Expectation or probability; inference and logical conclusion; belief and conjecture;

characteristic behaviour; inherent capacity; prediction

Expectation or probability: should, ought toShould and ought to are often used to indicate what is

regarded as probable or what may be reasonably expected:

(1) The introduction of new machinery should contribute greatly to better profits next year.

Should and ought to + perfect infinitive refer to expectations in past time and may indicate that expectations were not realized or fulfilled:

(2) He should have passed the examination easily.Sentence (2) has 2 interpretations:(a) Perhaps he has passed – this, at least, is what i

expected (said, probably, before the results are known)

(b) He didn’t pass – this is not what I expected (said, probably, after the results are known)

Inference (zaključivanje) and logical conclusion: must, can’tWe use must to assert that we infer or conclude to be

the most likely interpretation of a situation or events:(3) You must be one of Rosemary's friends.We don’t know for a fact that this is true, but taking

everything into account, we think that it is almost certainly so.

The opposite of must in this sense is can’t:(4) John: He must be at least sixty.Peter: Oh, no! He can’t be anything like as old as

that.John is almost certain that ‘He’ is 60, and Peter is

equally certain that ‘He’ is not.

Inference and logical conclusion: must, can’tIn reported speech, must does not change,

whereas can becomes could:(5) John said he must be at least sixty, but Peter

thought he couldn’t be anything like as old as that.To refer to past time, we use must and can’t (or

couldn’t) with the perfect infinitive:(6) There must have been something about my

appearance.(7) You can’t (or couldn’t) have understood what

he said. (= “It seems clear that you didn’t understand”)

Belief and conjecture (nagađanje, pretpostavljanje)Will and would are used to express belief and

conjecture.They lack the assertive force of must and can’t (in

the sense of inference and logical conclusion). However, they do not necessarily indicate any less certainty on the part of the speaker. Indeed, the truth of what is asserted is more or less taken for granted.

When will and would are used with the present infinitive, they refer to present time:

(8) You will already be familiar with this subject. = “You are, I feel sure, already familiar with this subject”

Belief and conjectureWould is used as the tentative form of will, and

is more commonly used than will in questions (which necessarily indicate some lack of certainty):

(9) He wouldn’t be a friend of yours, I suppose?(10) Would your name be Smith, by any chance?To refer to past time, we use will and would with

the perfect infinitive:(11) John: I met a charming girl at your party

last night.Peter: Ah, yes! That will/would have been my

cousin Sarah.

Characteristic behaviourWill may be used to refer to a characteristic or

persistent patter of behaviour or of events:(12) When he has a problem to solve, he will

work at it until he fins an answer.This is not a prediction about a future event,

but a statement having general current validity.Would is used in this sense to refer to a similar

situation in past time:(13) When he had a problem to solve, he would

work at it until he found an answer.

Characteristic behaviourIn sentences (12) and (13), we could use the

simple present tense instead of will and the simple past tense (or used to) instead of would, with little change except that there would be no emphasis:

(12a) When he has a problem to solve, he works at it until he finds an answer.

(13a) When he had a problem to solve, he worked (or used to work) at it until he found an answer.

Characteristic behaviourIf will and would are stressed, it indicates

that the speaker finds a persistent pattern annoying:

(14) (The one thing I dislike about him is that) he will borrow my things without asking.

(15) (The one thing I disliked about him is that) he would borrow my things without asking.

Inherent capacity (inherentno svojstvo): will, wouldWill for present time and would for past time

may refer to the possession of an inherent quality or a capacity in relation to things (as opposed tom people):

(16) The pound in your pocket will buy far less today than it would ten years ago.

Such sentences are half statement of fact and half prediction, and they often suggest that the fact or prediction can be put to the test and verified.

Inherent capacity (inherentno svojstvo): will, wouldThe use of will and would may even suggest that an

object is capable of co-operation or willingness (or absence of co-operation or willingness):

(17) This suitcase will hold everything.(18) The car wouldn’t start. = “The car refused to

start”Used in the sense of being capable or not of co-

operation or willingness, will and would may appear in the ‘if’ clause of a conditional sentence:

(19) If one suitcase will hold everything, we shan’t have so much luggage to carry.

Will and would are not used with the verb be in a conditional clause. We do not say:

(20) *If this suitcase will be big enough for everything…

Prediction: shall, willThere are many ways of referring to future

events in English. The use of shall and will is among the many means at our disposal.

