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July - December 2009 วารสารปัญญาภิวัฒน์ ปีที่ 1 ฉบับที่ 1(เดือนกรกฎาคม-ธันวาคม 2552)

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Order Allocation Under Uncertainty Considering Suppliers' Performance: 11

A Case Study of Laminate Manufacturer

Ruengsak Kawtummachai and Pakorn Adulbhan

The Turnover of High Performance Employees in the Electronics Industry 29

in Thailand

Saard Banchirdrit

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AbstractOne of the most important decision-makings in a supply chain is how to allocate the

order to suppliers under uncertainty. This type of problem requires much information

in order to find the best decision for the problem at hand; therefore, it is very

complicate by nature. This research focuses on how to allocate the order to a set of

selected suppliers. The uncertainties considered in this research consist of fluctuation

of raw material price, inaccuracy in forecasting, product quality, and ratio of on-time

delivery of suppliers. We have studied a case study of a laminate manufacturer in

Thailand, in which, the decision maker has to decide how to order the raw material

from suppliers while each supplier has different characteristics or different uncertainty.

The objective of this study is to assign the order allocation pattern, which minimize

the total corresponding costs. We have developed the mathematical model and

Dr. Ruengsak Kawtummachai

Associate Professor

Dean of Faculty of Business Administration

Panyapiwat Institute of Technology

E-mail: [email protected]

Dr. Pakorn Adulbhan

Professor

Fellow of the Royal Institute

E-mail: [email protected]

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have applied the Genetic Algorithm to develop the program for optimizing the total

cost. Then, algorithm has been tested using the data retrieved from the company

and the data from the forecasting. Moreover, we have solved the tested case by

the LINGO software in order to verify the efficiency of the proposed algorithm. The

results show that our algorithm works very well under uncertainty and can suggest

the best decision under each category of uncertainty.

Keywords: Supply Chain Management, Order allocation, Uncertainty

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Introduction

In recent year, Supply chain management

has generated much interest because of the

realization that actions taken by one member of

the chain can influence the profitability of all

others in the chain. A supply chain is a network

of facilities and distribution that are the

functions of procurement of materials, transfor-

mation to finished products, and distribute these

products to the customers. Nowadays, there have

many researches related with the supply chain

management but not many researches in field

of supply chain under uncertainty such as late

delivery, defect materials from supplier, or

unreliable suppliers. Therefore, any research

about uncertainty especially the uncertainty from

supply sources should be considered. In this

paper, we have investigated a manufacturer to

study its purchasing system and then define the

order allocation model. From the case study, we

have developed the allocation method so that

the company can minimize the total cost under

the company’s policy.

Literature Review

There are some researchers who have

researched about the supplier assignment and

order allocation. Followings are the concerned

literature.

Papers on supplier selection:

Thomas Y. C., Janet L. H. (1996) compared

supplier-selection practices based on a survey

of companies at different levels in the auto

industry. They used the survey method and then

research method in order to make the decision.

The results show that selection supplier based

on the potential for a cooperative, long-term

relationship is just as important to direct and

indirect suppliers as it is to the auto assemblers.

Ghodsypour S.H., O’Brien C. (1998) make

a trade off between these tangible and

intangible factors some of which may conflict in

order to select the best suppliers. They applied

mixed integer, goal and multi-objective

programming to solve this problem. They also

use an analytical hierarchy process and linear

programming is proposed to consider both

tangible and intangible factors in choosing the

best suppliers and placing the optimum order

quantities. This model can be applied to

supplier selection with and without capacity

constraints. A numerical example is presented

and the model advantages are discussed.

Madeleine E.P. (1998) studied the difference

between managers rating of the perceived

importance of different supplier attributes and

their actual choice of suppliers in an

experimental setting. He uses two methods: a

Likert scale set of questions, to determine the

importance of supplier attributes; and a discrete

choice analysis (DCA) experiment, to examine

the choice of suppliers. The results indicate that

although managers say that quality is the most

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important attribute for a supplier, they actually

choose suppliers based largely on cost and

delivery performance.

Luitzen B., Leo van der W., Jan T. (1998)

studied about the nature of initial purchasing

decisions such as make-or-buy decision and

supplier selection usually is complex and

unstructured. They also try to solve this

problem. They used the “Outranking methods”

and the management science techniques as the

tools to solve the problems in any cases. The

results showed by means of a supplier selection

example, that an outranking approach may be

very well suited as a decision-making tool for

initial purchasing decisions.

Christopher D., David F.L, Benkatesh N.,

Madhav C.R. (1999) examined whether supplier

selection and monitoring practices affect the

association between supplier strategies and

organizational performance. They used the

empirical test to test the data from the auto-

motive and computer industries indicated that

the performance gains from supplier partnerships

practices are contingent on extensive use of

non-price selection criteria. These selection and

monitoring practices appeared to have little

effect on the performance of organizations

following arms-length supplier relations.

Choy K.L., Lee W.B., Victor L. (2002)

presented an intelligent supplier management

tool (ISMT). They used the case-based

reasoning (CBR) and neural network (NN)

techniques to select and benchmark suppliers.

The result of which is to support the

decision-making process in benchmarking

suppliers in outsource manufacturing.

Stefan M. (2003) reviewed inventory

models with multiple supply options which is

“single-stage inventory models” and discusses

their contribution to supply chain management.

He used the stochastic lead times to make the

analysis of the inventory models. Finally, issues

for future research and a synthesis of available

supply chain management and multiple supplier

inventory models are proved that it’s practical.

Toshiya K. (2003) solved the product

allocation problem by distributing the scheduled

resources based on the agent interactions in the

market. He formulated supply chain model as a

discrete resource allocation problem under

dynamic environment, and demonstrate the

applicability of the virtual market concept to this

framework. It has been confirmed that careful

constructions of the decision process according

to economic principles can lead to efficient

distributed resource allocation in SCM.

Wen-Chyuan C., Robert A.R. (2004)

addresses the interaction of purchasing and

routing for a propane gas supply chain.

Rigorous solution methods using both set

partitioning and taboo search are developed for

obtaining optimal and near-optimal solutions for

the purchasing/routing problem. The proposed

methods are applied to a real-world propane

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distribution problem. The results of the study

indicate that the potential annual cost savings

through the integration of purchasing and

routing decisions can range up to millions of

dollars for large distributors.

Papers on uncertainty:

Ram G., John E.T., Yuanming G. (1999)

examined the dynamics of a supply chain that

has the option of using two suppliers one

reliable, and the other unreliable. He calculated

the expected shortages based on the normal

and discrete distributions. The results show that,

in the presence of a second supplier who’s

willing to provide a price discount, logistics

managers can potentially save on annual

inventory-logistics by placing a fraction of the

order to this cheaper supplier.

Jukka K., Kalevi K., Antti L., Markku T. (2002)

proposed a framework by which the risks

related to a customer-supplier relationship, the

service requirements by the customers and the

strategies of the supplier company can be

included in production capacity allocation and

supply chain design. They used a numerical

example and it is based on integrating the

analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and mixed

integer programming (MIP). According to the

results, the supply chain is designed on the

basis of the customers’ strategic importance and

service requirements.

Kirstin Z. (2002) investigated the supply chain

coordination with uncertain just-in-time delivery

by means of a single–period order and delivery-

planning model within a just-in-time setting. She

compared the worst cast with the best case, and

then develops a coordination mechanism. The

results displayed that the example demonstrates

that the coordination mechanism is flexible

enough to enable different allocations of these

overall cost thus allowing both parties in an

existing supply chain partnership to make a profit.

Anshuman G., Costas D.M. (2003) provided

an overview of their previously published works

on incorporating demand uncertainty in midterm

planning of multisided supply chains. They

modeled the manufacturing decisions as

“here-and-now” and used the “CPLEX” solver to

solve the model with many equations and

variables. The trade-off between customer

satisfaction level and production cost is also

captured in the model. The proposed model

provides an effective tool for evaluating and

actively managing the exposure of an enterprises

asset to market uncertainties.

Brian F., Sean B., Donna M. (2004)

developed a model of environmental uncertainty,

supply chain (SC) relationship quality and SC

performance. They used the “survey instrument”

and the statistical method to test the models.

The results provide mixed support for the model,

with the moderating role of both demand and

supply uncertainty being supported, but

technological uncertainty not supported.

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Cheng-Liang C., Wen-Cheng L. (2004)

created the multi-product, multi-stage, and

multi-period scheduling model to deal with

multiple incommensurable goals for a multi-

echelon supply chain network with uncertain

market demands and product prices. They used

the fuzzy sets as the tools to solve the models.

The results proved effective in providing a

compromised solution in an uncertain multi-

echelon supply chain network.

June Y.J., Gary B., Joseph F.P., Gintaras

V.R., David E. (2004) proposed the use of

deterministic planning and scheduling models

which incorporate safety stock levels as a means

of accommodating demand uncertainties in

routine operation. To solve the model they use

a simulation based optimization approach. The

results display that the safety stock level, which

is calculated to meet a desired level of customer

satisfaction, can be provided.

Ruengsak K., and Nguyen V.H. (2005) have

studied the effects of an order allocation

procedure in a supply chain. This supply chain

consists of a company that can order products

from multiple suppliers. They used the computer

simulation, order allocation, Excel, and

numerical test to archive their models. The

results showed that it can vary the percentage

of on-time delivery and could understand the

behavior of purchase cost.

From the above mentioned literatures, we

have observed that some researchers have

studied the order allocation under uncertainty.

However, few of them have considered the real

case that has more complexity and sometimes

the purchasing department has to follow a policy

of the company. Accordingly, in this paper we

have studied a company that purchased raw

materials from selected (or contracted

suppliers). The company has to fol low

agreement signed with the suppliers (such as

the minimum ordered quantity) while the cost of

ordering must be minimized. With more

complexity, we developed the ordering approach

that tends to optimize the cost which related to

the allocation pattern. The purposed approach

could be applied by the company with the less

effort but with high efficiency.

Problem Statements

In this paper, we have studied a case study

of Thai Laminate Manufacturer (TLM) Company

which produces a number of laminate products

to supply to electronic industries. As shown in

Figure 1, the company has ordered raw

materials from a set of selected suppliers which

all of suppliers locate abroad. The required

amount of an item (or multiple items) will be

determined by the purchasing department. An

order consists of the selected supplier, quantity

purchased, due date, price and other related

information. Our consideration is only the part of

the supplier network (inside the dot-line block in

Figure 1). Since, the company can select any

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In the ordering process the planner has to

select supplier (or suppliers) from list, then

assign the quantity and due date. However, there

Figure 1 Supplier network of the company

are many things to consider since there are many

uncertainties concerned in the process. Some

of uncertainties are depicted in Figure 2.

supplier from the list, therefore, there are many

allocation patterns while ordering and come up

with the question that which pattern is the best

pattern when the company also has to maintain

its own policy on all contract suppliers.

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Figure 2 Factors of supplier-uncertainty and demand-uncertainty

From our study, uncertainties appeared in

the order allocation process consist of:

Capacity of suppliers; in the category

each supplier has its own customers; therefore,

the capacity supply for a customer may be vary.

At the ordering time, the company has to check

the stock of suppliers, thus sometimes the

company cannot order from that supplier if the

stock level is not enough.

Price Inflation; since the price of raw

material (metal such as Copper, Zinc, etc.) has

been affected by the market therefore the

material price is unstable (both increasing and

decreasing due to the marketing condition).

Late delivery; this category always

occur since all suppliers locate abroad.

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Quality problem; the received raw

material sometimes have quality problem and

can not be detected until it has been used since

almost materials are in the coil or strip form.

Forecast inaccuracy; the approach used

by the company has less accuracy since the

order decision based on experience of the

purchasing staff.

In the demand side of the company, there

are many uncertainties appear, such as order

cancelled, rushed order, defects, and unit price

fluctuation (finished goods). But, these

uncertainties are not our concerns since they

are uncertainties in the demand side.

1. Material ordering process

TLM has to order raw materials from its

suppliers. Ordered material consists of copper

sheet, resin, etc. The concerned problem in this

research is the order allocation to the selected

suppliers. Since a kind of material can be

ordered from more than one supplier. TLM has

applied this strategy since the company wants

to reduce the risk of shortage that used to occur

in the past. As depicted in Figure 3, the order

process starts from the production plan (received

from production planning department). Then,

production plan will be breakdown to the

material order plan using BOM. From the

material order plan, the purchasing staff will

select some suppliers from list and finally

assign the quantity to each selected supplier.

The order allocation must be done in the

manner that the total corresponding cost is

minimized.

2. Order Allocation Sub-process

The quantity ordered must satisfy in order to

fulfill the requirements from production plan.

Since the company the a policy about the

purchasing that the stock must be enough for at

least one-month production when the material

price is high and at most three months when the

material price is low. This policy is based on the

production plan that will be rolled up every month

and apply the three month plan. Thus, the

possible ordering patterns are; one-month stock

ordering, two-month stock ordering, and three-

month stock ordering. One-month stock means

the ordered quantity will be used up within one

month. Therefore, the best plan will be selected

from the three plans generated (1-month, 2-moth

and 3-month). The process is described in

Figure 4.

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Figure 4 Ordering Allocation Sub-process

The technique used for the forecasting is

exponential smoothing or double exponential

smoothing depend on the best fit for each

material.

3. Ordering policy

The order of a material must be done in

order to minimize the total cost of material cost

(purchasing price) and correspondence

4. Mathematical Model

The objective is to minimize the following :

TCj

= MCj + PC

j (1)

Where,

TCj

= Total cost of ordering material j,

MCj

= Material cost of ordering material j,

PCj

= Purchasing cost of ordering material

j, including costs are interest paid for

the advance payment, fixed engage-

ment fee

Figure 3 Ordering Process

purchasing costs which are interest paid for the

advance payment and fixed engagement fee.

However, the cost should be optimized in such

manner that the following constraints must be

satisfied :

Reliability of the delivery must not be

less than a fixed percentage (e.g., 95%), and

Quality of the delivered material must

not be less than a fixed percentage (e.g., 95%),

Where, reliability of the delivery is the

probability that an amount ordered will be late.

For example 95% of reliability means among

100 units ordered, it is expected that 5 units will

be late and 95 units will be delivered on-time.

For the quality of delivered material, 95% means

that among 100 units delivered 5 units will be

defects and the remaining 95 units will be good

parts.

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Condition 2: Average quality score

Equation (1) must be optimized when the

following conditions are satisfied.

Condition 1: Average on-time delivery score

Where,

Rijk

= Ratio for material j related to supplier i

at month k.

ODij= Score of on-time delivery of material j

related to supplier i

means 100% on-time delivery, this data

calculated from past record. This score

is computed from the quantity that

delivered on-time over the total quantity

ordered.

QLij

= Quality of material j related to supplier i

means no defect from

supplier, calculated from past record.

This score is computed from the

quantity that are non-defect over the total

quantity ordered.

s = Number of suppliers.

However, since the material can be

purchased for each of every 1 month, 2 moths

and 3 months, therefore we have to formulate

the total cost of each case as shown below.

Proportion of total reliability for material j

TRij = OD

ij * QL

ij ; for i = 1,2, 3, …, s ;

for j = 1, 2, 3, …, n

Where,

TRij

= Score of reliability of material j related

to supplier

n = Number of types of materials.

Expected quantity order for material j

Dijk = D

jk * R

ijk (5)

Subject to;

(6)

(7)

for i = 1,2, 3, …, s ;

for j = 1, 2, 3, …, n ;

for k = 1, 2, 3

(8)

Where,

Qijk = Quantity of material j ordered to the

supplier i at month k.

(2)

(3)

(4)

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(9)

; for i = 1,2, 3, …, s ;

for j = 1, 2, 3, …, n (10)

Qjk

= Quantity of material j ordered at month

k.

Dijk

= Demand for material j related to

supplier i at month k.

Djk

= Demand for material j at month k.

Rijk

= Ratio for material j related to supplier i

at month k.

Total cost for material j

Case 1: One-month plan

Case 2: Two-month plan

(11)

; for i = 1,2, 3, …, s ;

for j = 1, 2, 3, …, n (12)

Case 3: Three-month plan

(13)

; for i = 1,2, 3, …, s ;

for j = 1, 2, 3, …, n (14)

Where,

TCjm

= Monthly total cost for material j for

case m, m = 1, 2, 3.

Qijk

= Quantity of material j that is assigned

to supplier i at month k.

Pijk

= Price of material j related to supplier

i at month k.

EFk

= Engagement fee (fixed cost) at month

k.

i1

= Interest rate for LC.

i2

= Interest rate for engagement fee.

Ujm

= Unit cost of material j for case m.

Explanations of each case are as follows.

Case 1 (one-month plan, m = 1): first we

calculate the raw material cost of each month

by using the material price of each month

multiply with the quantity of that month then

change it into the future worth at month 3 with

the LC interest. The raw material cost was

summed for every supplier to get the total

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variable cost before the engagement fee which

changed to future worth was added. After that

we sum them for every month to get the total

cost of case 1. Finally, we divide the total cost

by the all expected quantity to get the unit cost

at month 3.

Case 2 (two-month plan, m = 2): we

compute raw material cost by using the total

expected quantity of first month and second

month multiply with the price at month 1 (we

have to order for covering next 2 months so the

price of ordering in next 2 months must be the

same). Then we change it into the future worth

at month 3 and sum this cost for all suppliers to

get the total variable cost. The cost was added

with the future worth of first month engagement

fee. Then the variable cost and fixed cost of

third month was calculated and changed into

the cost at month 3. After that we divide the

total cost by the expected quantity for 3 months

to get the unit cost of case 2 at month 3.

Case 3 (three-month plan, m = 3): we sum

the demand for next 3 months and multiply with

the price at the first month. Then convert this

variable cost to the future worth at month 3. The

engagement fee was added to the total cost only

once in the first month, so we converted the

engagement fee like the variable cost. Similar

with the previous two cases, we can divide the

total cost by the expected quantity for 3 months

to get the unit cost at month 3.

Finally, we compare Total cost (TCjm) or

Unit cost (Ujm) for every case m (m = 1, 2, or 3)

and select the cheapest one.

