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BED 1ST SEMESTER PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE

UNIT-4

APPROACHES, METHODS AND

TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING PHYSICAL

SCIENCES

Education is an art of all arts and is a developing science. Education all over the world have

propounded and designed different approaches and methods of teaching basing on sound

philosophical background and universally accepted psychological and educational principles.

Teaching is an art and methods of teaching are the ways to understand and practice this art.

Effective teaching and learning situations depending upon child centered procedures and active

participation of children in the Learning process. These procedures of teaching of mathematics

are known as methods of teaching mathematics. Different methods of teaching have been

evolved and suggested by different educational thinkers. It is de able for teacher to urn about all

of them so that he can make a rational choice for himself.

MEANING OF METHODS AND APPROACH

The word. "Method” in Latin means "Mode" or "ways”.

Teaching method is a style of the presentation of content in classroom. M. Verma defined

teaching method as “Method is an abstract as logical entities that we can distinguish between

manner and methods in reality, they form an organic whole and matter determines method

analogously as objective determines means; content and spirit determine style and form of

literature.".

Gage has defined Teaching method as “Teaching methods are patters of teacher behavior that

are recurrent, applicable to verse subject matter, characteristic of more than one teacher and

relevant to Learning”

Broudy £1963) Kas stated that“ Method refers to the formal structure. of the sequence of acts

commonly denoted by instruction. The term method covers both strategies and tactics of

teaching and involves the choice of what is to be taught, and in which order is it to be

presented”.

Importance of Teaching Method and Approaches:

A method or approach’s a tool or an instrument in the hands of the teacher to present the



content successfully, systematically and satisfactorily.

Good C.V. defines the method / approach as “A standard procedure in the presentation of

instructional material and the content of activities, for example, the Herbartian Method, the

Morrison Method, etc.

A rational ordering and balancing in the light of knowledge and purpose, of the several elements

that enter into the. educational process, the nature of the pupil , the materials of instruction, and

the total learning: situation":

Method or approach is further explained as a procedure for arriving at a destination or goal to

attain desired objectives.

Characteristics of good method includes.

i) Built on the sound philosophical principles.

ii) Psychological in approach,

iii) Organization of content for effective teaching to avoid waste of time.

iv) Orderly procedure in teaching.

Need and Significance;

Knowledge of these methods may help the children in many ways. Need and significance of the

approaches are as follows.

1. Working out a better teaching strategy.

2. Ensure maximum participation of the child

3. Proceeds from concrete to abstract.

4. Provide knowledge at understanding level.

5. *To create interest, attitudes and mathematical spirit.

6. To attain the desired objectives at various stages of education.

7. Methods of teaching to learn the content according to help the needs, aptitudes and abilities

of the individuals.

Need for Instructional strategies in Teaching:

Strategy, is the art of planning the best way to achieve success.

These strategies are important because

1. They make the teaching methods easier

. 2To make the complicated thing easier

3. To reduce the gap between the teacher and the taught

4.To reach the desired goals.

5: Individual differences can be met and satisfied.

6. To achieve the objectives.

Principles of Teaching:

Teaching strategies are dependent on

1. Known to unknown

2. Simple to complex

3. Easy to difficult

4. Concrete to abstract

5. Particular to general



6. General to particular

Characteristics of a good teaching method:

1. Suitable to the level of students:

The method adopted should be in accordance with the physical, mental and educational levels

of the students.

2. Interaction:

The method should create a good link between the teacher and the student for good teaching

atmosphere

3. Related to Life:

It should be related to the problems of life and should show the ways to solve those problems.

4. Motivation to students:

The method should create interest in the teaching learning process.

5. Opportunities to participate:

A good method should provide opportunity for all the students to participate actively in the class

room activities:

6. Guidance:

Method should fulfill the objectives of cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills and helps the

students to proceed further with their self-help.

INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE APPROACHES

INDUCTIVE APPROACH

In the inductive approach the concept/generalization is derived after electing a number of

examples from pupils. It is reasoning from "Particular to general". In the teaching of Physical

Science we start from every day observations, argue from particular cases to general

conclusions, and arrive at laws or principles for theories. This method is known as formula

construction method.,

Principles of Inductive Approach:

1. Examples to Generalization.

2. Known to Un-known."

3. Particular to General.

4. Concrete things to abstract things.

Examples:

1. On heating iron expands.

2. On heating copper expands.

3. On heating Aluminum expands.

On heating Iron, Copper, Aluminum expands. All are metals. So, on heating metals expands.

Generalization of the Principle:

On beating all the metals expand.

Josep lt says that “We make use of the inductive method of teaching, whenever, we place

before children a number of facts, examples or objects, and then Endeavour to lead them to

draw conclusions". For example in science by heating various metals the student may conclude

that metals expand when heated.



Steps in Inductive approach to problem-solving

The various steps in Inductive-approach are:

1. Sensing the problem: Here the students define the problem.

2. Analyzing the situation: Here a detailed analyses of all the aspects of the situation is done.

3. Collecting the data: The students collect the relevant data from different sources like books

field etc.

4. Organizing the data or information: The students organize the collected information with the

help of teacher.

5. Framing possible solutions: After organizing the data, the students frame possible solutions,

6. Eliminating: Only possible solutions are retained and the rest are eliminated.

7. Verification: The solutions are applied to the problem situations and the results are checked.

The procedure is repeated a number of times.

DEDUCTIVE APPROACH

It is opposite to Inductive approach. Deductive approach is "from general to particular”. It is

sometimes called "going from the known to the unknown”, because it involves making logical

inferences from general statements that have already been accepted. It is a process of

reasoning in which the proposition supplies absolutely conclusive evidences or generalizations.

This method-also called as a method of verification of - formula.

Principles:

1. Generalization/Principles to Examples.

2. Un-known to Known.

3. General to Particular.

4. Abstract things to known things.

Examples: Acids changes blue litmus paper as red and Bases changes red litmus paper as

blue.

Take four test tubes containing different liquids in them red-litmus paper was kept. There is no

change in colour red-litmus paper of first three test tubes. But in the fourth the fest tube red-

litmus changed in blue colour. In last tube he took lemon water, he knows that last one is base.

So, first three were acids and last one is base. So, he got that acids cannot change the red

litmus paper, bases changes it as blue like this he has known by the method of inductive.

Steps in Deductive Approach to problem solving

The various steps in deductive approach are:

1. Understanding the problem: The students understand the problem, define it and formulate it.

2. Collecting Information: The students collect the information from a number of sources like

library, laboratory, field etc.

3. Reviewing Principles, generalizations are reviewed to find facts which may be best applicable

to the problem in question.

4. Drawing inference: The principles, generalization are applied to particular caste and

inferences are drawn that the problem falls under the principle.



5. Verification: The principle of generalizations is applied to the particular case. Ifit solves the

problem then it is accepted, otherwise the procedure is repeated-till a better solution is found.

Difference Between Inductive & Deductive Approaches:

CLASSIFICATION OF TEACHING METHODS

Generally the methods of teaching Physical science can be classified into two categories, They

are:

1. Teacher-centered Methods:

2. Pupil centered methods

In this method, the teacher plays the central and active role. The concentration will be on

learning by heart, recalling and memorizing. The students are passive listeners just answering

the questions of the teacher. The students ask questions to the teacher rarely. A sort of artificial

atmosphere prevails in the classroom.

In this three kinds of methods are included. They are : Lecture Method.



b. Lecture-cum-demonstration.

c. Historical Method:

2. Pupil centered methods

In these methods, teaching leashing process takes place keeping in view the needs,

necessities, interests and capacities of the students. There is a natural atmosphere and the

students learn in a free atmosphere. The teaching takes place to develop the skills, capabilities

of the students and also prepares them to solve the problems. There is a cooperative

atmosphere between the teacher and the students. The teacher prepares congenial learning

atmosphere and the student uses it to develop his efficiency. In such atmosphere, there is every

possibility for the student to learn to the maximum possible extent.

In this following kinds of methods are included.

They are :

a. Heuristic Method

b. Project Method.

c. Experimental Method. :

d. Inductive, Deductive Method.

e. Problem Solving Method

TEACHER CENTERED METHODS

LECTURE METHOD

This method has been used in education from ancient days. At present also this method has

occupied on important place in Indian schools. It is also called 'Telling method' why because the

teacher, in it; teaches through felling

For success the lecture method depends .upon two factors: (

a) The selection of the subject matter and

(b) The manner of presenting the subject matter. The mode of presentation depends upon the

personality of the teacher, It is necessary for teacher to have proper preparation and suitable

voice. This method is not opposed to the principles of psychology. There takes some mental

activity in pupils. With full preparation the teacher can present the subject matter in an

interesting way and can ask question to keep them active. If all depends upon the teacher how

he makes use of the method. secure accounts for alertness of auditory faculty. For teaching

social studies this method is highly beneficial to the teacher makes use of storytelling may to

make the lecture interesting.

When to use Lecture Method: The teacher can use lecture narration method, telling method for

the following purposes.

1. To Motivate: Before presenting a lesson or a unit of the subject, the pupils can be

encouraged to study the same, by explaining first, the important points through lecture method.

2.. To Summarize: Some pupils are up-set on seeing the extensiveness of the subject matter.

They find themselves unsuccessful to come out of the cobweb of the subject matter. In such a



case, they do not agree to study the extensive subject matter. Hence it is necessary that this

extensive subject matter be presented in such a way so that the whole subject matter be

presented in a small form:.

3. To Clarify: It is to be used to explain the events; terms, concepts and principles involved in

the subject. It is necessary to clarify them in simple words.

4. To Save Time: It takes form to read and understand the text book Through lecture, adequate

subject matter can be presented in short time. .

5. To Present Additional Material: At times, the subject matter may be two brief in the book and

may be in sufficient. Looking at the level of the pupils, the teacher can give additional matter.

6. To give Assignment: While giving home work, the teacher should make use of a lecture.

Advantages:

1. - Individualized Instruction: It is based on lecture method. The printed. words in the book

cannot much to the students. Books cannot pay attention to individual differences.

2: Development of Logical Reasoning: This method develops reasoning and expression of

students.

3. Classification of Subject Matter: In this method, the subject matter is made clear to the

maximum many points come up in the subject matter which is tough and complicated

4. It Saves Time Labour: This method will save allot of time and labour:

5. To Make Subject Matter Interesting and Effective By this method, the teacher can make the

subject interesting. In it, the teacher can classify the matter through interpretation and gestures.

