Physiological basis of Physiological basis of human bechaviourhuman bechaviour

Type of nervous system Type of nervous system

Type of nervous system determines rate Type of nervous system determines rate of creation of new conditioned reflexes, of creation of new conditioned reflexes, strength and stability of these reflexes, strength and stability of these reflexes, intensity of external and internal intensity of external and internal inhibition, rate of irradiation and inhibition, rate of irradiation and concentration of nervous processes, the concentration of nervous processes, the capacity for induction and less or grater capacity for induction and less or grater possibility for development of possibility for development of abnormalities of higher nervous activity. abnormalities of higher nervous activity.

Type of nervous systemType of nervous system after I.P. Pavlov after I.P. Pavlov I.P. Pavlov classifies types of higher nervous activity according to I.P. Pavlov classifies types of higher nervous activity according to

several attributes that considered as most reliable indices of higher several attributes that considered as most reliable indices of higher nervous activity. These were intensity of the excitation and nervous activity. These were intensity of the excitation and inhibition, the ratio of these processes in central nervous system inhibition, the ratio of these processes in central nervous system and their mobility, that is rate at which excitation was replaced by and their mobility, that is rate at which excitation was replaced by inhibition and wise versa. In experimental practice the following four inhibition and wise versa. In experimental practice the following four principle types of higher nervous activity are met: principle types of higher nervous activity are met:

1) strong unbalanced type, characterized by predominance of 1) strong unbalanced type, characterized by predominance of excitation over inhibition; excitation over inhibition;

2) strong well-balanced active type, characterized by high mobility of 2) strong well-balanced active type, characterized by high mobility of nerve processes; nerve processes;

3) strong well-balanced passive type, characterized by low mobility 3) strong well-balanced passive type, characterized by low mobility of nerve processes; of nerve processes;

4) weak type, characterized by extremely weak development of both 4) weak type, characterized by extremely weak development of both excitation and inhibition, which cause fatigue and low workability. excitation and inhibition, which cause fatigue and low workability.

The first and second The first and second signaling system signaling system

The analysis and synthesis of the direct stimuli from surroundings first The analysis and synthesis of the direct stimuli from surroundings first signal system performs. This includes impressions, sensations. This signal system performs. This includes impressions, sensations. This functional mechanism is common in human and animals. In the course of functional mechanism is common in human and animals. In the course of his social development and labor activity second signal system, which his social development and labor activity second signal system, which based on using verbal signals, develop. This system includes perception based on using verbal signals, develop. This system includes perception of words, reading and speech. of words, reading and speech.

The development of the second signaling system was incredibly The development of the second signaling system was incredibly broadened and changed quality of higher nervous activity of cerebral broadened and changed quality of higher nervous activity of cerebral hemispheres. Words are signals of other signals. Man uses verbal signals hemispheres. Words are signals of other signals. Man uses verbal signals for everything he perceives through the receptors. Words are abstraction for everything he perceives through the receptors. Words are abstraction of reality and allow generalization, processing of surrounding primary of reality and allow generalization, processing of surrounding primary information. This gives the first general human empiricism and finally information. This gives the first general human empiricism and finally science, the instrument of man's higher orientation in the environment and science, the instrument of man's higher orientation in the environment and its own self. its own self.

So, second signaling system is socially determined. Outside the society, So, second signaling system is socially determined. Outside the society, without association with other people second signaling system is not without association with other people second signaling system is not developed. developed.

Choleric and phlegmatic Choleric and phlegmatic temperamenttemperament

Melancholic and sanguine Melancholic and sanguine temperamenttemperament

Nerve substrate of Nerve substrate of speech speech There are two aspects of communication: sensory, involving There are two aspects of communication: sensory, involving reading, hearing of speech, and second, the motor aspect, reading, hearing of speech, and second, the motor aspect, involving vocalization and its control. It is known, that lesion involving vocalization and its control. It is known, that lesion of posterior portion of the superior temporal gyrus, which is of posterior portion of the superior temporal gyrus, which is called Wernicke's area, and is part of auditory associative called Wernicke's area, and is part of auditory associative cortex, make impossible to the person to interpret the cortex, make impossible to the person to interpret the meanings of words. This Wernicke's area is located in meanings of words. This Wernicke's area is located in dominant hemisphere, which is usually the left. The process dominant hemisphere, which is usually the left. The process of speech includes two principle stages of mentation: of speech includes two principle stages of mentation: formation of thoughts to be expressed and motor control of formation of thoughts to be expressed and motor control of vocalization. The formation of thoughts is the function of vocalization. The formation of thoughts is the function of associative areas in the brain. Wernicke's area in the associative areas in the brain. Wernicke's area in the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus is most posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus is most important for this ability. Broca's speech area lies in important for this ability. Broca's speech area lies in prefrontal and premotor facial region in the left hemisphere. prefrontal and premotor facial region in the left hemisphere. The skilled motor patterns for control of the larynx, lips, The skilled motor patterns for control of the larynx, lips, mouth, respiratory system and other accessory muscles of mouth, respiratory system and other accessory muscles of speech are all initiated from this area. speech are all initiated from this area.