All modal verbs can refer to future time. However, they carry some additional implication (e.g. ability, permission, possibility).

Similarly, shall and will often carry some additional implication as well (e.g. promise, refusal, determination), and their use in purely predictive function, i.e. simply to state what lies in store in the future, is only one of their several uses.

Prediction: shallIn the restricted use of ‘pure’ future, shall is used only

after I or we, and is often replaced by will or ‘ll, especially in speech.

When used with other pronouns, shall does not have a purely predictive meaning, and is not interchangeable with will. The following sentences are still occasionally heard in spoken English:

(21) You shall know tomorrow.(22) He shall do it again. (the speaker promises to enforce

action)However, the use of shall in this sense appears to be

common only with a relatively small number of verbs, e.g. have:

(23) You/he shall have it as soon a I’ve finished with it.Shall in this sense is nowadays commonly found only in

highly formal or legalistic written English.

Prediction: shall in interrogativesThe interrogative shall I? or shall we? used with

an active verb does not normally occur with a ‘pure’ future meaning. However, it may be used in this sense with verbs denoting action or events which do not depend on the speaker for their performance:

(24) Shall I hear from you soon? (or Will I hear from you soon?)

Shall I? is also used in a ‘pure’ future sense with verbs in passive, since the speaker is not in this case asking about his own future activities;

(25) Shall I be told what to do? (or Will I be told what to do?)

Prediction: shall in interrogativesHowever, in most cases shall I? used with an

active verb form represents a request on the part of the speaker to know the wishes or opinion of the person being addressed, or asks for consent, and in this sense it is never replaced by will:

(26) Shall I order a taxi for you?(27) Shall we sit down?(28) So, shall we say six o’clock, providing

this afternoon's conference doesn’t run late?

Prediction: shall in reported speechFor reporting I shall, a choice between should

and would arises only when the speaker reports his own words (29a). In fact, we tend increasingly to use only would. Also, if the report is made by a person other than the original speaker, only would is used (29b, 29c):

(29) ‘I shall be able to come.’(29a) I said I would (or should) be able to come.(29b) You said you would be able to come.(29c) He said he would be able to come.

Prediction: shall in reported speechThese remarks also apply when we report

‘pure’ future questions beginning with Shall I?:

(30) ‘Shall I hear from you soon?’(30a) I asked if I would (or should) hear from

him soon.(30b) You asked if you would hear from him

soon.(30c) He asked if he would hear from him

soon.

Prediction: willAfter the pronouns you, he, she, it, and they, only

will is used in a purely predictive sense.However, in many cases will may carry an additional

implication, particularly after the pronoun you.In statements, you will may represent an instruction

rather than a prediction:(31) ‘You will arrive punctually in future,’ the

manager told him.In questions, will you? may represent either a

request for information (32) or a request for action (33):

(32) Will you know the result soon?(33) Will (or would) you go and see the manager,

please?

Prediction: willIn some cases, the meaning of a sentence may be

ambiguous:(34) Will you tell him what I said?(34a) “Are you going to tell him what I said?”(34b) “Will you tell him what I said, (please)?”Such problems of meaning are often only

theoretical, since the speaker usually puts the question in a way that makes his meaning clear – he will probably say either (34a) or (34b), or Would you tell him, please, which is clearly a request.

Prediction: willThe predictive use of will is most commonly

seen after he, she, it, they, and after nouns generally:

(35) I'm sure it will be published.(36) In another for weeks, with schools

closed across the nation, the great all American summer safari will be under way.

Advice and recommendation: shall, should, ought to, had betterShall I? generally represents a request on the

part of the speaker to know the wishes or opinion of the person being addressed:

(37) Shall I try this number again?Shall I? is much stronger than Should I? and calls

for a firm response such as Yes, please do, rather than Yes, you should. Nevertheless, shall I? and should I? are clearly related.

In the reported speech version of such questions, shall always becomes should, and not would:

(37a) I/you/he asked if I/you/he should try his number again.

Advice and recommendation: shall, should, ought to, had betterShould and ought to express advice or

recommendation. The advice or recommendation may relate to everyday or practical matters, or to what is morally desirable:

(38) You should/ought to read that book. You’d enjoy it.

(39) You should/ought to see a doctor if you’re still feeling ill tomorrow.

(40) You shouldn’t/oughtn’t to tell lies.All these sentences have a present or future time

reference.

