prologue: extending study of the visual in the history of sport
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Prologue: Extending Study of the Visualin the History of SportMike Huggins a & Mike O'Mahony ba University of Cumbria , Ambleside, Cumbria, UKb University of Bristol , Bristol, UKPublished online: 19 May 2011.
To cite this article: Mike Huggins & Mike O'Mahony (2011) Prologue: Extending Study of the Visualin the History of Sport, The International Journal of the History of Sport, 28:8-9, 1089-1104, DOI:10.1080/09523367.2011.567765
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2011.567765
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Prologue: Extending Study of the Visual in the History of Sport
Mike Hugginsa* and Mike O’Mahonyb
aUniversity of Cumbria, Ambleside, Cumbria, UK; bUniversity of Bristol, Bristol, UK
This paper highlights the value of images and materiality associated with sport inthe past, and explores the range of sociocultural practices associated with them. Itprovides a critique of the neglect of such sources by many historians and notesthat interest is now substantially growing in visuality and visual material. Itemphasises the huge breadth and depth of sports-related evidence that can now beaccessed, from stamps to stadiums and from posters to sports paraphernalia. Itthen examines the multiplicity of methodologies that can potentially be used toexploit the visual, its sites of production and sites of reception and seeing.
Keywords: visual; sport; visual methodologies; materiality; history; materiality
This stimulating collection of essays seeks to integrate an analysis of sport withina broad range of visual culture activities and to highlight the value of suchimages and materiality as key texts that cast further light on a broad range ofsociopolitical and sociocultural practices. Indeed, as Stephen Hardy et al. haverecently reminded us, such analysis ‘shines a light on the meaning of sport asbright as that emanating from archives and deep theory’.1 Each essay hereexamines different aspects of the visual within the representation of sport and itshistories, and demonstrates how visual meanings are always contextual. Togetherthey seek radically to extend existing knowledge of the history of sport, by settingnew agendas and posing new questions.
Over the last two centuries sport has become central to global culture. Its imagesare potent, popular and pervasive, yet its meanings are multiple, complex and oftenconflicting. While rigorous analytical explorations of the intersections between visualculture and the history of sport are still relatively new, they are now beginning toattract scholarly interest. Such interest partially reflects the global move to a worldincreasingly saturated by images, and resultant changes in wider scholarship. ‘Thepictorial turn’, as W.J.T. Mitchell coined it in 1992, or ‘the visual turn’ as it is nowmore commonly termed, first began to attract widespread attention in the 1980s, andgrew in strength thereafter with the growth of visual studies courses in universities.2
New critical and theoretical underpinning has both enhanced and facilitated furtherinvestigation into visual culture, visual technologies, scopic regimes, the gaze, ocular-centrism and specularity.
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
The International Journal of the History of Sport
Vol. 28, Nos. 8–9, May–June 2011, 1089–1104
ISSN 0952-3367 print/ISSN 1743-9035 online
� 2011 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/09523367.2011.567765
http://www.informaworld.com
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It is highly surprising therefore that, given the centrality of the visual to all formsof modern and early modern sport, historians of sport have been slow to enter thisfield, and contributions are still few. Only a minority of scholars have explored thelinks between sport, history and culture, exploiting some of the new methodologiesand engaging with a wider range of sources, voices and perspectives. For many, thisneglect of visual sources may be a consequence of a lack of the time and opportunityto develop further skills in ‘visual literacy’.
This limited attention devoted to sport and the visual within the sub-discipline ofsport history, and a concomitant neglect of representations of sport within visualculture studies, provided the initial impetus for this edited collection. It should,however, also be of relevance to a wider audience, hopefully helping researchers,students and others with an interest in sport to move beyond traditional text-basedscholarship and engage with the many and powerful images of sport in new ways.
What Are the Collection’s Aims?
Clearly sport and the visual is a potentially substantial field in real need of furtherdevelopment. By addressing this issue directly, the editors had four aims in mind.
. First, to promote research and publications that would significantly encourageand further advance scholarship addressing sport and visuality.
. Second, to extend awareness of, and direct attention towards, the veryextensive and important range of visual sources ripe for exploitation, includingpainting; sculpture; photography; cinema; and mass culture. The collectionalso addresses some of the strategic means by which this material can bedeployed, while simultaneously pointing out some of the potential pitfalls.
. Third, to be inclusive rather than exclusive, drawing upon the expertise ofscholars from sport history, social history, art history, film history and visualculture studies. This interdisciplinary and inter-theoretical approach takesaccount of recent developments, drawing on a wider range of methodologiesand approaches than merely those of sport history. We hope it generatesexcitement and controversy, as well as helping to forge new questions tostimulate the field.
. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, such a collection is intended toencourage both academic researchers and students from a number ofdisciplines with interests in sport to engage with visual resources alongsidetexts and oral testimony. We contend that by analysing the cultural context,multiple meanings and social influences of visual culture, critically examiningthe traditional ways of using such material and grappling with alternativemodels, sport history as a discipline can be considerably enhanced.
