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Principles of Management
Lecture - 8
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
TRAIT THEORY GHISELLI
BASES OF INFLUENCE (POWER) FRENCH & RAVEN
BEHAVIORAL THEORIES OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY
BLAKE & MOUTON
CONTINGENCY THEORIES FIEDLER
HOUSE & MITCHELL
VROOM & YETTON
ROLE THEORIES MINTZBERG
TRAIT APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP GHISELLI
LEADERS ARE “BORN,” NOT MADE
• PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS APPEARANCE, HEIGHT, AGE
• PERSONALITY EXTROVERSION, PERSISTENCE, SELF-ASSURANCE, DECISIVENESS
• INTELLIGENCE KNOWLEDGE, ABILITY, JUDGMENT
• SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS TACT, DIPLOMACY, SOCIABILITY, FLUENCY
THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS
*** EXTROVERSION (AMBITION, ENERGY)
** CONSCIENTIOUSNESS
** OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE
* EMOTIONAL STABILITY (SELF-CONFIDENCE)
AGREEABLENESS
Trait Theories
Leadership Traits:
• Ambition and energy
• The desire to lead
• Honest and integrity
• Self-confidence
• Intelligence
• High self-monitoring
• Job-relevant knowledge
Traits Theories of Leadership
Theories that consider personality, social, physical, or intellectual traits to differentiate leaders from nonleaders.
Trait Theories
Limitations:
• No universal traits found that predict leadership in all situations.
• Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than “strong” situations.
• Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership and traits.
• Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.
Behavioral Theories
• Trait theory:
Leaders are born, not made.
• Behavioral theory:
Leadership traits can be taught.
Behavioral Theories of Leadership
Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders.
Ohio State Studies
Initiating Structure
The extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and those of sub-ordinates in the search for goal attainment.
Consideration
The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinate’s ideas, and regard for their feelings.
University of Michigan Studies Employee-Oriented Leader
Emphasizing interpersonal relations; taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among members.
Production-Oriented Leader
One who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the job.
The Managerial Grid
(Blake and Mouton)
THE MANAGERIAL GRID BLAKE & MOUTON (64)
9 -------------------------------------------------------------------------- COUNTRY-CLUB TEAM
(1,9) (9,9)
CONCERN FOR MIDDLE OF ROAD
PEOPLE (5,5)
IMPOVERISHED TASK
1 (1,1) (9,1)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 9
CONCERN FOR PRODUCTION
Scandinavian Studies Development-Oriented Leader
One who values experimentation, seeking new ideas, and generating and implementing change.
Researchers in Finland and Sweden question whether there are only two dimensions (production-orientation and employee-orientation) that capture the essence of leadership behavior. Their premise is that in a changing world, effective leaders would exhibit development-oriented behavior.
Contingency Theories Fiedler’s Contingency Model
The theory that effective groups depend on a proper match between a leader’s style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader.
Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire
An instrument that purports to measure whether a person is task- or relationship-oriented.
Fiedler’s Model: Defining the Situation Leader-Member Relations
The degree of confidence, trust, and respect subordinates have in their leader.
Position Power
Influence derived from one’s formal structural position in the organization; includes power to hire, fire, discipline, promote, and give salary increases.
Task Structure
The degree to which the job assignments are procedurized.
Findings from Fiedler Model
Cognitive Resource Theory
Research Support:
• Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership roles under
high stress than do more intelligent individuals.
• Less experienced people perform better in leadership roles under
low stress than do more experienced people.
Cognitive Resource Theory
A theory of leadership that states that stress can unfavorably affect a situation and that intelligence and experience can lessen the influence of stress on the leader.
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
A contingency theory that focuses on followers’ readiness.
