TVET AS A MEANS OF SYNERGY IN KENYA’S INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT:

Student Selection, Learning Outcomes and

Industrial Needs.

By Joseph Karani Kataka

ABSTRACT

Education is a means of social, industrial, and economic development. Current global

developments, the influence and impact of information technology on spheres of work and life

call for a review of the existing TVET policy and strategy framework. The growth and success of

TVET in Kenya depends on how swiftly the sector responds to prevailing, emerging and inherent

challenges in a developing economy.

There is a worldwide shift in the production process, trade and communications. Human

capital requirements, especially as a result of the ICT revolution, have experienced rapid growth

but more can be done to make learners more competent at work.

The Kenya government recognized the possibility of a skills gap and established an

umbrella body for selection of college and university students as an effort to boost TVET

admissions. Plans are ongoing to increase the number of TVET institutions. The determinants of

the quality of education and training include; government policy, quality of teachers, learners,

the learning environment, facilities for learning and the curricula organization. This paper

highlights how competence in TVET may be enhanced. It looks at the allocation of training

lessons to incorporate guided practical research hours to enable learners come up with working

industrial projects. Updating the curriculum to incorporate learning of Assembly programming in

modular engineering courses and incorporation of flexible teaching and learning to reduce direct

contact hours and allow space for creativity and innovativeness.

Reformed TVET will provide a more competent and efficient workforce able to face

challenges of modern technology.

Key Words: Higher Education, Education Policy, TVET and Industrial Needs.

ACRONYMS

TVET Technical Vocation Education and Training.

TIVET Technical, Industrial, Vocational, Entrepreneurship and Training.

EFA Education for All (A United Nations Principle to ensure that everybody has an

equal opportunity to access education).

KUCCPS The Kenya Universities and Colleges Central Placement Service (an umbrella

body charged with the duty and responsibility of placement of students in colleges

and universities in Kenya).

MOHEST Ministry of Higher Education Science and Technology.

NIVTC National Industrial Vocational Training Centre.

NCEOP National Commission on Educational Objectives and Policies.

NCCK National Christian Council of Kenya.

ICT Information and Communication Technology.

ICTs Information and Communication Technologies (the tools, apparatus or devices

used in information transfer and reception and dissemination example radio,

television and computers).

NYS National Youth Service.

IST Institutes of Science and Technology.

TTIs Technical Training Institutes.

E – Learning This is a form of learning that incorporates accessing and the use of electronic

documents either on a person’s computer or online (internet).

Mobile Learning Use of mobile phones in the delivery of learning content and in learning.

ODeL Online Distance Education and Learning.

OER Online Education Resources.

Introduction

Education is the foundation of human excellence, it is a lifelong process. Through

education, every country seeks to harness its citizens’ energies to attain its development agenda.

The functions the Kenyan education system seeks to attain are embedded in the three aims of

education and further translated in the eight national goals of education. Education is

fundamental in promoting political, social and economic development of any country. The

provision of a meaningful and adequate education is fundamental to Kenya’s overall

development strategy (MOHEST, 2012). Quality of Education and training is a major

consideration worldwide. It is even a more crucial issue in the Technical Vocation Education and

Training (TVET). The determinants of the quality of education and training include among

others the quality of teachers, learners, the learning environment, facilities for learning and the

curricula organization (Ahmed F. et al, 2012).

Technical and vocational education is fundamental to the world of work. For most

people, work is the desired outcome of their education and it is through their work that people

achieve self-fulfillment. Omulando and Shiundu (1992) points out that there has been evidence

of negative attitudes towards technical and vocational education by a large section of the Kenyan

community. This notion led to an almost collapse, total takeover or upgrade of most TVET

institutions in Kenya to universities. However, due to recent efforts by the government, attitudes

seem to be increasingly changing in a positive direction with regard to the acceptance of the need

for technical and vocational education and its importance to the economy. This has led to a slight

increase in student applications and intake to TVET institutions as from 2013.

Kenya re-introduced technical subjects in secondary schools as examinable, five years

after they were dropped. The subjects had been taken out in 2003 soon after the Ministry of

Education launched a revised syllabus for primary and secondary schools. In an article published

in the Daily Nation on 4 July 2007 the Education Permanent Secretary said the ministry had re-

thought its decision to scrap the subjects. It is clear that the role of TVET as an effective means

of empowering society to engage in productive and sustainable livelihood cannot be

overemphasized. The diversity in provision and establishment of TVET in many countries is

associated with historical, social, educational, cultural, geographic and economic contexts.