6. In improves pronunciation among the pupils.

7. In this method pupils and teacher remain active.

8. This method also psychological in nature.

Limitations:

1. Pupils are passive listeners.

2. Stress on theoretical knowledge

3. It is one sided

4. Unstable knowledge

5. Limited time

6. Lack of real knowledge

7. Lack of deep study

8. Efficient lecturer



9. Teaching becomes dull

10. Useful for high classes.

LECTURE-CUM-DEMONSTRATION METHOD

This method includes the merits of lecture method and demonstration method. The teacher

performs the experiment in the class and goes on explaining what he does. It takes into account

the active participation of the students and is thus not a loop sided process like the lecture

method. The students see the actual apparatus and operations and help the teacher in

demonstrating, the experiment and thereby they feel interested in learning. It is difficult to talk

about things which the people have to imagine. It is always easy for the students to understand

and remember the concrete things and so this method is also in accordance with the maxim of

teaching "from concrete to Abstract “. The students observe the demonstration critically and try

to draw inferences. Thus, their power of observation and reasoning and also exercised.

Merits:

The lecture-cum demonstration method has the following merits. 1. Psychological Method: It'iša

psychological method as it proceeds from the concrete to the abstract.

2. Economical: It is an economical method. When the apparatus are. not sufficient for the

students to do practical’s individually, the teacher -may perform the experiment for the whole

class. .

3.. Time-Saving It is a time-saving method. Compare to heuristic and project method, it saves

much time.

4. Activity Method: Students are engaged in various activities like observing, taking notes,

answering questions, drawing etc.

5. Useful to all Students: This method is suitable to all types of students i.e. average, below

average and above students.

6. Promotes discussion: This method helps to promote useful and relevant discussion in the

classroom.

7. Safe Method: If the experiments are dangerous, or if the apparatus are costly, this method is

considered as safe.

8. Develop Skills: This method can be used to impart manual and manipulative skills to the

students.

9. Brings together theory and practice: Įt aids in bringing about a relationship between theory

and practical’s.

10. Fosters Thinking: It fosters good thinking in groups and individuals.



11. Quick Method: Quick revision of some principle or project is possible by this method.

Demerits:

Though very useful at the high school stage the lecture-cum demonstration has the following

limitations:

1. Provides no scope for "learning by doing", which is an important principle of learning and thie

students do not relish the joy of direct personal experiences.

2. Students are not active participants in the process.

3. It ignores the individual differences. Slow learners and the genius are made to sail in the

same boat.

4. It is not suitable to develop scientific attitude.

5. It is not suitable to give training in scientific method.

6. Since the teacher is performing the experiment, the students may fail to comprehend the

concept clearly.

7 It does not give training in laboratory skills to the students.

While using the demonstration method the teacher can

1. Provide significant, rich and worthwhile experiences to the students.

2. Enhance students power of observation.

3. Illustrate abstract ideas in concrete form.

4. Co-ordinate laboratory work with theory.

5. . Provide concrete experiences for the solution of a problem.-

6. Add additional demonstrations after its review, if considered necessary.

7. Do those demonstrations which are dangerous for students to perform themselves.

8. Pose a problem to students, and gather their hypothesis based on their experiences.

Characteristics of a Good Demonstration:

The following points may be considered as criteria for a good demonstration.

: 1. Rehearsal: The demonstration should be tried out in advance so that everything becomes

clear tó the teacher. This will give added confidence to the teacher and the teacher can find out

the difficulties involved in the experiment beforehand.

2. Arrangement of the Apparatus: The apparatus for demonstration should be arranged in order.

It is always better to keep the apparatus to be used on the left hand side and the used ones on

the right hand side.

3. Visibility: The demonstration should be visible to all the students. The demonstration table

should be a little higher than the pupils tables: Arrangement should be made for adequate

lighting.

4. Apparatus: The apparatus should be big enough.

5. : Spare Apparatus: Some spare parts or extra apparatus should be there to fall back in case

the apparatus breaks while doing the experiment.



6. Purpose: The teacher should be clear of the purpose of demonstration. The teacher, should

know the aims of the demonstration, the generalizations to be made and the attitude to be

developed while demonstrating.

7. Involvement. of Students: The teacher should involve the students in demonstration. The

teacher can take the help of the students in arranging the apparatus, writing summary on the

blackboard, taking readings etc.

8. Simple and speedy: Demonstration should be simple and speedy If the demonstration is

lengthy, the students have to wait for long for the results. They will loose interest in such

demonstrations.

9. Use of teaching aids: Demonstration should be supplemented with other teaching aids like

charts, pictures, models, films etc.

10. According to time and season: Demonstration should be accordance with the time and

season otherwise it will be a failure. This is because the climatic conditions affect some

apparatus and materials. For example demonstrations on static electricity should be avoided

during rainy season while experiments on ice can be done during hot season. The experiments

on heat can be done during winter season.

11. Questions: Judicious amount of questioning must accompany the demonstration. Questions

asked should be reflective to stimulate thinking on the part of the students.

12. Use of Black board: A good use of black-board should be made simultaneously. It can be

used for writing principles, generalizations arrived at and for drawing diagrams etc.

13. Take one idea at a time: Only one major idea should be taken at a time. Too many ideas in

one demonstration may confuse the children specially the young ones.

14. Do demonstration step-by-step: Break-down the demonstration into simple step-by-step

patter. So that it can be easily understood by the class. Ascertain after each step whether the

students have grasped the meaning, contents and explanations. If they have not the relevant

part should be repeated.

15. Recording the Data: The students should record the data, observation etc. For this sufficient

time should be given to the students.

16. Training in Scientific method: Demonstration should create problem for the students and

also make provisions for solving it through their own efforts. In this way, the students will find

chance to exercise their abilities like observing, analyzing, verifying etc. Thus they will get

training in scientific method of solving a problem. :

17. Teacher as "showman: The teacher should know various methods of arresting the attention



of students and creating interest. At times the teacher has to act as a "Showman". To inspire the

class with a sense of dramatization and to arouse an atmosphere of suspense just before

critical point of an experiment, is an art. on demonstration. This will

18. Evaluate: Give an assignment based help evaluate pupils learning.

Steps in Lecture-cum Demonstration:

Lecture-cum-demonstration method is very suitable at the high school stage. It involves the

follow steps:

1. Planning and preparation: Before the actual conduct of the lecture cum-demonstration lesson

the teacher has to thoroughly prepare and plan for the same.

While preparing the teacher should keep the following points in mind.

a) Subject Matter: The teacher should thoroughly prepare the content by referring the relevant

books.

b) Lesson Planning Preparing a lesson-plan is important as it gives confidence to the teacher.

The lesson-notes should include how to introduce the lesson, how to present it, list of the

principles to be explained, a list of the experiments to be demonstrated, the type of questions to

be posed to the students and how to recapitulate the lesson.

c) Rehearsal of the Experiment: The demonstration should be rehearsed in advance: Rehearsal

will give an idea to the teacher, about the precautions to be taken and the difficulties that are

involved in the demonstration. This will ensure the smooth and systematic conduct of the lesson

2. Collection and arrangement of apparatus: The apparatus and the chemicals should be

properly arranged on the demonstration table. Some spare apparatus and chemicals will be an

added advantage. . Introducing the Lesson: The lesson should be started by motivating the

students. The lesson should be introduced in a problematic way so that students can appreciate

and realize the importance of the topic. It can also be introduced. by

a). Telling a story

b) A familiar anecdote

c. By performing a simple experiment related to the demonstration etc. While introducing the

lesson the teacher has to keep in mind the student's previous knowledge and their personal

experiences also.

3 Presentation of the subject matter: The method of presenting the subject is very important and

hence it should be presented in an interesting way. For this the teacher has

a) To study the subject matter or broad basis taking into consideration the interest and

experiences of the students. The lesson should be correlated vertically as well as horizontally.

The lesson can be made interesting and lively by quoting the interesting facts from the life

history of great-scientists and by quoting the personal experiences of the teacher and the

students etc. The teacher should also try to illustrate the facts and principles.

b) To pose questions to the students. This will help them to understand -the underlying

principles. Questions not only bring for the required answers, but also create a desire in the



student to know what he does not know.

To deliver the lesson slowly, deliberately and with correct pronunciation. Language should be

clear and simple. The tone of the voice should be modulated according to the nature of the

statement. Lesson should be narrated in an interesting way. Try to avoid ambiguous terms.

Performance of Experiment: The work on the demonstration table should be a model for the

students. Some of the important points to be kept in mind while demonstrating an experiment

are: ,

a) Experiments should be simple and speedy

b): Experiment

c) Keep reserve apparatus near the demonstration table so that much time is not wasted in

collecting the apparatus in case of breakages.

d) Arrange the apparatus in an order in which the experiments are to be shown. should be well

spaced throughout the lesson.

e) Store the demonstration apparatus intact until it is to be used again. It results in much

economy of time.

F The experiments must work and their results should be clear and striking.

g)Involve the students while performing the experiments.

5. Chalk-board Work: It is an important aid in a demonstration lesson. -

It is mainly used for two purposes.

For writing important results and principles in a summarized form.

For drawing necessary sketches and diagrams. :

writing on the black-board should be neat, clean and legible. The diagrams should be labeled

properly. The teacher may involve the students in making black-board summary.

HISTORICAL METHOD

In this method, the topic is developed from its very beginning and carried through various stages

of evolution,

Science has its own history and every invention or discovery has its historical background. The

children feel very much interested and fascinated in listening to the stories and the teacher can

introduce his talk with an interesting story.

For example, the teacher is to teach Principle of Archimedes. He can narrate the whole story of

how a king announced to his subjects that who so ever will find out whether the crown is made

of pure gold or not without breaking it, will be given a big prize. The teacher should then tell that

one day Archimedes was taking bath in a bathing tub and felt that his body was being lifted up

by water. He thought of the reason of this loss of weight in water. He conceived that like his

body, everything loses its weight in water and in this way he can, find out the purity of gold in

the crown. He was so much overjoyed with his finding that he ran naked to the king crying

'Eureka, Eureka! Which means I have found out?



Similarly, while teaching Newton's laws, Petrol Engine, Steam Engine, Telescope, Radio,

Television and hundreds of modern inventions and discoveries, the teacher can give a historical

sketch of each. This will arouse interest in the students for learning scientists.

This method is particularly suited for teaching to primary classes where the students are much

interested in listening to the stories. It cannot be adopted as a method of teaching but it is

suggested that historical approach should be made wherever it is possible.