Advice and recommendation: shall, should, ought to, had betterWhich is the stronger – should or ought to?No absolute answer to this question, but it is

worth noting that should has a strong and a weak form phonetically, whereas ought to has only the strong form, and may appear to be more emphatic when compared with the weak form of should.

Advice and recommendation: shall, should, ought to, had betterHad better (‘d better) is used to suggest the wisest

course of action in a particular situation:(41) You’d better see a doctor if you’re still feeling ill

tomorrow.In affirmative negative sentences, the negative

particle not comes after the complete phrase:(42) You’d better not make a mistake next time.In interrogative negative sentences n’t comes after

had:(43) Hadn’t you better see who that is at the door?Had better is used almost exclusively with the

present infinitive, and refers to present or future time.

Advice and recommendation: shall, should, ought to, had betterShould and ought to are used with the

perfect infinitive to refer to past time, and in this case the sentences always imply that the opposite was in fact true:

(44) He should/ought to have been a little more tactful. = “But in fact, he wasn’t tactful”

Other uses of shouldIn a conditional clause – in that case, should has the effect

of making it seem less likely that the condition will be fulfilled (putative should):

(45) If he should come while I’m at lunch, tell him I’ll be back at two. (or Should he come while I’m at lunch, tell him I’ll be back at two.)

Putative should is also often used in a that-clause after verbs like suggest, recommend, require, decide, insist. Putative should is preferred in BrE, while subjunctive is preferred in AmE. In BrE, indicative is also used:

(46) We insisted that they should leave/leave at once.(47) People are demanding that he should

leave/leave/leaves.(48) I suggested that he should take/take/takes legal

advice.

Other uses of shouldPutative should is also used in a that-clause

after adjectives expressing pleasure, surprise, shock, disapproval, or after adjectives like important, essential, vital:

(49) I’m surprised that they should feel/feel lonely.

(50) I’m horrified that he should have told/told anyone.

(51) It’s vital that you should be/be/are there to meet him.

Other uses of shouldPutative should is sometimes used in

adverbial clauses of purpose and conditional clauses, after the conjunctions so that, in order that, lest, in case:

(52) I have put everything in writing so that you should know exactly how things stand.

Obligation and necessity: must, mustn’t, have toMust can express different nuances of obligation and

necessity: instruction or what is obligatory (53), sense of inner compulsion (54), what is necessary or inevitable in the speaker’s opinion (55), pressing advice (56):

(53) Candidates must attempt all the questions.(54) I simply must tell you what happened.(55) You must make an early start tomorrow.(56) You must see the film if you get a chance.In every sentence must expresses the authority of the

speaker, or a decision or firm opinion on the speaker’s part.

Obligation and necessity: must, mustn’t, have toIf obligation or necessity is imposed by a person

other than the speaker, or by force circumstance, we use have to:

(57) You have to answer all the questions. (The teacher explains to students the requirements of the examiners)

(58) I have to tell you what happened. (Those are the instructions I’ve been given)

(59) We have to make an early start tomorrow. (Circumstances or arrangements make it necessary)

(60) You’ll have to see the film tomorrow if you don't want to miss it. (It won’t be showing any longer)

Obligation and necessity: must, mustn’t, have toMust can be used with adverbs having a present

or future time reference:(61) We must discuss that question.

(now/later/next week)However, the obligation or necessity is felt by

the speaker to exist now, and it is the activity denoted by the main verb (discuss) that lies in the future.

In cases where the obligation or necessity will exist only eventually, or where it is dependent on some other event, we use will/shall have to:

(62) If we miss the bus, we’ll have to walk.

Obligation and necessity: must, mustn’t, have toThe simple present tense of have to is used to

indicate what is habitual (63) or what is already planned or arranged for the future (64):

(63) I have to get up at seven every morning.(64) We have to be there at ten tomorrow.Have got to is commonly used in sentences

like (64), and reinforces the idea or external authority:

(65) We’ve got to be there at ten tomorrow.

Obligation and necessity: must, mustn’t, have toThe interrogative form in the present tense is

generally formed with do:(66) What time do you have to get up?(67) What time do we have to be there?OR What time have we got to be there?Must is left unchanged in reported speech:(68) ‘You must tell me how to do it.’(68a) I said he must tell me how to do it.However, must cannot be used to refer to

obligation or necessity before the time of speaking. Instead, we use had to:

(69) I had to shout to make myself heard above the noise.

Obligation and necessity: must, mustn’t, have toWe also use forms of have to in the situations

where must lacks the necessary verb forms (progressive and perfect aspect, infinitive, -ing form).

