 tons per

year, the SBT can sustain 1.0 million sheep units (Singh and Sharma, 2008).

It was found that feeding on supplementary SBT leaves, pigs increased their weight

by 9.4- 21.3 per cent and goats raised their milk output by 6.2- 6.8 per cent. Supplementary

SBT leaves, fruit and seed residues in poultry diets resulted in 8.7-13.3 per cent increase in

egg laying output (Singh and Sharma, 2008).

Sharma et al. (2009) has revealed the fodder values of Seabuckthorn leaves in

detail and future strategies for feeding of SBT and its industrial wastes to the animals.

Hippophae is wonderful plant for livestock and is particularly enjoyed by sheep, goat, and

camels. In the Nubra valley of Leh district, large number of semi- wild Bactrian Camels

survives largely on Seabuckthorn and their health is significantly better than the domestic

ones (Gurmet, 2008).

Ambatkar (2009) replaced the crude protein of the basal diet of poultry broilers at

3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 per cent levels of protein with the SBT leaves. The leaves were accepted

by the poultry birds at all the offered levels. The broilers receiving 3 per cent and 6 per

cent SBT leaves, followed by those receiving 9 per cent Seabuckthorn leaves showed

significantly better performance, hence, the SBT leaves could be included in the diet of

broilers. Ramasamy (2009) has also reported that SBT berries when used @ 400 ppm and

800 ppm significantly improved the growth performance, immune response,

histopathological, haematological, haematobiochemical parameters and liver peroxidation

status in liver and RBCs.

2.9 POULTRY MEAT AND EGG PRODUCTION

2.9.1 Meat Production (Broiler)

Hariharan and Kalathevan (1993) experimented adampan (Ipomoea pea caprae)

leaf meal as a protein substitute for coconut meal in broiler ration, and they observed that

coconut meal was partially replaced by 3 or 5 per cent adampan (Ipomoea sp.) leaf meal in

a diet fed to 150 day old fowls in a 3 week experiment. The adampan meal had no effect on

feed intake, live weight gain or feed conversion.

Natanman and Chandrasekaran (1996) carried out experiment on Subabul leaf meal

(Lucaena leucocephala) as a protein supplement for broilers, and they found that feed

conversion efficiency of chicks of control and 5 per cent leaf meal diet was better than that

of chicks fed 10 per cent leaf meal. Teguia et al. (1997) studied the effects of replacement

of maize with dried leaves of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and perennial peanuts

(Arachis glabrata Benth) on the growth performance of finishing broilers, where they

found that replacement of maize 200 g or 300 g/kg was replaced with sweet potato leaves

or perennial groundnut leaves. Replacement of maize with sweet potato leaves decreased

(P<0.05) live weight gain. Perennial groundnut leaves had the same adverse effect on live

weight gain when it replaced maize 300 g/kg; however, when used at 200 g/kg, live weight

gain was similar to that observed in the control. Substitution of maize 300 g/kg by sweet

potato leaves or perennial groundnuts decreased (P<0.05) feed conversion efficiency. The

results suggest that the replacement of maize in broiler diets with sweet potato or

groundnut leaf meal is not technically justified.

Nutritive value and utilization of raw and processed Avisa (Sesbania grandiflora)

leaf meal in broilers was studied by Radhakrishnaiah et al. (1997) and they concluded that

up to 2 per cent unprocessed and 4 per cent processed Sesbania leaf meal may be included

in the diets of chickens without affecting performance.

Dietary introduction of Telfairia occidentalis leaf meal (TOLM) was at graduated

levels of 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 per cent. Birds kept on 15 per cent TOLM dietary inclusion

levels had the highest average weight gain. Results of the study suggest that inclusion

levels of about 15 per cent TOLM in broiler starter diets may be nutritionally beneficial in

poultry feeding and subsequently reduce the use of the expensive animal protein sources in

practical feed formulation (Fasuyi and Nonyerem, 2007).

A trial was conducted to study the effect of cassava leaf meal (CLM) in diets on the

productive performance of broilers. The results suggest that is possible to use up to 7.5 per

cent of CLM in the diets of broilers without affecting productive parameters, allowing a

saving in the total feeding cost. These parameters were similar to the broilers production

average in Venezuela (Trompiz et al., 2007).

An experiment was conducted by Atteh et al. (2008) in which male Cobb broiler

chicks were fed a basal broiler diet without antibiotic but with performance enhancing

enzyme mix (positive control), a basal diet without antibiotic and enzymes (negative

control), or diets in which 2 per cent of the negative control diet was replaced with either

dried ground stevia leaves or 130 ppm pure stevioside during 2 week starter and 2 week

grower periods. There was no significant effect of the treatments on feed intake during the

starter period but birds fed diet supplemented with stevia leaves and stevioside consumed

more feed (P< 0.05) than those fed the positive control diet during the grower period.

Weight gain by birds fed the positive control and stevioside diets was higher (P < 0.05)

than those fed other diets only during the starter period. Feed/gain ratio of birds fed the

positive control and stevioside diets was superior (P< 0.05) to others. There was no effect

of the treatments on nutrient retention and water content of the excreta. It is concluded that

dietary enzyme growth promoters are beneficial to the broilers only during the starter stage

and that inclusion of stevia leaves or stevioside has no beneficial effect on the performance

of broilers.

Carcass and meat from a flock of 240 broiler chicks in which 15 per cent of dietary

maize was replaced with Panicum maximum leaf meal with or without Roxazyme-G and

Ronozyme-P supplementation at 100 and 200 mg/kg was assessed for pigmentation, taste,

water and lipid contents and oxidative stability during refrigerated storage. It was

concluded that partial substitution of maize with Panicum maximum with or without

enzyme supplementation had no adverse effects on meat quality (Oluwasola et al., 2008).

2.9.2 Egg Production

Mulberry leaf in the feed increased vitamin K1 in yolk, but did not have an effect

on the content of gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA), which plays a role of reducing

human blood pressure (Machii 1990). There was no significant difference in cholesterol

content of egg yolk. However, lipid peroxide content in yolk significantly decreased after

seven weeks of feeding mulberry leaves. It is known that lipid peroxide would be closely

related to active oxygen species, which have a role in causing diseases.

Groundnut cake (GNC) was replaced by decorticated de-oiled double toasted

cottonseed cake (DDDTCSC) at 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 per cent (w/w) on an iso-

nitrogenous, iso-energetic basis in layer rations in experiments 1 and 2. The experiments

were conducted separately for 5 x 28-day periods. The hen-day egg production, feed

intake, feed efficiency, body weight, egg weight, shell thickness, albumen index, yolk

index, yolk color, hemoglobin, total serum proteins and serum alkaline phosphatase were

not significantly affected in either experiment. DDDTCSC can safely replace groundnut

cake up to 75 and 100per cent on w/w and iso-nitrogenous, iso-energetic basis

respectively, in terms of profit over feed cost compared with other diets (Reddy et al.,

1999).

A feeding trial was conducted to study the nutritive value of sun-dried gliricidia

leaf meal (GLM) using laying hens. The inclusion of GLM in layer diets significantly

(P<0.05) reduced feed consumption in a linear fashion. Egg production, body weight

changes, and feed conversion efficiency which worsened significantly at 10 and 15 per

cent GLM levels. Egg quality values showed no significant differences in terms of egg

weight, Haugh unit and shell thickness while yolk index increased (P<0.05) with GLM and

was found to be best at 10 and 15 per cent GLM. Yolk color was positively enhanced at all

levels of GLM. Proportionally, egg membrane values were lower (P<0.05) on GLM diets

compared to the control while the egg yolk, albumen and shell were not affected. Boiling

of egg resulted in lighter yolk and albumen but heavier shell and membrane with a 43 per

cent reduction (P<0.05) in egg yolk coloration. At dietary levels more than 5 per cent,

GLM depressed feed intake and egg production (Odunsi et al., 2002).