STUDENT-CENTERED METHODS

HEURISTIC METHOD

The term "Heuristic' has its origin from the Greek word "Heurisco” which means to find out.

In this method the students learn by exploring. The teachers role is that of the path setter who

rectifies the faults at the proper time.

Definitions:

1. "Children should be told as little as possible and induced to discovered as much as possible”

Herbert Spencer



2. “Heuristic method is a method of teaching, which involves placing the students as far as

possible in the attitude of discover”. Prof. Armstrong

Procedure:

A problem is assigned to the class and each student is made to feel responsible for finding out

something for himself.

Each student tries to acquire information about the problem for different sources. He is free to

move about and discuss the problem with the class-mates. Each student is given a sheet of

instructions regarding the problem in hand. The student gets a bit of guidance from the teacher.

But some people are of the view that nothing should be told by the teacher and the student

should follow instructions and work everything himself. But this will be too ambitious to expect

so much from the students. The teacher should stand for help wherever the student feels its

need. However the teacher should try to get everything out of the students by inductive method.

- As many questions as possible should be allowed to arise from child's (students) own

observation and at times the teacher should also put questions which well stimulate the pupils to

know more about a particular problem. In this way, they are let to know the reason from

observation.

To devise the experiment.

To interpret the data obtained.

To infer laws and generalizations.

Regarding the selection of the problem thorst a dig a view that the problems must be suggested

by the pupils themselves as far as possible. The students cannot take a lively interest if the

problems are imposed from above. For it is a demand for activity rather than receptivity.

Examples:

1. Finding the purification of water.

2. Finding the atomic structure of Crystals.

Role of the Teacher:

1. The teacher should be well prepared well equipped.

2. The teacher should act as Guide and a Friend.

3. The teacher should encourage students. :

4. Detailed instruction sheet should be given to the students.

5. The teacher should help to develop values.

6. The teacher should keep psychological principles in mind

7 The teacher should provide freedom of thought

8. The teacher should arouse, maintain curiosity of the students,

Advantages:

1) It imparts knowledge in scientific method of thinking and inculcates scientific attitude among

students which can prove to be useful for future life of students.

2). It develops .in students self confidence.

3). It is based upon very important principle of learning that is "learning by doing".

4). The problem of home work is solved.

5) The teacher is not a dictator. He is just a friend and guide of students.



Disadvantages:'

1) It seems retiles difficult to put the small students in the position of original discoverers. ::

2) Our lengthy syllabus prescribed by universities does not allow except Lecture method..

3) Text books written on this method are not available.

4) This method demands a class of 10-15 students and in poor countries like India we cannot

afford it.

5) It is very costly method because it requires furnished laboratories, libraries and well qualified

teachers.

6). The child possesses a social heritage and has every right to make use of it" It is more

foolishness to make him repeat mistakes and then reach right facts.

7). This method cannot be used in primary classes.

PROJECT METHOD

Based on the philosophy of pragmatism and to lessen the gap between school life and the life in

society, project method was developed by Kilpatrick and it was perfected by Stevenson with the

objective of bringing! Life into school.

According” to Oxford's Advanced learner's Dictionary Project means; a 'Plan of action'.

Definitions:

1. Ballard: "A Project is a bit of real life that has been imparted into : school."

This method consists of building a comprehensive unit around an activity which may be carried

out in the school or outside. The essence of this method is to carry out a useful task in a group

in which all the students? work co-operatively. The curriculum, content and technique of

teaching are considered from child's point of view, and demand that the students: should think

and select their studies for themselves. “Learning by doing and “Learning by living are the

cardinal principles of this method. Steps Involved in the Project Method:

1) A situation to propose a problem: The teacher should provide such situations to the students

which may create some suitable problems: for them in which they are interested. The teacher

can do so through: libraries, laboratories and journals.

2) Choosing and announcing the topic: The students should be allowed> to choose a project.

The teacher should see that the project is well; under stood by pupil and of real need to them. It

should be acceptable to all. In case of wrong selection, the teacher should tactfully guide them

to choose another project. The teacher can also propose a project from syllabus. The students

should be asked to give reasons for the selection of their topic.

3) Planning: For the success of project proper planning is must which : includes finding different

phases of project, amount of work to be done for each phase, materials and equipments

Deeded.



1) Planning by the students under the guidance of teacher.

ii) Planning by the teacher two or three plans) to give guidance to the students

iii) Discussion among the students.

iv) Selecting the best plan after discussion.

V) Recording the plan by the Students in their note books.

4. Execution: The duties are assigned according to the capabilities and interests of the

students and the teacher act as controller. The students collect information and perform a

variety of activities. It is the longest step and students need patience to complete it.

5. Graduation: The Project is reviewed by the students and teacher from time to time, to

achieve the objectives of the project. Shortcomings should be over ruled,

6. Recording: The students should keep a complete record of work i.e. planning, discussion,

duties, and solution and short comings of the project.

Example for Project Method:

The teacher, wants that there should be flower Garden in the school. Instead of ordering the

students to plant a flower garden, he takes the students to a flower garden. The children are

pleased to see the flowers and wonder why there are no flowers in their school. Their hearts are

full of great desire to plant a flower garden in their school: The students now come back to the

school, plan the project and start the execution. They evaluate their work and record everything

they do. The teacher will teach a number of subjects through this project in a correlated way.

The students will read different books to gather information and then enter into disdyissions.

They also study the names of flowers, write application to the Principal for sanction, learu

Arithmetic and elementary Geometry by preparing different designs of plots and finding out the

cost of seeds etc. They garn Geography and finding out the effect of seasons, raid wind ete, on

the plants. They also do handwork by preparing plants and flowers of paper etc. In this way the

students get a lot of information in different subjects in correlated way. Role of the Teacher:

1.The teacher is role a dictator of commander but a friend, guide and a working partner.

2. He should provide occasions for shy pupils to come forward and contribute something

towards the success of the project. The teacher should provide work to every child.

3. He should help the students in developing the character and personality by allowing them to

accept the responsibilities and discharge them efficiently.

4. He should also aim at inculcating scientific attitude and giving training in scientific method.

5. He should provide democratic atmosphere in the class so the pupils can express themselves

fully without any fear of the teacher.

6. He should be alert and active all the time to see that the project is running in its right lines.

7. He should have a thorough knowledge of individual children so as to allot them work

accordingly.



8. He should have initiative, tact and zest for learning and should be well experienced.

Advantages: I.

Based on laws: Thišʻmethod is based upon the laws of learning,

i) Law of readiness: The students are made ready to learn by creating interest

ii) Law of Exercise: By doing experiments and various other related activities they gain

experience which are useful in the later stage of their life.

ii) Law of Effect: Once the project is completed successfully, students get satisfaction.

2. Critical thinking: This method helps in developing critical thinking.

3. Correlation: By this method correlation of various subjects is achieved and knowledge is

obtained.

4. Freedom of work: In this method, students can work at their own speed, they plan and

execute the project.

Disadvantages:

1. Teacher: This method has heavy demands on the teacher. The teacher required for this

method should be exceptionally gifted, knowledgeable, alert and hard worker.

2. Time: The method is time consuming. The syllabus Cannot be completed on time by this

method.

3.Text books: Instructional materials and text books written on these lines are not easily

available

4. Superficial knowledge: The method gives a superficial knowledge of the subject. Kinds of

Projects!

According to W.H.Kilpatrick projects are of four types:

1. Producer Types

2. Consumer Types

3. Problem Types

4. Drill Types

1. Producer Type" A producer project is the one in which the students construct something,

object or article like building a garden or even a toy.

2. Consumer Type: A project in which the students enjoy as well as acquire experiences is

known as a consumer type of project. For example enacting a drama. -

3. Problem Type: A project in which solution to a problem is found out is known as a problem

type of project.

4. Drill type: In Drill type of project, no new activity is undertaken. Once acquired activities are

repeated to enhance the skill. For example drill in singing, swimming,



SCIENTIFIC METHOD OR PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD

The development of scientific attitude and training in scientific method are two cardinal aims for

the teaching of science. The method or the procedure which the scientists use in the pursuit of

science may be termed as scientific method. It is a method for discovery learning. Basically, it is

a problem-solving method/or it is a method of solving a problem scientifically so the students of

science must be trained in the method of attaching a problem, scientifically. Once trained they

will approach all the problem the way in real life situations also.

Definitions:

“Problem solving may be defined as planned attack upon a difficulty or perplexity , for

the purpose of finding a satisfactory solution”.

T.M: Risk

Scientific Method: Problem solving method is of comparatively recent origin. It has also

emerged as a reaction against theoretical and away: from-life type of education.

The aim of education is to prepare the individuals for life or to equips the students in such a way

that they can deal with the life situations effectively, competently and successfully. Problem

solving method: prepares they individuals best for this purpose.

This method not only trains the individuals to solve their day to day! problems; it also provides

them training in original and creative thinking/ *In the problem solving method, only a mental

solution is to be found in the problem, the activity involved leads to a mental solution, ·

"Problem solving is an educational device whereby the teacher, pupils, attempted a conscious,

planned, purposeful efforts to arrive at an explanation are solution to some educationally

significant difficulty. It is a general educational method rather them a specific pedagogical

technique

" Characteristics of Good Problem:

1. The problem must be the product of the student's environment and must challenge the

minds of the students.

2. The problem must be according to the mental level of the students so that may be able

to take interest in them.

3. The problems selected must have educational value and must provides the maximum of

activity and practical knowledge to the pupils

4. A. problem should be accepted and undertaken by the pupils cooperative basis.

Principles of Problems Solving:

1. The pupils must feel the problem as their own; The problem must be challenging to the minds

of the pupils.

2. The problem must be started definitely.

3.The means of solving the problem must be vague to the pupils.

4. Solution must be definite and clear.

Steps of Scientific method:



Any method of solving a problem scientifically following some sequence may be called as

'scientific method. Steps involved in a scientific method are:

1. Sensing the problem: In order to sense the problem, the teacher has to provide situations to

the students in which they feel the need of asking some questions. The teacher may also pose

such questions which require reflective thinking and reasoning or the part of the students. This

can become a problem for the students to solve.

The setting up of a problem should be the co-operative approach of the teacher and the

students. Preferably, the teacher should accept the problem suggested by the students. The

time, availability of the material relevant to the problem, its practical value, should be considered

before finalizing the problem. The problem should also fit in the curriculum.

