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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL

CHARACTERISTICS AND SUSTAINABLE

AGRICULTURE:

A GIS APPROACH.

A dissertation Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for a

Bachelor of ArtsSpecial Degree in Geography

By

A / 03 /547

Under the Supervision of

Senior Lecturer A.S.M. Nawfal

Faculty of Arts

Department of Geography

University of Peradeniya

Sri Lanka.


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DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my loving, caring and industrious mother and father

whose effort and sacrifice has made my dream of obtaining this degree a reality.

Words cannot adequately express my deep gratitude to you. I pray you will live long

to reap the fruits of your labor.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My appreciation goes to my mother and father for their efforts and suggestions

towards my progress in life.

I appreciate the constructive suggestions, criticisms and encouragement of my

supervisor in Dr. A.S.M. Nawfal who was very keen and humane in supervising me.

I remain indebted to the entire staff of Hecter Kobbakaduwa Agrarian Research and

Training Institute, Colombo and other colleagues; Uchtha, Prasanna and Asanka

My gratitude is also given to Mr. Bandara who encouraged me in the first place to put

in for the course.

The help given by my roommate and friends, Kamal and Ranil with their moral

support during this course is enormous.

I also acknowledge the staff of divisional secretariat council, field officers of new

Hingurana sugar factory and farmers who provided me valuable information in this work.

Finally, deep gratitude goes to the entire students of GIS, University of Peradeniya

particularly those who have both served as valuable classmates and close friends and otherswhose names are not mentioned here.

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CONTENTS

PAGE

Title page....i

Dedication..ii

Acknowledgments..iii

Table of contents...iv

List of tables..vi

List of maps..vii

List of figures...viii

List of pictures.viii

List of acronymsixAbstracts.x

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study.01

1.2 Objectives..03

1.3 Importance of the study and study area..03

1.3.1 Importance of the study..03

1.3.2 Importance of the study area..04

1.4 Research methodology...05

1.4.1 Study area...05

1.4.2 Selection of the sample..07

1.4.3 Methods of data collection.07

1.4.4 Interpretation and analyzing data...11

1.4.5 Identification of spatial detention in agricultural setting...12

1.4.6 Software used.131.5 Limitation of the study...14

CHAPTER TWO: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND AGRICULTURAL

PATTERN IN MADAWALALANDA VILLAGE

2.1. Physical characteristics in Madawalalanda village.16

2.1.1 Geomorphology and Geology...16

2.1.2 Soil17

2.1.3. Agro-ecological zone...24

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2.1.4. Irrigation canal.26

2.2. Agricultural Land use pattern.28

2.3. Agricultural Development..36

CHAPTER THREE: ECONOMICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF

AGRICULTURAL LANDS IN MADAWALALANDA VILLAGE

3.1. Economic background of farmers..39

3.2. Cost of production in agricultural lands.41

3.2.1 Cost of production in paddy cultivation...44

3.2.2. Cost of production in sugarcane cultivation45

3.2.3. Cost of production in Chena cultivation..47

3.2.4. Cost of production in Gherkin cultivation...47

3.2.5.Cost of production in vegetable cultivation.48

3.3. Profitability of Agriculture.48

3.4 Environmental issues in Agricultural Lands51

3.4.1. Major environmental issues related to agriculture

in Madawalalanda village.........51

3.4.2. Spatial dimension of environment issues...55

CHAPTER FOUR: IMPACTS AND POSSIBLE CHANGES FOR THE

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN MADAWALALANDA VILLAGE

4.1 Impacts on the Sustainable agriculture in Madawalalanda village

4.1.1. Spread of modernization.57

4.1.2. Rapid growth of population58

4.1.3. Poor performances of agricultural pattern in economic terms

of low productivity or land and labour.58

4.1.4. Introduction of new crops...59

4.2 Possible Changes of agriculture towards sustainable development

in Madawalalanda village.59

4.2.1. Environment protection strategies..59

4.2.2. Crop development strategies..60

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

5.1 Conclusion.62

5.2. Suggestions...64

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REFERENCE.66

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGES

1. Area Of The Major Soil Groups In Sri Lanka...21

2. Distinguishing Characteristics Of Agro-Ecological Zones

In Madawalalanda Village.26

3. Area Of Paddy And Sugarcane Cultivation Under Main Irrigation..28

4. Total Cultivation Lands Under Main Irrigations...28

5. Main Land Use Pattern In Madawalalanda Village...31

6. Land Area Under The Paddy Cultivation..33

7. Livestock In Madawalalanda Village35

8. Total Population39

9. Population by Employment Types40

10. Cost Of Production In Selected Agricultural Lands Per Acre..42

11. Cost Of Production In Selected Paddy Cultivation Lands Per Acre.....44

12. Cost Of Production In Selected Sugarcane Cultivation Lands.46

13. Cost Of Production In Gherkin Cultivation Lands...47

14. Cost Of Production In Vegetable Cultivation Lands....48

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LIST OF MAPS

MAPS PAGE

1. The Boundary Of Madawalalanda Village.06

2. Location Of Madawalalanda Village In Simplified Geological Map Of

Sri Lanka17

3. Contour Map Of Madawalalanda Village..18

4. Soil Map Of Sri Lanka20

5. Soil Map Of Daman DS Division...22

6. Soil Map Of Madawalalanda Village.23

7. Agro-Ecological Zones In Ampara Districts..25

8. Agro-Ecological Zones In Madawalalanda Village..25

9. Location Of Eggal Aru Tank..27

10. Land Use Pattern In The Area30

11. Land Use Pattern In Madawalalanda Village.32

12. Selected Agricultural Lands In Madawalalanda Village41

13. Cost Of Production In Selected Agricultural Lands

In Madawalalanda Village.43

14. Cost Of Production In Selected Agricultural Lands By Sectors...43

15. Profitability Of Agricultural Lands In Madawalalanda Villages...50

16. Levels Of Environmental Issues In Selected Agricultural Lands..55

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURES PAGE

1. The Source Of Data...07

2. Methods Of GIS Application13

3. Topography Of Madawalalanda Village..19

4. Soil Land Use By Soil Types In Madawalalanda Village....24

5. Land use pattern by Types...31

6. Total Population By Male And Female...39

7. Monthly Income Levels By Number Of Families...408. Average Cost Of Production In Selected Paddy Lands...45

9. Average Cost Of Production In Selected Sugarcane Cultivation Lands.46

10. Average Cost Of Production In Selected Gherkin Cultivation Lands.47

11. Average Cost Of Production In Selected Vegetable Cultivation Lands...48

LIST OF PICTURES

PICTURES PAGE

1. A Paddy Cultivation Area In Madawalalanda Village33

2. Chena Cultivation In Madawalalanda Village.....34

3. Homesteads In Madawalalanda Village...35

4. A Gherkin Cultivation Land.36

5. A Sugarcane Field.36

6. Micro Irrigation For The Cultivation In Madawalalanda Village.37

7. Land Degradation..51

8. Excess use of agrochemicals.52

9. The Pollution In The Agricultural Lands...54

10. A Broken Main Irrigation Canal54

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List of Acronyms

CH - Chena

DS - Divisional Secretariat

DZ - Dry Zone

ESRI - Environmental System Research Institution

GDP - Gross Domestic Production

GIS - Geographical Information Systems

GR - Gherkin

HARTI - Hector Kobbakaduwa Agrarian Research and Training

Institution

HC - High Land Complex

HEPAL - High Environmental Polluted Agricultural Lands

HPAL - High Profitable Agricultural Lands

KC - Kadugannawa Complex

LEPAL - Low Environmental Polluted Agricultural Lands

LPAL - Low Profitable Agricultural Lands

MEPAL - Meddle Environmental Polluted Agricultural Lands

MPAL - Middle Profitable Agricultural Lands

NGO - Non-Governmental Organization

NRM - Natural Resource Management

PA - PaddyPGIA - Post Graduate Institute of Agriculture

SAD - Sustainable Agricultural Development

SD - Sustainable Development

SU - Sugarcane

TC - Total Cost

TR - Total Revenue

VC - Vijayan Complex

VE - Vegetable

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WC - Wanni Complex

ABSTRACT

This study examines the relationship between physical characteristics

and sustainable agriculture in Madawalalanda village using

Geographical Information System. Initially, the agricultural pattern and

physical characteristics of study area was presented using maps.