Leader: decreasing need for support and supervision
Follower readiness: ability and willingness
Unable and Unwilling
Unable but Willing
Able and Willing
Directive High Task and Relationship Orientations
Supportive Participative
Able and Unwilling
Monitoring
Leadership Styles and Follower Readiness
(Hersey and Blanchard) Willing Unwilling
Able
Unable Directive
High Task and
Relationship Orientations
Supportive Participative
Monitoring
Follower Readiness
Leadership Styles
Leader–Member Exchange Theory Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Leaders create in-groups and out-groups, and subordinates with in-group status will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction.
Path-Goal Theory Path-Goal Theory
The theory that it is the leader’s job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide them the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization.
The Path-Goal Theory
Leader-Participation Model Leader-Participation Model (Vroom and Yetton)
A leadership theory that provides a set of rules to determine the form and amount of participative decision making in different situations.
Factors Affecting Style
• Leadership style may be dependent on various factors: – Risk - decision making and change initiatives
based on degree of risk involved
– Type of business – creative business or supply driven?
– How important change is – change for change’s sake?
– Organisational culture – may be long embedded and difficult to change
– Nature of the task – needing cooperation? Direction? Structure?
4 Leadership styles
– S1: Telling
– S2: Selling
– S3: Participating
– S4: Delegating
4 Levels of Maturity
– M1: Low, Immature
– M2: Low to Moderate
– M3: Moderate to High
– M4: High, Mature
4 Levels of Maturity of Followers
High Low Moderate
M1 M2 M3 M4 Telling Selling Participating Delegating
4 Development Levels – D1: Low competence, High commitment
– D2: Some competence, Low commitment
– D3: High competence, Variable commitment
– D4: High competence, High commitment
Development Levels of Followers
High Low Moderate
D1 D2 D3 D4 S1: Tell S2:Sell S3: Participate S4: Delegate
Participating Q3 S3: High Relationship
Low Task
D3: Able but unwilling
or insecure
Selling Q2 S2: High Relationship
High Task
D2: Unable but willing
or confident
Delegating Q4 S4: Low Relationship
Low Task
D4: Able/competent &
willing/confident
Telling Q1 S1: Low Relationship
High Task
D1: Unable & unwilling
or insecure
Directive Behavior
Su
pp
ort
ive
Be
ha
vio
r
Mature Immature
Summary of Leadership Theories Theory Leadership Based On…
Trait Theory Leaders born with leadership traits
Behavioral Theory Initial structure and consideration
- Role Theory Shaped by culture, training, modeling
- Managerial Grid Concern for production and concern for people
Participative Leadership More people involved = better collaboration
- Lewin’s Style Autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire
- Likert’s Style Task oriented, relationship oriented, participative style
Contingency Theories No one best leadership style
- Fiedler’s LPC Theory Task focus v. relationship focus
- Cognitive Resource Theory Intelligence and experience make a difference
- House’s Path Goal Theory Help followers make their goals compatible with
organizational goals
Situational Leadership Similar to contingency theory
- Hersey and Blanchard Based on relationship between leader and follower
and task behavior
- Vroom & Yetton Decision quality and decision acceptance
Motivation, Satisfaction, and Performance
Introduction (Cont.)
Motivation is the
psychological process
that leads to
Choice of behavior
that results in Some level
of job performance
The Motivation-Behavior-Job Performance Sequence
Motivation
• Motivation is anything that provides direction, intensity, and persistence to behavior.
Needs Theories
Maslow Herzberg
Hygiene
Motivators
Factors
Social
Safety
Physiological
Self-Actualisation
Esteem
Theories of Motivation
Needs theories
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
• Herzberg’s two factor theory
Process theories
• Expectancy Theory
• Goal Setting Theory
Chapter 6
Expectancy Theory (Vroom)
3. Rewards-Personal goals relationship = Valence
1. Effort-Performance relationship = Expectancy
2. Performance-Rewards relationship = Instrumentality
Individual
Effort
Individual
Performance
Personal
Goals
Organisational
Rewards
1 2
3
How Expectancy Theory Works
Expectancy
Effort - Performance Link
E=0
No matter how much effort
you put in, probably not possible
to memorise the text in 24 hours
Instrumentality
Performance - Rewards Link
I=0
Your tutor does not look
like someone who has £1 million
Valence
Rewards - Personal Goals Link
V=1
There are a lot of wonderful things
you could do with £1 million
Your tutor offers you £1 million if you memorise the textbook by tomorrow morning.