2. Defining the problem: The students now have to define their problem in a clear, exact, simple

and unambiguous words. There should be some keywords in the statement of the problem,

which may help in better understanding the problem. The teacher should help the students in

stating the problem. The students have to write down the statement of the problem in the light of

the above criteria. Then it should be discussed in the for suitable criticism and suggestions. The

most appropriate statements should be accepted. It should be well-defined, giving its scope and

limitations.

3. Analysis of the problem: Now the students have to find out the keywords and phrases in the

problem. This will provide them clues for the further study of the problem. The keywords also

helps in finding out the required information. The students should know the meaning of all the

keywords and understand the whole problem. And when the students have gasped the whole

problem, then half of the work is done.

4. Collection of data: After analyzing the problem, the students should collect the relevant data.

The teacher has to suggest references. The students need to plan subsequent activities. They

may discuss, use Audio-visual aids, consult references, do experiments etc. The students

should be given practice in locating information and to devise means to obtain it. A student of

science should be careful about the following types of errors during the process of collection of

data,

Mechanical Errors:

a.It is likely to be caused through the apparatus and instruments used.

b) Personal Errors: It is caused by personal bias and tendency.

5. Interpretation of the data: This step ‘involves reflective thinking This step demands lot of

guidance from the teacher because the students may not be able to interpret data in a correct

way due to lack of experience. The data is organized on the basis of similarity, and differences.

The students can make tables, graphs etc. The superfluous data is discarded.

6. Formulation of Hypothesis: After interpretation of data, the students; are asked to formulate

some tentative hypotheses. A hypothesis is the probable solution for the problem in hand. It



should be free: from bias and self-inclination.

7. Selection and Testing of most Appropriate hypothesis: The students can select the most

tenable hypothesis by rejecting others through experimentation and discussion. The selected

hypothesis is again tested experimentally to find out its truth.

Drawing conclusions and making Generalization: The tested hypothesis is infect the conclusion

to be reached at Experiments can be repeated to verify the consistency and correctives of the

conclusion drawn at. Generalizations can be made by arranging a set of experiments which also

show the same conclusion already reached at.

9. Application of generalization to new situations: Now the students have to apply the

generalization to the new situations in their daily life This will bridge the gap between the

classroom teaching and real life.

Merits of Scientific Method:

1. Help in developing reflective thinking and hence increases students mental ability.

2. Is based on the principle of learning by doing.

3. Helps in developing scientific attitude..

4. Helps in developing may skills like identifying the problem, conducting the experiment,

recording observation, formulating hypothesis, drawing conclusions and applying these in daily

life.

5. Helps the students to approach future problems with confidence. i

6. Gives training in scientific method.

7. Helps in paying individual attention.

8. Encourages the students for extra-reading.

9. Helps to the children in learning new thing.

10. Helps in discovering new knowledge.

11. Helps in creating new ideas.."

12. Helps the students in satisfying their curiosity.

Demerits:

1. It is not suitable for all students.

2. It requires gifted teachers ‘with well developed research skills.

3. All schools does not have well-equipped laboratories.

4. More emphasis is there on practical work."

5. It is an expensive method.

6. It is time consuming

7. It is difficult to teach all topics by this method.

8. It expects too much from the students.

9. Suitable material is not easily available to solve the problem

LABORATORY METHOD

Laboratory Method is an important method of teaching Science, Laboratory instruction is

considered essential because it provides training in practical skills, helps in developing critical

thinking and creates interest in science. The laboratory method is. pupil-centered method “It is

based on the principles of "Learning by doing



Laboratory instruction increases students' problem solving ability It provides the students an

hand-on experience by making them participate in various scientific experimentations!

This method is considered as one of the best methods of teaching science as it is used on the

psychological principle of learning by doing. In this method the students perform experiments on

their own. The main difference between demonstration method and laboratory method is that in

demonstration life teacher performs experiments and the students observe the activity. But in

laboratory method the students perform the experiment under the supervision of the teacher. To

learn science is to do science and hence in this method the students will really come to know

what science is.

The-laboratory method is used in different ways. It is mostly planned on an individual basis. But

it can also be carried out in small groups.

According to Jólin Dewey the laboratory method is an excellent vehicle for instruction. He further

said “In the hands of a good teacher, it is in itself an excellent vehicle for instruction. It gives an

insight into authentic science. It is intellectually exacting. It requires careful-attention during

planning, execution and observation. It demands interpretation and abstraction. Most students

‘enjoy it. It couples cognitive activities with hands on, action-oriented, concrete operational

activities. It is a stimulating change from lectures and other forms of instruction”.

The various Objectives of Laboratory method are:

1. To provide first hand experiences.

2. To arouse interest in science.

3. To develop manipulative skills

.4. To develop the skill of careful observation.

5. To develop the skill of recording the data.

6. "To develop the skill of verifying the principles, facts etc. thought in, theory.

7. To train the students in scientific method.

8. - To develop Scientific attitude.

To develop the skill of handling the apparatus.

10. To develop the skill of experimentation.

11. To train the students in the processes of science.

12. "To make the physical, chemical and biological phenomena more real through actual

experience.

Methods of conducting the practical laboratory work:

For making the task of experimentation easy the teacher organizes the students into small

groups. The students can be divided into groups depending upon the type of the experiment

conducted and the strength of the class.

Some common methods of grouping are:

1. Class front Method: This method is followed when the experiment is simple, the required



materials and apparatus are of low-cost and the students can carry out the experiment

individually

2. Group method or rotation method: In this method the class in divided into small groups to

carry out the experiments. This methods is followed when the apparatus are less in number and

the number of students is more. The students are divided into smaller batches and; the

experiments are performed in rotation by the different batches.

3. Division or the part method: This method is used when the experiment is very length and is

not possible to be conducted at a Stretch. Hence it is divided into small parts and is given to an

individual or a batch of students. After completion of the experiment the data from all the

sources is pooled and a) final recording is done. This data is discussed in the class and a final

conclusion is arrived. Advantages:

The various advantages of laboratory method are:

1. It is based on the psychological principle of learning by doing;

2 It gives training in Scientific method.

3. It inculcates scientific attitude in the students,

4. It is a learner-centered approach

5. It develops manipulative skills.

6. It paves' way for exploration, experimentation and verification of the scientific facts.

7. It provides concrete and direct experiences of the biological, physical phenomena.

8. It gives training in problem-solving.

9. It arouse and maintain interest in science.

10. It provides opportunity for critical thinking.

11. It develops skills in recording observations and results, summarizing data and drawing

conclusions.

12. It develops the spirit of discovery.

13. It inculcates the habit of co-operation, honesty and truthfulness.

14. It develops self-confidence and a sense of achievement in the students .

15. It develops kind of intimate relationship between the teacher and the taught

16. It solves the problem of indiscipline.

Limitations:

It is difficult to identify limitations of the laboratory method because it can be used in a variety of

ways, but skill some of the problems that might be incurred in using these method; addresses

‘its limitations..

1. It is an expensive method

2. It is time-consuming

3. It is not an efficient means of learning new, factual information

. 4. It does not guarantee that. the students will learn to solve problems or think scientifically.

5. It has limited applicability as every information cannot be verified through laboratory work.

6. It is difficult to schedule the school time table as it requires a number of periods.

7. It ‘expects too much from the students as every student is expected to leam by performing



experiments.

8. The method is strenuous both for the teacher as well as the teamer 9. It demands creative

and intelligent teachers.

MODERN TEACHING TECHNIQUES

BRAIN STORMING

Brain Storming is a form of discussion which enables collective creative thinking. In this

technique the pupil's elicit many idea's and effective learning takes place. It was first tried out to

overcome problems solving, areas, it is a more successful technique than any other one.

In this form of discussion the brains of the participants are stimulated to create a storm of ideas

and give suggestions regarding the topic without any deliberation to find whether or not they are

meaningful and purposeful When the brain is let go thus without social institutions, it would be

able to give expressions to some of the most useful and practical suggestions. For example

"Small saving could do a lot to strengthen the savings movement" is a good subject for brain

storming.

Brain Storming is a democratic system. The teacher writes pupils views on black board. The

brain storming method increase the knowledge of pupils, it also encourages them to think

collectively sitting in a group,

Some of the main rules to be kept in mind during the brain storming sessions are:

Keeping the problem in mind, inviting greater number of ideas as there is a greater chance of

getting a suitable solution:

There should not be any criticism on the wrong idea and a supportive atmosphere must be

created where the participants will feel free to express their ideas.

Gates are open for divergent idea, They may open new ways of thinking and provide beer

solution than the other ideas.

Grouping of ideas to get a better solution to the problem is welcomed. : Ideas from different

members can be combined to form a single, better solution to the problem. .'

With this method, cognitive aspect of the pupil's can be developed very easy and objective

domain can be made stronger.

TEAM TEACHING

Team teaching is one of the important instructional strategies for the improvement of



instructional program. Team teaching is based on the assumption that no single teacher

possesses/expertise to do full justice to the entire course.

Team Teaching is a method which involves team work between two or more teachers who,

together, make presentations to a group of students. Some of the important aspects iqf Team

Teaching are:

It involves the students in the physical and mental stimulation created by viewing two or more

teachers at work.

It makes effective use of existing human resources.

It has the capacity to revolutionize the instructional activities through process of dialogue

With the effective use of facilities during the team teaching large lecture halls can be brought to

life by an interactive and dynamic sessions.

It provides opportunities for interaction with the students

Thus, Team teaching takes a variety of forms in different contexts . Effective team teaching

takes time to develop to its fullest. It is a platform for many teachers to come out with their

potentialities & capabilities and share it with his co members and students and make the topic or

lesson an interesting one

MODELS OF TEACHING

Introduction:

The focus of education psychology has been on learning' hut now there is a shift from learning

to teaching. The focus of educational psychology is on teaching because learning theories

cannot solve the problems of teaching. Therefore, efforts are being made to develop theories of

teaching but so far no final theory of teaching has been formulated. This stresses the

importance of the need for alternate strategies of teaching. The educationists and psychologists

are making efforts to evolve theories of teaching, as a result of which some teaching models or

paradigons have been developed.

A model for teaching as we use the phrase is a pattern or plan, which can be taken up to shape

a curriculum or course to select instructional material and to guide the teacher's action.