The initial stimulus for this project was a well-attended international conferenceorganised by the two editors at the University of Bristol in June 2009. Of the twoorganisers, one had research interests in the history of leisure and sport, and theother in art history. Accordingly, notices were circulated across a wide range ofdisciplines. Following the conference, contributions were solicited for a collection ofpapers on sport and the visual. The editors then adopted the relatively unusualapproach of holding a follow-up conference-workshop solely for contributors, heldat White Hart Lane, the Premier League football ground in London. The event was
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supported by the publishers Routledge and by St Thomas More Roman CatholicSchool, a specialist sports college. A notable aspect of the school’s involvement inthe project was the production of a series of artworks by the pupils, includingpaintings, drawings and sculptures, as well as the display of a number of postersspecially produced for the event. The extremely high standard of the works producedsuggests just how stimulating the link between sport and the visual can prove to be.The close involvement of the school and the engagement with, and celebration of, thepupils’ work at the conference also shows the ways that academic research can bothimpact upon, and engage in dialogue with, the wider community.
The workshop allowed contributors to be more deeply involved in the planningprocess than is normally the case, and provided a critical environment whichenhanced the development of the philosophy and approach taken by the collection asa whole. First drafts of written papers were circulated in the month before theworkshop for pre-reading and evaluation, and presentations were relatively brief,focusing on sources and methodology. There was time for follow-up discussion ofpapers and a more critical edge to peer review, which was a central part of theprocess. Those colleagues unable to attend also circulated papers and comments,while those present during the discussions shared ideas, methods and approaches,and helped deepen each other’s understandings. As a result the workshop was anexcellent collegiate opportunity to modify and redraft work, so as to improve thequality of the papers.
The collection has a number of strengths. It is interdisciplinary by design,consciously drawing on scholars from a wide diversity of research disciplinesincluding sport history, social history, art history, film history, design history,visual culture studies and related fields. This much enhances the value of thecollection, since many of the essays offer new ideas, understandings andalternative theorising to traditional sport history, using a combination ofilluminative case studies and methodological essays, in which critical analysis iswell embedded. The chronological range encompasses contemporary examples ofsport as well as material from the last two centuries and medieval and renaissanceItaly. It includes well-known and proven experts as well as some up-and-comingauthors. The coverage, though primarily anglophone, avoids monoculturalism byadopting a substantial element of global coverage, drawing on authors fromEurope, the United States and Australia.
Previous Neglect of Visual Evidence
It was only a few years ago that historians, most especially those of the modern andearly modern period, still clung rigidly to text, too often treating visual images withreluctance or even condescension As Australian sport historian Richard Cashmanhas pointed out, most scholars used visual sources only to enhance and add towritten monographs.3 Even today sport historians who use visual materials for otherthan mere illustration are still very much in a minority. Works on the sporting imagehave tended to lack historical perspective, have generally been restricted to one typeof image and concentrated on one sport or sporting event. They have also toofrequently overlooked the constructed nature of such representations and the ways inwhich they both draw upon, and operate within, wider modes and conventions ofvisual representation. Conversely, in disciplines that focus predominantly on thevisual, sport has often been regarded as of secondary interest. With the possible
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exception of canonical works such as Leni Riefenstahl’s 1936 film Olympia, thevisual representation of sport has remained firmly on the periphery of visual culturestudies.
Increasingly, however, there has been a greater recognition of the centrality ofthe visual for a deep understanding of sport. Indeed, sport historian DouglasBooth has argued that ‘an understanding of sport, which is inextricably tied tocorporeality and movement, would be nigh impossible without the testimony ofimages that appear in numerous media such as paintings, lithographs, posters,coins and medals, ceramic arts, stone and metal sculptures, photographs andfilms’. Booth has been extremely critical of the way that historians of sport haveused visual material. He argues that in general historians of the reconstructionist,empirical type, when looking at film, for example, see ‘little of evidential quality’,though they acknowledge the power of the medium for connecting events withpeople and its role in propaganda.4 Further, where visual media have beendeployed evidentially, there has too often been inadequate recognition that theseproducts are far from neutral reflections of an uncontested reality. Rather suchevidence needs to be critically analysed, deconstructed and contextualised as partof a diverse range of cultural practices, the sporting and visual as well as themore broadly social. Further, consideration also needs to be given to the unstablestatus of such artefacts as evidence, particularly with regard to their receptionand interpretation among disparate social and political groups. Photographs, forexample, despite the mechanical process of their production, need to be seen ashighly mediated forms of visual representation, a point made clearly by DouglasBrown in his analysis of early Canadian mountaineering photographs.5 Far fromsimply reproducing what is seen by the photographer after shaping and selectingthe shot (and even later retouching or digitally modifying), they also constituteextensions of what he or she desired to feel and see, and may simultaneously beread by the viewer in a variety of ways that challenge, even undermine, theintentionality of the producer.