ArticulationArticulation Articulation means movements of mouth, tongue, larynx, Articulation means movements of mouth, tongue, larynx,

vocal cords, and so forth that are responsible for the vocal cords, and so forth that are responsible for the intonations, timing, and rapid changes in intensities of the intonations, timing, and rapid changes in intensities of the sequential sounds. The facial and laryngeal regions of the sequential sounds. The facial and laryngeal regions of the motor cortex activate these muscles, and the cerebellum, motor cortex activate these muscles, and the cerebellum, basal ganglia, and sensory cortex all help control the basal ganglia, and sensory cortex all help control the sequences and intensities of muscle contractions. sequences and intensities of muscle contractions. Transmitters such as dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin Transmitters such as dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin and certain neuropeptides transmit their signals by what is and certain neuropeptides transmit their signals by what is referred to as slow synaptic transmission. referred to as slow synaptic transmission.

The resulting change in the function of the nerve cell may The resulting change in the function of the nerve cell may last from seconds to hours. This type of signal transmission last from seconds to hours. This type of signal transmission is responsible for a number of basal functions in the is responsible for a number of basal functions in the nervous system and is of importance for e.g. alertness and nervous system and is of importance for e.g. alertness and mood. Slow synaptic transmission can also control fast mood. Slow synaptic transmission can also control fast synaptic transmission, which in turn enables e.g. speech, synaptic transmission, which in turn enables e.g. speech, movements and sensory perception.movements and sensory perception.

Development of signaling Development of signaling systems in children systems in children

The ability of a full-term baby to develop temporary The ability of a full-term baby to develop temporary connections of the first signaling system arises in a few connections of the first signaling system arises in a few days after the birth.. In the first six months of life days after the birth.. In the first six months of life speech sounds mean little to a child. They are simply speech sounds mean little to a child. They are simply stimuli to the auditory analyzer like any other sounds. stimuli to the auditory analyzer like any other sounds.

The first signs of development of the second signaling The first signs of development of the second signaling system appear during the second half of the first year system appear during the second half of the first year of life. If a person or an object is named and shown to of life. If a person or an object is named and shown to a child many times, reaction to this name develops. a child many times, reaction to this name develops.

Later after leaning a few words, a child begins to name Later after leaning a few words, a child begins to name objects itself. Finally, at a later time he uses a stock of objects itself. Finally, at a later time he uses a stock of words to communicate with other people. words to communicate with other people.

Functions of speech Functions of speech Main functions of speech are communicative, Main functions of speech are communicative,

regulatory, programming and gives general regulatory, programming and gives general notion about surroundings. Communicative notion about surroundings. Communicative function permits exchange of information function permits exchange of information between people. Such a function is also between people. Such a function is also present in animals, which use for this aim present in animals, which use for this aim vocalization of different intensity to warn about vocalization of different intensity to warn about danger or express positive and negative danger or express positive and negative emotions. People use verbal signals for emotions. People use verbal signals for everything he perceives through the receptors. everything he perceives through the receptors. Words are abstraction of reality and allow Words are abstraction of reality and allow generalization, processing of surrounding generalization, processing of surrounding primary information. primary information.

Attention as psychical Attention as psychical function function

Attention is selectiveness of psychical Attention is selectiveness of psychical processes or any kind of mental activity, which processes or any kind of mental activity, which helps in getting and processing the information. helps in getting and processing the information. There are sensory, motor, intellectual and There are sensory, motor, intellectual and emotional forms of attention, depending to kind emotional forms of attention, depending to kind of activity of a person. of activity of a person.

There are voluntary and involuntary levels of There are voluntary and involuntary levels of attention. Involuntary attention is present from attention. Involuntary attention is present from the birth of man. Voluntary attention develops the birth of man. Voluntary attention develops in life course, due to mental activity, formation in life course, due to mental activity, formation of speech function and studying languages. of speech function and studying languages.

Voluntary attention develops in life course, due Voluntary attention develops in life course, due to mental activity, formation of speech function to mental activity, formation of speech function and studying languages.and studying languages.

Physiological Physiological mechanisms of attention mechanisms of attention

Involuntary attention is controlled by lower portion of Involuntary attention is controlled by lower portion of brain stem and midbrain, where centers of roof reflexes brain stem and midbrain, where centers of roof reflexes are locates. Voluntary attention appears as a result of are locates. Voluntary attention appears as a result of higher cortical activity in visual, auditory, motor areas higher cortical activity in visual, auditory, motor areas and so on. and so on.