Teaching is an art, science and a skill to be learned. It requires the knowledge of subject matter,

method and techniques of teaching and aids to be used for making teaching interesting and

effective. In a classroom situation, if all students learn or react in a similar manner, every

teacher would select those teaching methods that would fit his personality and use them over

and over again as long as they teach; but students have different learning styles. They have

aspiration on their styles. They have their aspiration on their own and no two-students react to

a learning situation in the same way. This uniqueness and individual difference of the students

require the teacher to use wide varieties of teaching strategies. This in fact is the main objective



of education. It is to help each learner to grow socially, intellectually, morally and emotionally for

his all-round development of personality; for this purpose the teacher needs a variety of

approaches. There is no one particular method, which can help the people to grow in all

respects. For this several models of teaching have been developed which prescribe different

approaches to instructional process to bring out changes in the behavior of the learner in all

respect.

Teaching model is a tentative theory of teaching. Silverman differentiates between some of the

functions of theories and models. A theory is a system in which the interaction among actual

variables is explained, whereas a model is an analogy and is evaluated by its utility. An analogy

is an abstract entity; therefore, it is risky to over generalize. The best way to proceed in.

formulating a theory of teaching is to begin with what is known about learning in the laboratory

and in the classroom by adopting a model derived from a theory of learning. B.F. Skinner

evolved a teaching model - Behavior modification model based upon his theory of operant

conditioning'

. Meaning and Definition of Teaching Model:

Models of teaching have been developed to help a teacher to · improve his competency to

reach more children and create a richer and more diverse environment for them. Bruce Jayce

and Marsha Weil have tried to define the term 'teaching model in their book "Models of

Teaching" Teaching models are just instructional designs. They describe the process of

specifying and producing particular environmental situations that cause the student to interact in

such a way that specific change occurs in his behavior.

In other words, "Model of teaching is a plan or pattern that can be used to shape curriculum, to

design instructional materials and to guide instruction in the classroom or other settings".

Teaching model is an instructional design, which portrays how various teaching and learrting

conditions are interrelated.

When a teacher or an educationist possesses identifiable focus and a frame of reference whích

rationalizes the focus such as teaching activities that can be admitted to the classroom which

allow the teacher and learner work together, then we can say that he has a model for teaching

He can tell us what aspects of students have interest in him, what aspects of the environment

he emphasizes.

Assumptions of Teaching Models:' I

Teaching models have been evolved on the following assumptions:

Teaching is a means for generating an environment of learning. Teaching, environment has

various components that are interdependent,

The content and skill function as an instruction through which student and teacher interact with

one another (social relationship), the type of activities, physical facilities and their use provide

an opportunity to develop physical and social efficiency.



Characteristics or Qualities of, Model of Teaching:

There are some common identifiable characteristics.pf good models of teaching which are given

below:

i) Scientific Procedure: A model of teaching is based on a systematic procedure to modify the

behavior of the learner. It is not's haphazard combination of facts.

ii) Specification of Learning Outcomes: All models of teaching specify what the students will

perform after completing an instructional sequence:

iii) Specification of Environment: A teaching model specifies in definite terms the environmental

conditions under which a student's • response should be observed:

iv) Specification of criterion of Performance: A model of teaching specifies the criterion of

performance, which is accepted from the students. The behavioral outcomes, which the learner

would demonstrate after completing specific instructional sequences, are delineated in the

teaching models.

V) Specification of Operations: All models of teaching specify the mechanism that provides for

the reaction of students and interaction with the environment.

Functions or Role of Teaching Models:

In general models of teaching provide guidance for teachers and learners, develop suitable

curriculum according to learning needs, specify suitable instructional materials and improve

teaching to reach more number of learners in giver time and in an effective way.

Models of teaching serve the following purposes:

They assess teachers to develop their capacities to create conducive environment for teaching.

They may help in the formation of a theory of teaching.

They help curriculum planners to plan learning activities and curriculum which provide a variety

of educational experiences to the learners.

They assess producers of materials to create more interesting and effective instructional

materials and learning sources.

They stimulate the development of new educational-innovations which may replace the schools

of today.

They help to establish teaching and learning relationship empirically.

Teaching models are useful to develop social efficiency, personal abilities, cognitive abilities

and behavioral aspects of the students,

Activities in Models of Teaching:



. A teaching model provides a specific outline of teaching activities. T

he following six activities can be witnessed in a teaching mode):

1. Giving practical shape to the learning outcomes and are written in behavioral terms

2. Selecting appropriate stimuli so that the learners emit desired responses.

3. The learning situations are specified for observing the students responses.

4. The criterion behavior is defined for student's performances for a particular learning

environment.

5. The teaching tactics are specified for creating the interaction between students and

environment

6. The learning situations and teaching tactics can be improved and modified for the

desirable change in student's behavior.'

Sources of Models of Teaching

Four important sources from which all the models of teaching have been derived are given

below:

i) The Social Interaction Sources: All models of this teaching of this category emphasize the

importance of social relationship of the person and are based on the assumption that social

relation is the vehicle of education.

ii) The Information Processing Sources: The other source of models of teaching is the

information processing capability of the learner which means the way in which people ‘handle

stimuli, organize data, sense problems and solve them. The models of this category emphasize

the use of specific strategies within academic disciplines which lead to the development of

creativity and general intellectual ability of the learner.

iii) The Personal Sources: Personal and emotional life of the individual and their internal

organization as it affects relationship with his environment are the sources of this category of

models.

iv) Behavior Modification as a ‘Source: The operant conditioning theory built by B.F: Skinner is

the origin of this type of model which is purely a psychological model and is used in most of the

teaching strategies developed in the last two decades.

Fundamental Elements of a Teaching Model:

A teaching model provides valuable guidelines and blueprint for carrying out the task of teaching

for the realization of some specific goals. In order that a teacher takes use of model, he must be

properly acquainted with its theory as well as practice. For this purpose proper knowledge of the

fundamental elements involved in the description of a model is quite essential. Generally, a

teaching model is described in context with some fundamental elements. In the present text, we

would be using the following six elements:

i) Focus

ii) Syntax

iii) Principles of reaction



iv) The social system

v) The support system and

vi) The application context

Focus: Focus is the central aspect of a teaching model. For what the model stands is the theme

of the focus. All the teaching models are meant for achieving some specific goals or objectives

of teaching in relation to the environment of the learner. Therefore, objectives of teaching and

aspects of the environment generally constitute the focus of the model.

Syntax: The term syntax or phasing of the model refers to the description of the model in

action. Each model consists of several phases and activities which have to be arranged in

specific sequence quite unique to the particular model. The syntax helps a teacher to use the

model. It tells him how he should begin and proceed further.

Principles of Reaction: While using the model how should a teacher regard and respond to the

activities of the student is a concern of this element. These responses should be quite

appropriate and selective. Every model through its principles of reaction provides the teacher

with particular and unique rules of thumb by which to, "tune into the student and selected

appropriate responses to what the student does.

The Social System:

The fourth element refers to a description of the following:

Interactive roles and relationships between the teacher and student

The kinds of norms that are encouraged and student behavior which is rewarded,

. Models differ from each other with regard to the description of the above mentioned aspects. In

some models, the teacher is the centre of activity, or activities are somewhat equally distributed

between teacher and students, while in others the students (a few or the whole group) occupy

the central place. The leadership role of the teacher comprising the location of authority and the

amount ‘of control over that emerging from the process of interaction also varies from model ta

model. Similarly the way in which student behavior is rewarded also differs from model to

model:

The Support System: This element of the model refers to the additional requirements beyond

the usual human skills or capacities from the teachers and the facilities or schedules available in

an ordinary classroom. Such type of additional , support may demand some special skills,

knowledge and capacities from the teacher like special aid material-facilities like films, self

instructional system, visit to some place, a Mixable schedule and a particular organizational

climate suiting to the requirements of a particular model. It is needless to emphasize that the

support system of a model contributes towards the success of a model by generating the

desirable classroom environment.

The Application Context: This last element of a model describes its application aspect. Some

models are meant for short-lessons, some for the large and some for both. They also differ in

terms of the goal achievements-conative, eognitive or affective and subsequently prove suitable

for one or the other type of teaching. Therefore each model through its element of application

context tries to describe the feasibility of its use in varying contexts achieving specific



educational goals and demanding specific work environment

Importance of Teaching Models:

The teaching models have the following advantages:

1) The different kinds of models may be used to achieve the specific objectives of various

school subjects.

ii) Teaching can be made more effective and purposive.

iii) Teaching models are useful to develop social efficiency, personal abilities, cognitive abilities

and behavioral aspects of the students.

iv) An ‘analogy may be drawn to develop some teaching models, which *may suit to our Indian

situations,

v). It provides a great-scope for research work to study the nature of teaching.

vi). Teaching and learning relationship may be established empirically by the use of these

models.

vii) TIL new models of teaching may be invented to use the psychological forces in teaching

vii) These models are the paradigms of hypotheses of teaching, and may, be helpful in

formulating theories of teaching Categories or Families of Teaching Models:

There exists a huge variety of teaching models arising from a variety. of sources representing

different trainees of reference towards educational goals and methods. Many attempts have

been made to classify them in some specific categories. The latest attempt of Joyce and Weil

needs: I special mention. By exploring many sources, they have grouped the models on the

basis of the specific educational goals and means into the following four families:

A. Information - Processing Models

B. Social - Interaction Models

C. Personal- Development Models

D. Behavior Modification Models

CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL (JEROME BRUNER)

Concept Attainment:

Concept Attainment is an indirect instructional strategy that uses a structured inquiry process. It

is based on the work of Jerome Bruner. In concept attainment, students figure out the attributes

of a group or category that has already been formed by the teacher. To do so, students

compare and contrast examples that contain the attributes of the concept with examples that do

not contain those attributes. They then separate them into two groups. Concept attainment,

then, is the search for and identification of attributes that can be used to distinguish examples of

a given group or category from non-examples?

Purpose:

Concept attainment is designed to clarify ideas and to introduce aspects of content. It engages

students into formulating a concept through the use of illustrations, word cards or sp nens called

'examples. Students who catch on to the idea before others are able to resolve the concept and



then are invited to suggest their own examples, while other students are still trying to form the

concept. For this reason, concept attainment is well suited to classroom use because all

thinking abilities can be challenged throughout the activity. With experience, children become

skilled at identifying relationships in the word cards or specimens. With carefully chosen

examples, it is possible to use concept attainment to teach almost any concept in all subjects.

