what are neurons? what are neurotransmitters? what part do they play in mental illness? developed by...

What are Neurons?What are Neurotransmitters?

What Part Do They Play in Mental Illness?

Developed by Roger F. Cram

Hiram College in Hiram, Ohio 44234Copyrighted © with all rights reserved

January 2011, October 2011, July 2012

NAMI (National Alliance on Mental Illness)Portage and Geauga Counties in Ohio

July 30, 2012Although copyrighted, permission is granted for use by any NAMI organization.

Electrical signals travel from the brain along the neurons (wires) to a particular device like a muscle cell, a heart cell, lungs, eyes, ears, liver, a feeling, a thought, an emotion, a dream, etc.

Neurons in the brain - illustration. Credit: Benedict Campbell.neurons from www.images.wellcome.co.uk

What do neurons look like?There are 10 billion nerve cells in the brain.

IMAGES FROM RESEARCH - NEURONS AND NEURONAL PROTEINS by Robert S. McNeil

Transductions – neurons – Feb. 4th, 2010 by Wolf

http://www.greenspine.ca/media/neuron_culture_800px.jpg

Soma(Cell Body) Axon

Myelin

Direction of electrical charge to the next neuron

Cell nucleus

Dendrites:Electric-chargereceivers

Axons:Electric charge transmitters

Source: Modeling Future Heroes, A Practical Application of Heroic Values, By Roger F. Cram

How Does a Neuron Carry An Electrical Charge?

Neurons attach to each other through the synapse gap (doorbell button or electric switch) carrying an electrical charge from one neuron to the other. These neurons form the “wires” or nerves carrying information throughout our body.

Electrical Connection

Often many neurons are linked together where the dendrite connects to the axon carrying electrical signals along their path.

Axon

Dendrite

Direction of current flow


SWITCH

Dendrites Connected to Axons Act Like Electric Switches Allowing an Electrical Charge to Move Along a Wire

Axon

Dendrite


Involuntary Neurons

Neurons are used to carry electrical signals for involuntary processes: digest your food, keep your heart beating, repair cells, clean your blood, create thoughts and emotions (fear, lust, jealousy, self-esteem), carry light images from your eyes to your brain, create hearing-touch-taste-smell, fight disease, grow a baby, create the sensation of hunger, etc….

Voluntary Neurons

Neurons are also used to carry electrical signals for voluntary movements like moving muscles (running, walking, writing, working, typing, taking a bath, getting dressed, driving a car) or for thinking (solving a problem, creating art, reading a book, meditating, imagining things).

Neuron Signals• Your brain triggers six trillion electrical signals

through your neurons every second to operate your body and allow you freedom of thought, movement and life.

• How much is six trillion? Well, six trillion pennies stacked end-on-end, would go from the earth to the moon, 243,000 miles, twenty-four times!

• Mental illness is a disease of these electrical circuits in the brain.

The electrical signal is passed from one neuron to the next to the next until it is either blocked or it reaches its targeted device (muscle, thought, heart beat, eye, tongue, hand, etc.). That’s how memory works, how the entire body works, how we think, how our emotions make us aware of pleasure, panic, and sorrow; that’s how we run, speak, fight disease, heal a scratch, see, hear, taste, touch, yell at our kids – all through electrical connections going through nerves carried from one neuron to the next.

Synapse Connection (switch) Axon Connected to a Dendrite)

Axon

Dendrite


What does the connection of two neurons look like?

Synaptic Cleft (the gap)Electrical Connection

Axon end

Dendrite endThe Brain Bank Your plastic brainPosted on June 20, 2011 by Brain Bank Manc

End of first neuron

Start of next neuron

AXON TERMINAL END

Dendrite End


The Synapse Gap

Neurons, although they carry the electrical charge from one neuron to the next, are not actually touching each other, but separated by a very small gap called the “synapse cleft or gap” serving as an open switch or doorbell button. Something must happen to push the doorbell button, to throw the switch, to carry the electrical charge across this gap to the next neuron.


Incoming electricalcharge

AXON TERMINAL END

Dendrite

Gap orSynaptic Cleft

There is a gap or empty space between the two connecting neurons.