Subsequently, an attempt was made that is found out the spatial

variation of environmental issues and productivity of agricultural lands

in Madawalalanda village. Obviously, the study explored the possible

changes of agriculture towards sustainable development in

Madawalalanda village. In achieving this sustainable agricultural

development, it was defined as extending the maximum productivity of

agriculture and reflecting the ability of future generation to meet their

agricultural needs. The result of the work shows a traditional

agricultural pattern that includes paddy cultivation, Chena cultivation

and vegetable cultivation do not have a serious influence on the

environmental health but gherkin cultivation that is one of the short

term new crops are highly influencing the environmental health of

agricultural lands in Madawalalanda village. Sugarcane cultivation that

is a direct market oriented monocrop have been increased the

productivity of land while affecting the environment in a moderate way

on the agricultural lands in Madawalalanda village. Suggestions were

therefore made at the end of the work that improving paddy

cultivation, sugarcane cultivation and vegetable cultivation with the

protection environmental health of village using new technology is the

way to the sustainable agricultural development in Madawalalanda

village.

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CHAPTER ONE

01. Introduction

01.1. Background of the StudyDespite the significant diversifications in its economic base through export-led

industrialization, Sri Lankas economy still remains fundamentally agrarian.

Basically, governments policies in Sri Lanka have been oriented towards generation

of agro-based economic growth. In term of contribution to GDP, the share of

agriculture has declined from 30 percent in 1978 to 21 percent in 1998, with

manufacture now accounting for 17 percent. The ten-year Horizon Development

Framework (Ten-year vision) issued in November 2006 along with the budget 2007 is

a broad policy framework consistent with the Mahinda Chinthana states that

Agriculture transforms traditional subsistence agriculture to commercially oriented

and highly productive sector (Central Bank Annual Report, 2006). In addition, this

ten-year vision has pointed out Enhancing agriculture productive efficiency through

mechanization and technological transformation.

Agricultural activities are practiced all over the country aiming at producing food and

fiber for domestic and export purposes in Sri Lanka. Dry zone agriculture plays animportant role in the economic sector and food production sector in Sri Lanka. The

dry zone accounts for nearly 60 percent of the total land area (6.54 million hectares)

of Sri Lanka ( Madduma Bandara, 1985). The land that can be used for agricultural

purposes is about 2.71 million hectares in Sri Lanka of which about 48 percent is in

dry zone (Abeyrathne, 1956). Dry zone agriculture is mainly based on the irrigation

system of the area.

Gal-Oya, Minneriya and Mahaweli projects are outstanding development projects in

Sri Lanka. Ampara district is one of the major agricultural areas, developed under

Gal-Oya development project that has achieved a significant success story in Sri

Lankan agricultural development history. But in past decades, agriculture in this area

has changed dramatically due to the new technology, mechanization, increasing of

chemical substances, specialization, and government policies. On one hand, these

modern practices of this intensive agriculture in this area have contributed much to

the deterioration of environment. On the other hand there is a decreasing trend of

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productivity of agricultural land in this area. Agriculture is a natural heritage. The

agriculture has befallen as a human heritage by the development of technology.

Madawalalanda village is one of the agriculturally important areas that represent the

many of existing agricultural patterns in Ampara district.

Initially, sustainable agricultural development extends the maximum productivity of

agriculture and reflects the ability of future generation to meet their agricultural

needs. The sustainable agriculture basically integrates with protecting environmental

heath, economic profitability and socioeconomic equality.

In the planning process of sustainable agricultural development, the decision makers

should have well understood regarding spatial dimension of agricultural systems of

the area and the distribution of environmental problems within this agricultural

setting. Agricultural setting of any area is dominated by human characteristics and

physical characteristics. The spatial dimension of agriculture also basically depends

on physical characteristics of a particular area. The maps are a major tool that show

practical path to identify both distributions of phenomena and dimensions of

phenomena for sustainable agricultural development planning. And an adequate

spatial information base is required to conduct sustainable agricultural development.

Geographic Information System is one of the major tools in geographical research.

Defined broadly, GIS is a set of powerful computer based tool for capturing, storage,

management, retrieval, query, analysis and presentation of spatial data. GIS provides a

common platform to integrate data and to require for adequate spatial information.

Using this potential power of GIS, this study will use the GIS as a tool to find the

relationship between agricultural setting and physical characteristics in

Madawalalanda village of the Ampara district such as soil types, drainage systems and

irrigation systems to explore the possible changes of agricultural setting towards

sustainable development.

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01.2. Objectives

Primary objective

The primary objective of this study is to explore the possible changes of agricultural

setting towards sustainable development and the relationship between agricultural

setting with physical characteristics such as soil types, drainage systems and irrigation

systems in Madawalalanda village of the Ampara District

Secondary Objectives

1. To find out spatial dimensions of environmental problems related agricultural

setting.2. To evaluate the economic background of farmers and their sustainability.

01.3. Importance of study and study area

01.3.1. Importance of study

By nature, geography is a spatial science that studies the spatial dimension of human

activities. Geography also applies relationship of phenomena to deepen their

understanding about real world problems. And also human- environmental

relationship is mainly studied in the subject of geography. Exactly, this study utilized

these major themes in geography to criticize the agro- based problems in study area to

explore the possible changes of agriculture towards the sustainable development.

Intellectually, there is inadequacy of research that study about sustainable agriculture

by finding out the relationship between physical characteristics and agriculture of any

selected area. Thus, this research is important intellectually. It also has a social

importance as it examines the possible changes of agriculture in the study area

towards sustainable development. The world is facing different types of

environmental problem with the agricultural development. Therefore, the practice of

sustainable agricultural development has a worldwide acceptance now. On one hand,

decreasing of production negatively effects on the society. On the other hand, with

practices of intensive agriculture for high production, it directly deteriorates the

environment health. Thus, there is a challenge for balance between agricultural

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development and environment. This study saw a practical geographical answer for

this development paradox.

There is a negative trend in agriculture of Madawalalanda that the deteriorating the

environment health and decreasing productivity of agricultural land. Thus, this

research found out geographical answer to explore the possible changes of

agricultural setting towards sustainable development by finding out the relationship

between agricultural setting and physical characteristics such as soil types, drainage

systems and irrigation systems in Madawalalanda village of the Ampara District

01.3.2. Importance of study area This study mainly focuses on agricultural lands in Madawalalanda village.

According to the GN reports, total agricultural land use area is 508 Acres

including paddy, Chena, coconuts, vegetables, fruits, home gardens and mixed

farming.

Madawalalanda village is an agriculturally important area that developed under

the village expansion scheme of Gal-Oya development project. On the other hand

past decades, agriculture in this area has changed dramatically due to the new

technology, mechanization, increasing of chemical substances, specialization, and

government policies.

River Valley Development Board has developed most of the irrigation works in

this village under the Gal-Oya development project. Geography of This area

rapidly has changed after the intervention of this development project

Geographical location of Madawalalanda is also very important. There are

different types of soil types, drainage systems and irrigation systems that affected

for agricultural distribution of area as physical characteristics those, which

associated agriculture of area.

On the one hand agro-based economic activities are very diverse than other close

areas in Damana DS division where Madawalalanda village is administratively

located.

On the other hand the farmers of this village are facing various types of economic

problems as a result of decreasing productivity of agricultural land where the

study carried out.

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01.4. Research Methodology

The following methodology applied to explore the possible changes of agricultural

setting towards sustainable development in Madawalalanda village.

The methodology of study can be mainly divided into five parts

1. Selection of study area

2. Selection of sample.

3. Collecting and analyzing of relevant data in order to derive final result.

4. Identification of spatial dimension in agricultural setting.

5. Analyzing of the maps using GIS software.

01.4.1. Study areaSri Lanka is an island situated in the Indian Ocean at the southern tip of Indian

subcontinent. It lies between 5 5 to 9 5 northern latitudes and from 79 4 to 81 5

east longitudes with total Island area of 65,610 square kilometer. The main livelihood

of people is agriculture or agro-based industries. The agricultural of country is vastly

based on its physical characteristics such as soil type, drainage systems, and irrigation

systems.

The Madawalalanda GN division is a main agricultural area, located in Amparadistrict of Northeast part of Sri Lanka. It lies between from 7 10 to 7 10 with

total area of 2655 Acres (DMR report, 2006). According to agro-ecological

classification of Sri Lanka, the area belongs to DL2a (NRM map, Ampara district,

2007). The main soil types of the area are Alluvial soils variables drainage and

texture, Rock knob plain and Reddish brown earth and immature brown looms;

rolling, hilly and steep terrine (NRM map, Ampara district, 2007). The annual rainfall

varies from 1500mm to 2000mm and annual temperature is more than 27.5 C

(Arjunas Atlas, 1997).