Advantages:

1. helps make connections between what students know and what they will be learning

2. learn how to examine a concept from a number of perspectives learn how to sort out

relevant information

3. extends their knowledge of a concept by classifying more than one example of that

concept

4. students go beyond merely associating a key team with a definition concept is learned

more thoroughly and retention is Improved

Steps of Concept Attainment:

1. Select and define a concept

2. Select the attributes

3. Develop positive and negative examples

4. Introduce the process to the students

5. Present the examples and list the attributes :

6. Develop a concept definition

7. Give additional examples

8. Discuss the process with the class

9. Evaluate

INQUIRY TRAINING MODEL (Suchman Inquiry Model)

Background

When children are young the world to them is full of questions to ask. Somewhere along the

way, they get the idea that becoming an adult means leaving the world of questioning to enter

the world of knowing the answers. Schools tend to encourage the movement from questions to

answers since success becomes putting the right answer in the blank or marking the correct

response. Questions in school tend to have one right answer and questions for which there are

no answers are rare.

It has been stated that true wisdom might best be defined as knowing how little one knows in

contrast to how much one knows. Therefore, if knowing how to learn is more important than

knowing all the answers, then one must realize that good questions are more important than

right answers. Teaching students to question and ask quality questions is more important than

the correctness of the answers they can give.

Teaching science through inquiry requires that students ask questions and figure things out for

themselves. It involves the attempt to answer questions and seek information. Inquiry can be



conducted in a variety of ways: observing nature, predicting outcomes, manipulating variables,

analyzing situations, and verifying assertions. It may involve discussing topics with others,

reading, conducting field studies, surveys, and laboratory investigations, or all of these as one

attempts to discover new knowledge and to figure things out..

The inquiry model, developed by Richard Suchman, is based on the premise that the intellectual

strategies used by scientists to solve problems and inquire into the unknown can be taught to

students, Using the natural curiosity of students, they can be trained and disciplined in the

procedures of inquiry. The model was developed from analyzing the methods used in creative

research personnel. The elements of the inquiry process were identified and these were built

into an instructional model called inquiry training.

Inquiry training is designed to bring students directly into the scientific process through

exercises that compress the scientific process into small periods of time. The training has

resulted in an increased understanding of science, mote creative thinking, and skills for

obtaining and analyzing information as students establish 'facts, build concepts, and then

generate and test explanations or 'theories. The students are active learners involved in

exploration, questioning, problem solving, inductive reasoning, intention, belong, and discovery

The inquiry process will help students:

1. approach future problems with confidence in their abilities to seek out the solution

2. to begin to consider success, and failure as information rather than reward or punishment;

3. practice the process to develop the ability to sense the relevance of variables, make intuitive

leaps, and put problems into forms with which they know how to work; and

4 . improve their memory process because when they integrate material into their own cognitive

structure, thus material is made more readily retrievable

The inquiry training method requires active participation in scientific inquiry and

capitalizes on the student's natural curiosity. The general goals of inquiry training are to:

1.. develop the intellectual discipline and skills necessary to raise questions and search out

answers stemming from their natural curiosity;

2. acquire and process data

3. develop intellectual strategies that they can use to find out why things are as they are.

logically' and

The Inquiry Training Model is based on Suchman's theory that:

1. Students inquire naturally when they are puzzled;

2. They can become conscious of and learn to analyze their thinking strategies;

3. New strategies can be taught directly and added to the students' existing ones; and

4. Cooperative inquiry enriches thinking and helps students to learn about the tentative,



emergent nature of knowledge and to appreciate alternative explanations.

This model differs from other inquiry models in the way the data are presented. Students gather

data in a simulated process through questioning rather than actual manipulation of data. Thus,

the method is more process oriented as the primary goal is to improve students' ability to relate

data to the inferences they have formed.

Inquiry training has five phases. The first phase is the student's confrontation with the puzzling

situation. Phases two and three are the data gathering operations of verification and

experimentation. In the data gathering phases, the students ask a series of question that the

teacher answers with a yes or no, and they conduct a series of experiments of the problem

situation. In the fourth “phase, the students organize the information obtained during the data-

gathering phases and try to explain the discrepancy. In the last phase, students analyze the

problem-solving strategies they used during the inquiry.

The teacher's role is to construct the problem situation, to referee the inquiry procedures, to

respond to students' inquiry probes with the ‘necessary information, to help students establish a

focus in there, and to facilitate discussion of the problem situation among the students.

Presentation of the model

A. Preparation for the Inquiry:

1. Identify a problem requiring an explanation. In selecting the problem or event, these criteſia

need to be considered:

a. the event, must pose a problem which requires a discoverable explanation, asdpposed to

teaching a fact , concept, or generalization. The problem. must be genuinely interesting and

stimulating to the learner.

b. the level of the problem must be approximately matched with the level of the feamer .

c. the curiosity and motivation of the student are enhanced if the problem is prepared in a way

which makes it appear discrepant.

d. the event focuses the student on a particular problem rather than on a set of problems in

general.

2.In selecting the medium for presenting the problem/event, design experiences which will bring

students into contact with problem evoking situation. Discrepant events, demonstrations, films,

audio tapes, graphs, tables, problems and case studies can be used to start the inquiry process.

It must be a puzzling situation to the students and conflict with the idea of reality

The model can be presented, in a variety of ways. To help the students improve their thinking

skills, have them work’ in groups and follow the for that on the worksheet.

B. Inquiry Training Lesson:

Phase One: Conformation with the Problem



Present the problem situation

Explain the inquiry procedures to the students.

i. They are to gather data through questions they ask of the teacher/ instructor who will be the

main source of data.

ii. Each question must be asked as tentative hypothesis.

i. The questions should obey two criteria: they must be answerable yes or no. (This places the

responsibility for analyzing the problem on the students. And the results “must be obtainable

through observations rather than requiring an inference. The teacher may decide to add

information or expand on the problem at any time; however, it is important that students

experience some frustration as they question. Instead of asking students, “Is this what you

mean?" it is better to say, “Can you repeat the question?" or "Can you state the question so I

can answer it yes or no?" Avoid answering the questions for them. A teacher might say, "Yes,

that is part of the answer , but why don't you consider this additional piece of information in light

of what you have already discovered."

iv. Once called on, the student may ask as many questions as he/she wishes before yielding the

floor to another student. Students must understand that they may ask question only when called

upon.

v. Students should be encouraged to work together whenever possible. Encourage the students

to call for a caucus when they need to talk to each other, but do not permit them to talk to each

other during the questioning periods..

Phase Two: Data Gathering-Verification

a. · Gather information about the event problem to verify the nature of the objects and

conditions.

b. Confirm the occurrence of the problem situation. The data should be recorded on the board

:or on data sheets kept by each student.

Phase Three: Data Gathering - Experimentation

Isolate relevant variables. Students introduce new elements into the situation to see if the even

happens differently, changing things to see what will happen.

b. Students hypothesize a solution to the problem. When a student poses a theoretical question

that seems to be an answer to the problem, the question is stated as a theory and written on the

board. Now all data gathering is related directly to proving or disproving this theory. Students

may caucus to discuss the information and nature of the problem and frame hypothetical

questions which they will ask of the instructor. Depending on the nature of the problem, the

students could be directed to other sources of information, activities, or to actual

experimentation in the laboratory. They can also use a series of questions of the teacher to test

the hypothesis.



Hypothesis are confirmed br revised.

If the theory seems verified, then the class accepts the hypothesis as a solution and moves to

the next step.

ii. If the hypothesis is not acceptable and is rejected by the class, then general data gathering

begins again. Other hypothesis may be posed and tested until a hypothesis has been accepted

by the group.

Phase Four: Organizing, Formulating an Explanation

a. Ask the students to explain the hypothesis that has been accepted as a tentative solution to

the problem and organize the data to support the hypothesis. They should determine how the

hypothesis could be tested to see if the date can be generalized to other situations.

b. Have the students state their explanation so that the range of the possibilities are noted.

Phase Five: Analysis of the Inquiry Process

Ask the students to review the process they have just used to arrive at acceptance of the

hypothesis (their pattern of inquiry). Which questions were the most effective? a.

Which direction of questioning was the most productive. Which questions were not helpful?

What type of information was needed and not obtained?

MICRO-TEACHING

Among latest developments in Educational sectors, Micro-teaching is one. This is also called as

Micro Teaching Method. It was designed by Dwight W. Allen of Stanford University in 1960. It

was experimentally used in Teacher training programmes in 1960-67.

Micro, Teaching is a significant effort to make teacher education programme scientific, effective

and meaningful. It is now considered not only a constructive teacher training technique but also

"a versatile research tool which dramatically simplifies the logistics of investigating certain

teaching skills and learning variables.

Micro-teaching is like a stimulated social skill teaching to provide the feed-back to teacher

trainee for the modification of teacher behavior. It is a training concept that can be applied at

various pre-service and in-service stages in the professional development of teachers. It

provides teachers with a practice setting or instruction in which the normal complexities of

classroom are reduced and the teacher gets feedback on his performance. Definitions:

1. According to Dwight W.Allen: "Teaching strategy with reduced class strength/pupils and time

is called Micro-teaching"



Micro-teaching is a scaled down sample of teaching. The complex art of teaching is broken

down into simple components. Only one particular skill is attempted and developed during

micro-teaching session. The teaching act is scaled down in terms of the content of the lesson,

duration of the lesson, and size of the class. A student teacher teaches a short lesson of five to

eight minutes to a small group of pupils, usually five to eight. The lesson is self-contained. A

single concept is taken up in the lesson. At the end of the lesson, the pupils in the class leave

and the teacher-trainee is given-time to think about this discussion and modify his lesson-plan

accordingly. The student-teacher re-teaches his micro lesson with a different group of students,

under the same conditions and with the same opportunities for feedback in an attempt to

improve his previous lesson: The process can be repeated till desirable skill is developed. The

success of micro-teaching depends on the teach- re teach cycle which can be completed in

about 30 minutes.

The above mentioned definitions suggest the following features of micro-teaching

1. It is a real' teaching but focus on developing teaching skills.

2." It is a scaled down teaching which:

a) Reduces the class size to 5to:10 pupils..

b) Reduces the duration of period-5 to 10 minutes.

c) Reduces the size of the topic

d) Reduces the teaching skill.

3. It is a highly individualized training device.

4. It provides the feedback för trainees performance.

5. It is a training device to prepare effective teachers.

Assumptions of Micro-teaching:

The micro-teaching technique is based on the following assumptions.

1., Teaching is a complex skill-Which can be analyzed into simpler skills.

2. Component teaching skills can be practiced for mastery under simplified teaching situation

one by one. feedback is helpful in skill mastery.

3. . Training with systematic

Once component teaching skills are mastered one by one, they can integrated for real teaching.