Allocation Algorithm

In this paper, we have applied Genetic

Algorithm as a tool to identify the optimum order

allocation plan. The purposed algorithm is shown

in Figure 5. Parameters and procedures for the

algorithm are set as follows:

Initial Population: Randomly generated

Crossover: Partial-mapped Crossover

(PMX) with a crossover rate of 0.2

Mutation: Pairwise adjacent scheme

with a rate of 10% mutation rate

Selection: Roulette wheel approach

The chromosome will be represented by the

integer representation. Figure 6 depicts a

chromosome that we will order material 1 equal

to 20 tons from supplier 1, 0 tons from supplier

2, and 15 tons from supplier 3.

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Figure 5 The purposed GA algorithm for order allocation

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Figure 6 Chromosome Representation

(15)

1.) Number of supplier

2.) Price

3.) Minimum on-time delivery (OD) score

4.) Minimum quality (QL) score

5.) On time delivery ratio of each

supplier

6.) Quality ratio of each supplier

7.) Interest rate for LC

Interest rate for engagement fee

8.) Engagement fee

9.) Demand of material

Vary based on

type of material

Vary

0.97

0.97

0.98, 0.98, 0.96

0.97, 0.97, 0.98

5.15%/ month

1.25%/ month

$ 36 per time

Vary

Testing Value

Numerical Example

In order to test the efficiency of the purposed

approach, we have done an experiment using a

set of materials ordered from 3 suppliers. The

tested data are shown in Table 1. Here, we have

tested 2 kinds of material (Copper foil and Resin)

which their costs dominate the cost of other type

of materials. The data have been solved by the

purposed algorithm and for verifying the efficiency

these data also have been solved by Lingo. The

results from both approaches will be compared.

Total cost of the purposed algorithm and Lingo

will be compared using %RPD as shown below.

Ratio that exceeds 100 means the purposed

algorithm is poorer than the optimum solution

obtained from Lingo.

In each category, we have considered the

values of RPD that compare values of GA to the

values of LINGO. Results show that GA

provides the values that are very close to LINGO.

The RPD is higher than the optimum value

obtained from LINGO at only around 1%, or we

can say, the efficiency is about 99% of the

optimum value.

The increasing in SD results in higher RPD

values that may come up from the search spaces

that are larger. This will make GA to have a

lower performance. By the way,

Input Variables

Table 1 Testing data set

26

��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

Table 2 % RPD of the total cost for material type 1

(Copper Foil)

Table 3 % RPD of the total cost for material type

2 (Resin)

the benefit of the algorithm over the LINGO

is that the processing is extremely short (less

than 1 second) while LINGO must be coded and

needs several minutes to complete. Moreover,

there has no need to code the program since

the purposed algorithm is coded in C++ language

and had been compiled to be an executable

program. Data are input directly from the screen

and then the program will provide the solution.

Conclusion

As we mentioned in the first part that order

allocation is the critical task for a company to

minimize the inventory ordering cost. Especially

when there are uncertainties occur in the

ordering process. In this research, we have done

the research that concerns with the order

allocation under uncertainty using a real case

study. From the study, we can determine the

uncertainty factors in the raw material

purchasing process. The model has been

developed and the algorithm has been

constructed using Genetic Algorithm. The

purposed approach has been tested by using

the real data. The main benefits obtained from

this research are; an algorithm with sufficient

efficiency that can suggest the near-optimum

solution, appropriate forecasting techniques, and

allocation approach that works simply with high

efficiency. We do hope that this research will be

the useful reference for a company who has to

make the decision about the ordering under an

uncertainty environment.

Acknowledgement

We would like to thank to Thai Laminate

27

��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

Manufacture (TLM) Company, for the

permission to do this research and also many

thanks to staffs at TLM for their helps.

References

Anshuman G., Costas D.M. (2003), Managing

demand uncertainty in supply chain planning.

Computers & Chemical Engineering, 27

(8-9), 1219-1227.

Brian F., Sean de B., Donna M. (2004),

Environmental uncertainty, supply chain

relationship quality and performance.

Journal of Purchasing and Supply Man

agement, 10(4-5), 179-190.

Cheng-Liang C., Wen-Cheng L. (2004), Multi-

objective optimization of multi-echelon

supply chain networks with uncertain

product demands and prices. Computers &

Chemical Engineering, 28(6-7), 1131-1144.

Choy K.L., Lee W.B., Victor L., (2002) An

intelligent supplier management tool for

benchmarking suppliers in outsource

manufacturing. Expert Systems with

Applications, 22(3), 213-224.

Christopher D.I., David F.L., Benkatesh N.,

Madhav C.R. (1999) Supplier selection,

monitoring practices, and firm performance.

Journal of Accounting and Public Policy,

18(3), 253-281.

Ghodsypour S.H., O'Brien C., (1998) A decision

support system for supplier selection using

an integrated analytic hierarchy process and

linear programming. International Journal

of Production Economics, 56-57, 199-212.

Jukka K, Kalevi K., Antti L., Markku T., (2002)

An analytic approach to production capacity

allocation and supply chain design.

International Journal of Production

Economics, 78(2), 187-195.

June Y.J., Gary B., Joseph F.P., Gintaras V.R.,

(2004) David E. A simulation based

optimization approach to supply chain

management under demand uncertainty.

Computers & Chemical Engineering,

28(10), 2087-2106.

Kirstin Z., (2002) Supply chain coordination with

uncertain just-in-time delivery. International

Journal of Production Economics, 77(1),

1-15.

Luitzen de B., Leo van der W., Jan T., (1998)

Outranking methods in support of supplier

selection. European Journal of Purchas-

ing & Supply management, 4(2-3), 109-

118.

Madeleine E.P., (1998) An analysis of the

supplier selection process. Omega, 26(6),

673-688.

Ram G., John E.T., (1999) Yuanming G. Dual

sourced supply chains: the discount supplier

option. Transportation Research, 35(1),

11-23.

Ruengsak K., Nguyen V.H., (2005) Order

allocation in a multiple-supplier environment.

International Journal of Production

28

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Associate Professor Dr. Ruengsak Kawtummachai received his B.

Eng. in Industrial Engineering (First Class Honored) from Chiang Mai

University, and Master of Mechanical Engineering and Ph.D. in

Production System from Okayama University, Japan under the

Japanese Government Scholarship. He is currently working as the Dean

of Faculty of Business Administration, Pantyapiwat Institute of

Technology. His main areas of research are Vehicle Routing, Logistics

and Supply Chain Management, Optimization, and Production Planning

and Scheduling.

Professor Dr. Pakorn Adulbhan received his Bachelor Degrees in

Mechanical Engineering and Industrial Engineering from Chulalongkorn

University. He received a Master Degree in Industrial Engineering and

Management Science from Northwestern University, Illinois and Doctor

Degree in Industrial and Systems Engineering from Georgia

Technology. He worked in many organizations such as Chulalongkorn

University, AIT, Siam Cement Group, etc. He has been served as a

Fellow of the Royal Institute.

Economics, 93-94, 231-238.

Stefan M., (2003) Multiple-supplier inventory

models in supply chain management: A

review. International Journal of Production

Economics, 81-82, 265-279.

Thomas Y.C., Janet L.H., (1996) An exploration

of supplier selection practices across the

supply chain. Journal of Operations

Management, 14(4), 333-343.

Toshiya K., (2003) Multi-agent based supply

chain modeling with dynamic environment.

International Journal of Production

Economics, 85(2), 263-269.

Wen-Chyuan C., Robert A.R., (2004) Integrat-

ing purchasing and routing in a propane gas

supply chain. European Journal of

Operational Research, 154(3), 710-729.

29

AbstractThis study aims to investigate factors affecting turnover of high performing employees

in the Electronics Industries in Thailand. Even though, some turnover studies were

conducted in past decades, but most of studies related to all employees. No studies

were able to be identified, which specially examined the turnover of high performers.

Research questions were; (a) why do high performers leave organization? (b) what

turnover model of high performers look like?

This is a qualitative approach. Telephone interviews were conducted fifty high

performers of one electronic company who resigned during 1999-2003. In-dept

interviews were conducted ten executives of five electronics companies. Turnover

model was developed and modified by the executives. Basic statistical means;

percent, frequency, were employed.

The results were found that factors affecting turnover of high performers were external

factors, organizational factors, job related factors, and personal factors. Top five

Dr. Sa-ard Banchirdrit

Director of M.B.A. Program

Panyapiwat Institute of Technology

E-mail: [email protected]

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30

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factors affected turnover of high performers were external job opportunities,

challenging job, promotion, compensation and benefits, and organizational policies.

The executives mostly agreed with factors influenced turnover of high performers.

Few items were recommended for "fine tune", not totally changed.

Turnover model also was recommended to adjust in small part of the model.

It concluded that most findings of this study agreed with literatures.

Keywords: Turnover, High performing employees, Electronics industry

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IntroductionSignificance of the Problem

The Thai Electronics Industry has developed

into a significant contributor to the economy of

Thailand over the last 30 years (Apinanmahakul,

1996). In particular, it is important in its role in

generating foreign income through exports, and

its role as major employer.

1) Export Value: The industry generates

foreign income through exports, which adds to

Thailand's foreign reserves. Thailand Exports

were 636,067.36 million Baht in 2000; 598,795.48

million Baht in 2001; 582,151.40 million Baht in

2002 and 643,200.89 million Baht in 2003

(Export Promotion Department, 2004). This made

the exports of electronic components in the top

three of all Thailand exports (Bank of Thailand,

2003).

The Electronics industry has been one of

the top five exporters in Thailand for a number

of years (Bank of Thailand, 2003). This is a key

factor to keep the financial balance of the

country.

2) Major Employer: A survey of 604 BOI

promoted companies by the Board of Investment

(BOI) found that the Electronics Industry

employed 323,231 people in 1999 (BOI Annual

Report 1999) and the 2002 figures of

employment of the industry show over 350,000

people (C&C International Venture, 2002).

Labour demand of the electronics industry

increased approximately 17 percent in 2002-

2003, which was higher than all other

industries.Various government and private

industry reports in the years 2003-2005 indicated

that demand for graduates in the technology field

continued to high and various shortages were

reported or predicted.These employment figures

indicated that the electronics industry creates

job opportunit ies, reduce the overall

unemployment rate and contribute significant

income to the country.

The Electronics Industry produces “high-

tech products” and “Export oriented products”

(Apinanmahakul, 1996). This industry is

characterized by a high rate of change, high

technology, and highly trained and highly skilled

employees (Goman, 2000). So when these

people leave the organization, this may have a

significant impact.

In 2003, the Thai economy grew by 6.7

percent, industrial production growth rate was

12.2 percent and the unemployment rate was

2.2 percent (Brooker Group, 2004). In the first

quarter in 2004, export value of the electronics

industry was 182,220.10 million Baht. The growth

rate increased from the previous year by 6.2

percent (BOI, 2004; First Quarter: Production

and Investment Report, 2004). Unfortunately, a

new trend of the labor issue is that high labor

turnover usually occurs when the economy

declines. An unpublished report of the

Electronics and Computer Employer's

Association (ECEA) shows that labor turnover

32

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of its member companies had sharply increased;

the percentage of turnover was 7.3 percent in

2000, 7.6 percent in 2001, 8.3 percent in 2002,

and 9.6 percent in 2003 (ECEA monthly record,

September, 2004). It is, therefore, considered

that this issue should be handled effectively so

that the impact can be minimized.

It is clear that the negative impact of

turnover is a cost aspect. This includes

separation cost and replacement and training

cost (Cascio, 1991). In the U.S.A., the Saratoga

Institute reports that the cost per hire averages

approximately US$ 4,000-6,000, for each

employee (Burkholder, 2004). In Thailand,

the cost of turnover of the Sony group of

Companies averages US$800 (Wateetip, 1999).

In general, the figure that will emerge will give

credence to the normally quoted turnover cost

of 1.5 to 2.5 times the annual salary level of

replaced employees (Ahlrichs, 2000). These are

costs of turnover of all employees, not just high

performing ones.

The turnover cost of a high performing

employee is obviously much higher than the cost

of losing an average performer even though the

salaries and benefits of the two may be similar

(Hendron, 2004).

Almost all employers search for talented

employees because they are a high-value-added

human capital element. McKinsey (Michaels,

2001), found in the U.S. that talents increased

productivity by 40 percent, revenue by 67

percent and profits by 49 percent from their study

on the "war for talent" in 1997 (Martel, 2002), so

high performers are in high demand from all

companies. There are three factors fuelling

talent demand in the business world:

1) The irreversible shift from the industrial

age to the innovation age,

2) The intensifying demand for high-calibre

managerial talent, and

3) The growing propensity for people to

switch from one company to another (Michaels,

2001). Even though this study took place in the

U.S.A., one would expect it also to apply

elsewhere.

Even though labour turnover studies have

been conducted in Thailand in the past, most of

the studies were about factors relating to total

labor turnover (Asamaporn Na Songkhla, 1996;

Sirinoot, 1997; Wateetip, 1999; Pengsuk, 1999;

Despradipa, 2001), and the relationship between

job satisfaction and intention to leave (Suapituck,

1998; Ratanamanee and Ketwong, 1983). There

are no studies that this researcher could find on

turnover of high performers.

The critical impact of turnover of high

performers to organizations and industries are

the high costs of replacement, it usually takes

more time to recruit high performers and there

is a lot of uncertainty about having the same

level or a higher level of performance. These

losses could affect a company's or industry's

competitive advantage (Michaels, 2001).

33

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The objective of this study then is to

investigate the turnover of high performing

employees in the Electronics Industry in

Thailand. An attempt will be made to overcome

this dearth of information in this area and to

develop a framework or model to try to

contribute towards improving this situation. This

would make a significant contribution to

Thailand's further growth.

Purpose of the Study

The objectives of this study are:

To review literatures in order to develop

a conceptual model of employee turnover,

To study factors affecting turnover of high

performing employees in one electronics

company in Thailand,

To examine and compare the general

model of labour turnover with that of high

performing employees,

To investigate retention strategy and

develop a conceptual model of this, and

To identify what retention factors should

be used to try to retain high performance

employees.

Expected Contribution of this Study

To provide results of this study to

members of the Electronics and Computer

Employer Association (ECEA) and other

interested parties,

contribute to academic knowledge and

learning in this important topic in Thailand,

To provide results of this study to HR

practitioners through the Personnel Management

Association of Thailand (PMAT), and

To provide a basic study in this area, to

help other HR personnel and HR scholars, to

study and develop this topic further.

Literature Review

The purpose of this section is to investigate

turnover of high performing employees (HPEs).

The attributes of the study are prioritized as: 1)

Definition, 2) State of the art of Employee

Turnover, 3) Turnover of High Performing

Employees, 4) Retention Strategy, and 5)

Summary.

Definitions

Definition of Turnover

These are classified into 2 categories:

1. Global Perspective: All kinds of

movements in the labour market, either flowing

into the market (Hiring) or departing from the

market (Termination of employment) are

considered as “Turnover”. This is not specific in

any particular organization. Employees moving

from one industry to another industry, or from

plant to plant, are also called turnover (Hedberg,

1967). This view has been supported by Abbasi

and Hollam, (2000), who see turnover as the

rotation of workers in the labor market, between

firms, jobs and occupations and between states

34

��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

of employment and unemployment.

2. Organizational level perspective:

There are two concepts in this perspective.

The first concept views all movement in

organizations, such as Hiring, Promotion,

Inter-department transfer, and departure of

employees as labor turnover (Forbes, 1971). This

view has been supported by Price and Mueller

(1986) who further classified turnover into

voluntary and involuntary. Voluntary turnover

means turnover is initiated by the employee such

as voluntary resignation. Involuntary turnover

means turnover is initiated by the employer such

as lay-offs, and termination of employment by

disciplinary action. The second concept views

that Hiring, Transferring and promotion in an

organization are not "turnover" (Mobley, 1982).

He gives a definition of turnover that it is a

voluntary cessation of membership in an

organization by an individual who receives

monetary compensation for participating in that

organization. So it can be interpreted that

turnover components comprise: 1) the leaver

must be a regular employee; 2) the leaver must

receive financial compensation from the

organization; Volunteer employees who are not

receiving wages/salaries, such as a foundation's

employees are not classified within this

meaning; 3) The departure must be on a

voluntary basis (involuntary departure; lay-offs,

termination by disciplinary action are not regarded

as turnover).

In summary, turnover is usually regarded as

termination of employment conditions of regular

employees on a voluntary basis over a specific

period of time.

Functional/Dysfunctional Turnover (Dalton

and Todor, 1982: in Hom and Griffeth, 1995).

Employee Turnover functional turnover means

a poor

performer leaves an organization and a good

performer stays with the organization.

Dysfunctional turnover means a good

performer leaves an organization and a poor

performer stays with the organization.

A High Performing Employee means an

employee who receives an A or B rating in the

annual performance appraisal in the company

which uses A, B, C, D and E ratings, or who

was rated as "Exceeding Expectations" for the

organization using three ratings, Not meeting

expectations, Meet expectations and Exceeding

expectations.

In a broader meaning, HPEs are employees

who have demonstrated superior performance,

who have inspired others to achieve superior

performance, and who embody the core

competencies of the organization. They are role

models for success and the organization can

neither afford to lose them nor fail to take

advantage of their ability to contribute to

organizational excellence (Berger and Berger,

35

��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

2004).

Talent: Talent is the sum of a person's

abilities - his or her intrinsic gifts, knowledge,

experience, intelligence, judgment, attitude,

character and drive. It also includes his or her

ability to learn (Michaels, 2001). It is similar to

the concept of "competence".

State of the art of the literature on Employee

Turnover

Mayo, (1975 reprint of 1933) was the first to

study turnover of workers in the mule-spinning

department of a textile mill near Philadelphia

(Pettman, 1975). In the initial stage of turnover

studies most saw turnover as a negative. They

believed that employee departures caused

problems for a company. It was only later that

some scholars and writers started to study and

analyse turnover and develop theories about it.

