Theories of EmotionWhat is Emotion?

The word emotion literally means a stirred-up or excited state. Psychologists usually distinguish three components of any emotion: 1. A characteristic feeling or subjective experience

The subjective component is conveyed in the labels we attach to our emotions, such as fear, anger, joy, or sadness.2. A pattern of physiological arousal

The physiological component includes all of bodily changes that occur in emotion. Our language contains many phrases that express these bodily accompaniments. For example, we speak of butterflies in the stomach when fearful, a lump in throat when sad, or tingling with pleasure. Such sensations derive from changes in the internal visceral organs, such as heart and stomach, that accompany emotions.3. A pattern of overt expressionThe expressive component includes the body postures and facial expressions characteristic of different emotions. For example, stooped shoulders and a downcast expression often betray sadness, while tense muscles and a wide-eyed stare often express fear. Sometimes emotional feelings can be induced simply by assuming the characteristic posture and facial expression: compare how you feel when you tense your body and facial muscles with the feeling induced by relaxed muscles and a broad smile.Reference:Psychology by Andrew B. Crider, George R. Goethals, Robert D. Kavanaugh and Paul R. Solomon. P. 144Theories of EmotionA classification of emotion provides a road map of the subject, but it does not attempt to explain or analyze emotion. This is the role of theories of emotion. More specifically, most theories of emotion attempt to specify exactly how emotion-provoking events and physiological arousal interact to produce subjective emotional experience or emotions as we feel them. This question has been debated by psychologists for over a century.

Our discussion begins with the classic theory of emotion proposed by William James in his Principles of Psychology (1890). We then consider criticisms of this theory, as well as research relating to important issues raised by it. Finally, we examine a contemporary theory known as the two-factor theory of emotion. To fully appreciate the issues dealt with by theories of emotion, we must first understand how the nervous system regulates physiological arousal.Reference:

Psychology by Andrew B. Crider, George R. Goethals, Robert D. Kavanaugh and Paul R. Solomon. P. 145

The Autonomic Nervous System

The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (the nerves outside the CNS). The Peripheral Nervous System, in turn was divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system controls the activity of the skeletal muscles. The autonomic nervous system, or ANS, controls the construction of small blood vessels throughout the skin and muscles, as well as the activity of the sweat glands. The ANS is thus a communication network linking the brain and spinal cord with the visceral organs, blood vessels, and sweat glands. When we speak of the physiological component of emotion, we are referring to the body systems controlled by the ANS. Thus when our hands are cold and clammy in fear, or when we blush with embarrassment, it is because the ANS has been activated.Notice that the ANS has two major divisions, the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division. The neurons of the sympathetic division leave the central nervous system from the middle portion of the spinal cord. The neurons of the parasympathetic division connect with the central nervous system either at the lowest segment of the spinal cord or at the brainstem. The prefix para means outside of, meaning that the parasympathetic division lies outside the sympathetic division.Most of the visceral organs are controlled by both sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons. The exceptions are the sweat glands and blood vessels, which receive only sympathetic control. Because the sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions tend to have opposing effects, the activity of the visceral organs can be rather finely tuned, or modulated. Important examples of this are seen in the pupil, the heart, and the intestines. Sympathetic activity acts to dilate pupils, accelerate heart rate, and decrease intestinal activity. On the other hand, parasympathetic activity will cause constriction of the pupils, deceleration of the heart, and increased intestinal activity. In general, sympathetic activity increases physiological arousal in order to prepare the organism for vigorous activity while parasympathetic activity tends to reduce physiological arousal and return the organism to homeostatic balance.Reference:

Psychology by Andrew B. Crider, George R. Goethals, Robert D. Kavanaugh and Paul R. Solomon.

Pp. 145-146James-Lange Theory

The first comprehensive theory of emotion was formulated by William James in the late nineteenth century. As we have previously noted, James work continues to be a source of many stimulating ideas for psychologists. James theory of emotion is sometimes known as the James-Lange Theory because a similar theory was introduced about the same time by Carl Lange (1887). James-Lange theory says that our brains interpret specific physiological changes as feelings or emotions and that there is a different physiological pattern underlying each emotion.

Heres how the James-Lange Theory explains what happens during a dog attack.

1. Physiological changes

Your perception of a dog affects the hypothalamus, a part of the brain that controls the ANS. One division of the ANS, called the sympathetic division, causes specific changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing, secretion of various hormones, and other changes.

2. Interpretation of changes

Your brain analyzes the specific pattern of physiological changes and interprets this physiological pattern as a specific emotion. The James-Lange theory assumes that there is a different pattern of physiological changes for each different emotion.

3. Emotional Feeling

According to the James-Lange theory, you feel fear during a dog attack because you experience a specific pattern of physiological responses that your brain interpreted as the specific emotion, fear. In addition, you may also show overt behaviors, such as a fearful facial expression. Notice that the James-Lange theory emphasizes a pattern of physiological response as the primary cause of emotions.

4. Sequence for emotions

Before the James-Lange theory people thought that the sequence for feeling an emotion was that we see a dog, become afraid, and run frantically. James-Lange theory reversed the sequence: we see a dog, experience physiological change (because of running frantically), and as a consequence feel fear. In James words, We feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble (1897, p. 1066). In other words, an emotionally arousing event triggers a specific pattern of visceral activity that is then experienced as a specific emotion.