5. The skill training can be transferred to actual teaching. Method of Micro Teaching:

Micro-teaching reduces the complexities of class room teaching and gives needed teaching

environment. The time for teaching the content is limited in Micro-teaching, Because of the

limited time, the student teacher can work hard to improve his teaching skills. The student

teacher learns one Micro-teaching skill to teach one concept. He learns the same skill, until he

gains expertise in that skill. Student teaches for 5-10 students, for 5-10 minutes. He gets

immediate feedback.

Objectives of Micro-teaching: in-classroom teaching, to give training

1. To reduce the complexities for teaching in less time..

2. To identify the defects faults in student teacher and give teaching feedback.

3. To bring about behavioral change in teacher.



4. If the required change is not brought about, re-teaching is done.

. To develop useful teacher education programmes.

6. To identify new teaching skills and encourage research.

7. To improve the efficiency of teaching through supervision.

Nature and Characteristics:

1. Micro-teaching is a new experiment in field of teacher education. ,

2. It is a technical method designed to learn teaching skill for teachers and student teachers,

3. (a) One skill in one context.

(b) Reducing classroom strength 5-10 students.

(c) Reducing teaching time for 5-10 minutes.

(d) Reducing content to one concept

4. It gives opportunity to get the needed feedback of their performance from the teacher after

exhibiting their skill.

5. It is an individualized training method:

It is a training method given to an inexperienced teacher: The complexities in the actual

teaching are reduced to Micro-level - class strength (No of students) teaching time, content one

skill at a time etc.

Basic Principles of Micro Teaching: Following are the basic principles of Micro Teaching:

1. Principle of Enforcement: Feedback and reteaching makes teaching perfect.

2. Principles of practice and Drill: Micro teaching is a complex skill which needs constant drill

and practice.

3. Principle of continuity: Micro teaching is a continuous process, teaching-Feedback-

reteaching-feedback till perfection is attained.

4. Principle of Microscopic Supervision: The supervisor has an observation schedule which he

fills up while supervising and makes assessment on a rating scale. The supervisor see through

the lesson all important points, paying full attention to one point at a time.

Micro-teaching steps:

1. Skills of presentation: Discussing the importance, meaning of the selected teaching skill, its

role in teaching, related teaching behavior i.e., the skin to be learnt is defined.

2. Skill Demonstration: - After discussion, the student teacher gives a demonstrate class or the

use of the skill is explained or (shown) telecasted as Hideo film in the class. .

3. Preparation of Micro-lesson plan: The student teacher selects the content analysis the skill

and prepares the lesson plan for 5-10 minutes. 4. Creating Micro-reaching Environment: Collect

the needed material required for Micro-leaching. Create class-room atmosphere.

5. Learning the teaching skill: The student teacher teaches to 56 students for 5-10 minutes. This

is videotaped or audio taped and checked by teachers or classmates.



6. Giving feedback: Based on the evaluation made the student teacher video is given the

feedback by the teacher other student teachers or audio tapes.

7. Re-plan/Re-teach/Re-feedback: Based on the feedback the student teacher re-plans, re-

teaches and obtains the re-feedback.

8. Repeating the Micro-teaching cycle: The student teacher repeats the process until he gains

mastery of teaching.

9. Integrating the skills: The student teacher then integrates and transfer the skills learnt to the

actual class-room teaching. Phases of Micro Teaching:

J.C. Cliff groups the elements which go to make the teaching 3 procedure under three phases:

1. The student teaches gets the correct understanding of teaching learning process.

2. The quality in traditional teaching increases.

3. Student teacher learns to use various teaching -- learning materials.

4. Healthy feedback for the defects/fault in teaching skills is obtained.

5. Technical and objective method to assess teaching.

Limitations:

The devices used in Micro-teaching are costly

eg. Audio-Video Tapes etc.

It is artificial to teach using only one skill.

3. It requires more time for Micro-teaching It gives importance only to skills.

Teaching Skills: A teaching skill is defined as a set of teacher behavior which are especially

effective in bringing about desired changes in pupil teachers. There are various skills which can

be developed among pupil teachers. Several people have suggested several skills.

Various Teaching Skills:

1. Stimulus variation

2. Probing questions



3. Divergent questions

4. Set induction

5. Introduction of a lesson

6. Explanation

7. ' Illustrating and use of example

8. Using blackboard

9. Reinforcement of student participation

10. Lecturing

il. Questioning

12. Silence and non-verbal cues

13. Completeness of communication

14. Recognizing attending behavior

VARIOUS SKILLS OF MICRO TEACHING A. SKILL OF INTRODUCING THE LESSON

I. Meaning of the skill :

The skill of introducing the lesson may be defined as proficiency in the use of verbal and non-

verbal behavior, » teaching aids and appropriate devices for making the pupils realize the need

of studying the lesson by establishing cognitive and affective rapport with them.

I. Components of the skill : This skill involves the following .*. components.

1) Utilization of previous experiences

2) Use of appropriate devices / techniques:

3) Maintenance of continuity

4) Relevancy of verbal or non-verbal behavior

1. Utilization of previous experiences: The new learning is to be based on the previous

learning, knowledge & experiences of the child. An appropriate introduction of a new lesson has



to be based on the previous knowledge & experiences of pupils for this purpose he has to take

care of the following things :

a) Knowledge of the subject or subjects acquired by the pupils in the previous classes.

b) The general awareness of the pupils with their physical & social environment.

c) Devices & Techniques of exploring the previous knowledge

d) Techniques of establishing link between the previous & new knowledge.

e)ability of creating situations in the class for the utilization of previous experiences.

2. Use of appropriate devices/techniques A teacher should essentially acquire the ability of

using appropriate devices or techniques for introducing a lesson. The various devices used for

this purpose may be listed as below:

a) Questioning

b). Narration, description or lecturing

c) Story telling

d) Using audio-visual aids

e) Demonstration or experimentation

f) Dramatization or role playing

g) Visits or excursion

f) Use of examples, analogies &similarities etc.

3) Maintenance of continuity : Proper introduction requires the continuity in the ideas or

information presented to the pupils . There should be a logical sequence between the main

parts of the introduction. One question statement or an activity on the part of the teacher should

lead to the other related ones in a chain of continuity creating the need of studying the lesson.

What is done at a particular moment should be properly related to pupil's previous response and

it should be properly linked with the preceding activity of the teacher himself. .

4) Relevancy of verbal or non-verbal behavior: A teacher should also try to observe

relevancy in his verbal or non-verbal behavior. What is to be stated asked, demonstrated,

dramatized or illustrated should contribute maximum towards the introduction of the lesson, in

some of the following ways:

a) Testing previous knowledge

b) Utilization of these past experiences

c) Establishing cognitive & affective rapport with the pupils

d). Making the pupils feel the need of studying the lesson Pin-Pointing the aims of the lesson.

MICRO TEACHING LESSON PLAN

Micro Lesson: Skill of introduction (Example)

Name of the student teacher

Subject : Physics

Class VIII

Date

Time duration 6 min

Topic Force

·



B. SKILL OF EXPLAINING

Meaning of the Skill:

In the classroom setting, sometimes the pupil needs more help than teacher renders in order to

understand a fact, concept or generalization etc. A teacher organizes a number of learning

experiences in the classroom towards this end. He uses a number of interrelated statements

related to the concepts, facts etc. in order to develop understanding among the pupils The set of

interrelated statements, that the teacher made is known explanation. Therefore explanation is

the use of inter related faces concepts with a view to develop understanding among the pupils

towards the content under study

For e.g, how ice is manufactured? The answer which gives different steps and these mutual

relationship is the explanation.

Factors Affecting Explanation:

While giving explanation to pupils, the explainer should keep in mind the age level, their

previous knowledge, experiences, their family background, geographical situations etc. since all

these factors significantly influence the effectiveness of explanation.

Theoretical Rational زHuman beings have been using explanation as an intellectual activity:

Ideas, Phenomenon or concepts are communicated to make them understandable to others by

giving examples, showing relationships etc. Explanation is an activity which shows the

relationships among various concepts, events and ideas. Attempt is made to relate a set of facts

with another set of facts to promote understanding. There are three stages to understand an

event reporting, describing and explaining. Reporting refers to bare factual information and no

attempt is made to seek relationship among the facts . It is merely a chain of statements to

communicate the factual information about the event. Next higher stage is description which

implies adding some flesh to the bone skeleton of facts. In description, not only facts are

communicated in a sequence but an attempt is also ***made to state relationship among facts.

Explanation attempts to establish Hi casual relationship between causes and consequences of

phenomenon, Questions starting with “Why”, “How" etc. generally demand for explanation of a

phenomenon. For example, how hydrogen is manufactured? The answer is explanation

In an explanation of phenomenon relationship are setup Para-wise, and ultimately inferences be

drawn, The aim is to establish relationship between antecedents and consequents. Antecedents

are the causes or the reasons responsible for the occurrence of a phenomenon, events or

conditions etc. which is known as consequent. It is through a series of logical reasoning that

such relationship are established to explain the phenomenon..

Behavior definition:

Explanation is coined as an activity to bring about an understanding in someone amount a

concept, principle or phenomenon. While giving explanation, causes for the phenomenon,

reasons behind the action and various logical steps involved in arriving at influences are given.

A good explanation is one which is understood by the pupils. Therefore, a teacher must try to

explain the concepts, thoughts, ideas etc. in such a way that it is understandable by the pupils



for whom it is concerned.

Skill of explaining has got the following teacher behavior which can be broadly divided into

1)Desirable Behavior and

2) Undesirable, Behaviors

A) Desirable Teacher Behavior:

a) Use of Introducing Statements: These statements are used the listener alert. The purpose of

these statements is to create mental; readiness in the class and give clue for the explanation. In

lengthy; explanations there may be general sets of introductory statements,

b) Use of Concluding Statements; Some statements are made towards? the end to summaries

or conclude the explanation. The purpose of i these statements is to give the pupil a

consolidated picture of what: he has explained for ready reference. Concluding statement is

also the inference drawn through logical reasoning in an explanation.

Example: We shall study about the flow of heat in solids (Introducing statement). When we heat

one end of the iron rod then its particles transmit their heat to the next particle which they

receive from the source. In this way heat passes gradually from one end to the other This type

of flowing of heat from one particle to the other is technically termed as “Conduction" and this is

the process of flow of heat in "Solids” (Concluding statements).

In the teaching episode there is one "Introducing” and one "Conducting"

statement. The number of these statements increases according to the length of the explanation

or when the ideas are changed.

c) Use of explaining links: These are certain links or phrases which connect the statements.