The irrigation systems of the area have been developed under Gal-Oya development

project. Eggal Aru River also provides water to agricultural activities. In the boundary

of village, there is Malayadiya tank fed by Iginiyagala reservoir through right bank

irrigation channel. Paddy cultivation is shredded in the most part of this area. The

irrigation channels of the area and rainwater are mainly utilized to this paddy

cultivation. On the other hand, the Chena cultivation, sugar cane cultivation rainfed

upland crops and mixed farming can be seen in this area. The flat land, irrigation

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channel soil types and climate directly facilitate to this cultivation pattern of area. The

forest area is mainly being utilized to Chena cultivation. As a result of expansion of

agricultural activity, many environmental problems have emerged in this area.

Administratively, W/27 Madawalalanda GN division belongs to the

Weugampaththuwa south in Damana DS division, Ampara district (map-01). The

boundary of village Helagampura and Ambalan Oya GN division from North,

Ambalan Oya from east, Timbirigolla from south and Madana and Alahena GN

division from west.

Map-01

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01.4.2. Selection of the sample

The stratified random sampling method was used to select the sample. The sample

includes twenty: (20) agricultural lands.

Initially, the sample mainly represents the spatial dimension of agricultural settingwithin the selected physical characteristics of the area. The strata for the sampling

were generated after considering agricultural practices and physical characteristics of

the area. In the irrigated areas, cluster was selected in head, middle and tail of

channels to represent the cultivation patterns. In the rainfed areas, criteria such as

drainage or soil types were used to select representative clusters.

At the second stage, Landowners of selected agricultural lands were chosen to

evaluate the economic background of the farmers.

01.4.3. Methods of Data collection

The Data for the study was collected from the primary and secondary sources (Fig-

01).

1. First step- Secondary data

2. Second step- Primary data

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Fig01-The source of Data

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Data

Primary Data

Field based

observation

Interviews

Secondary Data

Existing maps

Other documents

Spatial data Agro-economic data

Map making and Digitizing

Analyzing

Input parameter for Sustainable agriculture


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First step

In the first step, secondary data was collected for the study. These data was collected

from the following sources.

1. G.N. Office.

2. D.S office.

3. Department of agriculture.

4. Hecter Kobbakaduwa Agrarian Research And Training Institute.

5. Other government offices

6. Research papers and thesis

7. Internet websites

8. News paper articles and other publications

The G.N. office provided very important socio-economic data for the study. From

these data, the study could figure out actual agricultural situation of Madawalalanda

village. Despite providing socio-economic data, Grama Niladari gave the information

about agricultural changes of village and agro-based issues in the village.

The Gama Naguma project report that prepared by D.S office revealed many

demographic and agricultural data for the study. Most of maps as a source for GIS

mapping and analyzing were collected from the planning division of DS office.

Department of agriculture in Ampara office gave some other important agricultural

information in Ampara district. But this information was not specified for

Madawalalanda village as it gives some general idea about agricultural background of

Ampara district.

Most of the information about Gal-Oya development project and sustainable

agricultural research was collected from the HARTI.

New Hingurana sugar factory office, NECORD project office and some other NGOs

provided relevant data for the study.

Some relevant information about agricultural background of the area was collected

from the theses and research papers that were available in the library of PGIA,

University of Peradeniya.

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Second step

In the second step, the primary data was collected. As a primary data collection

methods following methods were used.

1. Participatory observation methods

2. Interviews

3. Questionnaires

4. Field based observation

1. Participatory observation methods

The research vastly uses this method to select the agricultural lands in

Madawalalanda village in order to achieve final objectives in the study.

2. Interview

Interview method is specially used to collect information for the study. Semi

structured questionnaires were employed for the interview to make easy this

endeavor of study.

GN officer in Madawalalanda village was interviewed to take some

important information about agriculture and socioeconomic

background of Madawalalanda village.

Field officers in Department of agriculture and New Hingurana sugar

factory were interviewed to understand agricultural issues and their

opinions to reduce these issues using sustainable methods in

agricultural land of Madawalalanda village.

Five old villagers were interviewed to understand the changing pattern

of agricultural land use in Madawalalanda village with different time

period.

03. Questionnaires methods

A questionnaire is a format containing a list of questions sequentially ordered to

obtain information relevant to the objectives of the study. In this study, most of the

data in order to analyze for achieve the objectives were collected using

questionnaires that were distributed among the farmers. This questionnaire was

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mainly used to collect some important socioeconomic data and farmers ideas for

the sustainable agricultural development of Madawalalanda village.

This questionnaire was given to 20 farmers those who have landownerships of the

selected agricultural land in Madawalalanda village. Primacy objective of this study is

explore the possible changes of agriculture toward the sustainable development of

Madawalalanda village, thus this study gave great attention about farmers ideas about

sustainable agricultural development that extends the maximum productivity of

agriculture and reflects the ability of future generation to meet their agricultural needs

with environment protection.

04. Field based observation

Researcher used field based observation methods in order to understand the actual

nature of the problem in the agricultural land of Madawalalanda village.

05.Accuracy of data

Sample was selected to represent different physical characteristics that are associated

to the agriculture in Madawalalanda village. The data that were collected from

government institutions, GN officers and farmers were compared to protect the

accuracy of data.

01.4.4. Interpretation and analyzing of Data

The data that were collected from above methods were analyzed using following two

methods

1. Qualitatively

2. Quantitatively

The profitability of agricultural lands was calculated per one Acre. The very common

economic formula was employed for this calculation. It is

TR TC =

TR= Total Revenue (Data from farmers)

TC= Total Cost (Data from farmers)

= Profit

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Profitability of one Acre in agricultural land = / Total Acres

Then, the whole profitability of lands was classified in different classification, under

the following main category.

1. High profitable agricultural lands (HPAL).

2. Middle profitable agricultural lands (MPAL).

3. Low profitable agricultural lands (LPAL).

The environmental problems in the study area were evaluated qualitatively, using

field-based observation methods. Then, they were classified as

1. High environmental polluted agricultural land (HEPAL).

2. Middle environmental polluted agricultural land (MEPAL).

3. Low environmental polluted agricultural land (LEPAL).

Finally, it was found the relationship between environmental problems, profitability of

agricultural land and physical characteristics of the study area in order to derive final

result.

01.4.5. Identification of spatial dimension in agricultural setting

The ArcView GIS 3.2a software was used to make maps and analyze the relationship

between physical characteristics and sustainable agriculture. Main three characters

were mapped from the sample. Namely,

1. Agricultural land use patterns

2. Environmental problems (High, Middle, Low)

3. Agricultural profitability of the land (High, Middle, Low)

04. Analyzing of maps Using GIS

The relationship was found through overlapping of themes in ArcView 3.2a. Main

steps of this process were

1. Digitizing of the map

2. Creating the theme for every maps

3. Find out relationship

4. Making Layouts

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Fig02-Methods of GIS application

1.4.6. Software Used

Basically, three softwares were used for preparation of this report viz;

ArcView 3.2a with extension used to make maps and analyze the relationship

between physical characteristics and agriculture

Surfer 7.0 (Golden software) used to create three-dimensional view of the area.

Microsoft word was used basically for the presentation of the research.

Microsoft Excel was used in producing the bar graph.

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Assessment of Individual Thematic map

Study of Map in

CombinationGIS

Assessment of relationship between

Physical Characteristics and Agriculture

Suggestion and Possible Changes For

Sustainable Agricultural development


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01.5. Limitations of study

There were following limitations in this research.

1. Conceptual issues

The concept sustainability is differently defined in the development literature. The

sustainable development should be studied in interdisciplinary approaches. Despite

understanding about environment and economy, sustainable agricultural development

should concern regarding society. This study did not deeply investigate the socially

important concepts that are related to sustainable agriculture.

2. Accuracy of Maps

Existing maps were used to make and analyze maps using ArcViwe GIS 3.2a software

therefore accuracy of maps was a considerable issue.

3. Evaluation issues

Farmers economic background was evaluated using questionnaires and interview

methods. Some responses were not useful to achieve final objectives. Environmental

issues were evaluated using observation methods and questionnaires that were

distributed among the farmers. These environmental issues were not evaluated using

physical scientific method.