Leaves of Leucaena leucocephala - a protein rich multi-purpose leguminous plant

as feed supplement in laying hens was evaluated at 50, 100 and 200 g/kg (5, 10 and 20 per

cent) supplementation levels. Leucaena supplementation significantly (P<0.01) decreased

weekly average daily egg lay and progressively reduced cumulative weekly average daily

egg lay to 88.2, 68.7 and 53.4 per cent for 5, 10 and 20 per cent supplementation levels

respectively. There was an inverse relationship between level of L. leucocephala

supplementation and weekly average daily egg lay (r = - 0.99) which highly correlated

with the crude fiber content of the diets (r =0.94). Size and specific gravity of eggs were

not significantly affected by the different levels of Leucaena supplementation. These

results suggest that L. leucocephala leaves may only be useful as feed supplement in egg

laying hens at low levels of supplementation (Atawodi et al., 2003).

An experiment was conducted by Deo et al. (2004) involving Frizzle x CARI-red

hens (84) to evaluate dietary protein and limiting amino acid levels for optimum egg

production during 22-34 weeks of age. Four dietary treatments viz. 18, 16, 14 and 12per

cent protein with varying levels of amino acids fed to frizzle (10) and normal feathered

hens (11) with a total of 12 hens per treatment. Overall hen-day production was

significantly (P<0.01) higher in hens fed 18 per cent (72.8 per cent) and 14 per cent (69.6

per cent) in comparison to those fed 12 per cent CP (57.0 per cent). Daily feed intake, feed

conversion efficiency, egg-weight and egg quality did not differ significantly due to

different dietary protein levels. However net feed conversion efficiency was significantly

(P<0.01) depressed in hen fed 12 per cent CP. Egg production or feed conversion

efficiency was not influenced due to feather patter. The study indicated that 14 per cent CP

with 0.68 per cent lysine, 0.32 per cent methionine and 0.62 per cent methionine+cystine

in diet would be optimum for maximum egg production.

An experiment was conducted to determine the effect of hedge lucerne meal on the

laying performance and egg quality of laying hens. The results demonstrated that feeding 8

per cent hedge Lucerne meal decreased egg production. No significant differences among

the dietary treatments were found in feed intake, body weight gain, egg weight, egg mass,

egg composition and general health of the laying hens (Wisitiporn and Buakeeree, 2005).

A study was conducted by Chauhan et al. (2007) on a sample size of 233 fertile

eggs of IC-3, medium body size broiler populations aged between 32 to 35 weeks,

obtained through natural mating with the purpose of improving efficiency of ‗Double

Window Ex-vivo Chick Embryo Culture System at Phase II and III. Consequently, 134

eggs from the same strain were used as control. Out of 233 eggs set, 97 chicks were

hatched out and out of 134 control eggs, 112 chicks came out on 22nd day. Hatching

observations were done in both the groups. Hatching observation with respect to yolk sac,

allantoic fluid, urates, beak, orientation of embryo, feet-leg visibility, membrane

penetration, breathing and activity of embryos in ex-vivo embryo culture system were

recorded. The observations were studied in terms of pipped (pipped but could not hatch),

Hatched (total number of hatch out) and Navel (connected/detached) in control group. The

results concluded that for successful hatching of embryos in culture system, the orientation

of embryos should be on left position, visibility of right feet/legs, horizontal position of

beak, chorioallantoic membrane and yolk sac are becoming attached, climax activity and

dry allantoic fluid. These optimum conditions with relation of position of embryo in

embryo culture system should be maximized through suitable modifications in the

procedure for healthy hatching.

Chatterjee et al. (2008) conducted an experiment with leghorn birds. The data on

514, 609, 513 and 530 progeny of IWH, IWI, IWK and control populations of White

Leghorn for different economic traits were analyzed. The effect of hatch was significant

for most of the traits in different populations studied. The average age at sexual maturity

was lowest (146.13 days) in IWK. There was no significant difference in 20 week body

weight. The body weight at 40 weeks of age was significantly higher in IWK and control

populations than IWH and IWI strains. The early egg weights (EW28 and EW40) and egg

mass (EM40) were highest in IWK, while part period egg production (EN40) was highest

in IWH. The heritability of age at sexual maturity from sire, dam and sire + dam

component of variance was low to moderate in IWH, IWK and control populations, while

in IWI strain, it was moderate. The heritability estimates of body weight at 20 and 40

weeks of age (from different components) were low in IWH strain, while in other

populations, these estimates were moderate to high. The heritability of EW28 from sire

component variance was moderate to high in different populations, while the heritability of

EW40 from sire component was high in all the 4 populations. The heritability of part

period egg production (EN40) and egg mass (EM40) was low in IWH and IWI strains and

low to moderate in IWK and control populations. The genetic and phenotypic correlations

between different combinations of traits varied in direction and magnitude in different

populations. There were highly positive genetic and phenotypic correlations between

EW28 and EW40 and between egg mass with its component traits. However, there was

negative genetic correlation between egg weight and part period egg number.

An experiment was conducted by Moorthy and Viswanathan (2009) to study the

effect of extracted coconut meal (ECM) on egg production performance of one hundred

and eighty single comb white leghorn (SCWL) layers from 21 to 52 weeks. These birds

were randomly grouped into five treatment with three replicates of twelve birds each. The

treatment groups considered of 0(T1), 5 (T2), 10 (T3), 15 (T4) and 20 per cent (T5)

coconut meal in the layer diet. No significant difference was observed in overall mean feed

consumption, feed conversion ration and livability during the experimental period. Both

overall hen housed and hen day production significantly (P<0.05) reduction in T3

compared to other treatment groups. The overall mean per cent broken eggs were

significantly (P<0.05) high in T4 and T5 compared to control group. Based upon this

study, it is recommended that the coconut meal can be included up to 10 per cent in layer

ration for better egg production.

2.9.3 Quality Traits of Egg

Ketelaere et al. (2002) reported that Egg shell quality was compared in 6 different

strains of laying hens. Three strains were commercial; the three others were experimental.

Four different variables describing the strength of egg shells were investigated. Three of

them were the classical ones egg shell thickness, shell stiffness measured during quasi-

static compression and breaking force. Dynamic stiffness, introduced by some authors, was

the 4th. The fact that this measurement is dynamic could be helpful in genetic selection for

egg shell breakage, because forces applied to the egg in practice are dynamic, rather than

static. Hisex White hens produce eggs with the strongest egg shell, in terms of all 4 egg

shell variables. However, their shell quality in terms of breaking force did not remain

constant over the laying period, unlike 4 other strains. All strains showed a decline in

quasi-static stiffness over time. The egg shell thickness of three strains showed a decline

over time. Dynamic stiffness remained constant or improved in all strain. All variables

describing the mechanical egg shell strength gave different information.

Monira et al. (2003) stated that the external and internal qualities of 80 fresh eggs

from each Barred Plymouth Rock (BPR), White Leg horn (WLH), Rhode Island Red (RIR)

and White Rock (WR) layers were ascertained in one, seven, fourteen and twenty-one days

holding periods. Egg weight was highest in WLH (58.38 g), intermediate in BPR (56.3g)

and RIR (55.95g) and lowest in WR (59.60g). Egg length was highest in WLH (5.91 cm),

intermediate in BPR (5.86 cm) and RIR (5.71 cm) and lowest in WR (5.62 cm). Egg width

was highest in WLH (4.21 cm), intermediate in BPR and WR (4.16 cm) and lowest in RIR

(4.13 cm). Shape index was highest in WR (74.10), intermediate in RIR (72.32) and WLH

(71.34) and lowest in BPR (71.14). Breaking strength was highest in WLH egg (3.38

kg/cm), intermediate in RIR (3.31 kg/cm) and BPR (2.61kg/cm) and lowest in WR (2.19

kg/cm) egg. Albumen height of WR, WLH, BPR and RIR egg was 4.66, 4.33, 4.19 and

3.60 mm respectively. Haugh unit was highest in WR (58.68), intermediate in WLH

(45.81) and BPR (54.20) and lowest in RIR (45.81). Shell thickness was highest in WLH

and RIR (0.35 mm), intermediate in WR (0.32 mm) and lowest in BPR (0.31 mm). There

were significant difference among the breeds and holding period for all the egg quality

traits except egg width. Breed and holding period interactions were significant for egg

length, shape index, albumen height and Haugh unit but not for other traits. The egg

weight, egg length, egg width, albumen height and Haugh unit of all breeds were higher in

fresh egg that means one days egg but breaking strength and shell thickness were higher in

seven days holding period eggs than the other period eggs. The egg weight, egg length, egg

width, breaking strength performance is superior in White Leghorn over other breeds.