TVET institutions in Kenya comprise the informal sectors (Jua Kali), some secondary

schools, Ministries, National Industrial Vocational Training Centers (NIVTCs), Youth

Polytechnics, Technical Training Institutions, Institutes of Technology, National Polytechnics

and Universities. The curricula may vary according to the level of training. NIVTCs are

government owned and are charged with training and in-servicing personnel working in

government and industries in technical fields. Youth polytechnics (formerly, village

polytechnics) are responsible for training in artisan courses, popularly known as Government

Trade Tests, for primary and secondary school leavers or drop outs. Technical training

institutions and institutes of technology mainly train graduates of secondary school in craft and

diploma courses. National polytechnics normally offer diploma courses. It is worth noting that

diploma courses are prerequisite for most mature entry university admission criteria.

Historical Background of TVET in Kenya

Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) refers to education and training

that prepares persons for gainful employment (Finch and Crunkilton, 1999). TVET refers to

deliberate interventions to bring about learning which would make people more productive in

designated areas of economic activity TVET has the potential to enhance human capabilities and

enlarge people’s choices. The establishment of TVET is difficult to trace as it implies skills and

competencies which have roots engrained in surplus of other histories. The perception of the

beginning of TVET as seen by many is in diverse ways. However, general education and training

began in pre-history with the transmission of knowledge and culture from one generation to the

next. The use of tools, beginning with those made from stones, came into use as humans evolved.

In pre-colonial Kenya, learning was through traditional apprenticeship where learners

learned by observing and gradually developed abilities to execute required tasks. The elders were

the instructors who ensured that youths were introduced to the fundamentals of their tribe,

religion and the practical aspects of the group. Some skills that were taught included farming,

fishing and hunting. Each group or tribe taught their young the trade that was relevant to what

was considered as the traditional domain of that particular group (Ahmed F., 2012). The

curriculum, though not written down, was in forms of activities and experiences that provided

youth with knowledge of survival tactics, craftsmanship, farming and oral number work. The key

issue during this era was the set relevance of education to the close society and the needs of the

time.

During the colonial era the missionaries introduced formal education to the people of

Kenya as a strategy for their evangelical campaign. The missionaries with indirect colonial

government help shaped education educational developments in the territory.

In 1911, the directorate of education was established. The educational goals and policies

for Africans were the basics of reading, writing and arithmetic. This was relevant education for

the creation of clerks and office messengers.

The Beecher report of 1949 recommended changes after which a small, selected group of

African children were to be allowed to taste secondary education after which they would go back

to the rural areas to help their fellow Africans or be given junior clerical jobs in offices.

The period between 1963 and 1985 witnessed rapid change in the development of TVET.

The new government wanted to put in place a strong economic base but was limited by available

qualified technical skills. This was anchored by the fact that there were departing skilled

expatriates who chose to leave the country. Various commissions were set up to provide insight

on the way forward in human resource development. In an Education Minister’s conference held

in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia in 1961. One of the recommendations was that African countries were

to develop trained manpower as a priority for education. Enrolment targets for schools, which

were to be achieved by the year 1980, were set (Okech & Asiachi, 1992). Education in this case

was to be used as an instrument for change and Kenya followed these recommendations.

Soon after independence, the Ominde Commission was appointed. The Ominde Report of

1964 recommended that there was to be more emphasis placed on practical subjects. In order to

provide the manpower that was needed, the Commission recommended that education should be

planned in relation to employment opportunities (Okech & Asiachi, 1992). The mindset of

people still over-emphasized the esteem of white-collar jobs compared with blue-collar jobs this

to an extent is true till today. Technical secondary schools were established in the 60s following

the recommendations of the Ominde Commission. This was initially achieved by converting

existing two-year vocational schools (Trade Schools) into 4-year Technical Secondary Schools

from around 1966. Secondly additional institutions were built across the country to bring the

total number to about 20 towards the second decade after independence.