Conclusion: Though you value the reward, you will not be motivated to do this task.
Goal Setting
Goals Specific Difficult
Accepted
Effects on Person Directs attention
Energises Encourages persistency
New strategies developed
Feedback
Performance
Self-Motivation
• Self-fulfilment and satisfaction
• Difficult goals lead to higher performance
• Motivation to act depends on the attractiveness of the outcome
Motivation
Direction
Persistence Intensity
Defining Motivation
Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries
Performance
• Performance concerns those behaviors directed toward the organization’s mission or goals, or the products and services resulting from those behaviors.
Job satisfaction
• Job satisfaction deals with one’s attitudes or feelings about the job itself, pay, promotion, or educational opportunities, supervision, co-workers, workload, and so on.
Three Major Needs Theories
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• ERG Theory
• Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hierarchy Of Needs
MASLOW’S
Safety Needs
Belongingness & Love
Needs
Physiological Needs
Esteem Needs
Self-
Actualization
The hierarchy has five levels:
• Physiological Needs: oxygen, water, protein, salt, sugar, calcium and other minerals and vitamins, shelter and sleep etc.
• Safety Needs: security, stability, protection from physical and emotional harm
• Belongingness & Love Needs: affection, belonging, acceptance, friendship, community
• Esteem Needs: (Internal ones are need for self-respect, confidence, autonomy, and achievement. External ones are need for respect of others, status, fame, glory, recognition and attention.) Maslow feels these are the roots to many, if not most of our psychological problems.
• Self-actualization: (doing that which maximizes one’s potential and fulfills one’s innate aspirations)
Hierarchy of Needs
DEFICIT (D-NEEDS)
• If you don’t have enough of something you have a “deficit” (need) – Maslow's hierarchy seems to follow the life cycle. A baby's needs are
almost entirely physiological. As the baby grows, it needs safety, then love. Toddlers are eager for social interaction, attention and affection. Teenagers are anxious about social needs, young adults are concerned with esteem and only more mature people transcend the first four levels to spend much time self-actualizing.
– Under stressful conditions, or when survival is threatened, we can “regress” to a lower level need.
BEING NEEDS (SELF-ACTUALIZATION) • Needs that do not involve balance
• Once engaged, they continue to be felt
• Continuous desire to fulfill potentials (“be all you can be”)
• You need to have lower needs taken care of, at least to a considerable extent
• Only a small percentage of the population is truly, self-actualizing (approximately 2%)
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
E.R.G. Theory
• A variation of Maslow's hierarchy of needs • Three groups of needs
– Existence needs: physical and material wants
– Relatedness needs: desires for interpersonal relationships
– Growth needs: desires to be creative and productive; to use one’s skills
E.R.G. Theory (Cont.)
Physiological
Safety
Belongingness and love
Esteem
Self- actualization
Relationship of Maslow’s hierarchy
to E.R.G. Theory.
Maslow hierarchy
E.R.G. Theory
Relatedness needs
Existence needs
Growth needs
E.R.G. Theory (Cont.)
• Both similar to and different from Maslow's need hierarchy
• Satisfied and unsatisfied needs operate in much the same way
• Movement upward is the same
• Movement downward is new
E.R.G. Theory (Cont.)
• Satisfaction-progression: move up the hierarchy as needs are satisfied
• Frustration-regression: move down the hierarchy when a need is frustrated
• Deficiency cycle: more strongly desire existence needs when they are unsatisfied
• Enrichment cycle: more strongly desire growth needs when they are satisfied
• Alderfer’s ERG Theory – Existence Needs
• are desires for physiological and material well-being. Relatedness needs are desires for satis-fying interpersonal relationships.