Shape index and albumen height is better in White Rock than other breeds.

Anderson et al (2004) reported that the effect of long term genetic selection on shell

characteristics was determined by analyzing eggs acquired from Agriculture Canada:

Ottawa Control Strain 5, from a 1950 base population; 7, from a 1959 population; and 10,

from a 1972 population. H&N "Nick Chick" 1993 commercial strain was also included

because it shares genetic ancestry with the three historic strains. Eggs were collected

beginning at 28 wk of age, then every 4 wk through the end of the study at 86 wk of the

laying cycle and egg weight, egg height, egg width, shell weight, shell thickness, egg

specific gravity, and shell breaking force measured. The relationship of egg shape and

weight as factors affecting shell strength were also investigated. Significant differences (P

< 0.05) were found between strains for egg shape and a progressive increase in weight and

surface area of eggs from the 1950 strain to the current strain. The shape index indicates

that the current strain has increased egg size with the greatest increase seen in egg width.

The mean breaking force of eggs from the current strain was higher (P< 0.05) than the

other strain‘s eggs with no strain differences in percent shell weight, shell thickness, or

specific gravity. A decline in breaking force, percent shell weight, and specific gravity was

observed among all the strains over the production period. The results from this study

suggest that genetic selection has produced larger eggs that are rounder in shape.

Khan et al. (2004) conducted an experiment to know the quality of eggs of different

genotypes of chickens under semi-scavenging system. Egg weight and quality of egg such

as shape index, egg shell thickness, yolk index, yolk and albumin weight were studied. The

large size with best quality of eggs laid by Nera followed by Sonali, RIR(m)xHilly (f) and

Hilly (m)x Fay (f) crossbred. The weight of egg varied from 42-55 gm in four genotypes

and found there was significant difference among genotypes. In case of shell thickness, it

was significantly higher in Nera (38.0mm) and there was no significant differences found

among the other 3 genotypes. Shape index, yolk index, albumin height and Haugh unit was

significantly differ of Nera with other genotypes (0.824 Vs 0.72, 0.727 Vs 0.374, 7.38 Vs

5.10 cm 86.25±1.84 Vs 75.78) respectively and there were no significant differences were

found among the other three genotypes.

Arendt (2005) calculated various shell properties, water vapor loss, and hatching

success of eggs of the Pearly-eyed Thrasher (Margarops fuscatus) using measurements

obtained during a long-term study in the Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico. Empirical

results were comparable to standard reference formulae, demonstrating that published

formulae can be used with confidence by field biologists studying this and other passerine

birds laying prolate spheroid shaped eggs. Shell mass averaged 0.66 g and shell thickness

averaged 0.12 mm. Egg surface area averaged 19.31 cm2 (range =18.4-20.34 cm

2) as

derived from published allometric relationships. Observed and derived eggshell densities

were 2.06 g/cm3 and 2.05 g/cm

3 respectively. Average egg density was 1.32 g/ cm

3. Water

vapor flux resulted in an average egg-mass loss of 0.087 g each day, culminating in a 1.22-

g reduction over the entire 14-d incubation period. Based on a fresh egg mass of 8.02 g,

3,009 fertile eggs lost 15.2 per cent of their initial mass. Whereas the total loss of egg mass

(in grams) was about the same for all eggs in the laying sequence, smaller (3rd—and 4th-

laid) eggs lost a higher percentage of total mass than did the larger ones (1st—and 2nd-

laid). There were inter-breeding season differences in mass (= water) loss. The rate of daily

water loss increased significantly as the incubation period progressed. The pattern of

increase was intermediate between that of small passerines and typical non-passerine

species. Hatching success declined throughout the study due to environmental and

biological factors.

Jafari et al. (2006) stated that in an experiment with 288 laying hens from a

commercial strain (Hy-line W36), the effect of partial and total replacement of soybean

meal, corn grain, wheat grain and wheat bran with dried tomato pulp (DTP) on

performance and egg quality was conducted. In the 12 week experiment, hens (27 to 38

weeks of age) were allocated to four dietary treatments being: DTP0, DTP50, DTP100 and

DTP150 of 72 birds each, and received a diet ad-lib. The diet for DTP0 treatment had no

DTP (control), while those for treatments DTP50, DTP100 and DTP150 included 50, 100

and 150 kg/T of DTP respectively. Inclusion of DTP at levels up to 100 kg/t in diets of

laying hens increased egg production and egg mass by 2.7 per cent and 4.1 per cent

respectively, compared to the control and resulted in similar traits, relative to final BW,

egg weight, daily feed consumption, egg shell weight, egg shell thickness, Haugh units and

yolk color. However, inclusion of DTP at higher level (150 kg/t of diet) decreased egg

production and egg mass by 3.6 per cent and 3.0 per cent respectively and increased feed

efficiency by 2.9 per cent compared to the control. Thus, DTP can be used as an alternative

feedstuff in laying hen diets, at inclusion levels up to 100 kg/t without negative effects on

performance and egg quality.

A study was conducted by Simsek and Kilic (2006) to examine effects of hen age

and cage density on egg production and egg quality characteristics. In this experiment at

higher environmental temperatures 25 wk old Isa Brown hens were placed in 40 x 50 x 40

cm cages at the rate of four and five hens per cage. Eggs were collected once a week in all

cages until the end of study to determine characteristics of egg quality. It was determined

that hen age had significantly reduced the feed consumption (P<0.05), and improved the

percentage hen day egg production and feed efficiency (P<0.01). Characteristics of egg

quality such as shell thickness, albumen index and Haugh unit were significantly affected

by age of hen (P0.01). Hens at higher cage density level had lower percentage hen‐ day

egg production than hens at lower cage density level (P<0.05). Effects of cage density on

characteristics of egg quality were non significant.

Alkan et al (2008) conducted a research with eggs of Japanese quails maintained in

cages at the research unit in Turkey. Two hundred and forty eggs selected randomly. Egg

weight (g), egg length (mm), egg width (mm), egg shell weight (g) and egg shell thickness

(mm) were measured. The egg weight was better predictable from egg width and egg

length. Following equation was developed to predict egg weight from egg width and

length. Y=-21.658+0.828*(X1)+0.373*(X2). Where, Y=predicted egg shell weight, X1=egg

width, X2=egg length. Following equation was developed for predicting eggshell weight

from egg weight, width and length. Y=0.573+0.01532*(X3)+0.0238*(X4). Where,

Y=predicted egg shell weight, X3=egg length and X4=egg width. Egg shape index was

predictable with sufficient accuracy from egg length and width and following equation was

developed to predict it; Y=0.79+0.0307*(X5)-0.02423*(X6). Where, Y=predicted egg

shape index, X5=egg width, X6=egg length. Egg shell surface area was better predictable

from egg weight, width and length. So, following equation was developed for predicting

egg shell surface area. Y=10.561-0.178*(X7)-0.045*(X8)+1.535*(X9). Where,

Y=predictable egg shell surface area, X7= egg width, X8=egg length, X9=egg weight.