The Gachathi Commission of 1976 resulted in a report that addressed the issue of

national development and educational objectives. It is also known as the National Commission

on Educational Objectives and Policies (NCEOP). It redefined the Ominde Report and promoted

a number of educational objectives (Okech &Asiachi, 1992). The Gachathi Report recommended

that. There was a need to revise the general school curriculum to make it more practically

oriented. It also recommended that there was a need to extend primary education from seven to

nine years, and abolish two extra years of secondary school, thus leaving only four. It was from

this report’s recommendation that emphasis was put, among other things, on the teaching of

vocational subjects in the technical, agricultural and business fields.

A consequence of the rapid development of general education after independence was the

creation of a large number of youths who completed primary education and could not find

secondary school placing. There were not enough schools to admit all primary graduates. The

National Christian Council of Kenya (NCCK) conceived the idea of Village Polytechnics to

mitigate this problem. These institutions were located close to the rural communities for easy

access and provided skilled training to meet the needs of these communities. Courses whose

duration ranged from a few months to two years included building construction trades, auto

mechanics, welding and fabrication, electrical wiring, agriculture and so on.

The recommendations of the Gachathi Report (1976) were not implemented in the fourth

developmental plan but had impact on the next plan of action. In 1981, the government

appointed a working party for the establishment of a second university in Kenya, the Mackay

Commission. The university was to be technology-based, which was a useful step towards

rationalizing vocational education and training. The working party recommended change to the

education structure from 7:4:2:3 to 8:4:4, which was implemented in 1985 and is still the system

in place. The introduction of the 8-4-4 system was one of the most radical attempted educational

reforms in the country. A major goal of this system was to produce self-reliant, all-round

individuals who could fit easily into any working condition. Vocational subjects were proposed

to be introduced in primary and secondary schools to meet this goal. In addition the Government

also took over the 20 or so institutions that were built by communities around the country

through ‘Harambee’ effort to provide TVET education in their communities. Many of the

communities found it difficult to provide for the recurrent costs of operating them.

TVET in the early 80s received major focus from the government. The country faced a

serious shortage of employment and it was tantamount that skilled training could be the panacea

to the problem. In tandem with stimulating the informal sector, the government re-introduced

technical education within the newly established 8-4-4 curriculum.

Even though the new system was a boost to vocational education as emphasis was placed

for its provision at both primary and secondary levels, the costs of construction of workshops,

equipment, teaching and learning requirements were too heavy on parents as they were required

to avail these under the policy of cost sharing. This led to increased dropout rates in institutions.

In 1998, another commission was appointed to review the state of affairs under the 8:4:4

system of education. The recommendations of this commission (Koech Commission) were never

officially implemented. However, in 2000, the Minister of Education and Human Resource

Development announced that, in both primary and secondary schools, the number of examinable

subjects were to be reduced, starting from January 2001.

Structure of TVET

Technical, Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Kenya is the kind of education

that provides learners with the technical (practical) skills that can be used generally in technical

fields. The localized term, Technical, Industrial, Vocational, Entrepreneurship and Training

(TIVET) is used to describe all the TVET programs under the Ministry of Higher Education,

Science and Technology. These programs are designed to prepare skilled personnel for various

positions in industry and the informal sector. These subjects differ significantly at different

levels. However, the main offering of the TVET subjects is at the National Polytechnics,

Institutes of Science and Technology (IST), Technical Training Institutes (TTIs) and Youth

Polytechnics.

Pre-Primary Education

Master Crafts

Craftsman

Artisan

Technician

Secondary Education

Primary Education

Engineer / Technologist

Certificate

Degree / Diploma

Figure 1: Kenya Education Career Path

National Polytechnics in Kenya offer diplomas, higher national diplomas and certificate

TVET. Those designated as IST were formerly institutions constructed through community

efforts and TTIs are the upgraded technical secondary schools. In practice there is no difference

in what IST and TTIs offer which is generally diploma and certificate courses whose curricular

are similar and certificates are offered by the same examining body (KNEC).

As at present TVET is provided by several government departments, these include; the

Ministry of Higher Education, the Ministry of Youth and Sports and the Ministry labor. There is

a clear room of expansion at all levels as affirmative action and increased access to general

education has created a large pool of youth looking for skills and training in various fields.

Enrollment Standards

There is a healthy enrolment of students in the TVET institutions ensuring that the

institutions can raise adequate resources to run their affairs. Enrolment is, however, skewed

towards more academic programs such as ICT, human resources, accounting, management and

other business courses. Enrolment in the more practical courses such as mechanical, automotive,

building construction trades are much lower. Youth Polytechnics have generally admitted post

primary school leavers into courses that culminate in a trade certificate.