Some studies found that some aspects of

turnover were not necessarily bad (Mobley,

1982). It depends on who leaves the organiza-

tion and why. If poor performers leave and

better performers can replace them, then this is

an opportunity for the organization. If high

performers leave, it is often very difficult to

replace them with the same level of performers,

and this is considered as a lost opportunity (Hom

and Griffeth, 1995). So the consequences of

employee turnover may have either negative or

positive outcomes.

Consequences of Turnover

The consequences of turnover are divided

into two parts; consequences for the

organization and the consequences for the

individual (Hom and Griffeth, 1995).

Consequences for the Organization

Potential Negative organizational

consequences.

These may be economic costs, productivity

losses, and declines in morale.

Economic costs

Turnover cost has been raised for

discussion among scholars and practitioners for

a lengthy period (Blakeslee, Suntrup and

Kernaghan, 1985; Cascio, 1991; Hom and

Griffeth, 1995). The organizations consider three

major cost categories: separation cost,

replacement cost, and training cost (Smith and

Watkins, 1978, in Cascio, 1987).

Turnover cost is different in terms of

position-to-position and country-to-country. For

example, the total cost in the first year of

replacing a top IT engineer can go as high as

four times of his/her salary (Goman, 2000). The

cost of replacing a special nurse at a hospital in

the USA is 156 percent of that nurse's salary

(Ahlrichs, 2000). In Thailand, turnover cost in

one study of Electronics companies shows the

cost to be approximately US$800, for

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degree-level employees.

From these figures, it can be seen that

turnover costs vary considerably. So it is

difficult to identify exactly just how much the cost

of labor turnover is. Even though turnover cost

has been brought to the attention of scholars for

a long period, it would appear that relatively few

companies have paid serious attention to it. In

the U.S.A., only 16 percent of U.S. companies

track turnover cost according to one study

(Ahlrichs, 2000).

Unfortunately, the researcher was unable to

identify comparative evidence for turnover cost

of poor performers and high performers.

Various reasons have been given for

turnover and various theories or models have

been developed in an endeavour to understand

and measure turnover.

Unfortunately, in this paper, there is not

enough time or space to describe these studies

or theories in any depth.

The main studies are as follows:

Motivation Model (March and Simon,

1958) The key concepts of this model are that

perceived desirability of movement and perceived

ease of movement are the main determinants

of turnover.

In brief, there are five factors which are seen

as being correlated with turnover. These are

perceived desirability of movement, job

satisfaction, size of organization, perceived ease

of movement, and job availability.

Expanded Model (Mobley, Griffeth, Hand

and Meglino, 1979)

In the expanded model, the authors

identif ied that the quit intention as the

immediate precursor of turnover (Hom and

Griffeth 1995). They conceived intentions and

turnover as a function of: 1) job satisfaction, 2)

expected utility of the present work role, and 3)

expected utility of alternative work roles.

Labor Economic Model (Hulin, Roznowski

and Hachiya, 1985)

In brief, this model explained that job

opportunities directly influence job satisfaction

and directly affect turnover. This argument should

be investigated since job satisfaction or

dissatisfaction is based on various factors. Job

opportunit ies cannot influence satisfied

employees to become dissatisfied because

antecedents of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction vary

(Spector, 2000). Job opportunities should be

considered as a supportive factor of job

satisfaction.

Integrative Model of Turnover Determi-

nants (Hom and Griffeth, 1995)

This model has integrated empirical findings

into a turnover model by demonstrating that job

satisfaction, organizational commitment,

withdrawal cognition and expected utility of

withdrawal are key factors leading to turnover.

Organizational Commitment: Scholars of

commitment agree that commitment predicts quits

more accurately than does satisfaction (Porter,

37

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Steers, Mowday and Boulian, 1974) as

resignation implies a rejection of the company,

not necessarily of the job which can be assumed

elsewhere.

Both job dissatisfaction and lack of organi-

zational commitment can create withdrawal

cognition. In such cases, when employees have

a withdrawal cognition, i.e., they are dissatis-

fied, and then job turnover is likely to occur.

The Market-Driven approach. This was

developed by Cappelli (2001) who indicated that

the most influential factors of employee turnover

have changed from internal factors, such as job

satisfaction, compensation, promotion opportu-

nities etc., to external factors. He called these

market-driven factors. Therefore employees may

leave an organization without any dissatisfac-

tion because they received offers from outside

which are irresistible or they see opportunities

outside, which their existing organization cannot

provide. Such opportunities are likely to be

available to talented and high performing

employees even when economic conditions are

difficult.

In summary, these models may explain

turnover of average performing employees but

they may not adequately explain turnover of high

performing employees in the current environment

because high performing employees are in high

demand in the labour market (Michaels, 2001).

Job opportunities are usually always available

for them. As a result, it is now challenging to

investigate the factors which affect turnover, both

of any employee, but particularly, of high

performing employees to see whether they are

the same or different, and also to investigate or

develop retention strategies, particularly designed

to retain high performing employees.

Findings and Discussion on Factors Affect-

ing Turnover of All Employees

Factors which are seen to have an

important impact on employee turnover are:

Job satisfaction

Pay and Compensation

Job Opportunities

Organizational Policies and Procedures

Promotion Opportunities

Supervisory Issues

Relationships between employee and

supervisor

Met expectations of employees

Working Environment

Family Issues

These factors are divided as follows: 1) Job

related factors, 2) Organizational factors, 3)

Individual factors, and 4) External economy.

These key four factors are seen as playing a

major role in employee turnover.

The findings of ten authors/theorists who

have studied employee turnover indicate that 26

factors affected turnover. Very few factors were

found in the individual related factors. The top

five scores are found in nine items; these are

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job satisfaction (9/10), pay and compensation/

benefit (7/10), job opportunity (6/10), policies,

procedures, rules (5/10), promotion opportunity

(5/10), supervisory issues (5/10), relationship (5/

10), meet expectations (4/10), and working

environment (4/10). These nine factors are well

recognized as factors which affect turnover of

employees.

Turnover of High Performing Employees

(HPEs)

This study represented a case study of one

the turnover of High Performing Employees in

one large Thai Electronics company.

The researched was given telephone

contact details of HPEs who had left the

company during the previous six months and he

was able to contact and obtain information from

50 of these former employees about their

reasons for leaving. .

From the literature, there appear to be a few

differences between why HPEs and other

employees might leave their organizations.

Five factors are identified from the literature,

as common. They are: 1) pay and compensa-

tion, 2) job opportunity, 3) promotion, 4) super-

vision, and 5) relationships.

Some differences, however, could be

identified, and also some focal points for HPEs.

Focal and different points for HPEs are: 1)

Challenging, Exciting work, 2) recognition, and

3) development. The findings indicate that most

of the basic needs are met for HPEs, such as

pay, promotion opportunities, etc. because of

their high level of performance. Organizations

try to cover these basic, traditional elements.

Sometimes, however, management overlook the

important motivating factors for HPEs. This

usually leads to lower motivation for HPEs and,

providing an incentive to leave their organiza-

tions. So, job satisfaction for HPEs is a critical

requirement. The basic factors, pay, etc, are

still obviously important but these motivating

factors are essential to retain HPEs. Employee

development is a critical motivating factor.

Without adequate development programs, HPEs

are likely to become dissatisfied and hence, more

likely to leave their organizations.

Conceptual Turnover Model of High Perform-

ing Employees

Having reviewed the literature of turnover,

and particularly relating this to HPEs, key

factors can be identified and applied to employee

turnover, with particular respect to HPEs. The

factors are:

Challenging/Exciting work.

Supervision

Pay and Compensation

Promotion

Training and Development

Relationships

Job opportunity

Personal Factors

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The study also asked respondents about the

type of organisational retention strategies the

company should try to use in an endeavour to

retain as many as possible of their HPEs.

Both from the literature and from respon-

dents comments the following retention strate-

gies were suggested.

The factors considered most important are:

Compensation

Job design

Job customization

Social Relationships

These strategies view employee turnover in

a different dimension from the old paradigm which

always focused on job-related factors such as

job satisfaction and commitment. However, this

point-of-view is quite limited, since this approach

views outside factors (labour market) as key

factors influencing employee turnover. A

challenging question is "Are job opportunities

from outside the organization influencing high

performing people to resign?"

Employee Value Proposition (EVP)

An employee value proposition (EVP) is the

holistic sum of everything people experience and

receive while they are part of a company-every-

thing from the intrinsic satisfaction of the work,

to the environment, leadership, colleagues,

compensation and more.

An employee value proposition is similar to

a customer value proposition. For more than a

century, markets have been consciously

crafting customer value proposition. Now, with

companies competing hard to win the war for

talent, they have to start applying the same kind

of marketing thinking to attracting and retaining

employees. Companies need strong employee

value propositions - a compelling answer to the

question, "why would a highly talented person

choose to work here?"

Summary - Retention Policies or Strategies

An effective retention strategy must start even

prior to hiring and matching work requirements

with individual needs. People are different so

some factors may be consistent over a number

of employees, while others are not. As indicated,

we need to determine the major needs of high

performing employees. An effective retention

strategy can and must be developed and

managed.

Importance of Model Evaluation

A model is "a representation of a system

that is constructed to study some aspect of that

system or the system as a whole" (Cooper and

Schindler, 1998, p. 48). Models differ from the-

ories. A theory's role is explanation; whereas a

model's role is that of an understood reality.

The model used in this paper is an explicative

model and it is improves our understanding of

the key concepts of turnover factors.

Kimbleton (1972) indicated that one of the

40

��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

advantages of model evaluation is that it can be

an aid in conceptualizing an area of interest more

clearly. Stogdill (1970) emphasized that models

"help understand the set of events" (p. 25).

According to Lippitt (1973), a good model has

these characteristics: (a) clarifies goals and

perspectives of situations, (b) indicates variables

compelling changes, (c) provides new opportu-

nities to understand situations, (d) shows the

interrelationship of the various conflicting

factors, (e) shows different concepts and the-

ories, and (f) indicates capability to evaluate

progress, success or failure of a process.

Turnover Model of High Performing Employ-

ees in the Electronics Industry in Thailand

External Factors

Economic situation

External job opportunities

Job Related Factors

A challenging job

Organizational Related Factors

Policies/Procedures

Promotion

Compensation & Benefits

Business uncertainty

Relationships

Training & Development

Reward & Recognition

Working environment

Geographic Factors

Doing their own business

Relocation

Long distance traveling

Taking care of family

Further study

Retention programs indicate that the

findings are not much different from the turn-

over factors. Six programs are recommended

as retention strategies, namely: 1) career

development, 2) pay for performance, 3) reward

& recognition, 4) job review, 5) attractive

benefits, and 6) effective communication. Most

programs align with the literature, however some

are less clear, for example, job review, attrac-

tive benefits and effective communication. So

evaluation of these programs will be beneficial

to this study in order to improve the applicability

of the model on the turnover of high performing

employees in the Thai Electronics industry.

In addition, the research literature did not

identify any data to evaluate a model of high

performers' turnover. Therefore, this paper, by

use of a qualitative evaluation study that

incorporates the perspectives of senior

executives in the electronics industry in

Thailand, will attempt to explain the practicality

of the factors affecting the turnover model of

high performing employees in the electronics

industry in Thailand .The challenge is whether

senior and experienced persons agree with the

turnover model which was identified by former

high performers and if any recommendations

are given to further develop the turnover and

41

��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

retention models further.

Research Questions

This study aims to build on an exploratory

study of turnover of high performing employees

in one electronics company in Thailand by

in-depth interviews with ten executives of one

electronics company in Thailand.

Three research questions are:

1. Do you agree with the findings from

paper two? Please provide an explanation.

2. If not, how do you think the proposed

turnover recommendations? Please give your

recommendation.

3. Do you agree with the proposed reten-

tion model? Please express your opinion.

As indicated, participants in the qualitative

evaluation are five chief executive officers and

five human resources directors from five

electronics companies who are members of

the Electronics and Computer Association of

Thailand since the studied company is a mem-

ber of the Association so opinions or sugges-

tions of executives who are working in a similar

environment are likely to be appropriate. There

were a total of 10 participants (two persons from

each company). The reasons why two persons

from each company were selected are that

human resource directors are responsible for exit

interviews of the company so they should have

some idea about why high performers left their

organizations, and executive officers oversee

policy and the overall business perspective, so

they are the resource persons who can

evaluate the total picture of employee turnover

and retention.

Participants were contacted by phone and

an individual meeting was arranged to obtain

written consent by voluntarily signing an

appropriate permission form before the interview

was conducted. Participants were then contacted

between October 1 and 15, 2005 to arrange

interviews. After the interview date was confirmed

and consent obtained, the interviews were

conducted.

All 10 participants were interviewed in

their offices for at least one hour each. Most

respondents gave a detailed perspective to the

model evaluated. Notes were taken, and the

tapes of all interviews were transcribed, coded,

and analyzed. The confidential i ty and

anonymity of the participants' responses and of

the company was assured.

Criteria for Selection

Ten executives from five electronics

companies were interviewed and asked for their

recommendations on the turnover model of high

performers in the Thai electronics industry.

Participants were recruited according to the

following criteria:

42

��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

ECEA Membership

The selected companies were the top five

with lower turnover rates among ECEA's

member (30 companies) in 2003. Since those

companies were well accepted in the HR

community as good examples of managing

employees' turnover and retention.

Executives must work in the industry

Executives must be currently working in the

electronics industry in Thailand.

HR Directors

Five HR directors are responsible for

employee turnover/retention policies.

Interviews

Face-to-face interviews give advantages for

such a purpose, according to Sekaran (2000, p.

230) "the main advantage of face-to-face or

direct interviews is that the researcher can adapt

the questions as necessary, clarify doubts, and

ensure that the responses are properly

understood, by repeating or rephrasing the

questions. The researcher also picks up

nonverbal cues from the respondents".

Interview questions were designed to elicit

their thorough consideration and points-of-view

in evaluating the model based on their

professional experience. The following questions

were asked: Please share your experience in

this aspect of the research seeks to confirm the

character-istics of the turnover model of high

performing employees in the electronics

industry in Thailand should look like. Whether

the proposed characteristics of the turnover and

retention models that were recommended by fifty

former high performers of one electronics

company are confirmed or not? The result of

this study will be beneficial to the industry in

retaining their high performers. To get

interviewees' views in detail, face-to-face inter

views with ten managerial personnel of the

industry were conducted. The researcher tried

to get a view on the concept and the situational

factors of turnover and retention of high

performers.

Data Collection

Each participant was asked a series of

questions prepared to yield individual and

demographic information. The record shows that

the executives are mostly male; all of them are

over 40 years of age, most of them hold

masters' degree with an engineering background

and most graduated from overseas universities.

The range of experiences was from 20 to more

than 30 years.

1. Participants were then asked a series of

in-depth managing employee turnover and

retention in overview, particularly with respect

to the turnover intentions of HPEs.

2. Do you agree with the identifying factors

43

��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

influencing turnover of high performers as shown

in the proposed model? Please elaborate.

3. Do you think the proposed turnover model

should be modified or not? If yes, how? Please

explain.

4. Do you agree with the model's identifying

factors as influencing retention of high perform-

Findings

Findings are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Further Proposed Turnover Model of High Performing Employees in the Electronics industry in

Thailand (from interviews with senior executives)

ers? Please elaborate.

5. In your opinion, how do you think this

retention model should be modified? If yes, how?

Please advise.

6. What are your recommendations about

the turnover and retention of high performers in

the electronics industry in Thailand?

External Factors - Economic factors - Job Opportunity

Job related Factors- Job was not challenging- Job stressful

Organizational Factors- Policies / Procedures- Promotion- Compensation & Benefit- Business uncertainty- Relationship- Training & Development- Reward & Recognition- Working Environment

Personal Factors- Running own business- Long distance traveling- Taking care of family- Relocation- Further study

Turnover

44

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Evaluation of Factors Affecting Turnover of

High Performers

It should be noted that only ten interviews of

these senior managers were undertaken - five

CEOs and five HRM Directors / Managers. So it

is difficult to analyze substantial differences

between them, however, one difference did

emerge. The responding CEOs regarded turn-

over as a “problem” to be overcome whereas

the responding HR executives indicated that they

“live” with turnover - it is seen as a “normal” part

of their jobs. This does not mean that they are

not concerned about it nor does it mean that

they do not take action to try to improve it, but

they realize that there will still be some turnover

even with the most efficient and effective

policies and procedures to try to lessen its

impact. So there is then this slight difference in

emphasis between the two groups of senior

managers.

The findings of the in-depth interviews of the

10 respondents are summarized as follows:

External Factors

All executives accepted that external factors

most influenced turnover of high performers in

their organizations. In the search for talent

today, jobs come to people rather than people

going to jobs as in the past because all know

that good people can help a business to grow

and compete in a highly competitive world. There

are plenty of means whereby people can

access job opportunities such as newspapers,

internet, friends, recruitment agencies and head

hunters.

Most responding executives accepted that

the economic situation was a supporting factor

to encourage employees to change their jobs

especially when the economy was booming since

that situation creates many job opportunities in

the labor market. But for high performers, it

matters less as to what the economic situation

is, as they are likely to be in high demand at all

times.

These statements are in agreement with the

literature and support previous findings which

determine that external job opportunities most

influenced turnover of high performers.

Organizational Related Factors

Most responding executives see organiza-

tional factors as most affecting turnover of

high performers, because employees work

in an organization so the impact caused by

that organization is happening at all times.

Employees have different expectations from

their organizations. Employees' dissatisfaction

towards organizational factors easily occurs.

Job Related Factors

All executives agreed with the model with

respect to these factors by confirming that a

challenging job/ an exciting job was a key factor

affecting turnover of high performers.

45

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Job dissatisfaction is an additional factor

which all executives agreed was a significant

factor influencing turnover of high performers.

They advised that job dissatisfaction is caused

by several factors such as the nature of the job

itself, pay, and promotion.

Most findings on organizational factors

were similar to those in the literature and the

comments of former high performers. However

executives viewed the proposed model in the

following factors: 1) business uncertainty can't

easily be claimed as a turnover factor, 2)

training and development are likely to be a

retention factor rather than a turnover factor, and

3) job dissatisfaction was recommended to be

added to the model.