Dudusola (2009) mentioned that Quality parameters of Japanese quail eggs, as

affected by storage method and length in 21days, were assessed using 140 eggs collected

from 7-week old birds. Eggs were stored using refrigeration, oiling, black polythene bag or

on a tray at room temperature (30ºC) as a control. This study determines the best storage

condition and optimum storage length storage for quail eggs. Egg quality parameters

measured included egg weight, shell weight, yolk height, albumen height, yolk index,

Haugh unit and egg weight loss. Effects on the chemical composition of eggs were

determined with proximate analysis. Data were analyzed using analysis of variance

(ANOVA) with storage method and duration as the two main effects. There were

progressive increases in weight losses with increased length of storage for all storage

methods. Haugh units decreased progressively per storage method as length of storage

increased (P< 0.05). Control and refrigeration methods do not differ significantly in all

proximate composition except for protein. There were significant differences (P< 0.05) in

length of storage for all proximate composition. Eggs maintained desired internal quality

when stored for 4 days at room temperature. Refrigeration could be used for storage of

eggs up to 7 days; where it is unavailable oiling could be used.

A study was conducted by de Witt et al. (2009) to determine the influence of

different particle size limestone in layer diets on egg production and eggshell quality

during the later stages of egg production (>54 weeks of age). Calcitic limestone (360 g

Ca/kg), consisting of small (<1.0 mm), medium (1.0 - 2.0 mm) and large (2.0 - 3.8 mm)

particles were obtained from a specific South African source that is extensively used in

poultry diets iso-energetic (14.32 MJ AME/kg DM) and iso-nitrogenous (172.01 g CP/kg

DM) diets with a dietary Ca content of 39.95 g Ca/kg DM were used. Sixty nine,

individual caged Lohmann-Silver pullets, 17 weeks of age, were randomly allocated to the

three treatments (n = 23) for the determination of various egg production and eggshell

quality characteristics. Egg production and eggshell quality data recorded on individual

basis at 54, 58, 64 and 70 weeks of age were pooled to calculate and statistical analysed

parameter means for the late production period. Different limestone particle sizes had no

effect on any of the tested egg production and eggshell quality parameters. These results

suggested that larger particles limestone are not necessarily essential to provide sufficient

Ca++

to laying hens for egg production and eggshell quality at end-of-lay, provided that the

dietary Ca content satisfies the requirements of the laying hen.

Yang et al (2009) stated that Experiments were conducted to evaluate the relation

between eggshell colors and egg quality as well as shell ultra structure in Yangzhou

chicken. A total of 120 eggs on the day of lay of New Yangzhou chickens were selected.

The eggshell color, shape index, shell strength, shell thickness, egg weight, albumen

weight, yolk weight, shell weight, yolk color, calcium content of shell, albumen and yolk

were measured. Then the ultra structure of transect and outer shell was observed through

scan electron microscopy. The results showed that the tenderness of shell strength and

shell thickness reduced as the shell color became shallow, however the pores in the shell

and shape index increased. There were significant correlations between shell color and

shell strength, shell thickness, and shell weight (P < 0.05). There were no distinct

correlations between shell color and egg weight, albumen weight, yolk weight, Haugh unit,

yolk color, calcium content in albumen and yolk. It was concluded that some egg quality

traits such as shell strength, shell thickness, shell weight and shell ultra structure could be

assessed through the shell color.

Dudusola (2010) compared the quality characteristics and proximate composition

of the eggs of quail and guinea fowl. The eggs of the two species had an oval conical shape

with blunt and pointed ends. The shape indices of both the eggs had no statistical

difference. As very well apparent, guinea fowl eggs (46.65g) were much heavy than the

Quail eggs (10.34g). Proportion of yolk to total egg weight was higher in quail (31.4 per

cent) than guinea fowl (30.6 per cent). Similarly, albumen content was higher in quail

(61.2 per cent) than guinea fowl (55.9 per cent), however the ratio of yolk to albumen was

higher in guinea fowl (0.55) than quail (0.52). The portion of shell to the total egg weight

was higher in guinea fowl (13.5 per cent) than in quail (7.3 per cent). Similarly, the guinea

fowl eggs showed much thicker shell (462.8μm) as compared to quail egg (174.8 μm). The

moisture content, crude protein, crude fat and crude ash of whole eggs were 74.47 per cent,

12.77 per cent, 10.83 per cent and 1.10 per cent for guinea fowl egg and 74.26 per cent,

11.98 per cent, 11.91 per cent and 1.04 per cent for quail eggs respectively, with no

statistical difference (P>0.05) between species. No species difference in the proximate

composition of albumen and yolk was found except in the crude ash content of albumen

which was which was significantly higher in quail egg.

2.10 ANIMAL PRODUCTION

2.10.1 Growth Performances

Voluntary dry matter intake in ruminants determines the total energy consumption.

Rahman et al. (1998) reported that crossbred calves fed on identical diets supplemented

with probiotics mixture showed higher total DM intake. If diet contains higher proportion

of concentrates, then voluntary feed intake of roughage is reduced (Brent et al., 1961;

Woods and Rhodes, 1962; Donefer et al., 1963; Montgomery and Baumgardt, 1965). A

decrease in DM intake was observed by increasing the level of maize in the diet of

Holstein heifers and lamb (Montgomery and Baumgardt, 1965). Wagner et al. (1990)

studied the effect of supplementing corn or wheat based diet with yeast culture (1 g/kg

DM) on DM intake and weight gain using 48 Holstein calves at approximately 3 weeks of

age. The feed intake, weight gain and feed efficiency were not affected by supplementing

yeast.

In an experiment by Kumar et al. (2001), fifteen crossbred male calves (10-12

months) were randomly divided into three equal groups of 5 each on body weight basis.

Control group (T1) was fed on groundnut cake based concentrate mixture, whereas, in the

concentrate mixture of groups T2 and T3, protein of groundnut cake was replaced with de-

oiled sunflower cake @ 33 and 66 per cent, respectively. After experimental feeding of

105 days, a metabolism trial of 7 days duration was conducted. Daily body weight gain (g)

in group T1 was highest (533.3) as compared to T2 (503.3) and group T3 (506.7), however,

variations among groups was not significant. Dry matter intake in terms of kg/100 kg body

weight, digestibility co-efficient of nutrients except EE, as well as DCP and TDN did not

differ significantly among the various group. Lower digestibility of EE was observed in

group T3 than that in group T1. All the experimental animals were in positive nitrogen

balance and retention of N (as % intake) remained similar among groups.

A study was taken up by Das and Singh (2004) to assess the effect of replacement

of groundnut cake (GNC) by berseem (Trifolium alexandrium) on performance of calves.

15 crossbred male calves (3-6 m old of 75.6±3.4 kg BW) randomly divided into three

equal groups were offered either wheat straw and GNC in 70:30 ratio (B0), or wheat straw,

GNC and berseem in 55:15:30 ratio (B30) or wheat straw, GNC and berseem in 45:10:45

(B45) ratio on DM basis for 120 days. Wheat straw consumption was low (P<0.01) in B45

than in B0 or B30. DM intake was higher (P<0.01) in B30, followed by B45 and B0.

Digestibility of DM, CF, N balance and daily gain were higher (P<0.05) in group B30 than

in other groups. Body composition, energy and protein utilization efficiency and feed

conversion ratio were not significantly different among the groups; however feed cost per

kg gain was considerably less in group B30. It was concluded that half of the GNC could be

replaced with berseem for the better growth performance.

Three complete feeds viz. Without paddy straw (PS0), 15 per cent paddy straw

(PS15) and 30 per cent (PS30) were evaluated by Burte et al. (2007) on crossbred heifers

((21, divided into 3 equal groups) through a growth trial for 70 days. The DM intake was

3.38, 3.33 and 3.42 kg/100 kg BW. Significantly (P<0.05) higher average daily gain was

observed in complete feed PS15 than PS0 and PS30. The digestibility of nutrients except

NFE was statistically similar in all the groups. All the animals were in positive N, Ca and P

balances. The DCP content was similar in all the treatments, however the TDN was higher

(P<0.05) in PS0 and PS15 than PS30 treatment. The cost of feed was Rs. 3.76, 3.58, 3.60 in

PS0, PS15 and PS30, respectively. The complete diets comprising of 15 per cent paddy straw

(PS15) supplemented with cereal bran, urea, jaggary could support optimum growth in

crossbred heifers.