04. Limitation of data collection

Limitation of books, reports, research and other publications is a main issue that faced

in this research. Most of the books were only social studies that considered about the

traditional social systems, cultural importance of the area. Even though there are

many researches that studied about Gal-Oya development project but those are not

directly related with the study area.

Many limitations occurred in the application of interview methods and questionnaires

methods in order to collect primary data for the study.

Most of the government institutions did not give data due to prevailing security

situation in the area. Specially, it was hardly possible to collect data for the map

making. Department of agriculture had not implemented any data collection or any

research about the agricultural activities in Madawalalanda village. Some data could

be collected from the village rehabilitation project report that prepared by the NGOs

but the data accuracy is considerable.

In the application stage of questionnaires methods to evaluate economic backgroundof farmers, the study underwent many difficulties. Some farmers did not understand

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the nature of questions due to the lack of education that they had. On the other hand

some responses were not useful to achieve final objectives. Thus, there were many

limitations in the data collection of this research.

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CHAPTER TWO

02. Physical Characteristics and Agricultural pattern

in Madawalalanda villageThe physical characteristics directly dominate the agricultural land use pattern,

distribution, changes and agricultural development in any area. There are specific

physical characteristics that are associated to the agriculture in Madawalalanda village

such as geomorphology and Geology, soil, drainage and irrigation canals and natural

vegetations. This chapter describes these physical characteristics and agricultural

pattern in Madawalalanda village.

02.1. Physical characteristics in Madawalalanda village

02.1.1. Geomorphology and Geology

The village name Madawalalanda is derived from the physical environmental

condition, covered around the village.

If name of the village is divided into three parts, then we can clearly identify this

condition of the village.

Mada+ Wala+ Landa = Madawalalanda.

Mada is Sinhala word for mud

Wala is Sinhala word for pit

Landa is Sinhala word for forest.

There can be identified those three physical environment condition. Topographically,

it is located in a low land area relatively to the other areas. If we consider soil type of

Madawalalanda, it is more alluvial soil, which encourages the paddy cultivation.

According to theory of plate tectonics, Sri Lanka is a small fragment of an ancient

super continent Pangeas. Geologically, Sri Lanka is a part of the south Indian

peninsula separated by a series of lineament in the Palk Strait area. Most parts of the

country is underlain by crystalline rocks of Precambrian age, the rest of being made

up chiefly of Miocene limestone in the north and northwestern coastal regions and

quaternary deposits along the northwestern, southern and eastern. The Precambrian

rocks, which are a part of one of the very ancient, stable part of the earths crust are

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subdivided into three main and one subordinate unites, on the basis of the rock types

and structure present in them.

They are

(i) The Highland complex (HC), occupying the central highland and the

extending from southwest to the northeast to the west of the island.

(ii) The Wanni complex (WC), formerly known as the Western Vijayan

complex and occupying the lowland to the east of the HC.

(iii) The Vijayan complex (VC), formerly known as the Eastern Vijayan

complex and occupying the lowland to the east of the HC.

(iv) The Kadugannawa complex (KC), which lies within the HC but consists of

rock types markedly different from those of the HC.

The study area that is Madawalalanda village belong to VC, according to the

geological map of Sri Lanka ( Map-02)

Map-02

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The Vijayan complex (VC) consists of variety of hornblende and biotite-bearing

orthogeneisses and granitoids, with inclusion of metaquatzite and calc-silicate rocks.

As in the WC, therefore, a matasedimentary series must originally have been

presented. Metamorphosed basic dykes and strongly migmatised granite rock also

present. The metaqurtzites are about 1100 m.y old, thus indicating that the enclosing

granite rocks are younger.

On the one hand the geology of Madawalalanda that indicates the very similar

geological features, discussed under the VC complex.

On the other hand, the geomorphologicaly, despite having plain terrine in the large

part of the village, there are some isolated two rock mountains in the Madawalalanda

village, namely

1. Podi Kanda

2. Mattayagala Kanda

The Podi Kanda is smaller than Mattayagala Kanda (Map-03 / Fig-03). There is very

small tank that called Malayadiya tank, fed by Iginiyagala reservoir through right

bank irrigation cannel. In the interior part of village, there is rocky plain

( Gamaneguma project report,2008).

Map-03

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Fig-03

2.1.2. Soil

The process of soil formation is indeed very slow, and is governed by the climate,

kind of parent rock, the relief of the land and vegetation in combination with living

organism. The combined effects of all these factors over a period of a few hundred to

thousands of years result in formation of soil profile which is made up of a defined

sequence and arrangement of layer or horizons.

Fourteen Grate Soil Groups have been recognized in Sri Lanka (Map-04). These soil

groups and their surface area are given in Table 01

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Map-04

It is generally clear that the major factor influencing soil formation in this country is

climate (rainfall), followed by parent materials and topography.

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Table01-Area of the major soil groups in Sri Lanka

Soil group Area

(000ha)

Reddish Brown Earths 1610

Low Humic Gley Soils 950 Non calcic Brown Soil 163

Red Yellow Latosols 280

Calcic Red Yellow Latosols 40

Immature Brown Loams 205

Solodized Solonetz 210

Grumusols 15

Red Yellow Podzolic Soil 1460

Reddish Brown Latosolic Soils 60

Alluvial Soil 450

Regosls 190Bog and Half-Bog Soil 60

Lithosols 200

Old Alluvium 30

Source- Land use division, irrigation department

According to the soil map (Map-05), there are eight types of soil in the Damana DS

division. These soil types in Damana DS division are namely as follows

1. Alluvial soil of variable drainage and texture; flat terrain,

2. Erosional remnants,

3. Noncalcic Brown soil & Low Humic Gley soil; undulating terrain,

4. Reddish Brown Earth & Immature Brown Loom; Rolling, Hilly and Steep

terrain,

5. Reddish Brown Earths & Low Humic Gley soil; undulatin terrain

6. Reddish Brown Earth & Solonetz; undulating terrain

7. Reddish Brown Earths, Noncalcic Brown soil & Low Humic Gley soil;undulating terrain

8. Rock knob plain

Map-05

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According to the soil map of Madawalalanda village (Map-06), the main soil types are

1. Alluvial soil of variable and texture; flat terrain

2. Noncalcic Brown soil & Low Humic Gley soil; undulating terrain

3. Rock knob plain

Map-06

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Alluvial soil is mainly have formed on alluvium that has been deposited on flood

plain, valley depression, river and steam bank and their backslopes. Because of the

great variation in the texture and drainage they are all grouped under soil of variable

texture

and drainage. Non-Calcic Brown soil exclusively developed on weathered products

of acid rock that have a low content of ferromagnesian minerals. The colour of the

surface A horizon is dark grayish brown, and that of the subsoil or B horizon is

yellowish red to yellowish brown.

Large area of Madawalalanda village covered by the Noncalcic Brown soil variable

drainage and texture; flat terrain. Its land use cover percentage is 46%, nearly one half

of the land area.

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Fig04-Soil Land use by Soil types in Madawalalanda village

12%

46%

42%

Alluvial soils of variable

drainage and texture; flatterrain

Noncalcic Brown soils &

Low Humic Gley soils;

undulating terrainRock knob plain

02.1.3. Agro-Ecological zone

There are five-agro ecological zone in Ampara district (Map-07), according Agro

ecological zones map of Sri Lanka. Madawalaland village belong to the two agro-

ecological zones (Map-08).Distinguishing Characteristics of Agro-Ecological zones

in Madawalalanda village shows Table02

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Map-07

Map-08

Table02-Distinguishing Characteristics of Agro-Ecological zones inMadawalalanda village

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AEZMONTHLT HISTOGRAM OF 75% RAINFALLPROBABILITY RESPECTIVE REGION (mm)

75%EXPECT

ANCYVALUE

OF

ANNUALRAINFALL

DESCRIPTION

(Land use/ Terrain/ Major

soil group)

DL2a

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

J F M A M J J A S O N D

>1,300

Rainfed upland crop,

Paddy, Natural forest,

Sugarcane, Scrubs

Undulating

NCB, RBE, LHG& Old

alluvial soil

DL2b

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

J F M A M J J A S O N D

>1,100

Paddy, Rainfed upland

crops

Undulating and flat

NCB, RBE, old alluvial,

LHG, Regosol &

Solodized- Solonetz soil

Source- NRM center, Department of Agriculture

02.1.4. Irrigation canal

The irrigation ecosystem has been used to describe these stable man-made ecological

systems, and the term has been accepted by the International Commission on

Irrigation and Drainage. Very briefly in the irrigation ecosystem perspective water is

seen as an animate agent in biological process, essentially the vehicle for conveyance

of nutrients in natures eternal biogeochemical cycle. In the hydraulic engineering

perspective, water is seen as an inanimate agent in various engineering functions such

as land preparation and provision of irrigation facilities.The irrigation cannels in

Madawalalanda village have been developed by the Gal Oya development project

under the right bank development schemes. Egal Aru tank mainly provides water to

the agriculture (Map-09).