References:

Psychology by Andrew B. Crider, George R. Goethals, Robert D. Kavanaugh and Paul R. Solomon. Pp. 146-147Introduction to Psychology by Aggie Carson-Arenas. Pp.297-298Psychology ninth Edition by David G. Myers. P498

Cannon-Bard Theory

James Lange theory of emotion contains two major assumptions: 1) each emotion is accomplished by its own specific pattern of visceral arousal, and 2) people label their emotional states by perceiving the patterned feedback from their visceral activity. These assumptions were severely criticized a generation later by Walter B. Cannon, a prominent physiologist. Cannon, and later Psychologist, Philip Bard, concluded that our physiological arousal and our emotional experience occur simultaneously: the emotion-triggering stimulus is routed simultaneously to the brains cortex, causing the subjective awareness of emotion, and to the sympathetic nervous system, causing the bodys arousal.

Cannon (1927) argued first of all that the anatomy of the ANS did not allow for the possibility of patterned visceral arousal. He believed that the sympathetic division of the ANS was so constructed that only a generalized state of arousal was possible in any and all emotional situations. In other words, Cannon believed that the ANS would not respond in a unitary manner to any emotional stimulus and, therefore, that patterned arousal could not be the basis of emotional experience. Cannon thought that all emotions would be accompanied by a similar pattern of visceral activity.Secondly, Cannon argued that the activity of the visceral organs was extremely difficult to perceive accurately. To emphasize his arguments, Cannon chose an extreme case, pointing out that most people have only the vaguest knowledge of the spleen and, even if aware of this anatomical fact, are unlikely to recognize changes in its activity. This Cannon-Bard Theory implies that your heart begins pounding as you experience fear; one does not cause the other. Our physiological response and experienced emotion are separate. References:

Psychology by Andrew B. Crider, George R. Goethals, Robert D. Kavanaugh and Paul R. Solomon. P. 147

Psychology ninth Edition by David G. Myers. P498

Schachter-Singer Theory

Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer (1962) proposed a third theory: that our physiology and our cognitions-perceptions, memories, and interpretations-together create emotion.The Scachter-Singer cognitive theory says that some stimuli cause a person to feel physiologically aroused and the person explains the arousal feeling by interpreting environmental cues as causing the emotional feeling.

1. Physiological Arousal

Schachter and Singer injected some of their subjects with hormone, epinephrine (adrenaline) that causes physiological arousal, such as increased heart rate and blood pressure. Subjects were told, however, that the injections were vitamins and were not told that they would experience physiological arousal.

2. Interpretation of CuesAfter the injection, subjects were placed in a different situation- a happy one or an angry one.In the happy situation a confederate of the researchers created a happy atmosphere and throwing paper airplane around. In the angry situation, another confederate created a n angry atmosphere by complaining about filling out a long questionnaire. 3. Emotional FeelingSubjects in the happy situation often reported feeling happy and their overt behavior were smiles, while those in the angry situations are often reported angry and their overt behaviors were angry facial expression. Schachter and Singer explained that subjects did not know that their physiological arousal was caused by hormone injections, and looked for other causes. Subjects interpreted environmental cues, such being in a happy or angry situation, as the cause of their arousal and thus reported feeling happy or angry.4. Sequence for EmotionThe Schachter Singer Theory assumes that our interpretation or appraisal of a situation is the primary cause of emotions. This sequence is shown below:Current Appraisal Theory (Magda Arnold & Richard Lazarus)

For the past several decades, appraisal theory has developed and evolved as a prominent theory in the field of communication and psychology by testing affect and emotion. In history, the most basic ideology dates back to the some of the most notable philosophers such as Aristotle, Plato, the Stoics, Spinoza and Hume, and even early German psychologist Stumph (Reisenzein & Schonpflug, 1992). However, in the past fifty years, this theory has expanded exponentially with the dedication of two prominent researchers: Magda Arnold and Richard Lazarus, amongst others who have contributed appraisal theories.The cognitive appraisal theory assumes that your interpretation or appraisal of situation is often the primary cause of emotions.

1. The stimulus could be an event, object, or thought. In this example the stimulus is a winning lottery ticket.

2. You appraise the stimulus according to your well-being; in this case your appraisal is extremely positive since you have won 50 million.3. Your appraisal of having won 50 million results in your emotional feeling of happiness and joy.4. Your bodily responses include physiological arousal and overt behaviors, such as smiling.

Affective-Primacy Theory (Robert Zajonc)The Affective Primacy Theory, postulated by Robert Zajonc. He says that, in situation, we feel an emotion before we have time to interpret or appraise the situation.1. The stimulation of the winning lottery ticket.

2. Seeing the winning lottery ticket elicits an emotional experience, feeling happy, so quickly that there seems to be little or no thinking preceding your feeling.

3. You already feel happy and may now think about how you will spend the money.4. Your bodily responses include physiological changes and overt behaviors, such as smiling.

References:

Introduction to Psychology By Aggie Carson-Arenas. Pp.300-301Psychology ninth Edition by David G. Myers. P498http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affective%20Primacy%20Theory#ixzz3RXVHdmgFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appraisal_theory

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Introduction to Psychology by Aggie Carson-Arenas P.297

Introduction to Psychology By Aggie Carson-Arenas P.297

Introduction to Psychology By Aggie Carson-Arenas P.297

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