Tyagi et al. (2008) conducted and experiment with 18 crossbred male calves of

similar age (8-9 months) and body weight (110-190 kg) were distributed into 3 groups of 6

each on the basis of their body weight. The calves in control group (G1) were fed on

concentrate mixture containing groundnut oilcake as a sole protein supplement, which was

replaced by mustard oilcake (Brassica campestris) (G2) and taramira oilcake (Eruca

sativa) (G3) respectively. Wheat straw ad-lib and leguminous fodder (1kg) was fed to all

the calves for 90 days. Gluconapin and glucobrassica napin were the major glucosinolates

of mustard oilcake, whereas, glucoerucin was the major glucosinolate in taramira oilcake.

Total glucosinolates content of concentrate mixtures G1, G2 and G3 was 0, 17.59 and 17.50

mmol/g, respectively. Dry matter intake, nutrient digestibility, nitrogen balance, serum T3

and T4 levels and growth rate of growing calves indicated that protein supplied by

groundnut oilcake in the concentrate mixture can be replaced with mustard or taramira

oilcakes without affecting the growth performance and nutrient digestibility in crossbred

calves. It was concluded that glucosinolates, irrespective of their source, were not harmful

at 17.50 mmol/g level in concentrate mixture for the crossbred calves.

A study conducted by Chaudhary et al. (2008) was conducted to test efficacy of

direct fed microbials (DFM) for the improvement of performance of crossbred cattle calves

reared on the diet devoid of cereal grains. Day-old calves (32) with average body weight of

23 kg, were divided into 4 groups and fed on concentrate mixture to meet 50 per cent dry

matter requirement and green fodder ad-lib. Group 1 served as control. The 100 ml DFM

culture was fed to group 2 (curd, 108 cfu/ ml). The dry matter intake and feed conversion

efficiency were not affected due to supplementation of any of the DFM. Improved body

weight gain in calves by supplementation of all the 3 microbial additives was observed.

The digestibility of nutrients and plane of nutrition was similar in all the 4 groups at 14

weeks and 52 weeks except a significance increase in the digestibility of ether extract and

acid detergent fibers in S. cerevisae fed group at 14 weeks and 52 weeks, respectively.

There was no difference among the groups in the levels of lactic acid, NH3-N, total and

molar proportion of VFAs, ciliate protozoa count and activities of filter paper degrading

enzyme, caroxymethylcellulase, xylanase, alpha-amylase, beta-xylosidase, beta-

glucosidase, alpha-glucosidase and protease at 52 weeks of age. However, microcrystalline

cellulose activity was significantly higher in L. acidophilus fed group. The blood

biochemical characteristics (plasma glucose, serum protein, albumin and globulin) and

immunological status of the calves of all the groups were similar at 52 weeks of age. It is

concluded from the study that long term (from birth to one year of age) feeding of DFM

improved the growth performance of crossbred cattle calves fed diet devoid of cereal

grains.

The studies conducted by Rajkhowa et al. (2008) to find out the efficacy of

different iron preparations (iron dextran, chelated iron and EHb) on the body weight gain

of iron‐ deficient anemic piglets and calves revealed significant increase in the body

weights of all treated piglets and calves in comparison to their respective iron deprived

groups. The study also showed that the decrease in body weight gain in iron deprived

piglets and calves were associated with the fall in blood hemoglobin levels in both the

species.

The study was undertaken by Tiwari et al. (2008) to asses the effect of substituting

concentrate mixture by UMMB in Murrah buffalo. Fifteen rumen fistulated male Murrah

calves (1-11/2 yrs) were divided into 5 groups of 3 each. Group I was fed rice straw alone

with 40 g mineral mixture daily. Group II was provided concentrate mixture to meet the

requirements at maintenance level while in groups III, IV and V concentrate mixture was

replaced by three types Urea Molasses Mineral Block (UMMB) 'Ex', 'C' and 'D' offered

free choice, respectively. Dry matter intake (kg/day) was significantly lower in group I as

compared to other groups due to low palatability of feeds. Non-availability of starch

lowers the production rate of protozoa in group I. Supplementation of nutrients in the form

of UMMB licks increased the protozoa production rates, however, the values were lower

than in group II (concentrate fed). Higher values in the group II (9.1±0.6) were probably

due to the availability of starch from the ingredients which was not sufficiently available

from UMMB. Hence, UMMB supplementation of straw based diets decreased the protozoa

production rates.

Kumar et al. (2008) conducted an experiment with dairy animal. First lactation

records (766) collected from Military Dairy Farm, Meerut, spreading over a period of 21

years i.e. from 1975 to 1995 were utilized to assess the effect of season and period of

calving on various growth, production and reproduction traits of economic importance in

Holstein Friesian x Shahiwal half-bred. The least squares means estimated were

26.92±0.18 kg, 206.70±1.05 kg, 329.73±1079 kg, 381.41±1.67kg, 962.13±6.34 days,

313.34±2.21days and 2871.11± 32.64 litre for birth wt, weight at 12 and 24 months of age,

weight at first calving, age at first calving, first lactation length and first lactation milk

yield respectively. The heritability estimates for corresponding traits were 0.216 ± 0.092,

0.344±0.11, 0.596±0.143, 0.373±0.150, 278±0.101, 0.041±0.064 and 0.353±0.112 for birth

wt, weight at 12 and 24 months of age, weight at first calving, age at first calving, first

lactation length and first lactation milk yield respectively. The phenotypic and genetic

correlation between the traits ranged from very low to very high in magnitudes. The season

effect was observed non significant for all the traits except for weight at birth and 12

month of age while effect due to period was significant for all the traits under the study.

Patra et al. (2008) mentioned that the leaves of Coriandrum sativum (coriander)

Quercus incana (oak), Populus deltoids (poplar), Ocimum sanctum (tulsi) and Moringa

oleifera (drumstick) extracted in 3 solvents (ethanol, methanol and water) at 3 levels (0,

0.25 and 0.5 m1/30 ml of incubation medium) were tested in 6x3x3 factorial design for

their effect on fermentation of feed and methanogenesis in in-vitro gas production test. The

extracts of C. sativum and M. oleifera enhanced gas production significantly as compared

to control and other leaf extracts. Methanol extract of the leaves of P. deltoides caused a

significant depression in methanogenesis, whereas, none of the other leaf extracts had any

effect. The specific activities of carboxymethylcellulase, xylanase and acetyl esterase were

increased by addition of leaf extracts in the medium. The concentration of total volatile

fatty acids was similar among the extracts of 5 leaves, but there was significant decrease in

acetate to propionate ratio on inclusion of 0.5 ml methanol extract of P. deltoides in the

medium. None of the 5 leaf extracts had any effect on in vitro degradability of dry matter

or organic matter. The numbers of total protozoa, large and small spirotrichs and holotrichs

were not affected by any of the leaf extracts. The results indicated that the methanol extract

of P. deltoides leaves inhibited rumen methanogenesis without adversely affecting other

fermentation characteristics.

Das et al. (2008) conducted an experiment with heifers. All the heifers in the

treated group exhibited pubertal estrus following supplemented strategic minerals while

control (untreated) heifers failed to show. The mean serum calcium (Ca) and magnesium

(Mg) concentrations in both treated and control group of pre-pubertal heifers showed no

significant differences among different days of mineral supplementation except on day 150

of supplementation for Ca between treated and control group. A significant difference was

observed in the mean serum inorganic phosphorus (Pi) concentrations among different

days of mineral supplementation in treated group of heifers and they overcome the critical

level of serum inorganic phosphorus after day 90 of supplementation. A significantly

higher value of serum Ca and Pi were recorded on day of pubertal estrus as compared to

prior to estrus and day 9 post estrus. The serum Mg concentration on day of estrus was also

higher with no significant variation when compared.