The nature of academically generated knowledge, and the way the sporting pastis represented, is contingent on the nature of the sources used and the formsdeployed to represent that knowledge. The form and consequent textuality of visualsources offers different challenges to that of written text, and our response to them.For example, visual materials may change naturally or be altered artificially overtime. Paintings, drawings and photographs, for example, can fade, or (like text) becropped and edited. Collections of images can be broken up, decontextualising theoriginal significance of a given body of work, and reassembled to suggest alternativesignificatory processes. In historical terms too, images can/perform differentfunctions and may be analysed and interpreted in diverse ways at different historicalmoments. Major technological innovations, ranging from the development of imageprinting techniques in the early modern period through the rise of photography inthe nineteenth century to the television and Internet explosions of the twentiethcentury, have both expanded the sheer volume of visual material available as well asthe means by which such material is publicly accessed.
Further, the intellectual shifts in the ways that society has both engaged withand problematised such products of visual culture inevitably pose challenges forthe historian of sporting culture. Here the power dynamics and relationships ofgender, class, ethnicity and nationalism act on such material objects in complexways.
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Growing Interest in the Visual
Both within mainstream sport history literature and in the wider field of culturalstudies, publications now increasingly employ sport’s visual forms to explore itspotential meanings. The movement is gaining recognition, gathering momentum andgarnering research projects. For example, a cultural historian of boxing, KasiaBoddy, has argued that the move to visual culture ‘capitalizes on, or interrogates, thesymbolic resonance of specific individuals, objects and events’.6 In her work she hasanalysed over 150 posters, film advertisements, postcards, paintings and other visualsources to demonstrate boxing’s cultural diffusion and popular appeal. The historianof sport Tony Mangan, a pioneer in the use of visual sporting symbolism in the early1980s, more recently used Nazi public sculpture to demonstrate how masculineAryan bodies were co-opted in support of particular eugenic ideologies.7 DonnaLandry’s work on the racing thoroughbred and English culture draws heavily onpaintings such as Stubbs’s portrayal of Lord Rockingham’s horse Whistlejacket,while Michael Flannery and Richard Leech examine fifteenth-century Frenchilluminated manuscripts in their analysis of the origins of golf.8 The sports film too,while long cherished and despised alike by sports fans, has increasingly entered theacademic fold. Here early publications, such as Ronald Bergan’s Sports in the Movies(1982), have been superseded by more nuanced and theoretically grounded studiessuch as Emma Poulton and Martin Roderick’s recent volume of essays publishedunder the title Sport in Films (2008).9 The representation of sport on television hasalso come under scrutiny in works such as Gary Wannell’s study of the prehistory oftelevision sport and the problems of reconstruction.10
Work with a more specifically art-historical focus has been appearing for sometime, though at sporadic intervals. For example, Mary Ann Wingfield’s 1988 Sportand the Artist, followed nearly a decade later by Peter Kuhnst’s Sports: A CulturalHistory in the Mirror of Art (1996), both attempted to present a broad survey ofrepresentations of sport within the fine arts. While these volumes are richlyillustrated, their ambitious chronological coverage inevitably limited the scope forextended analysis of the diverse ways in which such representations emerged andoperated within more specific cultural contexts.11 British sporting art has gainedextensive coverage among art historians, not least as a consequence of the popularityof artists such as Sir Edwin Landseer and George Stubbs, yet few of these studieshave extended beyond the conventional art-historical agendas to draw upon thework of sport historians. More ambitious and engaging work has been produced byart historians examining representations of boxing, mostly as a consequence of thework of American artists such as Thomas Eakins and George Bellows. Here, inparticular, both Michael Hatt and Martin Berger have analysed concepts ofmasculinity and male spectatorship in boxing, and pose new and vital questions withwide pertinence to sport historians.12
Within sport history there is growing attention to visual sources at conferences,though it is still rare for such papers to exceed ten per cent of presentations. Butthere are straws in the wind. In 2007 the European Committee for Sport Historyorganised a congress at Lorient in France on the subject of L’Art et Le Sport, atwhich over 60 papers were represented.13 Similarly a conference jointly organised bythe Archives nationale du monde du travail and the Centre d’histoire de Sciences Po,held in Roubaix in 2008, brought over 20 European scholars to address the subjectL’Image de Sport: archives, histoire, droit. Among key participants at that event were
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the French scholars Michel Brousse, Patrick Clastres and Paul Dietschy, all of whomcontributed papers at the Bristol conference in 2009. Scholars in Germany, too, haverecently been active in engaging with the visual representation of sport, particularlywith regard to developments in the Soviet Union. For example, a specialist researchgroup set up to study the social and cultural history of sport in the Soviet Union,headed by Nikolaus Katzer at Helmut Schmidt University in Hamburg, recentlypublished a collected volume with contributions examining sport paintings,photographs, sculpture and architecture.14 Some of this work draws upon andextends Mike O’Mahony’s 2006 analysis of the importance of sport as a subject forSoviet artists in Sport in the USSR.15 At the 2010 NASSH conference there was alsoa specific strand dedicated to sport and the visual that included papers on funeralprocessions, Andy Warhol and American painting.16 Papers on race andembodiment also utilised visual material effectively. Increasingly, scholars havecalled for a ‘broadening of horizons’ to embrace the visual more fully, andopportunities to establish international networks to bring together scholars workingwithin sport history with those from other fields, including visual culture studies, arenow beginning to emerge.17
Source Availability
Whether scholars are interested primarily in the historical or cultural aspects ofsport, relatively few have embraced the sheer depth and breadth of available visualsources. In Britain alone there is a huge amount of visual material buried, and oftennot separately catalogued, in the files of the National Archives at Kew and in localand county archives. This ranges from promotional posters for sports organisationsto collections of photographs. But there are also good opportunities for potentialresearch projects in more specialist collections. Visual histories of sportingarchitecture and design can be pursued in the Design History archives at BrightonUniversity; there are good photographic representations of sport in the Daily HeraldCollection at the National Media Museum archive in Bradford; a good example ofvery early sports films can be found in the Mitchell and Kenyon collection at theBritish Film Institute in London; there are a number of useful regional film archivessuch as the North-West Film Archive in Manchester; and sporting cartoons could beexplored at the British Cartoon Archive at the University of Kent.