Demographic Factors

Most executives accepted that individual

factors were one part of the turnover story and

accepted that several employees claimed that

these had caused their departure so demographic

factors were recommended to be included as

part of the turnover model of high performers.

They were asked what demographic factors

should be put into the turnover model and why?

Fifty percent of executives replied that age,

education and gender were recommended to

include in the turnover factor.

In summary, all executives agreed with the

majority of the factors affecting turnover of high

performers as described in the proposed model,

but a few factors were doubted such factors as

business uncertainty where, they believe that

employees know the nature of business very well,

so this factor would not be a cause of turnover,

except for newly hired employees only where it

might have some impact because they could not

adjust to get along with the normal business

phenomenon. Job dissatisfaction was highlighted

by most of the executives as a key factor

influencing turnover of high performers.

Demographic factors of age, education, and

gender were recommended to be included into

the turnover model.

Modified Turnover Model of HPEs in the

Electronics Industry in Thailand

Executives agreed individually to modify the

proposed turnover model of high performers as

shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 2 Modified Turnover Model of High Performing Employees in the Electronics Industry in Thailand

This model was developed from the

literature review (Hom and Griffeth, 1995;

Mobley, 1982; Porter and Steers, 1973) and from

the interviews with the 50 HPEs who had left

their positions, and, further from the interviews

with 10 senior executives.

The modifications align with the literature on

turnover. So the researcher has incorporated

them in the turnover model of high performing

employees.

Conclusions

The final result of the qualitative evaluation

was that most responding executives found that

the model was appropriate. Most retention

factors were accepted in the modified retention

model. The majority of participants cited the same

factors as influencing turnover and retention

It has much in common with my current

model of turnover.

External Factors

External Job Opportunities

Organizational Related Factors

Policies/Procedures

Promotion

Compensation & Benefits

Relationship

Job Related Factors

Challenging Job

Job Dissatisfaction

Demographic Factors

Age

Education

Sex

Intention to Leave Turnover

47

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of high performers as those indicated in the

original model. Minor changes were recom-

mended; combining compensation and benefits

into one term and taking job review out of the

proposed model.

The responding executives viewed the

proposed model in a systematic approach, they

did not view it in a factor-by-factor way. In the

turnover model, they accepted most of the

proposed factors. However they recommended

to add "intention to leave" in a separate box

between the four factors (job related factors,

organizational related factors, job related

factors, demographic factors) and turnover. The

executives advised that intention to leave is a

determinant factor. Any single factor in

particular cannot let turnover develop without the

intention to leave of employees. So to make a

turnover model lock should be added to the

modified model. From the frame of reference,

they suggested to add "satisfaction" in the middle

box between the four retention factors (career

development, compensation and benefits, reward

and recognition, and communication) and "stay"

by further explaining that these four retention

factors lead to "employee" satisfaction that

usually results in "stay".

Responding executives view the turnover and

retention models as "process oriented", while

former high performing employees looked at each

single factor to answer the question of how that

factor affected turnover of high performers, so

there is a difference of approach of each of the

two groups, which might help to explain the

difference of perception between them.

The encouraging point is that the executives'

viewpoint regarding the turnover and retention

models has helped shape the models better and

made them more complete and more useful for

further study and analysis.

The study in its conclusions this presents a

framework for analyzing the major factors/s

reason that high performing employees might

leave their organizations.

The development and possession of this

model senior managers, especially HRM

Managers, to develop policies, procedures, and

action, designed to try to retain high performing

employees in their organization. It should also

provide a research base for further research and

for further testing of the model developed as a

result of this research, to other scholars and

researchers concerned with staff/labor turnover.

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51

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52

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AbstractThis research is to study appropriate period, program and process for efficient

internship at Seven-Eleven Shop for Panyapiwat Institute of Technology's staff. The

survey research methodology was applied using questionnaire responded by 28

staff, out of 30, who performed their internship during academic year from 2007 to

2009. The results from this study show that three-day internship period with three

different shifts work: day, afternoon, and night shift are appropriate and efficient.

Moreover, jobs during internship should be assigned based on the staff educational

level, position and their responsibility. In addition, the staff's internship should be

prior to the start date of their employment in order to avoid work interference.

Keywords: efficient internship, Seven-Eleven Shop, Panyapiwat Institute of

Technology

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Dr. Sareeya Chairattananont is a Director of Research and

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Environmental Management from the University of Queensland (UQ),

Australia.

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E-mail: [email protected]

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70

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� ��#��� ����������$(!��� ���� �!��!�� � �#����2����"����������'���$"�" ��

2�����(�� (,�2����$��������5)

�"*"�$?: �$0�2������?��� ��$��)��� 2�� 2���#���) � ��(�=�()��2����)���2��

,�������� ���(�� (,�2����$��������5) ���'��) �"(����5���"(�0��

AbstractDespite intensive efforts to determine the nature of the relationship between the

firm-specific characteristic as firm size and the level of voluntary disclosure (VDI),

this issue is expected that the relationship is in fact more of an indirect than direct

nature. Thus, this paper attempts to delve deeper into this complex phenomenon by

employing a resource dependency perspective to hypothesize a model of mediation

as board of directors' quality index (BOQI) is moderated by a high concentration of

CEO's ownership (HCEO) as corporate governance mechanisms. The findings

suggest that the larger firm size, the higher is the BOQI and this in turn will lead to

the higher VDI. These relationships appear to be weaker when there is moderation

as HCEO, produced by the mediation process of the BOQI, and when this process

is controlled, the residual moderation of the treatment effect is reduced. Further,

board size as control variable is found to have a positive significant influence on

BOQI and VDI.

Keywords: Corporate Governance Mechanisms, Firm Size, Managerial Ownership,

Voluntary Disclosure, Listed Companies in Thailand

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porate governance mechanism)

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characteristics) 0 ���� ��"����������(�=�����"

(Board independence) ��"�����,$2����"

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audit committee) �����"���2����"�������

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composit ion) /����� ���2��� ��(�=�,� ��?

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index) �$"(!8���/��/ ���� ���������(!��� �

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of voluntary disclosure)

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number of items) ����3<� )?� �2����$)��������

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n ������ �� ����� (!�� (�8�� �!���"�# ��� �)"��

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27 ������ (�����������,� �) �$"�����

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Cronbach's Alpha (Cronbach, 1951) )# �����

���5)������ ��2����$��� �����(!8��38�5���� �)��

��� �8� ��� Cronbach's Alpha coefficient )"����

�����(��������8����� �� 0.70 (Sureshchandra,

Rajendran, & Anantharaman, 2002)

�� ���� � ����" �����(�� (,�2����$���

�����5)5���������")?�� ���0��3� ���?����

(Unweighted Disclosure Index) ;<��(�=����<�'�

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/ � M (Maximum Expected Item) ����3<�

)?� �2����$����# ����� ��)"�����(�� (,�2����$

��������5)5���������")?�� 0 ���� 2����$�$�#��

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pected Disclosure) ����3<� ���'��� �)"�����

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2����$0��5!����(��� �$"2����$���(��� 5�������

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2����$��������5)5���������")?�� 0 ���� 2����$

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�#���������������� �������#�/�����/�� �#���)

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;<�����<�'���������)"5!����'��) �"(����5��$�

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)?� � 378 ���'�� ���(�8���)�����'��) �"(����

)?� � 61 ���'�� 0������"��������� )���

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�$" 3 ;<����������)�� Muller, Judd, & Yzerbyt

(2005) / ���������2������� �����

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number of items)

;<��5��������� 1.1, 1.2 �$" 1.3 ���2�� 11;

21 �$"

32 )"����������?��1����3�������" �� .05

�$"��� 31)"��������� �����

11 / �,$��"��

�������2���� �������;��������(������ 21*

32

(2) ��� �(���"����3 3��/ �$? ��2� ��

(Hierarchical Regression Analysis) (�=����

�(���"����3 3��(�8��� ������#��-����� 4 ;<��

��������)�� Muller, Judd, & Yzerbyt (2005)

/ ���������2������� �����

0 VDI 1

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;<��5��������� 2 ���2�� 43)"����������?��1����3�������" �� .05

�.���������&4����.

1. %$�������$%���@'4����������� ��$�

,����� 1 ���(4$��� �$"�� �(�����(������-��2�� �!��!�� � �#����2����"����������'�� )?� ����'���$"����$"

2�����$"$��'�"(4��"�����"���(�=� �!��!�� � �#����2����"����������'�� �� �.. 2547 �$",$���

(�����(�������(��72���$� �$�������������"(�0�� (SET) (N = 317)

�$����� ,$�-����*�� Mean SD���>&����������.4�� SET (2546)

��%$ 4������������.���@'��8�����.�

�.������� ����

BOQI �!��!�� � �#����2����"����������'��

0.38 .12 ������ �8� (��������8����� ������$" 80��� �8� (����������$" 70 �������� �� 80����$�� �8� (����������$" 60 �������� �� 70��? �8� (����������$" 50 �������� �� 60 �$"��?��� �8� ����� ������$" 50

��?���

-,�.�.$����#'��������� ��8�

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��?

��?���

��?���

���

������

���

��?���

58.7%

3.2%

5.7%

75.1%

89.3%

76.3%

24.9%

186

10

18

238

283

242

79

IV1

IV2

IV3

IV4

IV5

IV6

IV7

�#������"�������������'�� �8� �������������2����"����������

�$"��"����������������

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�#���������"!#���"����������'�� �8� ��������#��� (2����"!#�

��"����������'���#������

�#�����"��� ��#� �$"�� )������5� �8� ����� ������ )������5�

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�#������"������������ )��� �8� ��"������������ )��� (�=�

�����������"

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���� 3 ��(�=������������"

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�.������� ����

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�?��1

,����� 1 ���(4$��� �$"�� �(�����(������-��2�� �!��!�� � �#����2����"����������'�� )?� ����'���$"����$"

2�����$"$��'�"(4��"�����"���(�=� �!��!�� � �#����2����"����������'�� �� �.. 2547 �$",$���

(�����(�������(��72���$� �$�������������"(�0�� (SET) (N = 317) (���)

��$�����:� $,�,�4��'���:� $,����%�4�� SET-,�.�.$����#'��������� ��8�

%$�������$%���@'4����������� ��$�

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17.0%

9.8%

21.8%

54

31

69

IV8

IV9

IV10

�#����� �����2����"��������� )��� �8� ��������� )������������

1 �� ��� ����� � ��(2��5) ��8� ����"������ ��������1!���8����(���

/ �(�=�,�������1!������#1��

�#������"�����������?�� ��������� �8� ��"�����#�������

�?�� ���������(�=������������"

�#���������"�����"��������?�� ��������� �8� �������

�� �5�1�(�=�����������0��(�=�,��������

0.37

.11

1.00

3.44

1.36

.54**

1.00

0.38

.12

.54**

.37**

1.00

0.15

.19

-.38**

-.25**

-.22**

1.00

2.38

.25

.14*

.25**

.14*

-.19**

1.00

* p < .05, ** p < .01.

VariablesVDI

(Dependent)LNTA

(Independent)LNBM

(Control)BOQI

(Mediator)HCEO

(Moderator)

Variables

Mean

SD

Correlations

VDI

LNTA

BOQI

HCEO

LNBM

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(��3����)

��� � ���2��� �����(!8��38�2���� ������

���0��3� ���?���� �� �.. 2547 5����<�'������

���5!� Cronbach's Alpha (Cronbach, 1951) ;<����

��������"� ��� .85 3<� .87 )# ����� ���5)������ ��

2����$��� �����(!8 ��38�5���� �)���� � �8� Hair,

Anderson, Tatham, & Black (1998) �$"

Sureshchandar, Rajendran, & Anantharaman

(2002) 0 �(�����" ����� Cronbach's Alpha

Coefficient 3������������ �� .60 �8� 2����$��� ��

���(!8��38���? 3������������"� ��� .60 3<� .70 �8�

2����$��� �����(!8��38�(�=����������0 � �$"3����

������� �� .80 �8� 2����$��� �����(!8��38����

������ ��#�0 � �����<�'���������2����$2���� ���

������ �����(!8��38����

����������(����/�/�����49���7�$

���(�� Multicollinearity �"� ����� �������"

�� �������;��� �� ���� �� �$"�� ���� �

�#� �����?�� ���(2�������3 3��/ �$? ��2���

/ ���)# �� ���5) ����� ��������������������

(Very High Correlation) �"� ����� �������"�$"

�� ���� ��#� ��8�(�� Multicollinearity 3��� ��

������������ .80 ��8� .90 (Field, 2000; Mangena

& Pike, 2005) (�8���� �������" �� �������;���

�� ���� ���$"�� ���� ��#�����5���� �(���"�

���3 3��/ �$? ��2������(�� Multicollinearity

)����� Tolerance ����� �� .10 (Hair, Anderson,

Tatham, & Black, 1998) �$"(�� Autocorrelation

� ���)�� Durbin-Watson 3��������"� ��� 1.65

3<� 2.35 �� � ��0��������"�������5�2����$

(Prasith-rathsint, 2005, p.129)

4. �.���������&��/%/��0%�."%$ 4$��

,����� 3 ,$��� �(���"����3 3��/ �$? ��2��� �?����� ������#��-����� 1 �$" 3 (N = 317)

Equation 1.3

Step 1 Step 2

(Criterion VDI)

Equation 1.2

Step 1 Step 2

(Criterion BOQI)

Equation 1.1

Step 1 Step 2

(Criterion VDI)

Variables

-.01

.40**

(31)

.39**

(32)

.43

.42

.15**

.02

.02

.06

.36**

(21)

.14

.14

.15**

.02

.02

.01

.54**

(11)

.30

.29

.15**

.02

.02

CV: LNBM

X: LNTA

ME: BOQI

Statistics

R Square

Adjusted R Square

Standardized Beta

85

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,����� 3 ,$��� �(���"����3 3��/ �$? ��2��� �?����� ������#��-����� 1 �$" 3 (N = 317) (���)

Standardized Beta

Equation 1.3

Step 1 Step 2

(Criterion VDI)

Equation 1.2

Step 1 Step 2

(Criterion BOQI)

Equation 1.1

Step 1 Step 2

(Criterion VDI)

Variables

.41

110.31**

2.00

.94/.98

.02

6.82**

.12

44.08**

1.84

.94/.94

.02

7.42**

.28

122.51**

1.80

.94/.94

.02

6.82**

R Square Change

F Change

Durbin-Watson

Tolerance Min / Max

* p < .05, ** p < .01.

Standardized Beta

Step 4

(Criterion VDI)

Equation 2

Step 2 Step 3Step 1Variables

.02

.62**

.28

-.55**

(43)

.39

.38

.03

13.98**

1.89

.97/.98

.07

.53**

.29

.29

.27

120.79**

.15**

.02

.02

.02

6.82**

CV: LNBM

ME: BOQI

MO: HCEO

MEMO: BOQI x HCEO

Statistics

R Square

Adjusted R Square

R Square Change

F Change

Durbin-Watson

Tolerance Min / Max

.03

.47**

-.27**

(42)

.36

.35

.07

31.64**

* p < .05, ** p < .01.

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31

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Daily, Dalton, & Cannella (2003) 0 �������� ��

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Meckling (1976); Kistruck (2006); Owusu-Ansah

(1998) �$" Wiseman & Gomez-Mejia (1998)

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�� ���� ��(�=���� ��� �)�����������#�,$��� �)��

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96

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AbstractThis article aims to demonstrate the relationship between "cultural commodity" and

"cultural capital" within the economic crisis. The case study will be based on the

incident of Umaji village in Japan, where overcoming the economic crisis was

successfully founded by creating and consuming cultural commodity. The referred

commodity is the transformed orange juice called Yusu, which encloses the living

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and culture of the Umaji villagers. Furthermore, in this incident, the village's cultural

capital, like the rural village life, is used to motivate the consumers' need to

consume the product.

Keywords: cultural commodity, cultural capital, economic crisis, Umaji village in

Japan

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109

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Dr. Dome Kraipakorn received his Doctoral Degree in History from

Chulalongkorn University, and Master of History from Thammasat

University. He is currently Lecturer in Faculty of Liberal Arts,

Panyapiwat Institute of Technology

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AbstractThis article describes the correlation between social action and social recognition.

The paper tries to explain Social Action as A Means to Mutual Recognition: A

Sociological Perspective. by using sociological concept deriving from structural-

functional theory, self, dramaturgy, identity and habitus.

The study shows that social action which leads to social acceptance can be illustrated

in three main categories; 1. Social action emphasizing on the social construction

which perform by norms and social role 2. Social action emphasizing on agency as

active and creative actors 3. Social action resulted from the combination of structure

and agency. Each individual perceives their role in any situation properly by means of

who they are and what they should do. In addition, social action relates to the habitus

theory which means the individual performances constraint by habitus of their own

social class. Human and to imitate the habitus of other social classes.

Keyword: social action, social recognition, self, identity, habitus

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��#�(��M: ��"������� �)������!��� ��2�

����� ����.

Bourdieu, Pierre. 1994. Raisons Pratiques:

Sur la theorie de I' action. Paris: Seuil.

����3<�5��#���� )��� ���!. (2552). �*'>�

����� ����. ������������ 2. ��#�(��: �?���

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Brown, David K. (2004). Social blueprints:

conceptual foundations of sociology.

New York: Oxford university press.

Gary Taylor and Steve Spencer. (2004). Social

Identities Muntidiscilinary approaches.

Great Britain: Cromwell press, 2004.

Maslow, A.H. (1954). Motivationand

Personality. New York: Hsrper and Row.

Slattery, Martin. (2003) Key Ideas in Sociology.

Cheltenham: NelsonThornes Ltd. ����3<�5�

�#���� )��� ���!. (2552). ����*$�������.

������� ���� � 2. ��#�(��M: �?�����������

)#6�$������� ����$��.