Although University education is the preferred choice of the larger proportion of the

youth, the sheer number of students completing secondary education with the minimum entry

requirement cannot find places in higher education. TVET institutions remain the alternative

choice for most. There are also initiatives to improve the Youth Polytechnics (formerly known as

Village Polytechnics) to bring them to standards that would enable them to provide training to

post-secondary applicants. However we are yet to arrive at a point where there are enough

Technical Universities, where TVET is compulsory at all levels and for all learners that have not

managed to gain direct entry to university or have not found a place in a college. This is in line

with the United Nations EFA principle.

The Kenya government recognized the possibility of a skills gap and has established an

umbrella body for the selection and placement of students who wish to join universities and

TVET institutions KUCCPS (The Kenya Universities and Colleges Central Placement Service),

this is also an effort to educate the society on the importance of TVET.

TVET Institutions

The government of Kenya has embarked on a plan to increase the number of technical

institutions, by October 2014 fifty (50) institutions had been build and is in the process of adding

others in the near future. There are also plans to integrate the existing primary and secondary

schools and to upgrade their infrastructure so that they can have fully fledged technical sections

to offer TVET curriculum. TVET intake (student enrolment) in Kenya has also increased

substantially and institutions are finding ways of incorporating ODeL programs so that they can

be able to offer services to more learners as all this efforts are being put in place, we should not

lose focus on the learning outcomes (the end product).

Graduates and the Workplace Today

In 2014, Thika Technical Institute’s Research Section carried out a random survey on

selected departments as a follow up on the status of 2011 – 2012 graduates. The table 1 below

represents the findings.

THIKA T.T.I RESEARCH SECTION GRADUATES DATA

No. Department Female Male Employed

by Someone

Self

Employed

Not

Employed

Relevance

of training

Furthered

Studies Total

01 Mechanical

Engineering

0 27 3 3 12 18 9 27

02 Information

Studies

15 9 18 0 0 18 0 24

03 Agricultural

Engineering

6 30 9 12 6 24 15 36

04 Human

Resource

60 21 24 6 0 33 9 81

05 Civil

Engineering

9 21 24 3 0 27 9 30

06 Electrical

Engineering

18 87 48 27 6 69 15 105

07 ICT 18 27 18 15 3 36 9 45

08 Health &

Applied

Sciences

12 9 6 6 0 12 12 21

09 Business 24 6 12 3 3 18 3 30

TOTAL SAMPLED 162 237 162 75 30 255 81 399

Table 1: Source Thika Technical Research Section (2011 - 2012) graduate Data

From the table, we can clearly establish that TVET has not yet attained 100% graduate

employment rate. However 20.3% have furthered their studies and 59.398 of the total population

are employed. This leaves a large population out there not furthering education and unemployed.

While TVET overlaps general education, it has a distinctive feature because it links more

directly with the workplace (Keating, 1995). The work place is changing significantly in the

world today; skills and knowledge are engines of social development, industrial revolution and

economic growth. The look of the work place is a direct reflection of the technology in use. The

shift is towards high technology, service-oriented and self-directed work teams (Hull, 1997).

Globalization and the rise of communication and information technology are having

marked impact on organizations and the individuals who work within them (Mitchell, Wood &

Young 2001). The nature of work practice is also changing, thereby demanding changing skill

levels (Billett, 2001) that require education and training throughout life. The workplace is highly

susceptible to technological changes. In fact, technological changes, challenges and other

changes stemming from globalization of economies around the world are not only having a

profound impact on the nature of work but also in the way it is organized, done and the required

skills (Virgona, Waterhouse, Sefton & Sanguinetti 2003; Robinson 2000; Billett, 2001).

Figure 2: TVET, Industrial Growth and the New Economy an adaption From Weinstein (1997)

Introduction of new information and communication technologies has had enormous

impact in many industries, from computer-aided design and just-in time management of

inventories, as well as a range of new and enhanced telecommunication services that has

required whole new skill sets to be acquired by workers. The ICT revolution makes knowledge a

competitive resource. In this economic era, economic prosperity depends on brains rather than

brawn and value creation is realized by means of employing knowledge workers and continuous

learning (Chris Chinien, 2003). As technology changes, there is need for training institutions to

change their ways of training (Virgona, Waterhouse, Sefton & Sanguinetti, 2003) and

incorporate flexible scheduling. The bottom line is the establishment of a culture of lifelong

learning and that the institution–industry link should be made more mutually beneficial.