End of first neuron


When an electrical charge reaches the end of the first neuron at the axon, it causes vesicles, being tiny bags containing chemical neurotransmitters, to drop down and release their contents into the synapse cleft or gap. The yellow round molecules represent one of over 100 different chemicals your brain uses as neurotransmitters to carry the electrical charge across the gap to the dendrite receptors, being the next neuron. This transfer of electrical-to-chemical-to-electrical information is how the brain controls all functions necessary for life.

AXONVesicles

Neuro-transmitters

DendriteReceptor

Let’s take another look at this illustration. Notice the vesicles?

Synaptic Cleft (the gap)Electrical Connection

Axon end

Dendrite endThe Brain Bank Your plastic brainPosted on June 20, 2011 by Brain Bank Manc


Continuation of charge tonext neuron.


AXON TERMINAL END

Dendrite

Receptor

Vesicle

Neurotransmitter(Serotonin)


Source: NAMI–Family to Family Course, Class 6, Handout 2–Basic Neuro-transmission at the Synapse–page 6.23 Paragraph 3

NeurotransmittersIf the neurotransmitter (chemical making the electrical connection between two neurons) is in the part of the brain controlling the beating heart, the electrical impulses will go along the chain of neurons to the heart muscle causing it to pump.

If the neurons are in the part of the brain controlling voluntary muscle control, and you are trying to wave good-bye, the electrical impulses will go along a chain of neurons to the muscle cells in the arm allowing you to wave good-bye.

If the neurons are in the part of the brain controlling emotions, and you are in a crisis situation, instinct will trigger the electrical neurotransmitter impulses resulting in the fight-or-flight response and the necessary emotions and muscle action (fighting, yelling, threatening, blocking an attack, fleeing, running, jumping out of the way, etc.).

Neurotransmitters

If the neurons are in the part of the brain controlling emotions and you are Bipolar, extra neurotransmitters may carry excessive electrical “good feeling” impulses (manic) or insufficient neurotransmitters may carry a deficient amount of “good feeling” impulses (depression) without your permission. The neurons and neurotransmitters simply take over. This is what many experts think happens with bipolar, but they’re not absolutely sure.

Neurotransmitters

In the following illustration, the neurotransmitter is serotonin (yellow circle ) and it carries the electrical charge from the axon into the gap. When enough serotonin binds into the receptors of the next neuron, the electric charge will be forwarded. This communication between neurons is brief, lasting about 1 millisecond.


Vesicle

Continuation of charge tonext neuron


AXON TERMINAL END

Dendrite

Receptor

Neurotransmitter(Serotonin)


The serotonin molecules are shown as round and the receptors (docking sites) that receive them are the correctly sized semi-circular dish so the round serotonin molecule fits perfectly into the receptor, thus transmitting the electric charge. Source: NAMI – Family to Family Course, Class 6, Handout 2 – Basic Neuro-transmission at the Synapse – page 6.23


Gap orSynaptic Cleft

Vesicle



AXON TERMINAL END

Dendrite

Receptor


If a chemical other than the round serotonin molecule were to enter the synapse gap, assuming each molecule has a unique molecular shape, it would probably not fit into the receptor being a different shape, and therefore not transfer the electrical charge to the next neuron.




AXON TERMINAL END

Dendrite

Neurotransmitter or chemical other than Prozac

Receptor


Will not fit into receptor; therefore, will not carry forward a charge.

Once the neurotransmitter, in this case the yellow serotonin, delivers the electrical charge to the receptors of the next neuron, its job has been completed – it has delivered its message. New messages (electrical charges) will soon be coming down from the axon in other vesicles so the “used” serotonin must leave the synapse cleft or gap so it does not interfere with the new messages.

The serotonin is released from the receptor and then removed from the gap two ways: (1) an uptake pump passes the serotonin back up into the original axon from which it came (2) a chemical enzyme metabolizes the serotonin getting rid of it.

Source: NAMI – Family to Family Course, Class 6, Handout 2 – Basic Neuro-transmission at the Synapse – page 6.23 paragraph 6

In the next illustration, notice the addition of the uptake pump. It is the correct size and shape to remove the serotonin molecule. Serotonin is removed from the gap by passing into the uptake pump and delivered back into the axon. Source: NAMI – Family to Family Course, Class 6, Handout 2 – Basic Neuro-transmission at the Synapse – page 6.23 1) Reuptake



AXON TERMINAL END

Dendrite

UptakePump


Serotonin molecules being released by the receptor after they delivered their charge. They are going to the uptake pump.

