Women constitute ½ of the world’s population,

2/3 of the world’s labour force but get 1/10th of

the world’s income and 1% of the world’s

Wealth.

As per 2001 Census, 23% of women are in the

work force. 94% of all working women are in

the informal sector.

“Women carry a disproportionately greater burden of work than men and since women are responsible for a greater share of non-SNA

(System of National Accounts) work in the care economy , they enter labour market already overburdened with work.” Report of Gender Diagnosis and Budgeting in India of National Institute of Public Finance and Policy, NIPFP. December, 2001

RURAL/

URBAN

MALES FEMALES

TOTAL 51.61 22.27

RURAL 52.58 26.79

URBAN 48.92 09.19

Census of India, 2011, Series 1

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Total male female

main Ws

marg Ws

Non Ws

Distribution of Women Across Industry %

Community, social & personnel services sectors 55.6

Manufacturing 21.4

Agriculture & Allied Occupation 9.8

Finance, insurance, real estate & business 4.9

Factories 14

Mines 6

Plantation 51

Women constitute only 14% of the total

employment in the organized sector. It is

concentrated in Maharashtra, Delhi, West

Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Tamilnadu.

In the urban areas, FEAR in tertiary sector has

increased, from 37.6 % in 1983 to 52.9 % in

1999. (Economic Survey, 2002, GOI).

Here, women workers and employees get

relatively better wages, standard working hours,

and the protection of labour laws.

Changes in age-structure, urbanisation, level & nature of economic development, infrastructure, government policies, labour laws, nature of work,structure of family, culture & tradition affecting autonomy and control, fertility levels and childbearing practices, nature of housework, women’s property rights, education, age at marriage, migration, access to technology.

Nature of wage differentials (WD)-for

identical tasks women are paid less. And

women are confined to relatively inferior

tasks, casual work.

Causes of WD-patriarchal attitude, myths

Effects of WD- subordination of women,

son preference, man is treated as a “bread

winner”- Head of the Household (HoH)

Legislative measures

Equal Remuneration Act

Formation of women’s union

Constitutional guarantees

Job reservation for women

Self Help Groups(SHGs)

For forest dwellers, a comprehensive Minor Forest Produce Workers Act which regulates their work condition and provides social security and accident compensation to the forest workers.

Sexual Harassment at Workplace act- Any covert or overt sexual behaviour, lewd remarks, physical advances against a woman employee by her male colleague/ boss.

Workmen’s

Compensation

Act, 1932.

The Minimum

Wages Act,

1948

The Factories

Act, 1948

Maternity

Benefits Act,’61

Plantation

Labour

Act,’51

Bidi & Cigar

Workers

Act,’96

The Contract

Labour Act, ’70

Bonded

Labour Act,

1976

Equal

Remune-

ration Act,’76

Migration

Workers’ Act,76

Child Labour

(P&R)

Act,1986

Legal Services

Act, 1987

Special buses and trains for working womenPart time work, Flexi timeProhibition of Night workMaternity benefits and day care centresOccupational health & SafetyWomen’s cooperatives, Self employed

womenFemale headed households, right to housingworking women’s hostels at district/ tehsil

levels

Declining participation of women in the

male dominated Trade Unions

Women’s cells/crocuses being formed in

the progressive unions

Inter-union rivalry- violence

Subculture of T.U.-language, habits

Attitude of the state- police ,

administration, courts

Attitude and reaction of the family

Food security, safe and cheap transportSafety net to deal with SAP & GlobalisationMulticultural Outlook to counter casteism,

communalism ethnicism and racismFormation of Special Interest Groups- young

working mothers, study circles, career guidance, therapeutic sessions., circulating library, speak out centres and cultural activities.

Alternatives provided by SEWA, Annapurna

Implementation of statutory provision

Guaranteeing state stipulated minimum

wages

Reduction in military budget

Environmental issues- fuel, fodder, water

Land rights of agrarian and tribal women

Public education/ awareness generation

Conventional indicators of DEVELOPMENT are economic growth, rise in national & per capita income and GDP, rapid pace of urbanisation, high mobility of labour & capital, expansion of industrial base, agrarian growth and growth of foreign trade.

This thinking has been challenged by gender economists as this indicators have not taken into consideration just distribution of resources, opportunities and material wellbeing to majority of human beings, especially women.

Women in Development-awareness about marginalisation of women, Towards Equality Report, The UN Charter, 1975.Equality, Deve, Peace

Women & Development- integration of women in the mainstream through Education, health and economic development of women- NPP, GOI.

Gender & Development- bending the existing power structure in favour of women thru’ empowerment of women in apex bodies of decision making. CEDAW

Main indicators of human development are educational achievements, income, health profile and human rights.

Human Development Report, 2001 has provided development radars comprising of 8 indicators-indices of poverty, per capita consumption expenditure, life expectancy at age one, infant mortality rates, intensity of formal education, literacy rates, access to safe drinking water, proportion of households with pakka houses. What about declining sex- ratio ?

Women don’t have control over resources in the subsistence sector.

Women work for more hours & in return get less wages.

Land reforms have taken away land rights of women as the titles were made in the name of men.

Girl Child labour are extremely vulnerable.Absence of social services for women

workers increases women’s plight at the time of pregnancy, old age, illness and destitution.

Women become major victims of rationalisation, mechanisation and automation. When structural changes take place, women are not selected for skill up gradation, if they don’t assert collectively.

But, new international division of labour has changed this dynamics as the focus is on induction of young, moderately educated girls who would do minute and monotonous with concentration and dexterity e.g. pharmaceuticals, computers, electronic, garments.

Patriarchal structure of trade unions- Prejudice of male leaders- Women being treated as an auxiliary labour force that can be hired last at the time of economic expansion & fired first at the time of economic recession- Division of labour within Unions-Men as leaders and Women as supporters-Time & Place of Union meetings-Women’s role in collective bargaining & reflection of women’s aspirations and demands in the charter of demands-communal and casteist biases within T.U. Workers Education Programmes- CHILD LABOUR ?

International Labour Organisation

Standardisation of work hours

Child labour prevention

Occupational health and Safety

Compensation for displaced population

Human rights of ethnic minorities- wages

& safety

Economic activities for women refugees