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Ekgal Aru tank data

Gross capacity - 23500 Ac/ft

Catchments area - 13.4 sq miles

Gross storage - 22200 Ac/ft

Area of full supply level - 1015 Acs

High flood level - 212 ft above MSL

Irrigable area - 2850Acs

Main canal length - 57400ft

Distributory canal length - 114800 ft

There are 35 branches in the issue tree of Ekgal Aru scheme. Water for the cultivation

activity of Madawalalanda village is provided through the EK 28. A and EK 29.

According to the irrigation department data (Table-03), the Paddy and sugarcane

cultivation area under these two canal as follows.

37

Map09-Location of Egal Aru tank


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Table03-Area of Paddy and Sugarcane cultivation under main irrigation

Name of canal Paddy (Hectares) Sugarcane (Hectares)

EK 28. A 20.24 6.07

EK 29 20.24 40.49

Total 40.48 46.56

Source- Department of irrigation, Ampara

Table04-Total cultivation lands under the main irrigation canals

Source- Gama Naguma project report

2.2. Agricultural Land use pattern

Agriculture is the science or practice of farming. Agricultural land use means the

manner in which human beings employ the land and its resources for their agricultural

activities. Agriculture sector accounts for the majority of land use in Sri Lanka.

Plantation agriculture, irrigated annual crops, market gardens, home gardens,

permanent rainfed cropping and rise cultivation as a major sub sectors in agriculture

accounts for 2.5 million hectares or 40% of the land area.The dominant land use patterns in agriculture with important features that distinguish

the regions as follows:

1. Tea, rubber, coconut and home gardens in upland area and rice in valleys in

the rolling to undulating low country wet intermediate zone ( elevation less

than 300m)

2. Tea, rubber and coconut and minor export crops in upland areas and rice in

valleys and terraced slopes of mid-country wet and semi-wet intermediate

zone (elevation between 300 and 1,000m)

Name of irrigation Land area (Acres) No of families

Goda Mada Goda Mada

EK 28 25 80 09 08

EK28/1 12 25 12 05

EK 29 40 200 10 15

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3. Tea, fruits and high value crops on upland slopes of the up-country wet and

intermediate zone (elevation higher than 1,000m)

4. Rice, fruits and vegetables in the mid-country intermediate zone (elevation

between 300-1,000m)

5. Irrigation rice and field crops in the low country dry zone.

6. Partly irrigated rice in valleys and rainfed upland crops in the low country dry

zones.

7. Rainfed rice in dry zone (in the coastal belt)

8. Irrigated market gardens, high valley crops on the Regosol belt.

9. Irrigated high value crops in low country dry zone (Jaffna)

The area where Madawalalanda village is Located based on the agricultural land use.

Most of the area is among the Paddy cultivation (Map-10). The physical

characteristics in the area have encouraged the paddy cultivation.

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Map-10

Agricultural land use pattern also play an important role in the Madawalaland village

because of the economy of village largely base on the agro-based economy.

Following table 05 shows the importance of agricultural land use in Madawalaland

village.

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Table05- Main Land use pattern in Madawalaland village

Land use Area (Acres)

Paddy 300

Chena cultivation 150

Coconut 10Vegetable 10

Fruit 03

Home Garden 15

Mixed cultivation 20

Natural forest 800

Grass Land 500

Water bodies 50

Reserved areas for Roads 150

Source- Gama Naguma Project report, 2008

Map-11

41

Fig05-Land use Pattern by Types

15%

7%

0%0%0%1%1%

41%

26%

2% 7%

Paddy

Chena cultivation

Coconut

Vegetable

FruitHome Garden

Mixed cultivation

Natural forest

Grass Land

Water bodies

Reserved areas for Roads

Legend


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In the topographical map (Map-11), the total land area of Madawalalanda village is

classified as Chena cultivation, forest, homesteads, marsh, paddy, water bodies and

other.

Scrubs cover the larger part of land use in Madawalalanda village.

The dominant agricultural land use in Madawalalnda village as follows:

1. Paddy- Rainfed or irrigated cultivation of wet rice. There is variation in Maha

and Yala seasons.

2. Chena cultivation- chilies, brinjal, bitter gourd, tomato,maize,green gram,

groundnut, manioc and black gram are mainly cultivated in Chena cultivation

area.

3. Homesteads- Family residential units surrounded by the home garden and

open space, cultivation include fruit trees, spices and smallholding of coconut.4. Other- Sugarcane, Gherkin and livestock can be taken as other cultivation

pattern.

Paddy cultivation

Paddy cultivation is practiced in a large area in Madawalalanda village (Pic-01).

Paddy farming is highly labour intensive in Madawalaland village. It is also carried

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out for mainly market-oriented purpose and partly for the subsistence purpose. The

average size of a paddy land in the village is more than one acre. There are variations

in Maha and Yala periods in paddy cultivation in the area. During the Yala season, the

paddy cultivation is practiced only based on the major irrigation cannels but in the

Maha season, farmers use other lands for the paddy cultivation. The total extend of

paddy cultivation in Maha season is about 600 acres (Table-06) and it represents

higher level than Yala season in Madawalalanda village. As the main staple food crop

in the village, farmers have given the highest priority to the paddy cultivation in

Madawalalanda village.

Table06-Land area under the Paddy cultivation

Season Area (Acres)

Under major

irrigation channel

Under micro

irrigation channels

Rainfed

Yala 300 -- --

Maha 300 -- 300


Pic01- A Paddy field in Madawalalanda village

Chena cultivation

Rainfed upland farming in the village (pic-02) is Chena cultivation. This shifting type

of cultivation system is important as livelihood in Madawalaland village, which goes

back beyond the Gal Oya development project that expanded the agricultural land use

of village. Many ecological and agronomic constraints are being appeared in Chena

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cultivation system as land scarcity, shortened fallow periods, recurrent clearance of

shrubs for cultivation etc.

It is found that many changes and adjustments have been taken place within the

traditional agriculture sector in the village with the demographic changes taken place

after the Gal oya development project. It is being gradually transformed to produce

not only for the subsistence, but also for additional incomes to meet non-food

requirements. In the areas where no irrigation facilities were enough developed or

existing traditional system were ruined and ineffective, the pressure for land took lead

to making expansion of cultivation area to forest resource reserves in this area.

Pic02- Chena cultivation in Madawalalanda village

Homesteads

Homesteads play an important role in the rural economy of the village (pic-03).

Family residential units surrounded by the home garden and open space, cultivation

includes fruit trees, spices and smallholding of coconut are undertaken as homesteads

in Madawalalanda village. Most of the homesteads cultivations are practiced only for

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the subsistence purposes. Farmers do not use agrochemical or any machines in

cultivating homesteads. It is also practiced using simple traditional technologies.

Pic03- A Homestead land

Other

After the Gal oya development project, the sugarcane cultivation expanded rapidly in

the area (pic-05). Total cultivation mainly was market oriented. All the sugarcane

cultivation lands were controlled by Hingurana sugar factory. But after sugar factory

was permanently closed, the lands which were used for sugarcane cultivation was

transformed into paddy cultivation using irrigation water supply.

Gherkin cultivation is also practiced in some area in Madawalalanda village (pic-04).

Agrochemical usage is very high in the areas where the Gherkin cultivation takes

place.

Cattle farming and poultry farming are important in Madawalalanda village, as

livestock practices. But farmers do not use any developed technology to this

agricultural practice as most of the cattle faming is carry out in small holding level.