Mr. Sakorn Somsert received his Master of Arts (Sociology) from

Chulalongkorn University, his Bachelor of Arts (Politics) from

Ramkhamhaeng University and Bachelor of Arts (Social Development

Management) from Khon Kaen University. He is currently Lecturer in

Faculty of Liberal Arts, Panyapiwat Institute of Technology. He main

interests are in Sociological Theory and Thai Polit ics and

Government.

127

AbstractThe purpose of this article is to provide understanding and apply the concept of

learning organization for the high productivity improving. The initial ideas is to

eventually explore how people learn and create knowledge, together through

interaction and practices by applying the model that could increase learner's con-

sciousness about knowledge creation and knowledge sharing processes. Some

virtual modern organizations intellectually can create and transform how to develop

the human resources in the learning organization. The contributions of this article

are fourfold. First, what the definition of learning organization is, type, and level of

learning. Second, describe the subset of learning organization. Third, describe the

core fifth disciplines of learning organization, and six actions for implementation.

Fourth, People with learning, Organization with learning, and comparison between

traditional and modern organization is demonstrated.

Muenjit Phruksangkul

Lecturer in Department of Retailing

Business Management

Panyapiwat Institute of Technology

E-mail: [email protected]

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Keyword: Learning Organization, Knowledge Management, Explicit Knowledge,

Implicit Knowledge

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IntroductionWorld business today is highly competitive.

Businesses need to develop good relationships

with their employees and customers.

Employees' knowledge issues also influence the

degree to which businesses are able to build

good relationship with shareholders, customers,

and stakeholders. However, most of Thai

businesses have less business experience,

technology, and fund. An important features of

the firm both public and private organization in

Thailand must adjust their businesses for

surviving and prosperity in the severely

dynamics environmental business. Recently,

some local and joint venture firms bankrupted

or sold out their business. One of the most

important reasons for surviving is to reduce

the exposure to risk associated with the

development of new products, process,

technologies, and cope with the crisis

economics situation nationwide. Thailand has

created more opportunities and favorable

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conditions for exploiting the internal and

external development factors, supporting human

resources learning, developing high technology,

sharing vision, working team, including

encouraging investments of different forms,

especially joint venture as one of the most

important cooperatives strategies for companies

to enter and win this rigorously competitive

emerging market. It is also focusing on

assessing the learning organization's

performances with the best practices to

sustainable means of achieving competitive

advantage. In today's rapidly changing business

environment, the ability of the organization to

adapt is considered to be the main factor in its

survival and competit ive success. Yet,

adaptation to current problems and change is

unlikely to prove sufficient, it is now suggested

that company's need to develop proactive

strategies, attempt to search the external

outsourcing, generate training courses,

or manage knowledge to develop their learning

organizations so that future trends and

environmental conditions can be predictors and

continuous modifications made.

What is the Learning Organization?

This article attempts to identify the attributes

of the learning organization in Thailand relation

to knowledge management. Learning

organization has been defined as "organizations

where people continually expand their capacity

to create the results they truly desire, where new

and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured,

where collective aspiration is set free, and where

people are continually learning to learn together"

(Senge, 2006). Learning organization has been

defined as "ability to think crucially and

creativity, the ability to communicate ideas and

concepts, and the ability to cooperate with other

human beings in the process of inquiry and

action" (Navran Associates Newsletter, 1993).

Learning organizations foster an environment

wherein people can "create the results they truly

desire", and where they can learn to learn

together for the betterment of the whole (Rheem,

1995). "The essence of the organizational

learning is the organization's ability to use the

amazing mental capacity of all its member to

create the kind of processes that will improve its

own" (Dixon, 1994). "A Learning Company is an

organization that facilitates the learning of all its

members and continually transform itself" (Pedler

Burgoyne, and Boydell, 1991: 52). The author

do agree with Watkins and Marsick that learning

organization are characterized by total employee

involvement in a process of collaboratively

conducted, collectively accountable change

directed towards shared valued or principles

(Watkins and Marsick, 1992).

Type of Learning

There are 4 types of learning that are:

Type 1 Learning facts, knowledge, process,

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and procedures (applied to known situations

where changes are minor). There are 2 types of

knowledge:

1.1 Tacit knowledge: subjective know-

ledge, personal and context specif ic.

1.2 Explicit knowledge: objective know-

ledge, codified system, formal and easy to

communicate.

Type 2 Learning new jobs skills that is

transferable to others (applied to new situations

where existing responses need to be changed,

bring outside expertise is a useful tool here).

Type 3 Learning to adapt (applied to

dynamics situations where the solution need

developing, experimentation, and lesson is the

model of learning here).

Type 4 Learning to learn (work for crea-

tivity and innovation, design the future rather than

merely adapting to it).

(David Skyrme Associates, 2008)

Subset of learning organization

Marquardt (2006) mentions that there are

five dependent subsets of learning organization,

details were shown in figure 1.

1. Learning: It can be categories into 3

levels are:

Level 1 Individual learning

Level 2 Group/team learning

Level 3 Organizational learning

(Marquardt, 2006).

2. Organization: These characteristics of the

organization are specialization, standardization,

formalization, centralization, configuration, and

flexibility. At least the organization consists of 4

dimensions; vision, culture, strategy, and

structure (Takhumthong, 2007).

3. People: Not only employees get involve

in or get the benefits from learning process, but

managers, customers, partner, alliances,

suppliers, and community did well.

4. Knowledge: knowledge is the power to

drive the job done. Knowledge management (KM)

consists of 6 steps (David Skyrme Associates,

2008).

4.1 Acquisition: the process in searching,

and collecting the internal and external

information.

4.2 Creation: the process in creative

thinking, research, or innovating new

information or existing information reasonably

apply with the context.

4.3 Storage: the process in coding the

useful information in order to increase the

accessibility.

4.4 Analysis and Data Mining: the process

in deeply analyze information structure

(knowledge), build knowledge inventory,

matching, grouping data for availability.

4.5 Transfer and Dissemination: the process

is distribute the knowledge through any tool,

techniques, network, or communication.

4.6 Application and Validation: the process

is evaluate the knowledge, and continuous

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apply the valued knowledge by people within

the workplace for development.

5. Technology: We can divide technology

using into 2 dimensions (Nonaka and Takeuchi,

1995).

5.1 For technology management - in order

to provide the right knowledge at right place and

just in right time.

5.2 For technology enhancement via

simulation, computer conferencing, computer

based system and so on.

All subsystems is the root to build learning

organization but how completed is depended on

your interdependent (these subsystems) with

your business characteristics. Established aim-

(s) before you design the shape of your

organization, what picture or atmosphere in

workplace you want to see it.

Source: Marquardt. Building the Learning Organization,

2006: 50

Figure 1 Subset of learning organization

The core fifth disciplines for Learning

Organization

The conceptual of the learning organization

is increasingly relevant to twenty-first century

management because of the increasing

complexity, uncertainly and rapidly of change of

the environmental organization. It is therefore

important to understand what a learning

organization is, what its characteristics are and

how it relates to the emerging topic of

knowledge management. It is widely accepted

that firms which consciously invest in the

creation of new knowledge through research and

development activities or through more informal

learning processes tend to do better than those

that ride on the coat-tails of knowledge created

by others. Learning does not mean acquiring

more information, but expanding the ability to

produce the results we truly want in life. It

is lifelong generative learning. Learning

organization is not possible unless they have

people at every level who practice it (Senge,

2006).

Fifth disciplines in building the learning

organization are personal mastery, mental

models, team learning, shared vision, and

systems thinking (Senge et al., 1994).

Personal Mastery applied to individual

learner, and organizations cannot learn until their

members begins to learn. Individual learning does

not guarantee organizational learning. But

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without it no organizational learning occurs. Thus,

if any firm wants to be learning organization, it

has to encourage their people to be the active

learners. Personal Mastery composed of 2

components.

First, one must fine "what one is trying to

achieve a goal" (where one is currently

functioning, what is important to us). We often

spend so much time coping with problems along

our path that we forget why we are on that path

in the first place. We have to set the objective(s)

before we start to take the actions.

Second, one must have a true measure of

how close is to the goal (where one wants to be

is referred to as creative tension, emotion

tension, structural conflict). This tension means

the difference between the objectives and the

current reality. How can we achieve our goals?

The essence of personal mastery is learning how

to generate and sustain creative tension in our

lives. Creative tension will drive the firm toward

its goals, especially: integrating reason

(objective) and intuition (subjective); continually

seeing more of our connectedness to their whole

performances in workplace.

Thus, personal mastery is a process of

continually focusing and refocusing on what one

truly wants, and how to success on one's vision.

Furthermore, wheels of learning consists of 4

quadrants; questions, ideas, tests, and

reflection (Faerman, 1996). Quadrant one: we

have the doubt, or question, so that why we

would like to find out the data. Quadrant two:

after we found the answer from quadrant one.

Quadrant three: we have to check or prove for

the information, or the fact. The last quadrant:

we have to mirror or share these learning for

others. The metaphor of the wheel makes one

think of something moving in workplace (think

out of the box). The job of the top manager in

the learning organization is to be the teacher or

coach who helps unleash the creative energy in

each individual. Organizations learn through the

synergy of the individual learners (Senge, 2006).

Mental Models is the second discipline for

the learning organization. The way of looking at

the world and it is the framework for the

cognitive processes of our mind such as

attitude, thinking pattern, believing, emotional

quotient (EQ). How we think and act the ability

of individual to make the right decision,

understand the situation clearly, mental ability

to cope with the crisis or dynamics environment

in globalization. Mental models determined not

only how we make sense of the world, but how

we take action. Practice is the essences of the

discipline of mental models. For managers this

requires both business skills and interpersonal

skills. Managers are inherently pragmatic through

training their employees in "mental modeling".

Without the interpersonal and business learning

skills, learning is not generative. Generative

learning requires people at all levels that can

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surface and challenge their mental models

before external circumstances compel people to

do so (Argyris, 2006). Mental models will not

only be improving our mental models (what we

think) but altering our ways of thinking and

shifting from mental models dominated by events

to mental models that recognize longer-term

patterns of change and the underlying structures

producing those patterns.

Nowadays, mental models used for critical

decision because these experiences, generative

ideas, believing, attitudes, norms, collected

value. Continued practicing nourished the

learners can understand, see the views,

categorized any type of important events,

arrange their own ideas for the right process,

including decide to act in any situation

appropriately. The learning organization of the

future will make key decisions based on shared

understandings of interrelationships and pattern

of change. If the organizations are to develop a

capacity to work with mental models then it will

be necessary for people to learn new skills and

develop new competency and capability, and for

their organizational changes that foster such

dynamics.

Shared vision is a vivid mental image in

the future (Senge, 2006). Generating vision

should answer these 3 questions: What, Why,

and How? What's the picture we want to see

the organization in the future? Why do we run

this business? How do we do our business to

success toward our shared visions of the

organization?

Every people have his own vision in

working. Organization also has its own vision,

but it does not work effective if the process

begins with its own self reflection, or individual's

vision does not agree with organization's vision.

Therefore, the organizational vision must build

from the interaction among employees, or

emerge from the organization's strategy

planning process rather than dictated by the

leader. The strong willed leaders need to be the

good speaker, but before they can be the good

speaker, they should be the good listener with

defined well concentration, openness, think

positive, and also challenging with the variety of

opinions. The learning organization need to

activate individual to share and reflected their

own vision, compromise between the individual

vision and improved them into a common

direction for employees. Since we should

encourage everyone understand the internal

situation, agree in the organization common long

term vision together, frame our ideas pattern into

the same shape, and attempt to make it real in

order to initiate the new learning, creative

thinking ideas, direct aimed to the same

destination of the organization. In addition, we

should proactive encourage human resource both

ones' truly committed and unity. Sharing vision

is very important for the learning organization

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because it (sharing vision) is the energy for

learning. We can say that the main task of the

leader is to design and nurture the vision of the

company because shared vision is also the

potential sources of the energy drive and foster

a commitment to the long term.

Team learning is "the process of aligning

and developing the capacities of a team to

create the results its member truly desire"

(Senge, 2006). Team learning is not only the

exchanging and sharing process in internal and

external information, new and innovated

knowledge, and various kinds of experiences

such as succession, failure, or competition, but

also diffusing these information and knowledge

to each other. We can mention that team work,

or team skill is the main tool to build the modern

organization. If we learn how to bring one's

competency, performances, and experiences

connect with others in order to increase

continuously effectiveness and efficiency of the

organization, it would be the way to develop for

creating the satisfied or attained the end results

as well. Open communication gears toward the

learning through discussing and initiating

brainstorm for many ideas and knowledge

sharing occurring continuously is the way to

innovated many organizations to be the

learning organizations in Thailand. We can

facilitate our large team work via technology or

network system; allow all level management,

including employees to contribute their own

capability to develop their performances. In

rewards system, we active to response their

strong performances with group rewards rather

than individual reward. "We" act instead of "I"

act in any activities, including group cohesive-

ness, decentralized decision making, authority

sharing, empowerment, and clear responsibility.

System thinking is ability to understand the

internal and external environmental business, and

we can interrelate each single business unit

(SBU) to the whole picture of the organization,

and also cope with these external situations. We

can forecast or predict the cause-effects

assumptions in the workplace and global

business in various dimensions such as

economics, politic philosophy, international

trading, and foreign exchange rates, cross

cultural management, and so on. When the whole

pattern was changed, we tend to know in

isolated part(s) of the system. No wondering

which part is the source of the problem(s), and

understands how to arrange the crucial sequence

of the events as well. Furthermore, this concept

is very important because it includes the ability

of carefully consider thinking pattern in term of

framework, strategy planning, contingency

planning, short term and long term proactive or

reactive of the implementation, be alert in any

information receiving, recognized in opportunity,

competitors, SWOT analysis, determine the

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practical solutions for the future. We can say

that system thinking is the process to seek the

interdependence among many things, arrange

and focus them in total system rather than

subsystem.

Watkins and Marsick (1992) explained that

organizations can implement learning

organizationin Six Actions as the following:

1. Create continuous Learning Opportu-

nities consisted of effective planning of informal

learning how to learn, and just in time learning.

2. Promote Inquiry and Dialogue consisted

of dialogue in which people is mutually explored

ideas, questions, and potential action.

3. Encourage Systems to Capture and

Share Learning consisted of medium for moving

new knowledge throughout the organization.

4. Establish Systems to Capture and Share

Leaning consisted of building organizational

capacity for new thinking embedded and shared

with others.

5. Empower people Toward a Collective

Vision consisted of participation of individual in

a collective vision

6. Connect the Organization to its

Environment consisted of interdependcies

between the organization and its internal and

external environment are acknowledged and

worked through.

The author views that learning can occur

every level in the organization. Especially, group/

team learning level would bridge the gap

between individual and organizational learning

through six actions framework in different

environmental conditions.

People with Learning

"Put the right person into the right job at the

right time and the right place"

Many people always heard this sentence

when we talk about recruitment process of

human resources department. If we consider the

number of the person who has high competency

on his own job, how many percentages of these

people will be in the workplace. Since the

organization started to open for the job

vacancies, how they screen these candidates.

Human resources department attempt to hire the

accountable, and competencies person to be the

key person who set the process, or produce the

products, or services response our customer

satisfaction as much as they can. Today many

organizations really recognized on the importance

of People as a Capital of the firm because

people are the valued factor of production, people

as the root (source) of many activities, and the

determinants who set the direction(s) and future

of the organization. So far, we open for the new

position that we called "Management Trainee".

This position is to provide the learning

opportunities for many employees to test or bring

out their hide diverse abilities through rotating in

different functions within the organization such

as Coca Cola Co., Ltd.; Johnson & Johnson Co.,

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Ltd., and P&G Co., Ltd. including multinational

corporations (MNCs) in Thailand. Purpose(s) is

to develop their technical, human and

conceptual skills, to be assured employees'

competencies suit with their positions. Some

companies initiated launched the policies on

human resources screening in many process

such as large invested in testing system, cross

questions interviewed, probation monitoring,

including terminated policies, and so on. We

strong believed that unlearned person seem as

the high fix cost of the organization.

Organization with Learning

We can't refuse that today we run the

business and face the dynamics changing

(globalization) all around us. To continued thrive

as a valued business, the organization must think

ahead, ready for tomorrow, learn to understand

the trends, live for lifelong learning, high

accessible in community response to the

professional needs of individual, group, and

organization level. Such many global and local

firms in Thailand are aware of human resources

developments which lead to the effective

organizations for example Electric (GE) Co, Ltd

(Imagination at work): large organization's vision

that Our People are GE's greatest asset, as the

company campaign "We are GE". GE uses the

tools of research in developing to create the

learning organization and invested over $ 1

billion every year on training and development

education programs for the people of GE.

Education is pervasive at all levels in workplace

such as entry level program for college students.

Experiences Leadership program offered

intensive on the job development in the areas of

Corporate Audit, Human resources and Sales

and Marketing, Jack Welth Leadership

Development Center established in 1956 served

as a powerful organization force for all level

employees with an important concept "Never

Stop learning" (General Electric Company, 2009).

GE gets to know in making GE the world-class's

most effective business people. Although it is

difficult to find out the acknowledged people, the

organizations have to wait and invest for their

recruitment process. Until the organizations meet

the right candidates, how much the cost it is.

The organization should be pleased to

compensate for hiring these competencies as

well. On the other hands, many human resources

departments urgently accept these mismatch

candidates with their job descriptions. Low

productivity and high Turn over rate (TOR) was

the troublesome end results of unplanned

selection process of HR function.

In addition, Jack Welt also consisted in his

policy to cut, or sold out any business unit that

did not make the profit or be the cost of his

organization, including the unable employees,

or inactive people. GE Company monitors their

people with 360 degree evaluate from many

partners to assure in quality of task, moral, and

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so on. Recently, Forbes magazine ranked the

top 10 fierce boss of U.S.A; he was one among

these leaders. Jack Welt believed in his ideas

likely to hire talented person with the expensive

salary, but he will not hold or handle the

unperformed or unneeded person with low cost.