Within and beyond Britain, sports museums offer perhaps even more fruitfulopportunities, though historians seem rarely to tap the resource riches that suchmuseums contain.18 For example, in an earlier call for sport historians to make useof artefacts of sport and extend their methodology Wray Vamplew pointed out thathistorians of sport have a symbiotic relationship with sport museums but that formost, museums’ roles have often been merely to provide and assess illustrativematerial.19 The last 30 years or so have witnessed the growth and expansion of sportmuseums and sport halls of fame throughout the world. While these institutionsdoubtless reflect shifting trends in tourism and the more diverse and specialistdemands of an ever-shifting museum-going public, they also highlight the ways inwhich the material culture of sport has acquired a greater prominence within thepublic domain. Such venues have thus become more important for sport historiansas they increasingly provide a focus for the acquisition and display of much visualmaterial related to sport. While museology and reception studies have long been astaple of visual culture studies, they are only beginning to be embraced in the field of
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sport history. Yet, as Sharon Macdonald has pointed out, the way that museumcollections are broken up for exhibition, and the acquisition and display choicesforced upon museum curators will inevitably impact upon how specific items and thecollection in general are viewed, gazed at and received.20 Museum studies theorists,by virtue of the educational functions of museums, have paid more attention to thevexed question of audience reception, recognising the barriers to access related toeconomic, cultural, ethnic and cultural status and cultural capital, and increasinglyusing sociological and psychological constructions to break down the ‘generalpublic’ into a myriad of variously defined ‘audiences’, ‘potential audiences’,‘learners’ and ‘participants’.21
In Europe, the culture of collecting emphasises the value of sport historyheritage, and the material found in sports museums is often extremely wide. One wayof outlining this breadth and its potential value to sport historians is to begin toclassify and analyse the types of materials held and catalogued in sport museumcollections. In general, sport museums contain relatively few examples of what isfrequently, though not unproblematically, termed ‘high art’: namely, paintings,sculptures and other forms of decorative art, not least as such works havetraditionally been collected by, and exhibited within, museums of art. There are, ofcourse, notable exceptions here. For example, the Olympic Museum in Lausanneholds a significant number of paintings, sculptures and decorative works, manyoriginally produced for the Olympic Art competitions held between 1912 and 1948,or donated as gifts to the International Olympic Committee by host nations of thegames. In other collections, portraits of sportsmen and women tend to constitute themain type of work executed in these media. Several of the authors in this collectionengage in various ways with such artefacts. Within the field of art history, therelatively flourishing but low status sub-field of sporting art has tended to focus moreon the patron-dominated topics of racing, hunting and other ‘gentry’ sports. Inrecent years, however, the agenda has widened, as illustrated earlier.
Film and video frequently constitutes a major category in the holdings of sportmuseums. These include fictional film, newsreels, documentaries and cartoons/animation. Film helps summon up the spirit of a past age through surface and space,and sporting films and television have been of interest in the USA for some time, asthe regular reviews in the Journal of Sport History indicate. Sport has been widelyused in fictional films and documentaries as a metaphor for social life and culture.Among historians of sport, it is perhaps film that has received the most sustainedattention of all visual sources in recent years, with several monographs exploringvarious aspects of American sports, from Dan Streibel’s work on the way earlyboxing films impacted on the landscape of American culture and the complexfascinations they engendered, or Ron Briley et al.’ s work on film and sportingcelebrity, to growing work on the impact of newsreels on sport. Recent studies ofnewsreels in England, Ireland and North America have shown how this widelydisseminated form of visual culture had a very substantial impact, especially betweenthe two world wars, through the way it addressed notions of class, gender, politics,region and identity.22
Frequently, the largest collection of images held within sport museums areconstituted by photographs, postcards, negatives and slides. Certainly sportsphotographs are now beginning to be exploited, deconstructed and analysed in avariety of ways. Photography has long played a key role in representing sport and itsparticipants, providing factual photo-finish evidence, memorialising sporting acts or,
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from Eadweard Muybridge onwards, scientifically analysing movement. But as weknow only too well, the seeming realism and unambiguous surface of such culturalartefacts can be deceptive, since they can be read in many different ways. A recentpaper by John Bale uses visual anthropology to contextualise particular sportingcultural photographs taken in Africa, to deconstruct their spatial aspects andinterpret their incorporation in a variety of European discourses, thus providing aclear example of photography’s ambiguities.23 Walter Benjamin described postcardsas life’s ephemera or detritus, yet like photographs they too can play a veryimportant part in constructing and reconstructing the past. Picture postcards, thesocial networking tool of the Edwardian era, offer a visual discourse on power andsporting status and likewise have ambiguous, multiple meanings, but as yet havebeen little studied.