Sometimes an enzyme, released from the axon, breaks down the serotonin molecules and removes them from the synapse cleft. This “clean-up enzyme” action, where the serotonin is metabolized (broken down) is a second way of removing a neurotransmitter from the gap serving the same purpose as the uptake pump. Source: NAMI – Family to Family Course, Class 6, Handout 2 – Basic Neuro-transmission at the Synapse – page 6.23 2) Metabolism

Entering enzyme is shaped to remove serotonin molecule from the synapsecleft area.

Forward motionof enzyme.

SerotoninSource: Modeling Future Heroes, A Practical Application of Heroic Values, By Roger F. Cram



AXON TERMINAL END

Dendrite

Receptor

Clean-upenzyme


Serotonin being metabolized (broken down) bythe enzyme.

Neurotransmitters and Emotions

*****UNDERSTAND THIS*****

In the emotional sections of the brain, the electrical charge created by neurotransmitters through the synapse gap IS our sensation and awareness of life. It is where emotions are created, felt, and realized. It is where we experience life and are aware that we exist!

Neurotransmitters These neurotransmitters (Over 100

different chemicals like dopamine and serotonin) are critical in understanding how we feel, our moods, our aggression, our stress levels, how we function, how we think, and whether or not we are in a nurturing relationship or locked in a straight jacket.

Neurotransmitters That sudden sadness you feel when hurt by

some one you love is felt because of neurotransmitters. That panic you feel when suddenly frightened is felt because of neurotransmitters. “Road rage” is felt because of neurotransmitters. Are you afraid of spiders or high places? Are you bipolar and experience depression and manic episodes? Do you have panic attacks? OCD? ADHD? Yep – neurotransmitters!

Neurotransmitters

If your “feel good” neurotransmitters are sufficient you will most likely experience happiness, motivation, focus, emotional stability, good feelings toward others, and calmness through difficulties.

Neurotransmitters

If your “feel good” neurotransmitters are deficient you may feel depression, panic or anxiety, sleeplessness, moody periods, irritability, over aggressiveness, and stress.

Neurotransmitter Its Function Too Much Too Little

Serotonin Mood regulation, hunger, sleep, problems with anger control, sexual desire, decreased anxiety

Depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and suicide, irrational

Dopamine Motor movement and alertness/ attention, good feelings, aggression, thinking, planning

Parkinson's disease Schizophrenia, lack of remorse, inability to feel love or affection

Endorphins Pain control, stress reduction, feelings of pleasure, "natural opiates“

Potentially involved in addiction

Sense of inadequacy, inability to combat pain

Acetylcholine ACh Critical to motor movement, learning, and memory; has a part in scheduling REM (dream) sleep.

Alzheimer's and muscle disorders.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

Brain's major inhibitory neurotransmitter, reduced anxiety, reduced insomnia

Seizures, insomnia, anxiety disorder, epilepsy, racing thoughts

Nor epinephrine "Fight or Flight,“ controls alertness, arousal, elevates heart rate, circulation, respiration, and mood elevation

Depressed mood, racing heart, manic, elevated blood pressure

Lack of energy, lack of drive, reduced focus on goals

Glutamate Brain's major excitatory neurotransmitter, creates links between neurons that form basis of learning, long-term memory

Lou Gehrig's disease Over stimulation of the brain, seizures

General Psychology – Neurotransmitters - Dr. C. George Boeree 2009; Healthy Botanicals

Some Types of Neurotransmitters and Their Function

Dopamine and SerotoninPathways in the Brain

NIDA National Institute on Drug Abuse July 2008 - Addiction Science: From Molecules to Managed Care

When sufficient serotonin or dopamine or another “feeling” neurotransmitter is in the synapse cleft “the gap,” feelings of peace and less agitation are enjoyed. When an insufficient amount is in the gap, feelings of agitation might be experienced.

If a way could be found to keep the serotonin in the cleft for longer periods of time before it is removed by the uptake pump or enzyme, then more peaceful feelings and less stress could be experienced.

Prozac and Zoloft are called “serotonin reuptake inhibitors.” Their molecular shapes imitate the shape of the serotonin molecule. They assume the role of serotonin in the synapse cleft confusing the uptake pump or the clean-up enzyme into removing the Prozac or Zoloft instead of the serotonin; thus the serotonin stays longer in the cleft connecting to the receptors and increasing feelings of peace, self-esteem, and well being.