A growth experiment of 40 weeks duration was carried out by Pandya et al. (2009)

on 18 crossbred (Jersey x Kankrej and HF x Kankrej) calves randomly allotted to three

groups of 6 each viz. complete feed based on wheat straw (30 per cent) and conventional

ingredients (WSBCF), complete feed based on sugarcane bagasse (30 per cent) and non

conventional ingredients (SBBCF) and conventional system of feeding (control). Average

daily gain was 418, 477 and 473 g in WSBCF, SBBCF and control groups, respectively,

with non significant treatment differences. Average daily intake of DM (kg) and DMI (%

body weight) were similar among the treatments. The digestibility coefficients of DM, EE

and CF were similar among the groups, however, CP and NFE digestibility were higher

(P<0.01) in control than WSBCF and SBBCF groups. The intake of CP, DCP and TDN

were similar in WSBCF and SBBCF but TDN intake was more in control. The protein

utilization efficiency was higher (P<0.05) in SBBCF while energy utilization efficiency

was higher (P<0.01) in both the complete feed groups. The calves under all groups were on

recommended plane of nutrition. The balances of nitrogen, phosphorus and calcium were

positive in all the groups. The TVFA, NPN and ammonia nitrogen content of rumen liquor

were higher (P<0.01) in rumen liquor of animals than that of other two groups. The cost of

feed per kg weight gain was lower by 33 and 38 per cent in SBBCF group over control and

WSBCF group, respectively. It may be concluded that growing crossbred calves can be

economically reared on complete feed with 30 per cent sugarcane bagasse and non

conventional feds.

A straw based complete diet (12 per cent CP) with 0.0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 per cent

level of thermo, acid, osmo and biletolerant yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae OBV-9) was

evaluated by Bhima et al. (2009) in a 4x4 Latin Square Design with four fistulated Murrah

buffalo steers (223.81 kg±2.91) to study the rumen fermentation pattern in order to find out

optimum level of inclusion. TVFAs concentration and pH of the rumen liquor were similar

among complete diets supplemented with or without yeast. Whereas, ammonia nitrogen

concentration was significantly (P<0.05) lower and TCA insoluble nitrogen concentration

was significantly (P<0.05) higher on diets supplemented with different levels of yeast as

compared to control diet. It was thus, concluded that inclusion of S. cerevisiae OBV-9 at

0.1 per cent in straw based complete diet could be the optimum level for buffalo steers of

220 kg body weight.

To study the effect of different feeding regimen on growth and reproductive

performance of Sahiwal heifers, eighteen Sahiwal heifers (2.5-3 years, 170.55±19.02 kg

body weight) were randomly divided into three groups by Ikhar et al. (2011). Heifers in

control (T1) group were fed concentrate mixture as per their nutritional requirement along

with wheat straw and libitum, whereas those in groups T2 and T3 were fed same diet except

that the supply of DCP and TDN were only 80 per cent and 70 per cent of requirement

recommended by ICAR (1998) respectively. Reduced level of dietary DCP and TDN did

not affect DM intake. The daily weight gain was significantly lower (P<.05) in group T3

whereas the reduction was not significant in group T2 (P<0.05) in comparison of control

group. Nutrient digestibility was higher (P<0.05) and fertility responses as percentage of

estrous as well as conception rate were slightly higher in heifer of group T2 than those in

other groups. However, due to less number of observations, conclusion could not be

drawn. The effect of different feeding regime on economic of growth revealed that the 80

per cent levels was comparable to that of control group, while the 70 per cent level was a

costlier means of heifer rearing. Hence, it is concluded that 20 per cent reduction in the

level of DCP and TDN as compared to ICAR recommendation did not affect DM intake ,

growth, nutrient utilization and economic of heifer rearing adversely.

2.10.2 Rumen Metabolites

A lot of work has been conducted in India on Seabuckthorn. Singh et al. (2001a)

estimated the nutritive value of the Seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.). They

observed that the leaves are rich source of proteins and less fibrous, indicating their

potential for feeding value to the livestock and poultry. They also observe the adverse

effects of tannins in SBT. About 200-300 gm of the fresh leaves can be harvested per

hectare per year after 8 years of plantation (Dwivedi et al., 2006). Ruminants, which are

fed low quality forages, require supplementation with the critically deficient nutrients to

optimize productivity. SBT leaves being rich in nitrogen, and minerals, their

supplementation could increase the efficiency of utilization of crop residues by increasing

the efficiency of microbial protein synthesis in the rumen leading to higher microbial

protein supply to the intestine. Recent concept of diet formulation is based on the

manipulation of the diets in order to achieve high microbial efficiency and high production

of microbial protein in the rumen by creating an efficient rumen ecosystem. An associated

advantage of achieving high efficiency of microbial protein synthesis, in the rumen, is

lower emission of environmental polluting gases – methane and carbon dioxide from feeds.

Combination of trees and grassland would obviously be a desirable development and

synergistic for cattle production. Strategic supplementation is justified because of regular

feed shortages that occur and the fact that ruminants subsist for most of their life on fibrous

crop residues on small farms (Singh, et al., 2001b).

According to the statement of Devasena et al. (2004), amongst the four fruits

wastes papaya fruit waste had the highest (14.8 per cent) and mango fruit pulp waste

(MFPW) had the lowest (4.6 per cent) CP content. The MFPW had the lowest and the

guava had the highest NDF and lignin content. In sacco evaluation revealed that effective

degradability (ED) and DM was significantly (P<0.05) higher (P<0.05) in MFPW than

other fruit wastes in both sheep and goat. The ED for CP was statistically comparable in all

the fruit wastes. Out of the four fruit wastes, significantly (P<0.01) higher concentration of

TVFA observed in rumen of animals fed concentrate mixture containing 30 per cent

MFPW was responsible for significantly (P<0.01) low pH in the rumen liquor. The

ammonia concentration in the rumen liquor was not effected by the type of fruit wastes fed

to the animals. It was concluded that guava, papaya, mango fruit wastes and mango fruit

pulp waste could be used in small ruminant ration.

The effect of iso-nitrogenous diets with either high roughage (HR) or low roughage

(LR) containing 30:70 or 70:30 concentrate to roughage ratio respectively, on the pattern

of rumen microbial enzymes and the degradation pattern of these diets, was evaluated by

Bakshi et al. (2004) in four rumen fistulated, dry sterile crossbred cows (404±28 kg body

weight), in a 2x2 switch over design. Total protozoa number was higher (P<0.05) in rumen

of cows fed LR diet as compared to those fed HR complete feed. Irrespective of the fiber

level, the entodiniomorphs predominated (93-94 per cent) the protozoa composition as

compared to holotrics (4-7 per cent). Amongst entodiniomorphs, the entodinium

predominated. The activity of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMCase). Microcrystalline

cellulose (MCCase), xylanase and beta-glucosidase (irepective of fraction of rumen

contents) was higher (P<0.05) in crossbred cows fed HR based complete feed, where as

activity of amylase and protease was higher (P<0.05) in group fed LR complete feed.

Irrespective of roughage level, the activity of fiber degrading enzymes was highest

(P<0.05) in particulate matter (80.2 per cent) followed by cellular (13.8 per cent) and

extra-cellular fluid (6.0 per cent). The ammonia-N and total NPN contents were lower

(P<0.05) in LR group indicating better utilization of ammonia-N in the presence of higher

availability of soluble carbohydrates in this group thereby resulting in higher (P<0.05)

TCA-N. The kinetic parameters of DM, NDF and CP degradation, revealed that the

insoluble but potentially degradable fraction in the LR diet, was not only significantly

(P<0.05) higher, but also degraded at a faster rate (P<0.05). Presence of lower (P<0.05)

amount of un-degradable fraction resulted in higher (P<0.05) effective and true

degradability of LR diet. The rumen fill values, for DM were observed to be higher

(P<0.05) in the HR diet, indicating its low potential for voluntary DMI. The results

conclusively revealed that roughage level in the diet modify rumen microbial population,

leading to changes in the pattern of microbial enzymes responsible for digestibility of

nutrients.