Another important category within sport museum collections is that of posters,advertisements and illustrated books, materials now of increasing research interest,as shown by Margaret Timmers’s recent publication on Olympic posters, whichshows how mainstream artists and designers such as David Hockney or AndyWarhol have used competition and competitors as metaphors for the spirit of humanendeavour.24 Sport posters, with their eye-catching imagery and popular appeal,have been widely exploited as a communication medium and can capture thedistinctive characteristics of an event.
On a smaller scale, the humble stamp also has a significant role to play in thevisual representation of sport, as the various examples at the British Postal Museum& Archive show. In Britain, early examples included stamps issued in July 1948 tocommemorate the Olympic Games in London, and in 1958 in conjunction with theSixth British Empire and Commonwealth Games held in Cardiff. The Royal Mailalso produced a hugely popular set of stamps to mark England’s hosting of theWorld Cup in 1966. Following England’s victory, one of the existing designs wasmodified to include the celebratory words ‘England Winners’. Four years later, priorto the 1970 World Cup, the Royal Mail produced special designs in case Englandwon again. The stamps were never to be released.
Other forms of graphic art, ranging from diplomas for victors and signs andtypefaces specially designed for sports events to personalised bookplates andcartoons published in the press, are also valuable examples of visual culture oftenheld in sport museums. The latter have been explored in a number of recent papers,including a useful article on cartoons, women and sport in Punch, and another onsporting cartoonists working within Manchester’s sporting press.25 Cigarette cards,too, have a substantial cartophilic following, offering commercial opportunity forBritish companies, such as Murray Cards International Ltd., which produces booksand catalogues, though their scholarship level is narrow in its focus, lacks a culturaldimension and offers real scope for further research.26 Children’s collectable sportscards were in existence even in the late nineteenth century, as a recent paper byAlexander Jackson reminds us, and, like more recent Panini stickers and MatchAttax cards, helped to shape children’s notion of sports heroism and culture.27
Sporting paraphernalia, including trophies, medals and the numerous examplesof popular consumer goods and souvenirs produced in conjunction with majorevents such as the Olympic Games and World Cup competitions, also providefascinating visual evidence for sport historians, while sports equipment andsportswear also find a place in the collecting and display protocols of the sportmuseum. Here, an analysis of the shifting trends in the design of both sport
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equipment and costumes can highlight widely changing historically and culturallyformulated notions of taste and fashion, while scientific developments in textile andfabric manufacture have contributed to enabling particular forms of physicalmovement to enhance sporting performance. A study of sportswear also raises thespectre of the potentially voyeuristic and erotic dimension frequently inherent withinboth the spectatorship of, and participation within, sport, a point made by AllenGuttmann in The Erotic in Sports.28
Other materials that frequently form part of a sport museum collection includebadges, coins, emblems, armbands, flags, standards and pennants. All these artefactsprovide insights into the history of both sport as an activity and broader, ever-changing trends in visual culture. The changing role and function of the sportingtattoo, seen increasingly once again on the bodies of sporting celebrities of bothsexes, is another unexplored topic. Tattoos can be ironic, may be linked to socio-economic background, particular types of sports or to particular cultures, as in theSamoan tattoos on the body of WWE wrestling star ‘The Rock’.29
This broadly defined classification of material held in sport museums simply givesa general indication of the relative survival of such material. Whatever list is chosenis unlikely to exhaust the possibilities. Further, no system can fully encapsulate thevast range of such material. Categories overlap, and any classificatory modeldeployed inevitably has implications for how we think about and conceptualise thebody of material represented. Readers might, for example, compare this to Hardyet al.’ s ninefold typology of the material culture of sport, which includes playingequipment, venues, training equipment and sports medicine technology, sportswear,prizes, symbolic artefacts, performance-measurement technology, ephemera/detritusand memorabilia.