Many large organizations prefer to hire few

workers with high salary because they thought

that these people as the capital of the

organization to made or created the great ideas,

and potential performances produce the high

productivity and profit into the organizations

instead. Hiring few but right people with very

high salary better than hire many inactive people

with low salary. From GE's top management

level; thus, in currently, we can say that learning

or modern organization expect to hire talented

person mystery, invest with these people to

develop their competency, shared visions,

including knowledge dissemination with others.

Learning organization viewed that these few

human capital will drive and increase the

effectiveness of the organizations, therefore, GE

Company pleasured to treat his capital (loyalty

employees) in good corporate culture. The

author thought that the good organization should

be training school for their people to learn and

develop their competencies as well. Presently,

some companies use Corporate Social

Responsibility (CSR) as a strategic to gain

public support for their presence in global

markets, helping them sustain a competitive

advantage by using their social contributions to

provide a subconscious level of advertising

(Meiners, 1986).

Especially, Corporate Social Responsibility

(CSR) is the deliberate inclusion of public

interest into corporate decision-making, and the

honoring of a triple bottom line: People, Planet,

and Profit. An approach for CSR that is

becoming more widely accepted is

community-based development projects. For

example, GE is the organization focusing on the

passionate about making life's better with new

ideas and technologies by giving back to our

community in more than 140 countries

nationwide. In Thailand, GE Money also create

"Healthymagination" project. Its aim to change

the way and approach healthcare with over 1,000

innovations all focused on addressing 3 critical

needs: lowering costs, touching more lives, and

improving quality (General Electric Company,

2009).

Another example, SHIN Corporation in

Thailand is one of the private holding firms to be

recognized on the important of learning by

connecting people's visions, organization's

visions, personal mystery, team working,

system thinking, and mental models of human

resources, through technology management, and

technology enhancement, and knowledge

sharing (implicit and explicit knowledge) within

the firm. SHIN Corp hires few people (less than

70 people), but screen high competencies people

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only. SHIN Corp still concentrated on the quality

of staff and management through promotion

within the firm first in order to keep the talented

people who understand the culture of the

organization well by using ALPC model for

selecting (Attitude, Learn ability, Performances,

and Potential), including the decision making,

leadership, problem solving, future forward

looking, and task evaluation form and

questionnaire to ask their people well being

(quality of work life balances) every 6 months.

Not only talented person they want to hire, but

also moral or ethical person they did.

Consistently, SHIN Corp concept remain the

same, they want to hire both high IQ, and E.Q.

person via some knowledge sharing activities

from reading the interesting books, public

journals, traveling storyteller, or guest speaker

invitation for discussion our views altogether.

Moreover, SHIN Corp also care and responsible

to the society especially some rural students who

lack of the good opportunity in learning both in

distance schools, or limit budget to develop the

community.

Lastly, there are many profit and learning

organizations such as PTT Public Co., Ltd.; Siam

Cement Group (Thailand) Co., Ltd.; Advanced

Infor Service Co., Ltd.; Toyota Motors (Thailand)

Co., Ltd.; Honda Automobile (Thailand) Co., Ltd.;

Thai Beverage Public Co., Ltd.; Singha Corpo-

ration Co., Ltd.; Siam Commercial Bank Ltd.;

Kasikorn Bank Ltd., and so on to spend a lot of

time and allocate the resources to continue

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) projects

for the youth in Thailand both in education fields,

arts and literature fields, and global warming

environment fields. CSR should go along with

the business whatever, wherever, or however

they did, they should concern the health of the

society by sharing the profit through the sincere

commitment continuing to the society. Currently,

the author strongly agrees toward the completed

modern organization have to govern with the

sustainable CSR activities and 5 disciplines of

learning organization. (Fifth Disciplines: Personal

Mystery, Shared Vision, Team Work, System

Thinking and Mental Model) for the competitive

advantages. It would be demonstrated the

organization revolutions developed from the

information era (tradition organization) to the

knowledge-based society (modern organization)

was shown in table 1. Briefly, Good Health

Learning Organizations is necessary to live and

cultivate in the Good Health Society as well.

139

��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

Table 1 Differences between the traditional and modern organization (Stephen, Robbins, and Mary, 1999: 198)

Traditional organization Modern organization

Inflexibility Flexibility

Focus on employees Focus on skill, and performances

Quality improvement Process innovation

Learning from seminar session on the job training

Focus on R&D department Focus on outsource training

Be trainee be learner

Control management Empowerment

Job position based Job description based

Individual based Team work based

Job stable Job dynamics

Job Directing Job participation

Manager decision making Employee involvement in decision making

Regulation based Customers based

Similarity labor Diversity labor

Vertical organization structure Horizontal or Network organization structure

Think local Think global

Source: Stephen, Robbins, and Mary. Management, (1999): 198.

Conclusion

In presently, learning organization has

become an important concept of the way to

develop organization. Basically, the

organization's vision was to gain the profit, or to

be the leader in the industry, they attempted to

create competitive advantages their competitors

with any strategies to increase their market

shares only. But according to the changing

dynamics environmental business, intense

competitiveness, or globalization effects, we

tended to deeply consider our strategies again.

We found out that in the past we are so concern

with money rather than cared man power's skills,

performances, and happiness in workplace.

That's a big mistake! Because no any other

organizations can't grow up without talented

people work in. It's becoming evident that

organizational learning is more developing. A

significant moving is learning manpower

140

��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

undertaken to put the learning organization (LO)

occurring. We can summarize that the

components of LO are people, organization,

knowledge management, technology, and

learning was generated with fifth rules: personal

mystery, shared vision, team building, mental

model, and system thinking. Hence, building LO

will highly influence the inevitable internal

operation. It consisted of six actions framework

to complements; f irst: create learning

opportunity, second: promote inquiry and

dialogue, third: urge team learning, fourth: share

learning, fifth: empower people, and sixth

connect organization with surrounding. Moreover,

the crucial aspect of learning organization should

come with corporate social responsibility (CSR)

activities which to contribute the benefits back

to the community as well. Likely, many modern

organizations gear toward their own

organizations with this LO framework and CSR

is ongoing continuously, to support the well

being in the healthy society, to help

organizations identify their capacities to learn and

share knowledge about evident-based practices

innovations. The KM and LO model will need

further validation and improvement through its

organizational setting and to be able to align in

the challenging future. Such the modern

organization needs to embrace this changing,

not as the tradit ional organization for

centralized top management with bureaucratic,

but as the flexible empowerment with skilled,

competent, and satisfied people instead.

Think Globally, Act Locally based on your

business. It may be applied well with the

modern learning organization that better suits

the needs of your people.

High Prosperous Learning Organization

will come with Good Quality of Work Life

Balances.

ReferencesArgyris, C. (2006). Organizational learning.

Massachusetts: Addison Wesley.

David Skyrme Associates. (2008). Type of

learning. Retrieved November 1, 2008,

from Knowledge Connections Web site:

http://www.skyrme.com/insights/3lrmorg.htm

Dixon, N. (1994). The Organizational learning

cycle. London: McGraw-Hill.

Faerman, S. (1996). Wheel of learning.

Retrieved February 11, 2008, from

Learning Loop web site: http:/www.home.

nycap.rr.com/klarsen/learnorg

General Electric Company. (2009). Retrieved

June 18, 2009, from GE imagination at work

Web site: http:/www.ge.com/company/

culture/lead

Marquardt, M. (Dipl-ing. Bodinth Wicharn, tr.)

(2006). Building the learning organization:

Mastering the 5 element for corporate

learning. Bangkok: EXPERTNET.

Meiners, F. (1986). Corporate Social Respon-

sibility. Retrieved June 22, 2009, from CSR

141

��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

Web site: http: www.en.wikipedia.org.wiki.csr

Narvan Associates newsletter. (1993). Retrieved

March 16, 2007, from The learning

organization web site: http://www.moyak.

com/researcher/papers/var21mkm.html

Nonaka, I and Takeuchi, H. (1995). The

knowledge creating company. New York:

Oxford University press.

Pedler, M., Burgoyne, J., and Boydell, J. (1991).

The learning company. New York: McGraw

Hill.

Rheem, H. (1995). The learning organization,

Harvard Business Review, 73(2), 10.

Senge, P., Kleiner, A., Roberts, C., Ross, R.,

and Smith, B. (1994). The fifth discipline

fieldbook: Strategies and tools for

building a learning organization. New

York: Doubleday.

Senge, P. (2006). The fifth discipline: The art

& practice of the learning organization.

New York: Doubleday.

Stephen, P., Robbins, C., and Mary, K. (1999).

Management. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Takhumthong, P. (2007). Modern organization.

Udonthani: Rajabhat Udonthani University.

Watkins, E. and Marsick, J. (1992). Learning

organization. Retrieved June 26, 2009,

from Dimensions of the learning organi-

zation Web site: http://www.infed.org/biblio/

learning-organization.htm

Miss Muenjit Phruksangkul received her Master of International

Business Management and Human Resources Management Degree

from Dominican University, Illinois, and Bachelor of Business Arts

Japanese Degree from Assumption University. She is currently lecturer

in Retailing department, Panyapiwat Institution of Technology.

142

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AbstractThe concept of Learning Organization is extremely important for the development of

Organizational Innovation of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) especially, in

under current dynamic of economic situation. To continually develop the

Organizational Innovation is to respond to the niche markets which, large enterprises

are not able to support perfectly. In details, the concept of Learning Organization

significantly supports the development of Organizational Innovation by encouraging

organization members to apply their knowledges in order to facilitate innovation which,

will generate benefit to an organization concretely.

Keywords: Learning organization, Organizational Innovation, Small and Medium

Enterprises (SMEs)

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153

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Mr. Niti Rattanaprichavej received his Master of Architecture (M.A.)

from faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Thammasat University.

He is currently a D.P.A Doctoral Candidate in the Doctor of Public

Administration Program, major in Public and Private Management (PPM)

at The National Institute of Develoment Administration (NIDA). His main

interests are about Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) and

Organization Theory

154

Charisopon Inthapat

Part time instructor at King Mongkut's

University of Technology Thonburi

E-mail: [email protected]

Dr. Ananya Tuksinwarajarn

Lecturer at King Mongkut's University of

Technology Thonburi

E-mail: [email protected]

Kunlawadee Yamket

Lecturer at King Mongkut's University of

Technology Thonburi

E-mail: [email protected]

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AbstractThis study intends to investigate how students manage difficulties in order to write

punchlines for jokes. It is beneficial for ESL teachers who like to use jokes in

language classroom. The jokes in this study were selected from the Internet

according to certain criteria concerning the length of jokes, joke contexts, language

complexity, variety of topics and situations. The subjects of this study were eight

students from the Department of Material and Tool Engineering and the Depart-

ment of Electrical Engineering at King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi

(KMUTT). In writing punchlines, the subjects had difficulties cause by inappropriate

155

��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

length of jokes, unfamiliarity with jokes, insufficient language ability and lack of

creative ideas. Then, they used their techniques to cope with the difficulties. To the

techniques, subjects' punchlines were evaluated by three raters ranging from the

best to the worst punchlines.

The subjects were required to write punchlines for provided fifteen jokes. They were

asked to spend three days a week and write three punchlines a day. When they

finished each three jokes, the subjects were interviewed how they wrote their own

punchlines. To write punchlines, it is found that the subjects had difficulties caused

by inappropriate length of jokes, unfamiliarity with jokes, insufficient language ability

and lack of creative idea in writing. However, they had their techniques to manage

difficulties by using re-reading, connecting jokes with their own experiences,

imagining the scenes of jokes, translating, putting themselves in the situation in the

jokes and using keywords. Due to these techniques, the subjects' works were

evaluated by three raters who were studying in the programme of Master of Arts in

Applied Linguistics for English Language Teaching (ELT) at King Mongkut's

University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT) ranging from the best to the worst

punchlines with reference to relevance, communication, creativity and fun. Then,

the benefits of using jokes for language teaching and writing practice were

discussed with points to consider and recommendations for further study were

finally given.

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Keywords: Jokes, Humour, Punchlines, Writing Process, Difficulties and

Management of Writing Punchlines, Creative Ideas

156

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Background of the StudyWith reference to undergraduate curriculum

of Liberal Arts of King Mongkut's University of

Technology Thonburi (KMUTT), the university

provides four fundamental English courses (LNG

101 to LNG 104) to all students to study in the

language classroom. Most faculties require them

to study at least three English courses. All

courses aim to equip them with language and

learning skills through different tasks. The

learning tasks aim to provide chances for

students to practice four language skills, i.e.

listening, speaking, reading and writing.

Particularly, LNG 103 course mainly provides

students to practice thinking skill and creative

writing. To the course it trains students know

what creative thinking is and practices students

creative writing such as opinion task, writing

creative technological design etc. Thus, the

researcher preferred those who learned LNG

103, because it can save time to guide them.

Moreover, students have experiences in

classroom and they have known the strategies

for writing creatively.

Statement of Problems

To compare writing with other skills such as

speaking which is an output process, writing can

be more difficult for most Thai students as it

requires good command of grammar, sentence

structure and word choice (Chenoweth, 1987:

25). Moreover, the written language is shown to

be evidence to the readers, so accuracy is cru-

cial and students need to practice. To practice

writing, motivation, interesting input for

practicing and thinking processing are needed

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157

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for students. To the researcher' situation, Thai

students lack inspiration to practice writing

because of three main issues.

Motivation: To motivate students to write

on their own is not easy because they have to

spend time to compose written tasks. Besides,

they do not have much chance to write in

English in the real situation. To strengthen this

point, Chimombo, (1987: 204) said, "Reality in

writing is difficult for students to practice because

writing is not part of most students' daily lives,

so they only have a chance to practice in

classroom mostly." For those who want to be

professional writers, they should spend a

sufficient period of time to learn. Thus, it is

necessary to provide a supportive environment

and time for the students to acquire the skill

(Byrd, 2001: 6). To the researcher, what

motivates students to write may not only come

from the students themselves but also from

courses, classroom materials or the tasks

assigned.

Input for Writing: There are many materials

that can be used as the task for students to

practice writing. According to Hedge, (1989: 33-

39) "some pictures in a newspaper can be good

input for writing activity." She gives each

student the pictures and asks them to write about

the scene in a newspaper. She asks students to

imagine themselves as reporters and then write

up the news. KMUTT students also have a

chance to do similar activities in one of the

fundamental courses. They form pairs to write

about the news of their interest and then work in

groups to design their own newspapers. Although

writing newspapers is a good task for students

to practice writing skill, it is a time-consuming

task; they are required to write accurately and it

is mostly suitable for group work. By the nature

of group work, some students may not

contribute or take as much responsibility as they

should. This means that what should be input

for writing must encourage every student to

practice the skill to the fullest extent. Woolfolk,

(1993: 336-337) supports that the task that can

encourage students to write should not only be

enjoyable, interesting and stimulating but also

fun for them and it should persuade students to

share ideas freely. Therefore, if a teacher can

find the task which can provide this

phenomenon, it may motivate students to

practice writing skill either in class or on their

own. In other words, writing tasks which can

inspire them to write depends on the types of

writing that interest or challenge the students

(Indrisamo & Squire, 2000: 11).

Thinking Process: Thinking process is

another problem which students face when they

write because writing is a complex process in

which students have to spend time to improve

but they have less chance to practice. To

compose written texts, students need to

organize their thoughts into a sequence which

makes sense and they should express their ideas

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coherently. Leki, (1998: 78) said that, when

students compose the texts, they should

consider the main point or central idea of a piece

of writing. Kroll, (1991) supports that students

should link from the first to the second sentence

and so on to connect ideas. As English is not

their mother tongue, it can be difficult for KMUTT

students to write with coherence and cohesion.

Consequently, the writ ing task should

encourage them to think critically or use their

imagination creatively.

Rationale of the Study

To enhance motivation and thinking process

in writing through enjoyable tasks, the researcher

decides to use jokes because they are fun and

not too long text to read. In addition, there are

many types of jokes in various contexts.

However, the researcher chooses to focus only

on the punchlines of the jokes because the

punchline is the twisting part of the jokes that

needs creative thinking which enhances many

possible ideas as long as they fit well with the

context provided. Fischel, (1980: 30), 40

supports that it is challenging to use jokes to

enhance writing skill since it requires the

writers' imagination and enables students to

practice thinking skill.

Therefore, jokes were used in this study

because they encourage students to write

creative sentences and enables them to make

use of vocabulary and grammar in the ways that

suit their own purpose. Additionally, jokes are

proved to be useful in English language class

for the following reasons. (1) Jokes are short

and can be told or taught within the space of a

few minutes. (2) Jokes can be a mini-lesson in

grammar, vocabulary and speech pattern. (3)

There is a wide range of possible speech

patterns within the single genre of jokes. (4)

Jokes are funny and they keep students alert.

Additionally, jokes cause positive atmosphere in

classroom and lead students to have motivation

to learn the language and introduce a refreshing

change from routine language learning

procedures. (Trachtenberg, 1980: 8-13).

The Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate

the extent that jokes can be used for students to

practice writing and what difficulties students have

when they write their own punchlines for

provided 15 jokes and how they solve the

problems. Thus, the main research question of

the study is to answer. "How do students write

punchlines for jokes?"

Definitions and Components of Jokes

According to Collins Cobuild English

Dictionary, (1995: 904) gives the definition of a

joke as "something that is said or done to make

people laugh for example, a funny story."

Beeman, (2000: 1) and Medgyes, (2002: 1)

supported "jokes aim to create a feeling of

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enjoyment for the audiences, most commonly

manifested in a physical display of pleasure

including smiles and laughter. Additionally, jokes

are triggers of laughter including comedies, funny

stories and riddles." Trachtenberg, (1980: 9) and

Maurice, (1988: 20) add that the riddles can be

joking questions which include metaphors in the

language and have lexical ambiguity in the words

and the questions request unexpected answers

from the readers or listeners. Among all the

triggers of laughter, jokes are the most common

stimulation that people use to entertain others

and themselves (Webster, 1913: 7). Greg, (2004:

1) mentions that when joke writers write funny

stories, they normally prepare the readers for

laughing by giving the description of a

situation i.e. it tells the readers who did what or

talked with whom. Cooley, (2004: 1) agrees that

the first part of jokes usually gives the

background of the situation to the readers or

listeners. The second part of jokes is the key

part which is the punchline as it provokes

laughter with unexpected endings and demands

creative thinking to surprise the readers.