The statistics of livestock shows table07

Table07-Livestock in Madawalalanda village

Animal category No: of Animals No: of families

Cattle farming 260 35

Poultry farming 120 90

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Pic04-A Gherkin cultivation land

Pic05- A Sugarcane field

2.3 . Agricultural Development

The importance of the agricultural sector in Madawalalanda village is evident from its

contribution to the economy and the workforce. According to the GN report there are

65 farmers those who are directly involved with the agricultural activities.

The agricultural patterns have been dramatically changed after the Gal Oya

development project in this village. The transmission from the traditional agricultural

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pattern to modern agricultural sector has developed various socio economic condition

of the village. The transmission of knowledge about the new techniques is carried on

extension services, which covers the educational aspects as well as the functional

aspect of credit supplies and marketing.

The low productivity of the village agricultural sector was largely due to the

traditional methods of production. In order to adopt certain basic condition with

regard to input and finance, irrigation water, fertilizers, certified seed and

agrochemicals.

The development of irrigation system that related with the agricultural development

relatively new began after the Gal Oya development project. Madawalalanda village

is located in the right bank of Gal Oya development project. There are many

advantages in the development of irrigation system that affected to the development

of agriculture in the area. First though the irrigation system development, it adopted to

water managing and water serving system in the area. Second, water is suited to the

difficult terrain. Actually, the development of irrigation system mainly utilized to

develop agricultural sector of the dry zone.

Introducing various policies by the government have developed agriculture in

Madawalalanda village. Some government institution like department of agriculture,

irrigation department, agrarian service department have promoted agriculture in the

village. The credited system that introduced by the central bank also has helped to

develop the agriculture in the area.

Present farms in Madawalalanda village diversify their cultivation like chilies,

groundnut, vegetable and gherkin. The new trend of village agricultural development

in Madawalalanda is many farms cultivated gherkin in water log areas using micro

irrigation technologies (pic-06).

Pic06-Microirrigation for the cultivation in Madawalalanda village

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Various organizations under different subsidy project have encouraged the gherkin

cultivation. Hingurana sugar factory also provides facilities for farmers to develop

the sugarcane cultivation in the area. Most of the farmers do not depend on the

traditional agricultural system in the area. They use advanced technology from first

step to final step of cultivation process in Madawalalanda village.

CHAPTER THREE

03.Economical and environmental aspects of

agricultural lands in Madawalalanda village

3.1 Economic background of farmers

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Madawalalanda village is an agricultural area, which is located in Ampara district.

The demographic characteristics of village shows in table 08. This statistics also

shows that the female population is higher than male population in Madawalalanda

village. But the female participation for the agricultural activities is less than male

participation.

Tbale08-Total population 2008

Female Male Total Population Density per

square Km

No: of population 548 521 1069 42.76

Source- Gamanaguma Project report

Table09-Population by employment types

Types of Employment No: of population

Female Male Total

Agriculture 09 56 65

Government Service 22 116 138

Private sector 08 29 37

Self employments 05 09 14

Livestock 03 02 05Fishing 02 08 10

49

Fig06-Tatal population by Male and Female

Female

51%

Male

49% Female

Male


50/80

Carpenters 00 02 02

Masons 00 03 03

Foreign employments 03 01 04

Hired labour 16 32 48

Unemployed 32 49 81

Source Gamanaguma Project report

According to table 09, employments in the agricultural sector are higher than the other

sectors excluding government services.

The monthly income level shows in fig-06 by the number of families in


Fig07-Monthly Income Level by the number of

families (Rs:)

1768

36

12

16

20

10,000


It shows that monthly income level of most of the people in Madawalalanda village is

below than Rs. 750/-. Number of families in this low-income category is 176. Most of

low-income category families are employed in agricultural sector. The major reason

for this situation is the total cost of production of agriculture is high in


3.2 Cost of production in Agricultural lands

In this study, the total cost of production was calculated per acre (for a season). The

studied twenty agricultural lands include 08 paddy lands, 04 sugarcane cultivation

lands, 02 Chena cultivation lands, 03 gherkin cultivation lands and 03 vegetable

cultivation lands. The location of these twenty agricultural lands of which the cost of

production was calculated shown in the map 12: A code system is used to identify

each land uniquely.

Map-12

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The cost of production varies one agricultural activity to another i.e. the cost of production in paddy cultivation absolutely different from cost of production of

sugarcane cultivation. There is also having a variation within physical characteristics

of area in cost of production. The cost of production is calculated using details that

were collected through interviews from farmers (Table-10).

51

PA - Paddy CH -Chena

GR -Gherkin VE -Vegetable

SU - Sugarcane


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Table10-Cost of Production in selected agricultural lands

Selected agricultural Land Cost of production (Rs:)

Material Labour Power Total

Paddy

PA1 7,500 6,000 18,000 31,500

PA2 6,000 4,000 18,000 28,000

PA3 7,500 4,000 18,000 29,500

PA4 5,500 3,000 12,000 20,500

PA5 8,000 4,500 18,000 30,500

PA6 7,500 5,000 18,000 30,500

PA7 6,500 8,000 12,000 26,500

PA8 7,500 6,000 18,000 31,500Sugarcane

SU1 15,000 6,000 14,000 35,000

SU2 13,000 6,000 11,000 30,000

SU3 14,000 4,000 10,000 28,000

SU4 13,000 7,000 15,000 35,000

Chena

CH1 2,000 5,000 5,000 12,000

CH2 2,000 3,000 4,000 9,000

Gherkin GR1 28,000 7,500 7,500 44,500

GR2 28,000 6,000 5,000 39,000

GR3 28,000 8,000 6,000 42,000

Vegetable

VE1 15,500 8,000 14,500 38,000

VE2 20,000 6000 16,000 42,000

VE3 15,000 6000 14,000 35,000

Source- field survey

Map-13

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Map-14

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3.2.1 Cost of production in paddy cultivation

Table 10 shows the total cost (cost of cultivation including farmer owned input) per

acre for the selected paddy cultivation lands. According to HARTI survey, the average

cost of production in Ampara district for one acre of paddy cultivation land (for oneseason) is Rs.267993.00 (2005) but actual present cost of production is higher than

this indication.

The total cost is divided into three main components namely labour, material and

power. In general, labour accounts 50% of the total cost in paddy cultivation. As

indicated by the total number of labour days, farmers in the rainfed areas use the

highest number of labour days to cultivate a unite area. The exchange labour

(aththam) is not widely use in Madawalalanda village while the hired labour is widely

used under major irrigation. Farmers in the major irrigated areas have to carry out the

land preparation simultaneously, considering water issued from the irrigation

schemes. Consequently, harvesting of all fields take place at the same time. Also land

preparation and harvesting require grater number of labour days. These two reasons

contribute to the highest demand for hired labour to cultivation activities under major

irrigation. Average wage rate per day was around Rs 500/- per man and Rs 350/- per

women without meals.

Land preparation ( ploughing and leveling) harvesting and drawing, threshing and

winnowing are the main operation in paddy cultivation, which can be mechanized.

Most of the farmers use tractors for land preparation.

Table11-The cost of production in selected Paddy cultivation lands per acre

Code of Paddy land Material (Rs:)Labour(Rs:) Power(Rs:) Tota(Rs:)l

PA1 7500 6000 18000 31500

PA2 6000 4000 18000 28000

PA3 7500 4000 18000 29500

PA4 5500 3000 12000 20500

PA5 8000 4500 18000 30500

PA6 7500 5000 18000 30500

PA7 6500 8000 12000 26500

PA8 7500 6000 18000 31500

Average 7000 5063 16500 28563

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Source- data collected from farmers

The fertilizer application also varies within the physical characteristics of any area.

This variation can be clearly understood in paddy cultivation areas.

3.2.2. Cost of production in sugarcane cultivation

Sugarcane is grown in the Dry and Intermediate zone in Sri Lanka. Cane has been

grown for over 30 years. The crops were raised as monocrops and most of the

operations, such as land cleaning, land preparation and inter-cultivation are

mechanized while manual labour was used for planting, harvesting and some aftercare

operations such as weeding, irrigation and protection.

According to recent data, the seasonal cost of production in sugarcane cultivation per

one hectare is Rs. 75,000/-. This cost is included all the operations which is related to

the sugarcane cultivation. The normal income from one ton of sugarcane is Rs.

2300/-. According to information that was collected from the field officers of

Hingurana factory, the Average production of sugarcane for a one-hectare is 140-120

ton.

But the cost of production varies one sugarcane cultivation land to another. This

situation can be understood using Table11. Farmers, who used the domestic labour for

cultivation operations, reduce the cost of production but the material cost showsaverage cost in all the sugarcane cultivation lands.