– Relatedness Needs • are desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.
– Growth Needs • are desires for continued psychological growth and
development.
ERG Theory
Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory
• Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory
– Hygiene Factor
• is found in the job context, such as working conditions, interpersonal relations, organizational policies, and salary.
– Motivator Factor
• is found in job content, such as a sense of achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, or personal growth.
Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory
• Early interview research with engineers and accountants – Negative events: mostly involved a person's job
context such as company policy and supervision
– Positive events: described aspects of the job and feelings of achievement
– Salary mentioned about the same number of times in negative and positive reports
Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory
(Cont.)
• Dissatisfiers: items predominantly found in descriptions of negative events
– Could lead to high levels of employee dissatisfaction
– Improve the dissatisfiers and reduce dissatisfaction
– Not get higher satisfaction
Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory
(Cont.) • Satisfiers: items predominantly found in
descriptions of positive events
– Could lead to high levels of employee satisfaction
– Their absence, or a person's failure to experience them, would not produce dissatisfaction
Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory
(Cont.) • Two distinct continua: one for satisfaction and
one for dissatisfaction
• Not a single continuum with dissatisfaction on one end and satisfaction on the other
• Herzberg eventually called the satisfiers motivators; the dissatisfiers hygiene factors
Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory
(Cont.) • Motivators
– Achievement
– Recognition
– Work itself
• Hygiene factors
– Company policies and their administration
– Quality of supervision
– Working conditions
Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory
(Cont.)
• Dissatisfiers distracted from the motivators
• Once the work context is improved, the manager can try to provide the motivators
• Use a process called job enrichment
• Add more responsibility and autonomy to the job
• Creates opportunity for employee to experience the motivators
Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory
(Cont.) • Empirical research
– Mixed results
– Methodological issues
– See the text book for details
Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)
Functions of Communication
• Control
• Motivation
• Emotional Expression
• Information
The Communication Process
Receiver
Feedback
Decoding Channel Encoding Source
Communication Fundamentals
Direction:
• Downward
• Upward
• Crosswise
Networks:
• Formal vs. Informal
Communication Networks
Chain Wheel All Channels
Barriers to Effective Communication
• Filtering
• Selective Perception
• Emotions
• Language
Key Communication Skills
• Listening Skills
• Feedback Skills
• Presentation skills
Basic Communication Skills Profile
________________________________________________
Communication Order Learned Extent Used Extent Taught
____________________________________________
Listening First First Fourth
Speaking Second Second Third
Reading Third Third Second
Writing Fourth Fourth First
Stages of the Listening Process
• Hearing
• Focusing on the message
• Comprehending and interpreting
• Analyzing and Evaluating
• Responding
• Remembering
Barriers to Active Listening
• Environmental barriers
• Physiological barriers
• Psychological barriers
Selective Listening
Negative Listening Attitudes
Personal Reactions
Poor Motivation
How to Be an Effective Listener
What You Think about Listening ?
Understand the complexities of listening
Prepare to listen
Adjust to the situation
Focus on ideas or key points
Capitalize on the speed differential
Organize material for learning
Receiver
Decode message
Encode feedback
Form feedback
Sender
Form message
Encode message
Decode feedback
Transmit Message
Transmit Feedback
Receive encoded message
Receive feedback
Noise
Communication Process Model
Communication Barriers
• Perceptions
• Filtering
• Language
– Jargon
– Ambiguity
• Information Overload
The HURIER Model: Components of Effective Listening
Hearing (paying careful
attention to what is being said)
Understanding (comprehending
the messages being sent)
Remembering (being able to
recall the message being sent)
Effective Listening
Responding (replying to the sender, letting
him or her know you are paying
attention)
Evaluating (not immediately passing judgment
on the message being sent)
Interpreting (not reading anything into the message the
sender is communicating)
Episodes of information
overload
Employee’s information processing
capacity
Time
Information Load
Information Overload
Overload: Problem Solved
Gatekeeper Message C
Overload (too many messages reaching a person
at once)
Use gatekeepers to control the number
of incoming messages received
Use queuing to present messages
in order
Problem:
Solutions:
Message C
Message B
Message A
Person
Message C
Message B
Message A
Message A Message B Message C
Person
Person
Oral vs. Written Communication: Preference for Media Depends on the Message
Mea
n P
erce
nta
ge
of
Ma
na
ger
s P
refe
rrin
g M
edia
Extremely
ambiguous
messages
Extremely
clear
messages
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Oral Media
Written Media
Oral media are preferred for
sending ambiguous messages.