Use of Jokes in English Language Teaching

(ELT)

Humour and jokes can be used for

educational purposes and language learning in

the classroom for many reasons. For Maurice,

(1988: 24), for example, explains that the use of

jokes in language class makes students feel close

to each other because jokes create a positive

learning environment and relaxing atmosphere.

Tosta, (2001: 27) adds that the use of jokes

increases interaction among teachers and

students and the jokes are a useful tool to get

students' attention as they create enjoyment and

thus motivate students to learn. Moreover,

Trachtenberg, (1980: 9, 11) gives reasons why

teachers use jokes in an English language class:

(1) Jokes are funny and keep students alert. (2)

Hence, jokes make a refreshing change from

routine language learning procedures. (3) It is

possible to use jokes in teaching because they

are short and can be told or taught within a few

minutes and jokes can be used as an

introduction activity. (4) Jokes can be a

mini-lesson in grammar, vocabulary and speech

patterns. (5) There is a wide range of possible

speech patterns within a single genre of jokes.

Pecnik, (2001: 2) adds more ideas about the

use of jokes in ELT, "jokes can be used as a

starting point of a discussion, creative activity or

project work and help to relax the students."

Qualities of Good Jokes

Although jokes can be exploited in the

language classroom, it does not mean that any

joke can be used for teaching. To help teachers

select proper jokes, Pupipat, (2004: 87) says,

"The simple criterion for selecting jokes is that

the jokes should be appropriate for students in

terms of language (e.g. words and discourse)."

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He continues that students' problems with jokes

are usually idioms because students have

limitation in language, so they may not

understand jokes clearly. Therefore, these

problems can be solved by informative support

in which teachers analyze the selected jokes after

they have got them from the sources to

anticipate what can be difficult and what help

students need to comprehend the jokes. For

instance, teachers should consider the level of

language in the jokes and the students' level of

proficiency. In cases where some words in jokes

are too difficult for the students, Pecnik, (2001:

1-3) suggests that teachers can simplify the

words, use synonyms or provide the definitions

of those words. Additionally, they can give

emphasis on the keywords that the students are

not familiar with because it helps them to know

the whole story. She adds that it is important for

teachers to extensively prepare themselves for

a joke-telling activity and they should be

sensitive and prepare students as early as

possible by training them to be familiar with jokes

such as to know parts of jokes and how jokes

are written. This activity helps students to have

the idea to create their own jokes or punchlines.

Pupipat, (2004: 88) also suggests that in

selecting jokes teachers should be aware of

culture bias. This means, the selected jokes

should not be oriented to only one particular

culture or fit well with a particular social context

because students in other cultures or fields of

study may misinterpret the jokes. Pecnik, (2001:

3) adds that teachers should introduce jokes

which closely relate to students' culture because,

if the jokes are far from their social context, they

may not be able to comprehend. Thus, selected

jokes should generally provide comprehensible

situations for students such as jokes about

teachers & students, doctors & patients, family

or animal jokes.

Criteria for Joke Selection

1. There should be no culture bias in the

jokes. This means that the selected jokes are

not restricted to a particular culture because such

jokes may be too difficult for the subjects.

Furthermore, the jokes should be based on

general situations where subjects in every field

of study are familiar with, for example, school

jokes, family jokes, animal jokes, patient and

doctor jokes.

2. Each joke should not contain more than

two idioms because it would be too difficult for

the subjects to understand.

3. The length of each joke should not be

more than half a page.

4. If there are too many difficult words, the

jokes should be simplified or definitions of the

words may be given.

5. All the jokes should cover a variety of

topics and situations.

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Materials

Twenty jokes were used in this study. They

were divided into three groups. The first group,

which included three jokes, was the jokes to

introduce subjects know parts of joke which are

story and punchline (see Appendix A). The

second group, which included two jokes, was

the jokes for training the subjects to write

punchlines (see Appendix B). For these two

jokes, their punchlines were deleted so that they

have the same pattern as the third group. The

third group, which included fifteen jokes, was

the jokes for data collection (see Appendix C).

For these fifteen jokes, they were simplified and

the meanings of some difficult words were

provided. These jokes were further divided into

five groups and each group contains three jokes

for subjects work for a time.

Research Instruments

Subjects' Punchlines

The punchlines were the parts that the

subjects wrote by themselves after reading the

first part (the situation) of the provided jokes. All

together, there were fifteen punchlines written

by each subject for the data analysis. The

subjects could put ideas freely and wrote as many

sentences as they wanted for each punchline.

Semi-Structured Interview

This research instrument was a set of twelve

questions to ask the subjects how they wrote

the punchlines and factors affected their writing.

The interviews, which were recorded by tape

recording, were conducted five times for each

subject after they wrote their own punchlines for

each of the three jokes (see Appendix E).

Methodology

Pre-Experimental Procedure

In this stage, three introducing jokes were

shown to subjects (see Appendix A) and the

subjects learned about the characteristics and

components of jokes. Then, training jokes were

given to subjects to write punchlines. They were

required to read the stories and completed the

punchlines by themselves. After they finished

writing punchlines for the training jokes, the

subjects' punchlines were compared what they

wrote with one another to enable them to see

how each subject got the idea to write the

punchlines and discussed which punchlines were

relevant to the given jokes. This was to help

subjects to learn and see various ways of

writing punchlines for the same jokes. This

activity aimed to elicit the subjects' ideas to

create their own punchlines and prepare them

for the data collection procedure.

While-Experimental Procedure

In the while experimental or data collection

stage, three jokes were provided to the subjects

at a time. Each subject wrote punchlines

individually and then the punchlines were

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collected. When they finished each set of three

jokes, each subject was separately interviewed.

This process was repeated every other day.

Altogether, they met for five times until all

subjects finished all fifteen jokes. To ensure that

the subjects could create proper punchlines, the

researcher requested three raters who were

studying for their MA in English Language

Teaching programme to read all the jokes and

evaluate the subjects punchlines by using the

evaluating checklist. According to this stage, the

researcher explained to the raters how to score

the punchlines based on four criteria; relevance,

communication, creativity and fun (See

Appendix D). The aim of the evaluation was to

find out the qualities of punchlines.

Data Analysis

The punchlines produced by the subjects

(see Appendix C) and the data from semi-

structured interview were analyzed in order to

answer the research question. The scores given

to each punchline were calculated by rating rule:

Finding

Subjects' Difficulties

Though the subjects could compose quality

punchlines for all the 15 jokes, the data obtained

from the semi-structured interviews suggested

that the subjects had difficulties concerning lack

of creative ideas, inappropriate length of jokes,

unfamiliarity with jokes and insufficient language

ability. The examples of subjects' answer show

bellows.

Lack of Creative Ideas: Creative ideas in

this study are needed for subjects in writing

punchlines. It is concerned with understanding

the context in the first part and the situation of

the provided jokes. Then, the subjects had to

react to the situation and to create ideas for the

punchlines. It was found that their creative ideas

were probably affected by other difficulties.

According to the data from the semi-structured

interviews, inappropriate length of jokes and

unfamiliarity with jokes are causes that affected

the subjects' creativity. Firstly, if the first part of

jokes was too long and had a lot of detail, the

situation of the provided jokes would confuse

the subjects.

"…joke number 12 provided a lot of detail, I

was confused, so I did not have creative idea to

write a punchline."

(Subject 1, Interview 4)

On the other hand, if the jokes were too short,

they did not provide enough information for the

subjects to read and to imagine the situation.

Moreover, too short jokes did not give clear

illustration to subjects and they affected them in

creating punchlines. These excerpts support.

"Joke number 1, 2 and 3 were too short and

did not provide enough information to imagine

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along the situation. Consequently, I did not have

clear illustration and creative idea to compose

punchlines."

Inappropriate Length of Jokes: There are

two aspects of the length of jokes i.e. it is either

too long or too short. To define the subjects'

problem with the length of joke, data from the

semi-structured interviews and the number of

words of each joke were analyzed. Actually, the

length of jokes is counted from the first word of

the joke to the last word before the punchline.

The jokes that the subjects indicated as the long

ones were joke 10 (54 words), joke 11 (68 words),

joke 12 (95 words), joke 13 (77 words), joke 14

(92 words) and joke 15 (137 words). Moreover,

the subjects said that these jokes had more

detail and required them to imagine the scene

while they were reading the jokes. The scene

confused the subjects and it was hard for them

to compose punchlines for these jokes. The

following excerpts from the interview support this

point.

"…..joke number 12 was difficult because the

information was long and I had to think a lot along

about the situation in the joke…"

(Subject 3, Interview 4)

It can be concluded that long jokes can

confuse the subjects when they try to

understand the context or the situation provided.

On the other hand, the subjects reported that

some jokes, such as joke 1 (25 words), joke 2

(28 words) and joke 3 (30 words), which were

much shorter, were also difficult for the subjects

to imagine the scene of the jokes. The subjects

informed that some jokes were so short that there

was not enough information for them to think of

the situation. The data from the semi-structured

interviews below illustrate the ideas that this

difficulty obstructed them from composing their

own punchlines.

"….joke number 1, 2 and 3 were difficult

because they didn't give enough information to

read and to imagine."

(Subject 1, Interview 1)

According to the data, the jokes that are too

long or too short directly cause the subjects

difficulty to understand the joke stories. The

reason is that the long jokes could have several

details and they require the subjects to think

more about the situations while reading. On the

opposite, too short jokes do not provide enough

information for them; thus, they had not enough

clues to guide them. The data also show that

the subjects did not have problems with the length

of joke 6 (35 words), joke 7 (33 words), joke 8

(51 words) and joke 9 (31 words). Therefore,

these jokes may be considered as the moderate

length. This may imply that length of jokes could

affect the subjects in composing punchlines (see

4.3.1). However, joke 4 (26 words), which can

be considered as a short joke, did not cause

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any difficulty to the subjects. This makes the

researcher realize that the number of words might

not be the only factor that causes difficulty to

students, as will be described further.

Unfamiliarity with Jokes

Unfamiliarity with jokes in this study means

that the subjects had never read, heard or been

in the same or similar situation to the provided

jokes. When they participated in this study, it

was the subjects' first time to learn about some

of the joke stories. Familiarity seems to be

beneficial to the subjects to comprehend the

jokes. However, unfamiliarity can cause

difficulties either in understanding or writing

punchlines.

Unfamiliarity with jokes that causes

difficulty while reading: While reading the jokes,

if the subjects were not familiar with the context

in the jokes, they could not comprehend the

situation clearly. The data from the semi-

structured interview support this idea.

"Joke number 6 was difficult because I have

never read or told the story or never met the

situation likes joke 6, so I didn't understand the

situation easily."

(Subject 5, Interview 2)

The data suggested that unfamiliarity with

jokes had certain effects on the subjects'

comprehension in reading the jokes.

Consequently, they could not figure out the

situation of these jokes and this could affect

their writing of punchlines.

Unfamiliarity with jokes that causes

difficulty while writing: Actually, the subjects

used their familiarity with the jokes to help them

think about ideas for writing punchlines. On the

contrary, if the subjects were not familiar with

the situation in any joke such as they have never

read or met the situation in the provided jokes,

they would find that it was difficult to compose

punchlines. The data from the semi-structured

interview verify this idea.

"….I have never met the situation or read the

same joke like joke number 1, as a result, I didn't

know what to put in the punchline."

(Subject 3, Interview 1)

These excerpts indicate that unfamiliarity with

jokes is likely to affect the subjects' creativity.

Surprisingly, this finding is not always true as

one subject (subject 1) mentioned that the

content of jokes, which is very close or very

familiar to him, did not challenge him to

compose punchlines. In this case, the subject's

difficulty was influenced by his familiarity, i.e. he

just copied down the punchlines which he had

previously heard or read. From the semi-

structured interviews, this subject informed that

he always told or shared jokes with his friends

and he had heard the provided jokes before.

Therefore, the situation of the jokes was not chal-

lenging for him as he reflected in the following

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excerpts.

"…since I was very familiar with the context

of joke number 5, I kept thinking about the same

old punchline."

(Subject 1, Interview 2)

Insufficient Language Ability: It is worth

noting that the problem with language ability was

the least difficulty the subjects had. However,

their proficiency has some impacts on their

comprehension and creativity while they worked

on the jokes. In other words, the subjects may

have had difficulty with language in reading and/

or writing stage as presented below.

Insufficient language ability that causes

difficulty while reading: The knowledge of

vocabulary or keywords enables the subjects to

understand the main idea of the stories that they

read. On the other hand, if they did not know

keywords, they could be confused with the

stories and could not understand the jokes. The

data from the semi-structured interview verify that

the subjects' language competence could affect

their reading comprehension.

"…I didn't know some words such as

impressive in joke 1 and pills in joke 3."

(Subject 4, Interview 1)

From the excerpts above, the subjects'

insufficient language proficiency could affect their

comprehension of the jokes. This problem can

also affect the writing stage, as further discussed.

Insufficient language ability that causes

difficulty while writing: The subjects' difficulty

with language due to the lack of vocabulary and

knowledge of grammar could happen even after

they had some ideas to create punchlines.

According to the semi-structured interviews, the

subjects informed that they could not express

their ideas into written language and use

vocabulary appropriately. The following data

illustrate what they reflected about this problem.

"I couldn't write the punchlines of joke

number 6 because I didn't know how to make

sentence correctly."

(Subject 8, Interview 2)

The information above reveals that, even

though the subjects had ideas to create

punchlines, they were limited by their language

abilities. They could not make sentences or use

vocabulary in the punchlines appropriately.

How Subjects Manage Difficulties

To write punchlines for jokes, the subjects

had four main difficulties affected by lack of

creative ideas, inappropriate length of jokes,

unfamiliarity with jokes and insufficient language

ability. To overcome these difficulties, they used

a variety of techniques which can be classified

into two main categories: techniques while

trying to understand jokes and composing

punchlines. The following table shows the

subjects' report of how they coped with the

difficulties.

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Table 1 How Subjects manage Difficulties

After eight subjects wrote their own

punchlines (each subject wrote punchlines for

each 15 jokes), the total numbers and the

percentages of subjects' management of

difficultuies show the overview of reported

frequency of the techniques that the subjects

used to deal with difficulties while trying to

understand jokes were re-reading (15.26%),

connecting jokes with own experiences (10.84%),

imagining the scene of the jokes (14.06%), and

translating (4.02%). The ways the subjects

managed their difficulties while composing

punchlines by re-reading (10.12%), connecting

jokes with their own experiences (19.68%),

putting themselves in the situations in the jokes

(7.63%), translating (2.47%) and using keywords

(16.06). Concerning problems while composing

punchlines, the most frequently reported

difficulty in this part was lack of creative ideas.

To manage this problem, the subjects used

keywords, connecting jokes with their own

experiences, re-reading and putting themselves

in the joke with frequencies of 34, 31, 14 and

10, respectively. However, insufficient language

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ability and unfamiliarity with the jokes also

affected the subjects when they composed their

own punchlines. Hence, when the subjects had

difficulty with language ability, they connected

jokes with own experiences, translated, used

keywords, put themselves in the jokes and

re-read. These techniques were reported 8, 6,

6, 3 and 2 times, respectively. Moreover, when

the subjects were unfamiliar with the jokes, they

still used connecting jokes with own experiences,

re-reading and putting themselves in the jokes.

The reported frequencies of these techniques

were 10, 9, and 6, respectively. Each technique

is described in more detail as follows.

Re-reading

The subjects used re-reading to manage their

difficulties both trying to understand jokes and

composing punchlines. However, they had

different purposes in the use of re-reading; they

revealed the reasons why this technique was

used to manage their difficulties, as follows. The

subjects used re-reading while trying to

understand jokes when they met the difficulties

about length of jokes and unfamiliarity with the

content. The subjects could re-read the jokes

more than one time. The example from the

semi-structured interview illustrates this point.

"I never read joke number 10-12 both in Thai

and English….so I read them two to three times.

By reading the first time, I read to know the whole

stories. In the second and the third times, I read

to find the main idea of the jokes…"

(Subject 1, Interview 4)

The purpose of re-reading while composing

punchlines is not the same as the purpose of

re-reading to comprehend the first part of the

jokes. In fact, the subjects re-read in order to

remind themselves and review what they had

understood about the jokes. Moreover, the

subjects said that, if they were unfamiliar with

the situation of the jokes and had not enough

language ability to write the punchlines, re-

reading could help them to cope with their

problems. The example is presented below.

"…joke number 8 was difficult…I solved…

by re-reading the story. It helped me to relate the

joke with my experience to write the punchline."

(Subject 6, Interview 3)

Connecting Jokes with Own Experiences

Connecting the jokes with own experiences

in this study means when the subjects did not

have exactly similar knowledge as the provided

jokes, but they had some personal experience

which might not be directly relevant to the jokes.

Then, they used their own experiences to help

them to cope with the difficulties as presented

below.

The subjects connected the jokes with their

own experiences to understand jokes when they

found that they were not familiar with the

provided joke i.e. the subjects have never been

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in the same situation, read or listened to the

same or similar jokes. Therefore, they linked their

experiences from different situations to the

provided jokes to help them comprehend the

stories.

"When I read joke 4-6, I had to link the

situation of jokes with my own experience which

was not the same as the provided jokes but it

enabled me to understand the jokes."

(Subject 3, Interview 2)

Then, more than half of the subjects used

their own experiences to manage their

difficulties while they were writing the punchlines.

It is also clear that the use of own experiences

helped the subjects to create their own

punchlines. In this case, this technique was

mostly used to solve the problem about lack of

creative ideas.

"…I solved the problem by linking joke

number 12 with my own experience. In order to

compose creative punchline, I linked the joke to

what I read about a party and applied to write

punchline, so I used word swinging."

(Subject 4, Interview 4)

Imagining the Scene of Jokes

Imagining the scene of jokes in this study

means the subjects made illustration and the

scene of the joke stories in their heads to see

the events in jokes. This solution was only used

in the stage while trying to understand the

provided jokes. As shown in the excerpt below,

subject used this technique to understand what

happened in the stories appropriately when they

were unfamiliar with the jokes.