Since the forms of have to are sometimes the only ones available, a distinction in meaning between must and have to is not always rigidly maintained in those cases where both verbs are possible grammatically.

Obligation and necessity: be toBe to sometimes expresses a command or

instruction issuing from the speaker, or imposed on the speaker by external authority:

(70) You are to give this letter to the manager.(71) We are to be there by ten o’clock.Such sentences always have a future time

reference. In reported speech, and to refer to past time, we use was/were to.

Was/were to + perfect infinitive generally implies that instructions were not carried out:

(72) You were to have given the letter to the manager. = “But you didn’t”

Obligation and necessity: must, mustn’t, have toIf must is followed by the perfect infinitive, it

nearly always indicates an inference on the part of the speaker:

(73) It must have been a great shock to him.However, there are occasional examples where

must + perfect infinitive is equivalent in meaning to “It is essential that this should already have been done”

(74) To be eligible for a full pension, an employee must have contributed to the fun d for at least twenty years.

Obligation and necessity: must, mustn’t, have toTo express the necessity for non-action, we

use mustn’t, be not to:(75) You mustn’t say anything about it.(76) You are not to say anything about it.Although the negative particle not is often

attached to must in the form n’t (=mustn’t), it does not cancel the obligation, but instead relates to the main verb.

(77) You must TELL him.(78) You must NOT TELL him.

Absence of obligation or necessity: needn’t, not need to, not have toThe use of the three forms mentioned above has several

parallels with the use of must and have to: (a) needn’t generally expresses the authority of the speaker,

while the other two verbs denote the external authority, or circumstances, remove the obligation or necessesity fo action;

(b) needn’t + present infinitive has only a present or future time reference, although it can be left unchanged in reported speech (79a):

(79) You needn’t come if you dodn’t want to. (80) You don’t need to see a doctor. You’re perfectly healthy. (81) I don’t have to work on Saturdays. (79a) I told him he needn’t come if he didn’t want to.

Absence of obligation or necessity: needn’t, not need to, not have toIf the absence of obligation or necessity will exist only

eventually or is dependent on some other event, we use one of the other two verbs, with will and shall:

(82) When you get an assistant, perhaps you won’t have to work quite so hard yourself.

The simple present tenses don’t have to and don’t need to express what is habitual (83), or what is already planned or arranged for the future (84):

(83) I don’t need to get up till eight to get to work on time.

(84) We don’t have to be there till ten tomorrow.OR We haven’t got to be there till ten tomorrow.

Absence of obligation or necessity: needn’t, not need to, not have toWe use negative forms of have to and need to in

the many situations where needn’t lacks the necessary verb forms.

Providing the fact that the ‘deficiencies’ of needn’t are supplied by other verbs, distinction in meaning between the three verbs is not always maintained.

The distinction in meaning for the sentences (79-81) can be paraphrased as follows:

(85) “You can please yourself what you do.”(86) “It isn’t necessary for you to see a doctor.”(87) “I am not obliged to work on Saturdays.”

Absence of obligation or necessity: needn’t, not need to, not have toA more important distinction is a grammatical one

between don’t need to and needn’t:Need in don’t need to is a lexical verb need.

Negative and interrogative sentences are formed using do, as with other lexical verbs, and there is a full range of verb tenses. To need may be followed by a noun (88), or infinitive (89) or –ing form (90):

(88) He needs your help.(89) I need to see him immediately.(90) My pen needs filling.

Absence of obligation or necessity: needn’t, not need to, not have toThe modal aux verb need is always used in

negative and interrogative sentences , which are made by adding not to the aux verb, and by inversion of the subject and aux:

(91) He needn’t come. Need he?The interrogative forms must I? and need I?

are more or less synonymous, althoug need I? often suggests that the speaker hopes for a negative answer. The positive answer to both of these forms is Yes, you must, and the negative one is No, you needn’t.

Absence of obligation or necessity: needn’t, not need to, not have toThe positive form of the modal aux need is found in

sentences that already contain a negative verb or adverb: (92) I don’t think that need worry us unduly. (93) You need study only the first two chapters.Needn’t + perfect infinitive indicates the absence of

necessity or obligation in the past: (94) He needn’t have come.Needn’t + perfect infinitive always expresses unreal past,

and contrasts with didn’t need to, which nearly always expresses real past:

(95) I needn’t have gone. (but I went) (96) I didn’t need to go. (so presumably I didn’t go)