The very disposition of sport space and buildings can also be a powerfulconveyor of meaning. The landscape-dominating architecture and design of sportsstadiums are of growing research interest, not least in their impact on bodies, whichthey can control across lines of class, gender and race, as Patricia Vertinsky andSherry McKay have shown.30 Stadiums are often sites of almost religious fanfervour. As Mark Dyreson notes they are ‘cathedrals of sport’.31 Venues have a long-standing and powerful association with community, with fan identification andmemory, but are now often subject to radical structural or spatial change in the faceof fan opposition.32 Wood and Gabie’s paper in this collection focuses on the artisticlegacy of a former stadium, Ayresome Park, in the Teesside landscape in anindustrial area of northern England. Replaced by a housing estate, the site is now aplace where, according to Simon Inglis, ‘the echoes of the crowd come courtesy ofthe wind’.33 This statement also reminds us that the sounds of sport are still, so often,sadly neglected.
Social and cultural memory is a boom area for the new cultural history and soiconic statues, tombstones and other forms of commemoration, and the ways theirmeanings are constructed and reconstructed, denoted and connoted, are becoming ofmore interest. Recent publications such as Maureen Smith’s work on the multiplemeanings and memories associated with the San Jose statue of athletes TommieSmith and John Carlos and their Mexico City so-called ‘Black Power’ salute, MikeHuggins’s work on the cultural symbolism of tombstones of Victorian sportingheroes, or Joyce Woodridge’s work on the symbolism of memorials associated withthe Manchester United Munich disaster are all useful examples of work of sportingmemorialisation.34
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Methodologies
When we look outside the sub-field of sport history, it is clear that what we mightterm the different communities of the interpretation of visual material have focusedlargely on the three key sites at which their cultural and other meanings might bemade: the site of the visual image or object itself; sites of production; and sites ofreception and seeing. According to visual studies scholar Gillian Rose, developing amore critical visual methodology might involve a number of complementaryapproaches: mastering compositional interpretation; content analysis; audience andreception studies; semiology to lay bare the prejudices and ideologies beneath thesurface; psychoanalysis to explore the gaze, physical pleasure and visual disruption;discourse analysis exploring context, text, intertextuality and ways of seeing; andanthropological analysis directly observing the social life of visual objects.35
Approaches using iconography, the analysis of images through the analysis ofdetail, and iconology, the study of their meaning through the analysis of subjectmatter, symbolism and imagery, style and medium and historical context, are astandard feature of art history, and have been applied to sporting art by a number ofauthors, including Stephen Deuchar.36 By contrast deconstructionists, drawing onideas formulated in the writings of Jacques Derrida, have challenged the idea that awork of art is logical and comprehensible, emphasising its resistance to interpreta-tion, and emphasising indeterminacy and the open play of signs. In recent yearsstudies of sport have begun to open up deconstruction, largely with application toprinted texts, so theoretical development of visual deconstruction is in its beginnings.More attention is now paid to practices and representations, and Murray G. Phillipsin his recent collection demonstrates sport history’s growing interest in postmodern-ism and deconstruction.37
Currently many scholars of sport are still at the stage of finding questions thatwould support an approach from a particular theoretical perspective. A recentpaper, for example, on the ‘visual turn’ in sports history offered some help withexamples of historical and methodological questions that might help addressapproaches to context, the ‘sporting gaze’, iconography, iconology, semiology anddeconstruction.38
Attention to the image itself might variously focus on material form, itscomponents, their arrangement and the relationship between them, its technologyand its genres. The content of an image may appear clear and direct, but its meaningshave always to be applied and interrogated. Images can, as cultural historian PeterBurke reminds us in Eyewitnessing, help us to reconstruct the material culture of thepast, and his book provides a useful guide for the ways visual sources have their rulesfor source criticism when used purely as historical evidence.39 But a materiality focuscan be useful in other ways. Gary Osmond’s recent analysis of the photograph ofSmith, Carlos and Peter Norman on the medal dais at Mexico City is an example. Hedemonstrates how, in the multiple subsequent appearances of the photograph in avariety of published contexts, cropping, captioning and differential positioningchanged the emphasis, focus and meaning.40 A concentration on the production of avisual source would focus more on questions about its making, its genre, who madeit, when, why and for what reasons, or the social identities and relations betweenowner, patron, maker or subject. Such object-centred analysis clearly needs to besupported by documentary evidence specifically related to it, and generally yieldsfairly narrow and specific conclusions.
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Historians of sport in recent years have shown how sport has responded tochanges in wider society. Many have portrayed sport as a reflection of society. Butsport also helps to shape society. As Michael Oriard has reminded us in his study ofinter-war American football, ‘neglected sources’ such as the 94 football movies madebetween 1925 and 1943, or the surviving newsreel footage, provided multiple voicesand perspectives and were ‘powerful forces’ in constructing a football culture in theUSA.41 Clearly such visual materials impact on social understandings of sport.
This suggests how important it is to focus on audience – although it is still rare tofind studies of sport that do so – and to ask questions about the sorts of peopleseeing such images at different places and times. In part this is because in sport, asOriard admitted, ‘the hearts and minds of actual fans must remain elusive’, though inhis own work he had ‘those audiences always in mind’.42 But it is also because someof the more theoretical approaches now increasingly employed, such as discourseanalysis, semiology or psychoanalysis, largely neglect the processes of reception,implying that it is the image itself that produces audience and seeing. Questions ofthe relationship between image and actual viewers, the differences between groups ofviewers, the different ways they ‘read’ the image, the conventions they follow andtheir behaviour while viewing are important ones in sport, as Oriard’s work, ormodern studies of ‘fandom’ in soccer, reveal.