"…I had to imagine the situation in jokes 1, 2

and 3 because it helped me to understand

what happened in the stories appropriately...."

(Subject 1, Interview 1)

Translating

The researcher discovered that the subjects

used their L1 to comprehend the first part of

jokes and compose the punchlines when they

had insufficient language ability. The data

below present the students' solution. The use of

translation in trying to understand the jokes in

this study means that the subjects used L1 as

an aid to process L2. Actually, this technique

was used when subjects had insufficient

language ability. Translating into Thai could help

them understand the jokes more easily.

"…I had to think in Thai when reading joke 1,

2, 3… ."

(Subject 1, Interview 1)

The use of translating while composing

punchlines was employed when the subjects

already had an idea of how to complete the

punchlines, but could not express their idea in

English. They, therefore, translated what they

thought in L1 as illustrated in the following

excerpt.

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"…I didn't know how to express my idea to

write the punchlines for joke number 1, 2 and 3. I

solved the problem by thinking in Thai first and

translated the words into English."

(Subject 2, Interview 1)

Putting Oneself in the Situation in the Jokes

For some subjects who did not have any

experience that could be related to the situation

in the jokes, they put themselves in the jokes to

write the punchlines. This technique was only

used in the stage of composing punchlines in

order to manage the difficulty of unfamiliarity,

insufficient language ability and lack of

creativity. As a subject said in the example in

the excerpts below, he put himself in the

situation and considered what they would say in

the punchlines.

"….I solved the problem by supposing that I

was in that situation, like in joke number 1 and

thought what I would say, if I were that person."

(Subject 3, Interview 1)

Using Keywords

The use of keywords from the first part of

the jokes was only used in the stage of

composing punchlines and it was another

technique that the subjects used to manage the

difficulty of insufficient language ability and lack

of creative ideas. According to the data from

semi-structured interviews, this is what a

subject said.

"…I used keywords which are the main words

such as…clever and sweet in joke 3 as a part in

the punchlines…."

(Subject 1, Interview 1)

To conclude, all of the subjects could write

punchlines for jokes by trying to comprehend

the situation in the jokes before they went through

the writing process. However, they perceived that

writing punchlines is difficult because of four

difficulties: lack of creative ideas, inappropriate

length of jokes, unfamiliarity with jokes and

insufficient language ability. They dealt with the

difficulty by re-reading the jokes, connecting jokes

with their own experiences, imagining the scene

of the jokes, translating the jokes, putting

themselves in the situation in the jokes and used

keywords.

Subjects' Writing Process

The subjects used writing process, i.e.

planning, drafting, revising and editing when they

attempted to write the punchlines for 15 jokes

as presented in table 3.

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Table 2 Eight Students' Writing Process in Writing Punchlines

It is clear that all the subjects always used

planning and drafting and some of them used

rewriting, i.e. editing and revising. The detail of

each writing process is described as follows:

Planning

In this study, planning was the first stage

and it refers to setting rough ideas for the

punchlines before starting to write. All subjects

knew that the joke readers expect enjoyment

when they read jokes, so jokes should have a

twist to motivate them to laugh. Therefore, the

subjects had a planning stage since they would

like to write funny punchlines. As a punchline is

usually short compared with other written texts,

the subjects revealed that they did not write an

outline of a punchline. In fact, they simply planned

in their mind what they would put in their own

punchlines. Here are some examples of what

subjects mentioned.

"After I had read the first part of jokes, I tried

to understand what they stories were about,I

Eight Subject's Writing Process

Planning

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

120

Editing

2

2

2

3

3

2

0

3

2

0

0

1

2

2

1

25

Revising

2

2

1

2

3

3

3

1

1

1

1

2

1

0

0

23

Drafting

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

120

Re-writing

Joke 1

Joke 2

Joke 3

Joke 4

Joke 5

Joke 6

Joke 7

Joke 8

Joke 9

Joke 10

Joke 11

Joke 12

Joke 13

Joke 14

Joke 15

Total of frequency of Writing Process

used by Each Subject

Jokes

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organized the idea…and how I would write the

punchlines…I didn't write any plan actually

before writing punchlines because it was very

short…"

(Subject 4, Interview 2)

It can be implied that the subjects did plan

what to write bout they did not actually write any

word or notes when they organized their ideas

for the punchlines.

Drafting

After the subjects planned to write punchlines

in the previous stage, they wrote their own

punchlines immediately. They said that the

punchlines were short, so they could write what

they had had in mind. The data from semi-

structured interview support this idea.

"…I only thought of what I wanted to say or

what would happen and I wrote immediately."

(Subject 2, Interview 4)

However, the full process of drafting was

not clearly shown in the subjects' writing

process because the punchlines were short

sentences but the subjects actually had process

of drafting for their punchlines after planning to

write.

Revising

After the subjects wrote the punchlines, some

of them checked whether they needed to clarify

the ideas or re-organize any words in the

punchlines. To do so, the subjects imagined

themselves as the joke readers so that they may

know what and how to change what they had

written, as the excerpts below show.

"After I wrote punchlines, I had to check

whether the punchlines were relevant to the

stories or not. Moreover, it was a chance to

re-organize my idea and add some words in my

punchlines…after I finished to write the

punchlines, I supposed that I was a reader and

read my punchlines. I thought that, if it made me

laugh, other readers would laugh."

(Subject 1, Interview 1)

It can be concluded that revising helps the

subjects to re-organize the ideas in their

punchlines. It is noteworthy to say that all

subjects were concerned about their readers and

they not only knew the purpose of writing but

also tried to reach the writing objectives.

Editing

It is found that the subjects edited their

punchlines by focusing on grammar mistakes,

spelling, and sentence structure because they

cared about the accuracy of language. Some

illustrations are quoted below.

"I changed grammar mistake and spelling in

joke 4 and 5 when I finished writing the

punchlines."

(Subject 4, Interview 2)

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The findings indicate that the subjects

attempted to look for their own grammatical

mistakes which are one step of self-directed

learning. This might be because they knew that

their punchlines would be read and checked by

other readers. Having a real reader can be an

inspiration for re-writing. However, the subjects

revealed that they did not use revising and

editing with every joke, because they thought

that their punchlines were already suitable.

It was evident that the subjects engaged in

several stages in the writing process; planning,

drafting, revising and editing to write their own

punchlines. Therefore, it means that their

writing process in writing punchlines for jokes

was similar to the typical writing process for other

types of written texts.

Implication and Recommendations

To enable the subjects to understand jokes

and write punchlines on their own, the following

points should be taken into account.

Length of Jokes: With reference to the

result of this study, it is found that too long jokes

may contain too many new or unfamiliar words

and unfamiliar contexts. Consequently, it was

not easy for the subjects to understand some of

the joke stories and to write proper punchlines

This is supported by Walakanon, (2002: 76) as

he says that too long jokes demotivate subjects

to read through the passage. In addition, he

continues that short jokes were more favourable

to most of his subjects and made them feel

interested to read. However, the findings of this

study indicate that too short jokes can also cause

difficulty to the subjects due to insufficient

information for the subjects to read and imagine

the situation of jokes and thus they could

neither understand nor create punchlines. To

lessen their difficulty caused by inappropriate

length of jokes, teachers who select jokes to

use in a language class should be aware of the

number of words in the jokes. However,

considering only the proper number of words is

not enough to select the jokes because there

are other factors such as types of jokes and

language complexity in jokes which the

teachers should consider, as will be described

further.

Type of Jokes: Although there are several

types of jokes like family jokes, school jokes,

doctor and patient jokes, the jokes selected for

ELT should not include the situations which the

students hardly come across such as business

jokes and political jokes because unfamiliar

contexts will obstruct their comprehensibility.

Alderson, (2000: 46), Carrell, (1988: 245) and

Pupipat, (2004: 88) support that, when teachers

select jokes for their language class, they should

consider that their context should not be too far

from the students' background knowledge.

Another possible way is to encourage students

to choose the jokes that they find funny and not

difficult to understand in terms of context;

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teachers can ask students to create new

punchlines (Pecnik, 2001: 3). With reference to

this study, the proper types of jokes that are

easy for students to understand are animal jokes,

family jokes, school jokes, doctor and patient

jokes and daily life jokes. However, these jokes

should also be considered in terms of language

complexity, as discussed in the following topic.

Language Complexity of Jokes: Another

factor to consider whether the jokes are difficult

to understand or not is the language complexity

or the use of vocabulary and sentence

structures in jokes. Words of high frequency and

uncomplicated structure are appropriate to

students who do not have experience in reading

jokes in English. In case that there are too many

difficult words, teachers should simplify those

words by using synonyms or providing

definitions (Pupipat, 2004: 88), otherwise

students might ignore those words which may

be the keywords of the jokes (Walakanon,

2002: 76). However, too much simplification may

distort the use of language. Therefore, it is

better for the teachers to anticipate their

students' difficulty in comprehending jokes

concerning the language.

Language Preparation: Another way to

solve the problem of language proficiency is to

have language preparation especially for weak

students. Teachers should teach students

reading strategies such as reading for main ideas,

finding keywords and guessing meanings from

context clues. Alternatively, teachers can have

students work together to share ideas about the

jokes before they create the punchlines

individually. To do this, students should have

enough time for the reading stage before they

write the punchlines. Moreover, language

complexity should be simplified.

Recommendation for Further Studies

This study reveals that some students had

language difficulties such as vocabulary and

sentence structure, which are common problems

among Thai students. Therefore, it is interesting

for other researchers to investigate whether jokes

can be used to train students to get the

meaning of unknown words by using context

clues. Moreover, it is interesting to find out what

other possible problems the students might

encounter and how they solve the problems.

Another interesting research study is whether

we can encourage students to learn culture

through jokes. In this study, many types of jokes

such as political jokes and ethnic jokes were not

included since these jokes contain cultural bias.

These jokes may be difficult for students to

understand. However, it is interesting to find out

whether these jokes can be used with advanced

learners to see how they gain the knowledge of

social and cultural aspects of other countries.

Conclusion

This study aims to investigate how students

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write punchlines for jokes. The study was done

with a group of undergraduate students at King

Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi

who had learned about writing and creative

thinking in their compulsory English course while

undertaking this study. Eight subjects were

selected by voluntary basis and trained in the

components of jokes and how to write punchlines.

Then, fifteen jokes were used in the real

procedure. When the subjects finished writing

the punchlines for each three jokes, they were

interviewed about how they wrote their

punchlines individually. According to the findings,

the subjects went through the writing process:

planning, drafting, revising and editing for

writing punchlines. They, however, had some

difficulties in trying to comprehend the jokes and

in writing the punchlines. The data gained

reveal that most of their difficulties were

interrelated and they used various techniques.

However, it can be suggested that jokes are

interesting materials for language teaching such

as they provide funny and relaxing contexts.

Furthermore, jokes can be exploited to motivate

students to promote their thinking skill. Finally, it

is recommended that the use of jokes to teach

context clues and cultural aspects can be

further studied.

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Appendix A: Jokes for Introducing Punchlines

Joke 1

One Sunday, a preacher told his congre-

gation, "I have good news and bad news." The

good news is that we have enough money to

pay for your new building program. "The bad

news is that it is still out there in your pockets."

www.jokeandhumor.com/index.html

preacher is someone whose job is to give

religious speeches or lead religious ceremonies

in some Christian churches.

congregation is a group of people gathered

together for a religious service.

Joke 2

Lunch

The teacher of the Earth Science class was

lecturing on map reading.

After explaining about latitude, longitude,

degrees and minutes the teacher asked,

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��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

"Suppose I asked you to meet me for lunch at

23 degrees, 4 minutes north latitude and 45

degrees, 15 minutes east longitude...?"

After a confused silence, a voice volunteered,

"I guess you' d be eating alone."

www.jokeandhumor.com/index.html

Joke 3

Jane: Do you like this cake?

Sally: OK! Where did you buy it?

Jane: I made it by myself. Is it delicious?

Sally: I think, if it's possible, you should buy it.

Jane: Why?

Sally: "You taste your cake first."

www.jokeandhumor.com/index.html

Appendix B: Jokes for Training writing

punchlines

Joke 1

Elephant keeper: "My elephant isn't well. Do

you know a good animal doctor?"

Zookeeper"……………….………………

………………………………………………..…"

www.justjoking.com

Joke 2

Sam: "Can you see the movie screen clearly?”

Pam: "Yes, thank you."

Sam: "No one is blocking your view?”

Pam: "Oh no, I can see perfectly."

Sam: "And you're comfortable?"

Pam: "Very comfortable."

Sam "…………………………...……………

………………………………....................……"

www.justjoking.com

Appendix C: Examples of Jokes for Data and

Subjects' Punchlines

Joke 3

Brother: "Why are you so clever?"

Sister: "I take clever pills."

Brother: "Let me have some, then."

Sister: "Take two of these."

Brother: "These aren't pills-they're just sweets."

Sister: "……………………….....……………

……………………………………………………"

www.justjoking.com

pill is a small piece of solid medicine that

you swallow with water: sleeping/contraceptive/

vitamin pills.

Students' punchlines

Subject 1 Oh! My brother! you are clever

already. You know, it is only sweet.

Subject 2 "Oh! You are still stupid, it is not

sweet, but it's sour."

Subject 3 "Now, you are clever, you know, it is

candy."

Joke 4

Teacher: John, how do you spell "crocodile"?

John: "K - R - O - K - O - D - A - I - L"

Teacher: No, that's wrong.

John: Maybe it's wrong, but "…...………

………………….………………………………."

177

��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

www.lotsofjokes.com

Students' punchlines

Subject 1 Maybe it's wrong, but "If I didn't spell

like this, how I know, it's wrong."

Subject 2 Maybe it's wrong, but "It's still

CROCODILE."

Subject 3 Maybe it's wrong, but "KROKODAIL"

is new species."

Joke 7

Little Johnny was playing in the garden and

looking angrily into the sunlight with half-shut

eyes.

His mother came out and said "Why don't

you move out of the sun?"

Johnny answered…………….....………..

….............………………………………………"

www.jokepalace.com/main

Students' punchlines

Subject 1 "I think, I don't need to escape,

because I came first."

Subject 2 "No", "Why didn't the sun escape me

first?"

Subject 3 "I am not dead walker, I am not afraid

the sun."

Joke 8

A man was walking down the street when

he saw a little boy with a dog.

"Does your dog bite?" he asked.

"No", said the boy.

The man bent down to pat the dog and was

immediately bitten.

"I thought you said your dog didn't bite", he

complained.

The boy said, "…………......……………...…

………………………………….....………………"

www.jokepalace.com/main

Students' punchlines

Subject 1 "Sure", it is not my dog", "I don't know

whose' s dog?"

Subject 2 "The dog didn't bite but I didn't say

you can touch its head."

Subject 3 "My dog never bite but it isn't my

dog."

Appendix D: Form of Evaluation of Punchlines

Criteria to evaluate punchline for the joke

Evaluator 1 2 3 Subject number ……..

Score

5 = the most 4 = more 3 = average

2 = less 1 = the lest

Give the score for subjects' punchline by

following the criteria below.

178

��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

Appendix E: Questions of Semi-Structured

Interview

1. Have you ever read the provided jokes

in Thai or English before? If so, please tell the

number of jokes. Did you think, if you have read

the provided jokes, it has the effect with writing

punchlines?

2. How many times did you read the first

part of jokes before you completed them? Why?

3. Did you imagine the scene when you

read the jokes? How does this behavior help

you? Why? Please tell the number of jokes.

4. Did you organize the idea before you

write punchlines? How?

5. Did you note down or write what you

want before you write the punchlines? Please

explain.

6. Did you think in Thai before you

complete the jokes? Please tell the number of

jokes.

7. Did you use vocabulary, phrase or

sentence to be a part of punchlines? Please

explain.

8. From the provided jokes, did you think

what numbers of jokes were difficult for you?

Why? How could you manage the difficulties in

Relevance Communication Creativity Fun

Punchline of Joke

Number 1 ________ _____________ ________ ___________

2 ________ _____________ ________ ___________

3 ________ _____________ ________ ___________

4 ________ _____________ ________ ___________

5 ________ _____________ ________ ___________

6 ________ _____________ ________ ___________

7 ________ _____________ ________ ___________

8 ________ _____________ ________ ___________

9 ________ _____________ ________ ___________

10 ________ _____________ ________ ___________

11 ________ _____________ ________ ___________

12 ________ _____________ ________ ___________

13 ________ _____________ ________ ___________

14 ________ _____________ ________ ___________

15 ________ _____________ ________ ___________

Criteria

179

��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

Charisopon Inthapat received his Master Degree in Applied Linguis-

tics in English Language Teaching from King Mongkut's University of

Technology Thonburi and Bachelor Degree in Business Administration

in Accounting of Siam University. Present, he is part time instructor at

King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi, South-East Asia

University and Sripatum University (Chonburi). In part, he was part time

instructor at Bangkok University and Panyapiwat Institute of Technology

Dr. Ananya Tuksinwarajarn received her B.Ed. (SWU), M.Ed. (SWU),

Cert. (Talkbase, AIT) Ph.D. Education-TESOL (The University of

Mississippi.). She is currently a lecturer at King Mongkut's University of

Technology Thonburi.

Kunlawadee Yamket received her B.A. (CU), M.Ed. (CU), M.Sc.

(Aston U. in Birmingham, UK.). She is currently a lecturer at King

Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi.

writing punchlines?

9. Did you relate the situation and your

previous experience when you read the jokes?

Please explain.

10. Did you re-read or check the stories

when you finished punchlines? Why?

11. (From item 10) Did you change or

re-write your punchlines after you complete

jokes? How?

12. Did you think, what make you laugh,

when you read the jokes? How can you make

the jokes in order to motivate the readers to

laugh?

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183

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Dr. Dome Kraipakorn received his Doctoral Degree in History from

Chulalongkorn University, and Master of History from Thammasat

University. He is currently Lecturer in Faculty of Liberal Arts,

Panyapiwat Institute of Technology

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