An experiment was conducted by Samanta et al. (2006) to see the effect of feeding

complete feed blocks on rumen microbes and metabolites in crossbred cattle. Adult rumen

fistulated male cattle (3; 8 years old of 400kg BW) divided into three groups in 3x3 Latin

square switch over design were offered iso-nitrogenous complete diet containing dried

grass (predominated by Heteropogon contortus and Sehima nervosum) and concentrate

mixture in 60:40 ratio in mash form (CFM) or CFM in which concentrate mixture

contained Leucaena leaves (LL-CFM) or as complete feed block (LL-CFB). The TCA-ppt

N was significantly (P<0.05) higher in CFB feeding regime than either CFM or LL-CFM

diets. The NPN was significantly higher (P<0.05) in mash form of diets (CFM and LL-

CFM) than the CFB diets. Total viable bacteria as well as anaerobic fungal population was

higher (P<0.05) in CFB fed animals than either CFM or LL-CFM diet because of

propionate intake of roughage and concentrate from the block form of diets. Results

conclusively revealed that the complete diets in the form of blocks created conductive

environment for higher growth of rumen bacteria as well as fungi as compared to the mash

form of diets.

A rumen fermentation study was conducted by Thakur et al. (2006) where rumen

fistulated male buffalo calves (9; 2.0-3.0 yr old of 238.36±13.97 kg BW) were divided into

three equal groups and fed total mixed rations (TMR) containing concentrate: green maize

fodder: wheat straw in 50:25:25 proportions on DM basis for 120 days. Concentrate of

TMR1 comprised of traditional feed ingredients whereas that of TMR2 and TMR3

contained concentrates in which maize and barley grains were replaced with wheat,

groundnut cake with mustard cake and urea, mineral mixture reduced by 0.5 per cent and

common salt increased by 0.5 per cent. The type of TMR did not have any significant

effect on rumen metabolites or microbial counts. The N, Ca and P retention was

statistically similar in all groups. The average daily gain was significantly (P<0.01) higher

in calves fed TMR3 as compared to those fed TMR1 and TMR2. Feed cost (Rs/kg BW gain)

was significantly (P<0.01) lower in calves fed TMR2 and TMR3 than that of TMR1. It was

concluded that the feeding of TMR based on locally available cheap feed ingredients

improved the growth rate and reduced the cost of feeding in buffalo calves.

The effect of graded levels of cadmium (Cd) on in vitro rumen fermentation and

amelioration of its adverse effects through Zn supplementation was studied in cattle by

Chandanshive et al. (2007). Karan Fries male crossbred calves (14; 4-5 m old) divided into

three groups with 4, 5 and 5 calves in each group were offered conventional control diet ©

or C supplemented either with 10 ppm Cd (T1) or 10 ppm Cd and 100 ppm Zn (T2) for 30

days. There was no change in TVFA and TCA-N concentration. However, NH3-N

concentration was high (P<0.05) in T2. There was increase (P<0.05) in the alnine

transaminase (AST) and urease in T2 which tende to decrease in group T3. It was evident

that zinc supplementation at 100 ppm level reduced NH3-N concentration observed due to

feeding of 10 ppm Cd in crossbred male calves.

Effect of fibrolytic enzyme treatment on in vitro rumen fermentation and on in

sacco degradability of roughages was investigated by Chopra et al. (2007). The in vitro

concentration of total VFA and TCA-N was improved (P<0.01) in treated than in untreated

roughages. The in sacco DM and cell wall constituents degradability of wheat straw (WS),

maize stovers (MS), bajra stalks (BS) and berseem hay (BH) was improved in enzyme

group. The effect of fibrolytic enzymes on the degradability of nutrients was maximum

from MS, followed in order, by BS, BH and WS.

A study was undertaken by Kaur et al. (2008) to assess the effect of fermented

(FRS) and unfermented rice straw (RS) based complete diets on the rumen metabolites and

availability of nutrients in buffaloes. Adult male buffaloes (10; 441.37±34.62 kg BW)

divided in to 2 equal groups were offered either unfermented rice straw supplemented with

high protein (CP 21.2 per cent) concentrate mixture or fermented rice straw supplemented

with low protein (CP 17.1 per cent) concentrate mixture. Simultaneously, rumen studies

were conducted on 3 rumen fistulated male buffaloes which were offered one diet at a

time. Bacterial and protozoal population in the rumen of animals fed FRS was higher than

those fed RS. The dry matter intake and digestibility of nutrients were higher (P<0.01) in

animals fed fermented rice straw as compared to those fed unfermented rice straw,

indicated efficient utilization of available nitrogen and resulted in considerably higher

TCA-N concentration as compared to the diet containing unfermented rice straw. The

higher nitrogen intake in the FRS group (P<0.01) animals (due to higher DM intake) was

found. The study conclusively revealed that rice straw could be fed to ruminant after urea

fermentation with no adverse effect on rumen profile and digestibility of nutrients. This

practice would not only prevent burring of straw in the field, but also add to the ever

depleting feed resource.

Two rumen fistulated adult male buffaloes were fed individually on three different

diets namely wheat and bajra straw based complete feed blocks and conventional diet

comprising concentrate mixture, green fodder and wheat straw by Dahya et al. (2011). The

same concentrate mixture was used to make complete feed blocks based on wheat straw

(WSCFB) having wheat/bajra straw: concentrate in the ratio of 60:40 on fresh basis.

Buffaloes in these treatment groups were also offered green fodder as in control group. CP

content of concentrate mixture was 18.82 per cent whereas WSCFB and BSCFB contained

8.96 and 9.04 per cent, respectively. The TVFA concentration increased from conventional

diet to the complete feed block diet with a peak concentration at 4hrs post feeding.

Similarly, pH values were affected by the diets as well as time of sampling. The pH values

decreased from conventional diet to the complete feed block diets. Total-N and TCA-N

concentration in SRL on complete feed diets were higher than on conventional diet,

however, mean NH3-N concentration in SRL was higher(P<0.05) in control group than in

WSCFB group. It was concluded that feeding of complete feed blocks based on wheat or

bajra straw as source of roughage at 60 per cent levels has comparable effect on N

utilization, TVFAs production and ruminal pH.

Kannan et al. (2011) stated that the effect of balancing the ration on milk

production, microbial protein synthesis and methane emission was studied in 30 cross bred

cows under field conditions in Chitoor district of Andhra Pradesh. Nutritional status of

animals was analyzed by ration balancing software and methane emission by ration

balancing software and methane emission by sulphur hexafluoride technique. Microbial

protein synthesis was calculated by estimation of purine derivatives excreted in urine.

Initially, baseline data for all animals were estimated and thereafter their ration was

balanced as per their nutrient requirements by using ration balancing software. After 30

days of feeding again all the parameters were estimated. Analysis of the feeding practices

revealed that dietary intake of TDN was adequate but CP was lower (10.44 per cent) than

their requirement. The calcium and phosphorus were also deficient by 47.81 and 46.52 per

cent, respectively. Balancing the ration did not affect body weight, dry matter intake, TDN

intake and concentrate roughage ratio. CP intake was improved significantly (P<0.05) after

balancing the ration. Though milk fat was not affected, balancing of ration significantly

(P<0.05) improved the milk yield and reduced methane production. The average methane

emission was 11.17 and 19.62 per cent, in terms of g/d and g/kg DMI, respectively, besides

reducing (P<0.05) the gross energy lost as methane. The calculated microbial nitrogen

supply (g/d) was also significantly (P<0.05) higher after balancing the ration. It was

concluded that ration balancing has the potential to improve milk production, microbial

protein synthesis and reduce methane emission from lactating crossbred cows.