The papers in this collection draw on the variety of methodologies outlined aboveand move beyond. Some contributors draw upon the writings of specific theorists toinform the development of their arguments. Thus Flowers utilises iconographyalongside Henri Lefebrve’s framework of spatial analysis while presenting a tentativetypology of stadiums as sites of symbolic activity, while Wells uses a theoreticalanalysis based on Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht’s theory of ‘fascinations’ in sport.Similarly, Cohen employs material culture scholar Bernard Herman’s techniques of‘object-centred’ and ‘object-driven’ analysis, and Osmond and Phillips draw on AlunMunslow’s concept of historical ‘story space’, semiotic theory and the newmuseology. Site specificity also plays a significant role in several of the contributions.Wood and Gabie, for example, explore the multiple meanings ascribed to an artproject centred on the former site of a football stadium while Schultz’s focus on theerection of the Arthur Ashe monument on Monument Avenue in Richmond,Virginia, highlights the ways in which the specific arena in which such works areencountered inevitably impacts upon the dialogues and debates they generate, as wellas transforming the cultural landscape they inhabit. Schultz’s reference to a broader,postmodernist discourse, made explicit in her deployment of Jean-FrancoisLyotard’s concept of the ‘master narrative’, is also evident in other contributions.Miner, for example, draws explicitly on the work of Roland Barthes and SusanSontag to inform his analysis of Cuban sports posters and photographs, while thetension between concepts of spectatorship and spectacle are explored in several ofthe contributions. Thus Fagg examines the wider sociopolitical significance, in thecontext of 1930s Depression America, of the illicit spectator becoming the subject ofthe artist’s gaze in the work of Ben Shahn, while O’Mahony’s analysis of CyrilPower’s linocut print representing a boat race on the Thames explores the ways inwhich contemporary tensions regarding values assigned to spectatorship andparticipation and the growing professionalisation of sport could effectively beinscribed and articulated within new visual vocabularies drawn from widerdevelopments in contemporary art and design. Veder introduces yet anotherdimension to the relationship between performing, looking and representation in her
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analysis of ‘ideokinetic visual metaphors for guiding movement’ in BethMensendieck’s physical culture treatises published in Germany and the UnitedStates between 1906 and 1937. The notion that involvement in strenuous physicalactivity might serve to liberate women from bourgeois conventions of femininity alsoinforms Simpson’s study of the representation of Soviet women engaged in sport.Here, however, the specific context of inter-war Soviet eugenic and evolutionarydiscourse is deployed to show how such seemingly celebratory images of liberationwere underpinned by more conventionally familiar gender attitudes promotingmaternity. Kinsey, similarly, examines gendered representation in her analysis ofphotographs of female cyclists in fin-de-siecle Australia, revealing how these workssimilarly conformed to, and challenged, wider conventions for the representation ofwomen in sport, while Lisle’s examination of the promotional images produced forHouston’s new Astrodome in the mid-1960s reveals how these images could be readas restricting the role of women to little more than signifiers of ‘comfort,consumption and respectable behaviour’. In her three case studies of sportingstatues in the United States, Smith uses material culture analysis to explore thecomplex role of these artefacts within American cultural sporting memory, heritageconstruction and myth-making. More specifically art-historical debates are exploredby both Tobey and Vere in their respective analyses of Italian Renaissance paliobanners and early-twentieth-century representations of cycling. For Tobey, thesimultaneous expense and ephemerality of the palio banner, as well as thecollaborative nature of the production of such objects and the functional role theyplayed in festivals and ceremonies, challenges more conventional conceptions of thetypes of artefacts valued in Italian Renaissance culture. Vere’s exploration of anengagement with the sports theme, and specifically cycling, among a group ofinternational artists in the early 1910s draws attention to the ways that art, boththrough exhibition and reproduction in major art journals of the period, couldfacilitate an international discourse and even competitive response among artistsseeking to promote their own work, and that of their affiliates, as the most advanced,at the very cutting edge of modernity.
A Note on Structure
Selecting a structure for a collection such as this allows for multiple options andchoices, given the disparate backgrounds, disciplines and countries from whichcontributors come, and the range of topics, emphases and methodologies used. Anyimposed structure can only be artificial, subjective and selective, though an attemptis made here to group the essays thematically in content terms for those who prefersuch an approach. The first four essays (O’Mahony, Kinsey, Osmond and Phillips,Vere) fall into the category of ‘Still but not Silent’, in that while photographs,posters, paintings, prints or stamps may appear still and mute, careful sourceanalysis can allow historians to analyse them effectively and tell their stories. Thenthree essays (Flowers, Wood and Gabie, Lisle) examine the representations andmaterial evidence of sport in ‘The Urban Landscape’. Film, ‘Celluloid in Society’, isnext addressed (Wells). The heritage of sport is a key theme currently, and in‘Nostalgia and Continuity’ ideas of memory, cultural and sporting identity, changeand continuity are addressed (Schultz, Smith, Tobey). Sport has long been exploitedfor propaganda purposes, as the voluminous literature reviling and defending LeniRiefenstahl reveals, and the ‘Potent Political Propaganda’ section explores the links
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between American sporting cartoons and politics, and the intersections betweensport practices, poster production and politics in Fidel Castro’s Cuba (Cohen,Miner).43 The final three papers offer ‘Lessons for Life’ as they explore how thevisual provides educative and informative ideas about eugenics in Soviet Russia,physical culture in Germany and the USA, and everyday knowledge of sport inAmerica (Simpson, Veder, Fagg).