55

Fig08-Average cost of production in selected paddy

lands per acre

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000



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Table12-Cost of Production in Selected Sugarcane Lands per one acre

Sugarcane

Code Material(Rs:) Labour(Rs:) Power(Rs:)

Total

(Rs:)

SU1 15,000 6,000 14,000 35,000

SU2 13,000 6,000 11,000 30,000

SU3 14,000 4,000 10,000 28,000

SU4 13,000 7,000 15,000 35,000

Average 13,750 5750 12,500 32,000


The material component of cost of production includes fertilizer, pesticides, seeds etc,

Labour component includes labour force usage in all the operations of sugar

cultivation activity and the power component includes mechanization operation of

cultivation.

However, over the years the productivity of plantation declined due to various

reasons such as increased pest damage, disease lack of machinery for timely

operations and all above all bad management.

The sugarcane cultivation in Madawalalanda village was begun after 1962 with the

establishment of Hingurana sugarcane factory. But after the closing down of factory,

all the lands were transformed into other cultivation patterns. At present, some areas

have been cultivated by the new Hingurana sugar factory with new management

system that totally different from old factory systems.

56

Fig09-Average Cost of Production of Sugarcane

Per one Acre

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,00030,000

35,000



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3.2.3. Cost of production in Chena cultivation

It is hardly possible to calculate the cost of production in Chena cultivation. But the

new Chena cultivation activities mainly base on the hired labour. Thus, the cost of

production has increased than early period. The land cleaning, preparation and mostof the activities are mechanized in Madawalalanda village. Also land preparation and

harvesting require grater number of labour days than other cultivation activities. To

some extent, the domestic labour usage is higher than the other cultivation in Chena

cultivation. Most of the farmers use tractors for land preparation and the production

of Chena cultivation is sufficient for domestic consumption of them.

3.2.3. Cost of production in Gherkin cultivationGherkin cultivation is one of the new crops that was introduced into Madawalalanda

village. The cost of production of gherkin is relatively higher than the other

cultivations that are grown in Madawalalanda village (Table12). The main reason for

this higher cost of production is the high level of agrochemical usage of gherkin

cultivation. Otherwise, this cultivation is very sensitive to the climate changes and

should be harvested within the suitable period. The labour cost varies one land to the

other depending on physical characteristics and domestic labour usage.Table13-Cost of production of Gherkin cultivation Lands

Code of Gherkin Land

Material(Rs:) Labour(Rs:) Power(Rs:)

Total

(Rs:)

GR1 28000 7500 7500 43000

GR2 28000 6000 5000 39000

GR3 28000 8000 6000 42000

Average 28000 7166.6 6166.6 41333.3

Fig10-Average Cost of Production of Gherkin cultivation

per one Acre

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

Material Labour Pow er Total


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3.2.4. Cost of production in vegetable cultivation

The major component of total cost of production in vegetable cultivation can be

categorized as labour, material and power. In the selected vegetable cultivation area,

there was mixed cultivation of vegetable.The using two-wheel tractor was the most popular method of ploughing in vegetable

cultivating areas. Generally cost of cultivation for ploughing, fertilizer application,

water management, pest and disease control and harvesting and drawing were

proportionally high. Family labour account for a large proportion of the labour cost

component.

Table14-Cost of production of vegetable cultivation Lands (Rs:)Code of Vegetable


VE1 15,500 8,000 14500 38,000

VE2 20,000 6000 16000 42,000

VE3 15,000 6000 14000 35,000

Average 16833.3 6666.6 14833.3 38333.3

Fig11-Average Cost of Production of Vegetable

cultivation per one Acre

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

40000

45000

Material Labour Pow er Total

3.3 Profitability of Agricultural lands

Profitability of agriculture was worked out on per acre basis. Gross return or income

was calculated by using information that was collected from the farmers. After the

calculation of the gross income, following formula was employed to calculate the

profitability of agricultural lands. It is

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TR TC =

TR= Total Revenue (Data from farmers)

TC= Total Cost (Data from farmers)

= Profit

There is a profitability variation between one agricultural practice to another. This

situation shows in table14.

Table14-Profitability of selected Agricultural lands (Rs:)

Selected agricultural Land Total income Cost of Production Profitability

Paddy

PA156,000 31,500 24,500

PA2 50,000 28,000 22,000

PA3 52,000 29,500 22,500

PA4 50,000 20,500 29,500

PA5 55,000 30,500 24,500

PA6 62,000 30,500 31,500

PA7 42,000 26,500 15,500

PA8 46,000 31,500 14,500

Sugarcane

SU1 110,400 35,000 75,400 SU2 155,000 30,000 125,000

SU3 142,000 28,000 114,000

SU4 150,000 35,000 115,000

Chena

CH1 12,000

CH2 9,000

Gherkin

GR1 160,000 44,500 115,500

GR2 130,000 39,000 91,000 GR3 150,000 42,000 108,000

Vegetable

VE1 45,000 38,000 7,000

VE2 35,000 42,000 -7,000

VE3 50,000 35,000 15,000

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3.4.1. Major environmental issues related to agriculture in


The major environmental issues that are related to the agricultural activities in

Madawalalanda village can be discussed under following points.

1. Land degradation and soil erosion

2. Issues related to Agrochemicals

3. Water related issues

01. Land degradation and soil erosion

The degradation of the environment in Madawalalanda village has worsened in the

current period by the rapid population growth and uncontrolled introduction of cash

crops into the area. Otherwise, the land preparation and shaping have also accelerated

the land degradation and soil erosion in the village (pic-07).

Pic07 Land degradation

Tillage of the reddish brown earth soil for cultivation creates conditions, which favor

soil erosion. The impacts of rain drops on bare soil breaks up the aggregates into the

constituent particles, which then rearrange themselves on the surface into a layer with

very much lower infiltration rate than the original soil. If heavy rain continues, then

sooner or later a stage is reaching when the rainfall intensity is grater than infiltration

rate, surface run-off occurs. Then structure is destroyed and soil aeration is reduced.

On paddy fields the position is somewhat different, for this reason:

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There is provision to retain ponded water

Soil structure and air circulation are not grate importance in paddy cultivation.

Specially, there is high land degradation rate in the gherkin-cultivated lands in

Madawalalanda village. The major reason to this situation, the land preparation of this

cultivation has broken up the aggregates of soil. Chena cultivation shows low soil

erosion rate in the area. The soil structure of this Chena cultivation land is main

reason that reduced the soil erosion of the area. Otherwise, there many traditional

methods that are used by the farmers to protect the soil fertility in the Chena

cultivation land. But vegetable cultivation also did not shows accreted land

degradation or soil erosion in the village. The vegetable cultivators do not switch to

any advanced technology or land preparation method for their cultivation. Most of thevegetable cultivation is implemented using domestic labour force in Madawalalanda

village. It is not market-oriented cultivation. Other hand, the sugarcane cultivation

also shows some impacts on the lands. The major reason to this situation is that the

farmers those who cultivates the sugarcane cultivation, totally oriented to the market.

Thus, they used many advanced methods to the land preparation and cultivation

practices. The total process of tillage is done using tractors that highly impacted on

the land in the sugarcane cultivation.

02. Issues related to Agrochemicals

As a result of expansion of agrochemical use for the agricultural practices in

Madawalalanda village (pic-08), there are emerged many issues those, which partly

and directly related to the environment and heath of human as well as other living

things. Most of the farmers use agrochemicals than recommended level (excess use).

Pic08-Ecess use of agrochemicals

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The major reason to this excess use is that farmers make an effort to take high result

from the excess use of agrochemicals. It directly impact on the health of soil and other

living thing that assist to good health of crop in the land. Specially, most of the paddy

farmers and gherkin farmers use agrochemical than the recommended level.

Farmers use agrochemical in scheduled spraying without impact on the crop. If there

is not any impact on there crops, there it is not necessary to use any agrochemicals

into the cultivating land. This scheduled spraying also increase the cost of production

in the agricultural lands.

Some framers mixed various agrochemicals using their own knowledge without any

instruction. This situation creates high impacts on the environment.

The major reasons to this misuse of agrochemicals in Madawalalanda village are:

Lack of information about the agrochemical use

Poor knowledge of farmers to understand the usage of agrochemicals

Weakness of rules and regulations related to agrochemicals

03.Water related issues

Since in the Madawalalanda village there is a distinct and long dry period from May

to September, and shorter dry periods are common occurrences at other times of theyear too, water conservation is an important factor in increasing agricultural

production.