The Way Forward For the TVET Curriculum

The TVET curriculum has undergone changes and upgrading in the past to be in line with

the demands in the industry and society. The incorporation of diverse teaching and learning

methods may greatly enhance learner curiosity unlike the lecture method where a learner is seen

as a vessel whose main purpose is to listen and receive.

These diverse methods include: guided research and flexible teaching and learning. There

is also need to restructure modular engineering courses to enhance competency.

Guided Research

According to Rajesh P. Khambayat and Shyamal Majumdar (2010, P. 12) some of the

significant shifts that we are experiencing in Teaching-Learning of TVET system are indicated in

the table below;

S. No Old Perspective New Perspective

1. Teaching-centered Learning facilitation centered

2. Teacher-centered Learner-centered

3. Reproductive learning Productive learning

4. Behaviourism Constructivism

5. Time based Outcomes-based

Table 2: Current shifts in teaching-learning of TVET adapted from Khambayat R. et al (2010. P. 12)

The new emerging paradigm of Teaching-Learning in TVET is shown in the following

table and it is briefly outlined below (Rajesh P. Khambayat and Shyamal Majumdar, 2010);

S. No Old Paradigm Emerging Paradigm

1. Knowledge Management Knowledge Navigation

2. Knowledge Production Knowledge Configuration

3. Constructivism Social Constructivism

Table 3: Emerging paradigm in TVET adapted from Khambayat R. et al (2010. P. 12)

As clearly seen, the learning process has shifted from making the instructor as the center

of attraction to the learner. Most of the learning is done by the learner, the work of the instructor

is to guide. In line with this, learners can learn even better by being allowed more time and be

guided in developing practical projects which can be applied in industry. This may be done in

such a way as to attach learners to a given company of factory from their first year and have

them come up with an idea applicable to that company and develop a project in line with that

idea in the course of their study. The learners will then be assigned one lesson as a unit for

practical research within which to work on their project for the three years under guidance of

lecturers.

Flexible Teaching and Learning

Flexible teaching and learning methods when properly applied are able to unleash the

learners’ creativity and innovativeness. They are able to make the learner a direct participant and

contributor in the learning process rather than a passive one. The aim of incorporation of flexible

teaching and learning methods is to empower and build learners’ independence and ability to

think and reason freely, it reduces leaners’ overdependence on the teacher.

Figure 3: Flexible Teaching Integration Model Adapted from the conference board of Canada as cited in Murray

(2001. p. 26)

These flexible methods to a larger extent include the use of ICTs, OERs, self-paced

learning, reducing direct contact hours and inclusion of mobile learning in the implementation of

the curriculum.

Use of ICTS for Flexible Teaching and Learning ICTs if used appropriately, can greatly contribute to improving the quality of education.

It has the potential to not only develop people’s technical skills, but it also helps to enhance

‘transferrable’ or soft skills thus in the process supporting lifelong learning. Teachers may not

always be prepared to use ICTs in their teaching due to lack of technical knowhow (skills) or

luck of funds to acquire ICTs. Investing in continuous in-service training and support for

teachers and instructors to ensure the optimal use of ICT tools is important for the enhancement

of the learning process. If not addressed appropriately, the ‘digital divide’ is likely to widen, thus

deepening existing inequalities. The digital divide may be reduced by providing basic literacy

training and involving local communities in utilizing ICT in education. The challenge is to make

sure the tools are inclusive and adapted to the local context. One of the ways of attaining this is

the incorporation of electronic media and the use of electronic documents in learning (e-learning)

and the creation of pioneer digital centers in every county.

The US has developed the National Career Development Guidelines to assist educators in

implementing career development programs in elementary, secondary, and post-secondary

education and training. The model includes three main components: self-knowledge, educational

and occupational exploration, and career planning.

Career Education and Guidance (CEG) consists of a set of approaches and strategies

specifically designed to enable people to make informed choices related to their education and

their work (BECTA, 2001a). CEG has three goals as outlined by the UK Department of

Education and Skills, these are:

Self-development: helping students to understand themselves and develop their capabilities.