SerotoninProzac

Cleft

Enteringcapture-enzyme

Notice the pink molecules. They represent the drug Prozac. Although their molecular shape is different than the yellow serotonin molecules, it is similar enough to fit into the uptake pump; therefore, when the uptake pump eliminates some of the pink molecules (Prozac) instead of the serotonin, more serotonin molecules will remain in the gap increasing connections with the receptors, passing on their charge, and creating more peaceful feelings of wellbeing.

Electric Charge

Charge moving on to next neuron

AXON

DENDRITE

GAP

Uptake pump removing Prozac

Dopamine Dopamine is a neurotransmitters like serotonin

playing an important role in our “reward” and “pleasure” centers and is instrumental in regulating many normal and pathological behaviors.

Uptake Pump removing DopamineDopamine

Cleft or Gap

All anti-psychotic drugs prevent dopamine from binding to the receptors on the receiving cell neuron (dendrite). This blocks the electrical charge from going on to the next neuron, thus blocking the stressful emotion inherent in the neurotransmitter.

Axon GapDendrite

Axon end

Dendrite end

Gap

Receptors Source: Modeling Future Heroes, A Practical Application of Heroic Values, By Roger F. Cram

Source: NAMI – Family to Family Course, Class 6, Handout 2A – Basic Neuro-transmission at the Synapse – page 6.24

Anti-psychotic drug entering receptors blocking dopamine from carrying the feeling charge to the next neuron.

Instinct and Neurotransmitters• Homo Sapiens Sapiens, being us - modern-day

humans - instinctually, need to feel good about themselves, to develop feelings of self-worth and accomplishment which results from endorphins, serotonin, dopamine, and other “feel good” neurotransmitters entering the “synapse gap.”

• When something occurs indicating a boost in self-worth is justified (graduating from school, winning a game or race, giving birth, completing a project, falling in love, getting public recognition for accomplishments, etc.) endorphins and other “feel good” neurotransmitters are triggered to enter the “synapse gap” in the emotional part of the brain.

• Unfortunately, there are easier ways to feel the wonderful sensations and euphoria created in the “synapse gap” without completing a great accomplishment.

• Alcohol, marijuana, caffeine, cocaine, heroine, nicotine, and other recreational drugs increase the levels of dopamine because of their similar molecular shapes. They “fool” the uptake pump into eliminating them from the gap, thus increasing dopamine levels and the associated feelings of well being.

• LSD, mescaline, and ecstasy work by attaching to serotonin receptor sites and thereby blocking emotional signals from connecting to the receptors of the next neuron.

General Psychology 2009 Neurotransmitters Dr. C. George Boeree

Recreational Drugs and Neurotransmitters

Dopamine

Cleft

Neurotransmitters and FeelingsHumans seek pleasure and avoid pain. Feelings of pleasure and euphoria come from great accomplishments. They also come from artificial stimuli like drugs.

Charge from axon

Cocaine

Marijuana


Uptake pump removing marijuana& cocaine

More dopamine in the gap connecting with the receptors.

Morphine Morphine reduces pain and is often given to

patients in hospitals and the wounded on battle fields for this purpose.

The morphine molecule has a similar shape as the neurotransmitters in the neurons transmitting pain signals, but the morphine molecule will not carry the electrical charge forward to the next neuron once it is in the receptor, thus blocking the pain signal.


Neurotransmitterin pain-sendingneuron.


AXON TERMINAL END

Dendrite

Receptor

Morphine moleculeblocks pain signal - no electric charge iscarried forward – thus pain is reduced

Morphine Molecule – a pain reducer


Medicine Side Effects•When medicines are introduced into the human body they unfortunately do not only enter the cells and neurons associated with the illness they are trying to relieve, but other areas of the body and brain as well.

•Medications designed to treat schizophrenia affect the neurons associated with that disease in the brain, but they also connect with the neurons that affect saliva regulation; thus one of the side effects of these medications is dry mouth.

Medicine Side Effects• Medicines also enter the synapse gaps of neurons that

control muscles, heart rate, vision, weight gain, constipation, nervousness, anxiety, insomnia, headaches, nausea, and many others. These medications interfere with the neuron’s neurotransmitter keeping it from performing its normal function (heart rate, vision, muscle movements, etc.) by blocking the receptors, stopping the uptake pump, stopping the metabolizing enzyme, or by having the uptake pump remove the medicine instead of the existing neurotransmitter.