In a study by Gupta et al. (2011), pellets of oil seed cake (groundnut cake- GNC,

cotton seed cake-CSC, mustard seed cake-MSC, linseed cake-LSC and soybean cake-SBC)

and Accacia catechu leaves-ACL (tannin source) with different tannin levels (2-8 per cent)

and different pH levels were evaluated by Gupta et al. (2011) for in vitro dry matter

degradability (IVDMD) and ammonia production in the cattle inoculums. IVDMD of

pellets was significantly lower (P<0.05) at 2, 4, 6 and 8 per cent tannin levels than control.

However, IVDMD at 2 per cent tannin level (54.37 per cent) was more (P<0.05) than 4, 6

and 8 per cent tannin levels (46.09-48.91 per cent). Highest reduction in IVDMD of pellets

was observed for GNC (from 86.68 to 39.48 per cent) and lowest for LSC (from 68.15 to

50.89 per cent) with the addition of tannins. Mean pellets IVDMD was significantly

(P<0.05) influenced by pH levels and was highest at pH 7 (with 0 per cent tannin 70.50 per

cent) and lowest at pH 4 (47.98 per cent). Reduction in pellet IVDMD due to pH was

highest from GNC (from 86.68 to 48.89 per cent) and lowest from LSC (from 68.15 to

53.54 per cent). Ammonia production from pellets was significantly higher (P<0.05) at 0

per cent tannin level (control) than that of 2, 4, 6 and 8 per cent tannin levels. Tannin

reduced mean NH3 production maximum from SBC pellets (63.17 to 28.47 mg/100ml)

and lowest from CSC (15.60 to 5.80 mg/100ml). Ammonia production from pellets was

more at pH 8 (23.81) than that of pH 2 and pH 4 (18.02 and 17.00 mg/100ml),

respectively. Results of the in vitro study revealed that all tannin reduced pellets IVDMD

and NH3 production.

Eighteen Murrah buffalo calves of similar age and body weight were divided into

three groups of six each by Jha et al. (2011) and fed on a compete feed block (concentrate

mixture 50 per cent, wheat straw 43 per cent, molasses 6 per cent and urea 1 per cent)

along with 2 Kg green oats in groups 1 while feed block of group 2 was supplemented with

purified fungal zoospores of Neocallimaztix spp. GR-1 (group 2) and group 3 feed blocks

provided to group 2,1 per cent wheat straw was replaced (w/w) by sodium sulphate. The

concentration of TVFA‘s, Total-N and TCA-perceptible N in SRL was significantly higher

(P<0.05) while what of ammonia N was lower (P<0.05) in group 3 than in other groups.

The total number of zoospores and bacteria/ml SRL were significantly higher and total

number of protozoa /ml SRL was lower in sulphur supplemented group as compared to

other groups.

2.11 WORK DONE WITH SEABUCKTHORN AT A GLANCE

2.11.1 Work Done in CSK HPKV

Parts of

SBT

Topics/Findings References

Whole

plant

Sea buckthorn is a deciduous, thorny and nitrogen

fixing shrub or a small tree, 2-4 m in height and

grows abundantly in dry temperate Himalayas.

Singh 1994, 1995,

1998; Singh et. al,1995,

Singh and Dogra,1996

Fruits of

SBT

Fodder values of Sea buckthorn growing in

Lauhal valley where the nutritional value was

analyzed

Singh et. al.(1999)

Leaves of

SBT

SBT leaves are very rich in crude protein (18-

22%) and fat (4-5%), therefore, it is quality feed

for livestock , particularly during early winter

Singh et al.(1999)

Leaves of

SBT

Up to 6% levels of CP from the conventional

source in the broiler diet can be replaced by SBT

leaves (Hippophae L.)

Sharma and Shashwati

(2009)

SBT

Leaves

and Cake

Evaluation of SBT leaves and cake as protein

replacer for efficient broiler production

Sharma (2010)

SBT Cake Evaluation of SBT cake as a protein source in

broiler rations.

Guleria (2010)

SBT cake Effects of probiotics supplementation on the

utilization of SBT cake in broiler production

Shama (2011)

2.11.2 Work Done in India

Parts of

SBT

Findings References

Whole

plant

Evaluated the utilization, biomass and nutritional

value of the sea buckthorn

Singh et.al (1995)

Fruits of

SBT

The fruits of Seabuckthorn are rich source of

vit.C, carotenoids and mineral matter with

substantial amount of vitamin P and vitamin K

Chauhan et. al. (2001)

Leaves of

SBT

The Seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.)

leaves are rich source of protein and less fibrous.

It has the potentiality for feeding value to

livestock

Singh (2001)

Whole

plant

Reported the biomass production and nutritional

values of Seabuckthorn fruit and seed

Tiwari and Singh

(2001)

Fruits of

SBT

The fruits of Seabuckthorn have significant

antioxidant and radio protective properties

Eccleston et. al.

(2002); Kumar et. al.

(2002)

De-oiled

cake of

SBT

De-oiled cake from seeds of 3 Seabuckthorn

species in H.P. had low percentage of soluble

sugars and crude protein, but high starch content

Sankhyan and Sehgal,

(2003)

Berries and

seeds of

SBT

Hippophae rhamnoides berries and seeds

collected from a few prominent locations of

Uttarakhand Himalaya possess higher nutritive

value in terms of fat, protein, carbohydrate,

reducing sugars and lignin.

Dhyani and Maikhuri

et. al. (2007)

Seeds of

SBT

The oil constituted 4.6 and 5.0 per cent of the

seeds of H. salicifolia and H. rhamnoides berries

respectively that are grown in Indian Himalayas.

Vitamin E presents in oil 27.6-30.8 µg/g. The

seed oil developed a conspicuous growth

inhibition zone (4 cm dia.) against Escherichia

coli microorganism. Thus SBT seed oil showed a

potential for use in cosmetics, health products and

pharmaceuticals.

Sharma and Shashwati

(2009)

2.11.3 Work Done Abroad

Parts of SBT Findings References

Fruit residue/

Foliage of SBT

The fruit residue is quite rich in protein, fat,

amino acids, vitamin C, and fat soluble

vitamin contents as high as 426-503mg/100 g

Garnovich

(1980)

SBT as an

additives

Long term feeding with supplementary

additives of fruits residue/Foliage promoted

growth and improved immunity in animals

Xuchan (1989)

Whole SBT

plant

H. rhamnoides contains the highest CP

(22.9%) & fat (6.1%) and H. neurocarpa

contains lowest CP (11.5%) & fat (3.7%)

Rongsen (1991)

Whole plant as

fodder

Comparing the productivity of Seabuckthorn

with fodder shrubs and grasses, it can be

stated that grazing on SBT was more

beneficial than other species of the fodders

Zhanmong (1992)

Leaves &

Fruits of SBT

Leaves and fruits residues of seabuckthorn

can be utilized as supplementary feed to the

livestock and poultry

Rongsen (1992)

SBT cake The cake of seabuckthorn leaves is quite rich

in biologically active nutrients and provides

high energy, revealing the significance of sea

buckthorn as a quality feeds for the livestock

Solonenko et. al.

(1993)

Whole plant as

grazing foliage

Grazing sheep on seabuckthorn foliage in

natural seabuckthorn forest results in fatten

those animals

Rongsen (1994)

Whole plant Seabuckthorn growing under harsh climatic

conditions has been reported to be a rich

source of vitamin A, C, E, K, Carotinoids and

organic acids

Chen et. al. (1990);

Yao and Tigerstedt

(1992); Yang and

Kallio (2001)

Whole plant Seabuckthorn has the anti-oxygenic and

antioxidant activity to control oxidative stress

Patro et.al. (2001)

After reviewing the findings of the previous researchers, it was clear that very

limited and unclassified work had been done to evaluate the fodder (leaves) and industrial

by-products of Seabuckthorn for various production functions and nutrients utilization to

the different categories of livestock (Sharma et al., 2009). The well known fact was, SBT

leaves, fruits and its byproducts after extracting the oil could be used for feeding to the

animals. Keeping that view in mind the present study was undertaken to evaluate the

feeding effect of SBT cake to the layers and calves in growing and adult stages.