The conservation of water for dry periods can be partly achieved by reducing the

evaporative loss from soil surface, but this is a relatively minor methods.

In paddy cultivation, unlike in the case of most other crops, a considerable amount of

water is often used for land preparation. The water utilization differs within physical

characteristics of the area and land preparation methods that are used by the farmers.

Much more water is needed on the field for ploughing with tractors, and secondly,

movement of tractor result in the considerable breaching of field bunds and surface

overflows are very great.

As the many increased activities, the water pollution has been increased in the

agricultural area of Madawalalanda village (pic-09).

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Pic09- The pollution in the agricultural land

Most of the canals that provided water in the cultivation areas have broken down in

the village (pic-10).

Pic10-A destroyed main irrigation canal

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3.4.2. Spatial dimension of environment issues

According to the observation, the environmental issues in the selected agricultural

lands were categorized as follows.

HEPAL -High Environmental Polluted Agricultural LandsLEPAL - Low Environmental Polluted Agricultural Lands

MEPAL - Middle High Environmental Polluted Agricultural Lands

Map-16

LAND_CODE Levels

PA1 HEPAL

PA2 MEPAL

PA3 LEPAL

PA4 MEPAL

PA5 LEPAL

PA6 MEPAL

PA7 LEPAL

PA8 MEPAL

GR1 HEPAL

GR2 HEPAL

GR3 MEPAL

SU1 MEPAL

SU2 MEPAL

SU3 LEPAL

SU4 MEPALVE1 LEPAL

VE2 LEPAL

VE3 MEPAL

CH1 LEPAL

CH2 LEPAL

According to the observation, selected two gherkin cultivated lands show high

environmental issues than other agricultural lands. The agrochemical usage of

gherkin cultivation is higher than other cultivation in the area. This is a main reason

that shows the higher level of environmental issues in this cultivation. The paddy

cultivation lands range from low-level environmental pollution to middle level

environmental pollution. The variation of activities of farmers in paddy cultivation

lands varies the environmental issues of paddy cultivation. The PA1 paddy land shows

the higher level of issues, PA2, PA4, PA6, PA8 paddy lands show middle level

environmental pollution in Madawalalanda village. Other studied entire paddy lands

(PA3, PA5, PA7) are low-level environmental polluted agricultural lands.

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Sugarcane cultivation lands also show the middle and low-level environmental issues.

Third out of four from selected sugarcane cultivation are middle level environmental

polluted lands and other one is low-level environmental polluted agricultural land.

Excluding VE3 vegetable cultivation land, all the other vegetable and Chena

cultivation lands are low-level environmental polluted lands.

According to the above analysis, excluding gherkin cultivation lands, most of the

agricultural lands show low and middle level environmental pollution in the selected

agricultural lands of Madawalalanda village.

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land was filled before the construction started. Yet another process appears to affect

the paddy farming system in the village. This is the slow, yet steady process of paddy

land, considered unsuitable for paddy, being brought under vegetable cultivation.

The gherkin cultivation that is introduced by various private organizations is also one

of the modern farming systems in the village. Some farmers converted their paddy

cultivation lands into the gherkin cultivation, as total income of gherkin cultivation

per acre is higher than paddy cultivation. Most of the gherkin-cultivated lands are low

productive as paddy cultivation due to lack of irrigation water. This farming system

mostly uses other method to supply water for the cultivation.

4.1.2. Rapid growth of population

It appears that the deteriorating land-person ratio is one of the most important factors

bringing pressure on the agricultural system by affecting both economic expansion

and the living condition of those engaged in agriculture in the village.

According to the literature, there were only 20-30 families, before the Gal-Oya

development project.

One who goes from Damana to Madawalaland, he should passthere has

approximately 20-30 homes and 80-100 population (Ranjan, Maya,

Degamadula Aescharya)

But according to recent statistics, Total population of village is 1069 people. The

transfer of excess population from other area to Madawalalanda village under village

expansion schemes has increased the population of the village.

4.1.3. Poor productivity performance of agriculture as a major

inhibiting factor on Madawalalanda farming system

It would appear that the problem in agriculture in Madawalalanda village is low

productivity of land and labour. This applies not only to paddy farming but also to

other agricultural activities in the village.

Agricultural production levels are low, not in water logging land but can also seen in

the homestead gardens and surprisingly in traditional irrigated paddy cultivation also

in the paddy lands.

Lack of intensive paddy production has already started in withdrawing lands from

paddy cultivation. Some lands are left over for a long period until the area is taken up

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for housing or vegetable farming. Yet the organization of vegetable cultivation as a

form of market-oriented farming system in the village is generally limited. This is

due to the debilitating factors such as the complexities arising out of the prevailing

land tenure practices on paddy land and other cultivations, lack of capital,

unsuitability of certain lands for agriculture like marshy paddy lands.

4.1.4. Introduction of new crops

The introduction of new crops that is total market-oriented has impacts on the

agricultural sustainability of the village. Specially, with the expansion of the gherkin

cultivation in the area, there have increased many environment problems. The farmers

do not have good knowledge about the agrochemical use and land preparation processfor the new crops therefore the environment impact of these new cultivation is higher

than other traditional cultivation in Madawalalanda village.

4.2 Possible Changes of agriculture towards sustainable development

in Madawalalanda village

The main strategies that are oriented toward sustainable agricultural development

should consider the protection of environmental health and increasing the productivity

of agricultural lands. If a sustainable agricultural system is to be developed and

successfully established, then a number of formidable issues need to be addressed in

village. The major issues that are affecting the sustainable agricultural development in

Madawalalanda village are increased environment problems and low productivity of

the agricultural land. Principally, all the changes of agriculture towards sustainable

development of Madawalalanda village can be pointed out as follows two strategies.

4.2.1. Environment protection strategies4.2.2. Crop development strategies

4.2.1. Environment protection strategies

Initially, Land degradation and as soil erosion is one of the major environmental

issues in the agricultural lands of Madawalalanda village.

Land degradation is defined as the temporary or permanent lowering of the

productive capacity of land covering various forms of soil degradation, adverse

human impacts on water resources, deforestation and lowering of productive capacity

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of range lands. The soil erosion is extreme cause for the land degradation. Soil

erosion results in loss of productivity of soil, necessitating the use of fertilizer to

maintain yield. The soil erosion can be reduced using various techniques.

The soil erosion that occurs in agricultural land is therefore mainly the loss of soil in

the surface overflows of water. By proper regulation of these overflows it would be

possible to minimize soil erosion. Apart from this there are no other major soil

conservation measures required on agricultural lands in Madawalalanda village.

Secondly, the agrochemical related environmental issues are major environmental

issues in agricultural land of Madawalalanda village. There are many practical

changes that are related to reducing environment impact of agrochemical usage.

Excess usage of agrochemical should be minimized. Major step to reduce the impact

of agrochemical on the environment is increase training and awareness about

agrochemicals. Increase the number of available training courses on agrochemical

use. The issues covered should include the appropriate application of pesticides and

chemical fertilizers (given different soil types), potential impacts of chemical

fertilizers and pesticides to health, pest resistance, soil and water quality, awareness of

banned pesticides, and possible alternatives to chemical fertilizers and pesticides.

(e.g., organic fertilizers, integrated pest management).

4.2.2. Crop development strategies

The government is aware of serious consequences of this ever-increasing demand for

land and the resulting issues of land degradation and recognizes the urgent need for

sustainable and productivity-enhancing programs in dry zone resource management.

Community in Madawalalanda village depends on their livelihood upon a

combination of crop production from rainfed upland, home gardens and irrigated

lands. The introduction of perennial cropping with multipurpose tree crops, the use of

simple agro-forestry systems, grass strips and barriers would not only improve the

degrading rainfed upland resources base but also the integration of livestock in the

farming system would enable the use of forage products of vegetative conservation

works to improve livestock production where ever possible.

There is a great potential for livestock development and integration of livestock with

crop production in Madawalalanda village. Therefore families with access to forest

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and scrub jungle and perennial crop areas with natural under pasture, livestock

development can be an alternative proposition.

The lack of water resource in Madawalalanda village greatly has reduced the

profitability of agricultural land. The irrigation canals should be repaired to provide

water in

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