Each chapter has implications for the study of sports history. The overridingconclusion from this collection is that if the written text has been overestimated inthe study of sport’s past, then the visual has been underestimated. The visual liesacross the fault-lines of past societies, and the works here reveal only a fraction ofthe subtleties and shadings of its sporting impacts and meaning. The field is still inneed of further theoretical development, along with more critical evaluation of thestrengths and weaknesses of approaches. But future historians of sport will relish theprospect of feasting their eyes on the rich repast of underexploited visual sourcesavailable to them, and developing new methods and approaches to heighten ouranalytic senses.
Notes on Contributors
Mike Huggins is Emeritus Professor of Cultural History at the University of Cumbria, and haspublished widely on the history of sport and leisure in the United Kingdom in the lateeighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Mike O’Mahony is Senior Lecturer in History of Art at the University of Bristol. He haspublished widely on Russian and Soviet art with emphasis on the representation of sport andphysical culture.
Notes
1. Hardy et al., ‘The Material Culture of Sport’, 128.2. Mitchell, Art and the Public Sphere, introduction.3. Cashman, Paradise of Sport, 171.4. Booth, The Field, 98–9.5. Brown, ‘The Modern Romance of Mountaineering’.6. Boddy, Boxing, 381.7. Mangan, ‘Icon of Monumental Brutality’.8. Landry, Noble Brutes; Flannery and Leech, Golf Through the Ages.9. Bergan, Sports in the Movies; Poulton and Roderick, Sport in Films.10. Wannell, ‘Pregnant with Anticipation’.11. Wingfield, Sport and the Artist; Kuhnst, Sports: A Cultural History. Hatt, ‘Muscles,
Morals, Mind’; Berger, Man Made; Doezema, George Bellows.12. For conference proceedings see Daniel, Actes du XII Colloque International.13. Budy et al., Euphoria and Exhaustion.14. O’Mahony, Sport in the USSR.15. Andrews and Stirling, ‘Pop Goes the World’; Huggins, ‘The Visual, Death and Spot’;
and Reiss, ‘American Sport, Celebrity and Painting’. See http://www.nassh.org/NASSH_CMS/files/NASSH_2010-proceedings.pdf. Phillips et al., ‘Broadening Horizonsin Sport History’.
16. Moore, ‘Sports Heritage and the Re-imaged City’.17. Vamplew, ‘Facts and Artefacts’; Vamplew, ‘Taking a Gamble’.18. Macdonald, A Companion to Museum Studies.19. Illeris, ‘Museums and Galleries as Performative Sites’.20. Baker, Contesting Identities; King and Leonard, Visual Economies in Motion; Poulton
and Roderick, Sport in Films; Briley et al., All Stars and Movie Stars; Streibel, FightPictures; Huggins, ‘Projecting the Visual’; McAnnalen and Crossan, ‘Portraying the Irishat Play’.
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21. Bale, Imagined Olympian; Bale, ‘Partial Knowledge’.22. Timmers, A Century of Olympic Posters.23. Jackson, ‘Sporting cartoons and Cartoonists’; Constanzo, ‘One Can’t Shake Off the
Women’.24. See for example, Thompson, Half Time; Burdock and Baier, A Century of Golf Cards.25. Jackson, ‘The Baines Card and its Place in Boys’ Popular Culture’.26. Guttmann, The Erotic in Sports, 161.27. Kosut, ‘An Iron Fad’.28. Vertinsky and McKay, Disciplining Bodies in the Gymnasium.29. Dyreson, ‘Cathedrals of Sport’; Bale, ‘The Changing Face of Football’.30. Inglis, Engineering Archie.31. Smith, ‘Frozen Fists in Speed City’; Huggins, ‘Death, Memorialisation and the Victorian
Sporting Hero’, Woodridge, ‘They Shall Not Grow Old’.32. Rose, Visual Methodologies.33. Deuchar, Sporting Art in Eighteenth Century England.34. Phillips, Deconstructing Sport History.35. Huggins, ‘The Sporting Gaze’.36. Burke, Eyewitnessing, 81.37. Osmond, ‘Photographs, Materiality and Sport History’.38. Oriard, King Football, 19.39. Ibid., 17.40. Tegel, ‘Leni Riefenstahl: Art and Politics’; McFee and Tomlinson, ‘Riefenstahl’s
Olympia.’
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