The purpose of links is to tell the listeners that the explanation is in-progress. The teacher

should use appropriate explaining links to make his; explanation coherent.

Some explaining Links:

Eg: There will be a lot of humidity in the air during the rainy season (That is why) clothes do not

get dry quickly.

d) Use of Visual Techniques. The use of black-boards, charts and other visual materials are

helpful in making explanation clear. As the famous saying goes “One picture is worth thousand

words” These aids help to' understand the phenomenon.

e) Technical words defined: Sometimes when a teacher is explaining a particular



phenomenon, uses some technical and difficult words, which if not defined would make the

explanation beyond comprehension of a listener.

Ég: When a current passes through the coil, placed in the magnetic field; the flux will change.

Hence flux is the technical word which needs, explanation.

f) Interesting to pupils: For an effective understanding of explanation by the pupils, it is essential

to make it interesting. This can be achieved by taking examples from daily experiences of the

pupil, using simple sentences, establishing premises properly and using * different media of

communication etc.

g) Covering Essential Points: In a concept there may be a number of attributes and non-

attributes and generalizations and a number of inter-related concepts. In a phenomenon there

may be some definite constituent element. The complete explanation should cover all these

concepts. The completeness of explanation is determined by the scope of the concept or

organization as specified in the instructional objectives.

b) Questions to test pupils understanding: The effectiveness of the explanation can be

judged by testing pupils understanding of the phenomenon. Teacher ask questions at the

concluding stage, to get feedback, as to how far he has been able to explain a phenomenon

correctly and to what extent pupils have understood it. Only a few questions play be asked for

the purpose.

B) Undesirable Teacher Behavior:

1) Irrelevant statements

2) Lack of continuity

3) Lack of fluency

4) Vague words or phrases

MICRO TEACHING LESSON PLAN-II

Micro Lesson: Skill of Explanation (Example)

Name of the student teacher

Subject Physics

Class VIII

Date

Time duration 6 mts

Topic Tension



C: SKILL OF PROBING QUESTIONS

The skill of probing questions revolves around the responses given by the students in relation to

the question put forward by the teacher. Each question is followed by variety of responses given

by different, students. These responses include no response, wrong response, partially correct

response, incomplete response and correct response.

These five types of responses are

1. No response situation: This situation arises due to the in ability of the student to understand

the question properly; did not hear the question properly; lack of knowledge related to the topic.!

2. Wrong response situation : This situation arises due to lack of knowledge of facts, concepts

and generalizations on the part of student.

-3. Partially correct response situation. This situation arises as the student possess partial

knowledge of facts, concepts and generalization of that particular topic. 4. Incomplete response

situation : This type of situation occurs when the student is not having the necessary facts,

concepts or generalization in his memory or it may be due to his inability to understand and

structure a response to the given question.

5. Correct response situation: From this situation, we can infer that the response given by the

students completely satisfy the question put forward by the teacher.

These specific set of behaviors. student response situations are outlined in the

ensuing skill components. The skill of probing questions involves the component behaviors

seeking further information redirecting, refocusing and developing critical awareness.

MICRO TEACHING LESSON PLAN-III

Micro Lesson: Skill of Probing Questions (Example)

Name of the student teachers: :

Subject : Physics

Class : IX

Date

Time duration; : 6 minutes

Topic: Flow of heat through solids



D. SKILL OF RE-INFORCEMENT

Re-enforcement is a specific type of conditioning of such nature that the reduction of an organic

need or the satisfaction of drive stimulus, which increases probability of the organism producing

a given response of behavior on subsequent occasion. Reinforcement is responses change or

modification guide is based on the feedback principle which means that the reduction or

satisfaction of an organic need or drive stimulus increases the probability of future responses of

the kind that the organism emitted immediately prior to its being satisfied.

Re-inforcers

Re-inforcers may be positive or negative. A positive Re-inforcers is any stimulus whose

presentation increases the probability of the response to recur in future, whereas negative re-in

forces is any stimulus whose withdrawal strengthens that behavior. In both the cases the

behavior is strengthened. A positive re-inforcement consist of presenting something like food

water or teacher's smile etc. to the organism. A negative reinforcement consists of removing

something or teacher's frown, imparting punishment or threat etc.

Word of caution

Negative re-inforcement and punishment are not alike. Re. inforcement involves presentation of

a positive stimulus or removal of negative one, while punishment consists of presentation of a

negative stimulus or removal of positive one. Punishment is not considered as proper procedure

of behavior modification as it hardly provides relatively permanent change in behavior and

temporarily suppresses wrong or undesirable behavior. :

Re-inforcement in classroom :

Skinner noted a number of weaknesses in educational practice. First, behavior is dominated by

aversion stimulation. The child tries to escape or keep away himself from something like

punishment. Second, excessive time is lapsed between. Occurrence of behavior and re-

inforcement. Third there is an absence of a programmer of serial re-inforcement according to

which teaching should move forward step by step by re-inforcing a series of progressive

approximations to the final desired behavior. Lastly there is infrequency of re-inforcement.

In order to plan. a procedure for developing certain desirable behavior in child, the questions

which needed answers are:

What behavior is to be established? What re-inforcers are available? What responses are

available? How can re-inforcement be most efficiently scheduled? Therefore, the first job of the

teacher is to decide what to teach and what behavior objectives are to be achieved? It is also

desired of a i teacher that he must also keep at hand the possible responses that are available

throughout teaching. Lastly, the teacher should make the reinforcement contingent upon desired

behavior so as to result in effective leaning:

Re-inforcement is not only used to promote learning, but also to secure attention, to motivate

pupils. Some of the use of re-inforcement in the classroom are :

1). To increase pupil participation

2) To facilitate learning -

3) To motivate the leaner and to maintain the level of motivation.

4) To modify undesirable behaviors and to develop desirable behavior



5) And to develop self management of learning experience through self reinforcement.

Meaning of the skill of Re-inforcement:

In classroom, the responding pupil needs social approval of their behaviors. Due to this need

they are always eager to answer the questions set by the teacher. After responding the

question, they are eager to know about the correctness of their response and happiness of their

teacher. In favorable conditions they also feel happy' and are always eager to give the

response. If, contrary to this, their teacher does not show any reaction to their responses, the

eagerness of the pupil will also gradually decrease. Technically, we can say, that the teacher’s

reaction to pupil's response "Reinforces" the pupil. :

"It involves the teacher to use more and more positive reinforces and to decrease negative

reinforces, so that pupils' participation in the class is maximized"

Components of the Skill:

For the effective use of the skill or reinforcement, we must acquaint ourselves with the

behavioral components of the skill which are:

1) Positive Verbal Reinforcement'; It involves giving verbal or linguistic expressions which act

as reinforces e.g. saying “good”, "right", "Correct", "Fine” “Yes”, “well done”, after the pupil has

responded. Sometimes words and phrases like “go on”, “carryon” "go ahead”, “continue", etc.

also act as reinforces. Comments of a personal evaluative and supportive nature and the

knowledge of results are also the examples of verbal positive reinforces. Even when a teacher

uses students idea by elaborating explaining, summarizing or paraphrasing, he is providing re-

inforcement ,

2) Positive Non - Verbal Reinforces: When a teacher uses gestures and per formative behaviour

to reinforce the student's responses it is known as positive non verbal reinforcement. This

component has, four elements:

a) Nods and smiles

b) Moving towards the responding pupil

c) Giving a friendly look, and

d) Writing pupils responses on the B. Bloard

It has been found that thon-verbal re-inforcement is more effective in bringing about behavioral

changes, as repeated use of positive verbal reinforces, reduces their effectiveness and

ultimately become part of teacher's mannerism.

3) Negative Verbal Reinforces: Though the purpose of this type of reinforcement is to

strengthen the occurrence of a particular behaviors, but in practice, the use of certain

undesirable reinforces weaken the described behavior. The other effect of this type of

reinforcement is decrease in the level of motivation and interest. Words like, "wrong":"no",

"incorrect", "not true?, "foolish" ; "nonsense", "shut up", etc. are examples of negative verbal

reinforces and should not be used extensively in order to facilitate learning.

4 Negative Non-Verbal Reinforce : This type of reinforcement can be given to students

conscious of certain undesirable behaviors. : This can be done through such behavior like



"frowning", "widening of eyes","rodding the head” avoiding the particular pupil and moving away

from him. However, this type of reinforcement should be used with caution as it leads to disrupt

rapport between pupils and the teacher. It may be also hurt their ego and discourage them.

5) Extra Verbal Cues : Sometimes the teacher uses the utterances, "aha", "humm” etc. to

encourage the pupil to continue with his answer. These cues are given when the pupil's

response is lengthy. Preferably, such cues may be given at places where the pupil has uttered

significant words and phrases, However, too frequent use of extra verbal cues tends to lower

their effectiveness as reinforces and become a part of teacher's mannerism.

6) Repeating and Rephrasing Pupil's Response: Teacher repeats ; the correct response of the

pupil or rephrases it for the benefit of other pupils in the class. Such behaviors have reinforcing

effect on the pupils, but the teacher should repeat only those answer by the pupils which are

novel and significant:

e.g : Teacher: What are the factors that contribute to production

Pupil : Water air and light

T: Land, water, ait and light are the natural factors of production

(Repeating and paraphrasing pupils response).

7) Writing pupil's Responses on the Block board: Teacher may at time write correct and original

pupil responses on the Black board to give reinforcement to the pupils. This has an additional

advantage of securing pupil attention.

Some cautions Regarding the use of the skill:

Too frequent use of Reinforcement should be avoided.

2. Only few correct and novel responses should be reinforced.

3. A variety of reinforces should be used to avoid monotony and to increase the effectiveness of

reinforces. Reinforcement like giving medals and prizes, writing comments etc should be. very

rarely used.

4. Reinforcement may be given to the whole class from time to time as well to the individual

pupils.

5. It should be given immediately after pupil responses.

6. However, delayed reinforcement may be given in cases where a long answer was to be given

in parts: by the pupil, but delayed reinforcement should be normally avoided.

7. It may be personalized by calling pupils name to increase its effectiveness.

8. Meaningful reinforces have more effect on pupil Learning. It should be given keeping in view

pupil’s level of maturity and the context of classroom discourse. So that the pupil have an

understanding of the relationship of the reinforcement of their behavior.

MICRO TEACHING LESSON PLAN-IV

Micro Lesson: Skid of Reinforcement

Name of the student teacher:

Subject : Science

Class : VIII

Date

Time duration . 6 minutes



Topic : Transmission of Heat

unit-4 approaches, methods and techniques of …

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