Medicine Side Effects• Prolixin is a drug frequently prescribed for

schizophrenia because it helps eliminate delusions and social withdraw by affecting the neurotransmitters causing the disease.

• Prolixin also enters other neurons in the brain that control muscle movements (hand tremors are created), that influence the eyes (blurred vision is a side effect), and that control the heart (a rapid heart beat can result). Source: NAMI – Family to Family Course, Class 6, Handout 9 – First Generation Typical Narcoleptic Medications – page 6.36

Prozac and Zoloft are drugs called reuptake inhibitors and they do their work in the gap by being absorbed by the uptake pump leaving more serotonin in the gap. When more serotonin is in the gap, there is more chance for stimulation by the serotonin at the receiving receptors, thus increasing feelings of wellbeing.

Anti- depressant medications do not interfere with neurotransmitter transmissions across the gap like Prozac does, but instead they block the reuptake pump, thus leaving more neurotransmitters in the gap to react with the receptors of the next neuron.

Anti-depressant drugs called MAO inhibitors prevent the metabolic breakdown of neurotransmitters by interfering with the removing enzyme, thus leaving more neurotransmitter in the gap.

Anti-psychotic drugs block the dendrite’s receptors from carrying the charge to the next neuron, thus blocking the painful emotional signals.

Source: NAMI – Family to Family Course, Class 6, Handout 2 – Basic Neuro-transmission at the Synapse – page 6.24

AXON TERMINAL END

Dendrite

Receptor

Prozac

Anti-depressant medications block the uptake pump

Reuptake inhibitor drugs – Prozac & Zoloft – are absorbed by the uptake pump leaving more serotonin in the gap for the receptors

Anti-psychotic drugs block the receivingreceptors from carrying the charge to the next neuron

Anti-depressantMAO inhibitors prevent the enzymefrom breaking down the neurotransmitter

Source: Modeling Future Heroes, A Practical Application of Heroic Values, By Roger F. CramSource: NAMI–Family to Family Course, Class 6, Handout 2A–Basic Neuro-transmission at the Synapse–page 6.24

Some Diseases Involving Neurons• Bipolar disorder• Cerebral Palsy• Parkinson’s Disease• Schizophrenia• Panic attacks• Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)• Depression• Epilepsy• Alzheimer's Disease• Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD / ADHD)• Multiple Sclerosis• Autism• Turret's Syndrome

Brain disorders and mental illness are often caused by an over or under developed portion of the brain. Neurons misfiring, too much of a neurotransmitter, and more often, a neurotransmitter deficiency are contributing factors. An irregular brain development during adolescence is often suspected for causing mental illness or an injury or a suspicious gene deciding to fire at the beginning of puberty.

Many of the causes of mental illness and brain disorders are still a mystery with research continuing every day. But one thing is for sure, whatever the causes and treatments that are discovered, you can bet neurons and neurotransmitters will play an intricate role.

Image Source Page: http://colinfarbotko.blogspot.com/2010_04_01_archive.html

http://colinfarbotko.blogspot.com/2010_04_01_archive.html

The End of this presentation…

…the beginning of hope. Picture Source: Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News May 4th 2011

•NIDA National Institute on Drug Abuse July 2008 - Addiction Science: From Molecules to Managed Care•Modeling Future Heroes, a Practical Application of Heroic Values, by Roger F. Cram, book in progress•NAMI (National Alliance of Mental Illness) nami.org•NAMI – Family-to-Family Teacher’s Manual•Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News, May 4, 2011•neurons from www.images.wellcome.co.uk•The Brain Bank Your plastic brainPosted on June 20, 2011 by Brain Bank Manc •Neurons in the brain - illustration. Credit: Benedict Campbell•General Psychology – Neurotransmitters - Dr. C. George Boeree 2009• Healthy Botanicals•IMAGES FROM RESEARCH - NEURONS AND NEURONAL PROTEINS by Robert S. McNeil

•Transductions – neurons – Feb. 4th, 2010 by Wolf•NIDA National Institute on Drug Abuse July 2008 - Addiction Science: From Molecules to Managed Care

Sources of Material and Photo Credits:

what are neurons? what are neurotransmitters? what part do they play in mental illness? developed by...

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