Career exploration: helping students to investigate career opportunities, find out about post-16

choice, and investigate the knowledge and skills people need at work.

Career management: using the results of self-assessment to implement their career, and

developing effective strategies for making and implementing career

decisions (BECTA, 2001a).

ICTs are revolutionizing CEG by providing new ways of exploring career options

through video, graphics, and sound. Many CD-ROM titles and specific web sites dedicated to the

following aspects of CEG are now available: information databases, self-evaluation aids,

decision-making aids, work simulations and games, psychometric tests and checklists, self-

presentation aids, and career resources (BECTA, 2001).

Allowing Study Breaks In Flexible Learning The modular approach in TVET learning was a big leap towards flexible learning,

however, work demands and financial needs hinder a good number of learners from progressing

with studies as expected. This learning gap may be bridged by making employment as part of the

learning process and incorporating special study time like allowing study leave, holiday study,

self-paced learning and ODeL to enable such learners complete their learning.

Mobile Learning as a Means to Flexible Learning

Based on two interesting data sets shared by Apple and Cisco, it’s clear that learning on

mobile devices (smartphones and tablets), is gaining traction at a rapid pace (Winkler. K., 2013).

TechCrunch reports that Apple also sold more than 8 million iPads to educational institutions

worldwide (Etherington D., 2013).

This mode of learning is especially useful in Kenya in nomadic communities that do not

have permanent residence in a given locality but seasonal and may shift residence depending on

climatic changes looking for grazing ground or water. Where mobile TVET institutions can be

setup to enable learners from these communities have access to college education. The main

challenge is the availability of required facilities or the setting up of such centers for quality

learning which turns out to be expensive in the long term.

The future capabilities for education and training with ubiquitous access to connected

devices cannot be overestimated and will continue to expand. While mobile learning is not

appropriate in all instances, it should be considered as an important part of the total learning and

training support infrastructure (http://www.adlnet.gov, 2014).

Upgrading modular engineering and ICT courses

Engineering is the engine (driving force) of industrialization of any economy. This

unexplored gold mine if properly harnessed may hold the key to industrialization of developing

economies and a leap to the next level. Previously (in past years), work in industries (globally)

was completely manual before the introduction of machines. In modern times, technology has

advanced to the level that these machines can be fed with instructions and controlled remotely or

via a console (enter ICT). This is making most companies and production plants to modernize

their equipment. As seen in table 1 above, out of 27 sampled students from Mechanical

Engineering, only 9 (nine) are employed (3 self-employed and 3 employed somewhere), which

forms 33.333% leaving out 66.667% who have not found a place. It is important that TVET

graduates come out fully equipped with these skills to enable them adequately fit in and drive the

industry forward to avoid dependency on outsourcing of expertise.

To realize this, machine (Assembly Language) programming units may be introduced and

made compulsory for engineering courses like Electrical, Electronics, Mechanical and

Automotive and also for ICT. Mechatronics courses may also be introduced in TVET. The

governments to also invest more in research centers in TVET institutions and make them fully

functional units or extensions of ministries and parastatals an example is the NYS and Nyayo bus

service program.

Conclusion

Kenya is not an exception to the global trends affecting industry and the workplace. Most

industries hiring TVET graduates are forced to re-train them on the use of modern equipment

that might be in use at the industry work place but are not available in training institutions. This

turns out to be expensive for employers and hence they opt to hire experienced workers. In the

Kenyan context, the reality is that only a minority of the graduates do find employment in large

organizations that operate at levels that are comparable to others globally. The majority of the

graduates find employment within the informal sector (Jua Kali) or within small establishments

that might still operate on older technological systems. Institutions at the very best can only hope

to provide learners with the basic principles and skills and leave the final fine tuning of

competencies to the workplaces that the learners will find. However, instead of the wait attitude,

institutions can also choose to set the pace by adapting and implementing modern technologies,

developing research centers and applying guided research in line with enabling learners to be

affiliated with companies in their entry year and making it mandatory for learners to choose

projects in their first year and progressively develop full working projects or companies and be

the leaders in the industry.

Acknowledgement

I acknowledge the support of my colleagues, the Thika T. T I research section, the

college administration, friends and family for their guidance and support. Their contributions

have enabled me to come up with this paper.

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