Written media are preferred for sending
clear messages.
(88.3)
(11.3)
(32.1)
(67.9)
Communicating Through E-mail
Advantages of E-mail
–Messages quickly formed, edited, sent, and stored
–Needs little coordination
–Random information access
–Fewer social status barriers
Problems with E-mail
– Information overload
–Flaming
– Interpreting emotions
–Lacks empathy or social support
Nonverbal Communication
• Actions, gestures, facial expressions, etc.
• Transmits most info in face-to-face meetings
• Influences meaning of verbal and written symbols
• Less rule bound than verbal communication
• Important part of emotional labour
Face-to-face
Telephone
Newsletters Oversimplified
Zone
Overloaded Zone
Routine/ Clear
Nonroutine/ Ambiguous
Rich
Lean
Media Richness
Situation
Hierarchy of Media Richness
Communicating in Hierarchies
• Workspace design
• Employee surveys
• Newsletters and e-zines
• Management by walking around
Grapevine Characteristics
• Transmits information very rapidly in all directions
• Relatively accurate, but deletes details and exaggerates key points
• More active in homogeneous groups who easy communication access
• Most active when employees are anxious
• Usually follows a cluster chain pattern
Personal Communication Style
The Senator
(sometimes Noble and
sometimes Reflective)
The Candidate
(blend between
Socratic and Reflective)
The Magistrate
(blend between
Noble and Socratic)
The Reflective (someone who would
rather say nothing than to hurt someone
else’s feelings)
The Socratic (someone who likes to
argue his or her points fully)
The Nobel
(someone who says
what’s on his or
her mind)
Internal vs. External Communications: Is There a Difference?
More
Statements
Fewer
Statements
Rel
ati
ve P
rop
ort
ion
of
Sta
tem
ents
Threats were used more
than opportunities when
communicating internally.
Opportunities were used
more than threats when
communicating externally.
Threats Opportunities Focus of Statements
Internal
statements
External
statements
Cross-Cultural Communication
• Verbal differences
– Language
• Nonverbal differences
– Voice intonation
– Interpreting nonverbal meaning
– Importance of verbal versus nonverbal
– Silence and conversational overlaps
Men Women
Gender Communication Differences
Gives advice quickly and directly
Gives advice indirectly and reluctantly
Report talk Rapport talk
Avoids asking for information
Frequently asks for information
Less sensitive to nonverbal cues
More sensitive to nonverbal cues
Gender Issues in Leadership
• Male and female leaders have similar task- and people-oriented leadership.
• Participative leadership is used more often by female leaders.
• Women rated less favourably than equivalent male leaders due to stereotyping.
Getting Your Message Across
• Empathize
• Repeat the message
• Use timing effectively
• Be descriptive
Active Listening Process and Strategies
ACTIVE LISTENING
SENSING •Postpone evaluation • Avoid interruptions • Maintain interest
EVALUATING
• Empathize • Organize information
RESPONDING
• Show interest • Clarify the message
Audience Characteristics • Self-esteem • Inoculated
Communicator Characteristics • Expert • Credibility • Attractive
Message Content • Present all sides • Few arguments • Emotional appeals • Inoculation effect
Communication Medium
Persuasive Communication