Lesion of these cortical areas leads to such Lesion of these cortical areas leads to such disturbances in processing special sensory information disturbances in processing special sensory information as ignore of stimuli of different modality. Intellectual as ignore of stimuli of different modality. Intellectual attention appears because of function of prefrontal attention appears because of function of prefrontal associative cortical area. The limbic system of the brain associative cortical area. The limbic system of the brain is responsible for emotional attention. is responsible for emotional attention.

Memory as psychical Memory as psychical function function

Memory function helps fixing of perceived information, Memory function helps fixing of perceived information, keeping it in verbal form or as traces of percept stimuli keeping it in verbal form or as traces of percept stimuli and recognizing of this information in proper time. and recognizing of this information in proper time. Genetic memory keeps information about body Genetic memory keeps information about body structure and forms of its behavior. Biological memory structure and forms of its behavior. Biological memory is presented in both philogenetic and ontogenetic is presented in both philogenetic and ontogenetic forms. The immune memory and psychical memory for forms. The immune memory and psychical memory for instance, belong to ontogenetic memory. instance, belong to ontogenetic memory.

General characteristics of memory are duration, General characteristics of memory are duration, strength of keeping the information and exactness of its strength of keeping the information and exactness of its recognizing. In man mechanisms of perception and recognizing. In man mechanisms of perception and keeping the information are developed better, keeping the information are developed better, comparing to other mammalians. comparing to other mammalians.

According to duration is concerned short-time and According to duration is concerned short-time and long-time memory; in relation to kind of information – long-time memory; in relation to kind of information – sensory and logic.sensory and logic.

Thinking process as Thinking process as psychical function psychical function

The prefrontal association area is essential to carrying out thought The prefrontal association area is essential to carrying out thought processes in the mind. This presumably results from some of the processes in the mind. This presumably results from some of the same capabilities of the prefrontal cortex that allow it to plan motor same capabilities of the prefrontal cortex that allow it to plan motor activities. activities.

The prefrontal association area is frequently described as The prefrontal association area is frequently described as important for elaboration of thoughts to store on a short-term basis important for elaboration of thoughts to store on a short-term basis “working memories” that are used to analyze each new thought “working memories” that are used to analyze each new thought while it is entering the braine. The somatic, visual, and auditory while it is entering the braine. The somatic, visual, and auditory association areas all meet one another in the posterior part of the association areas all meet one another in the posterior part of the superior temporal lobe. This area is especially highly developed in superior temporal lobe. This area is especially highly developed in the dominant side of the brain – the left side in almost all right-the dominant side of the brain – the left side in almost all right-handed people. handed people.

It plays the greatest single role of any part of cerebral cortex in the It plays the greatest single role of any part of cerebral cortex in the higher comprehensive levels of brain function that we call higher comprehensive levels of brain function that we call intelligence. This zone is also called general interpretative area, intelligence. This zone is also called general interpretative area, the gnostic area, the knowing area, tertiary association area. It is the gnostic area, the knowing area, tertiary association area. It is best known as Wernike’s area in honor of the neurologist who first best known as Wernike’s area in honor of the neurologist who first describes it. describes it.

Nerve substrate of Nerve substrate of memory memory

It’s discovered the nervous substrate of long-It’s discovered the nervous substrate of long-term memory is mostly cerebral cortex. The term memory is mostly cerebral cortex. The most important regions are temporal lobes, most important regions are temporal lobes, prefrontal area and hippocampus. prefrontal area and hippocampus. Experimental researches revealed that some Experimental researches revealed that some thalamic nuclei and reticular formation take thalamic nuclei and reticular formation take part in memory function. part in memory function.

Reticular formation gives ascending stimulatory Reticular formation gives ascending stimulatory influences to cerebral cortex, which help in influences to cerebral cortex, which help in keeping awake condition of cortex and keeping awake condition of cortex and provides voluntary attention. provides voluntary attention.

Physiological Physiological mechanisms of memorymechanisms of memory

At the molecular level, the habitation effect in the sensory terminal At the molecular level, the habitation effect in the sensory terminal results from progressive closure of calcium channels through the results from progressive closure of calcium channels through the presynaptic terminal membrane. presynaptic terminal membrane.

In case of facilitation, the molecular mechanism is believed to be In case of facilitation, the molecular mechanism is believed to be following. Facilitated synapse releases serotonin that activates following. Facilitated synapse releases serotonin that activates adenylyl cyclase in postsynaptic cell. Then cyclic AMP activates adenylyl cyclase in postsynaptic cell. Then cyclic AMP activates proteinkinase that then causes phosphorylation of proteins. This proteinkinase that then causes phosphorylation of proteins. This blocks potassium channels for minutes or even weeks. Lack of blocks potassium channels for minutes or even weeks. Lack of potassium causes prolonged action potential in the presynaptic potassium causes prolonged action potential in the presynaptic terminal that leads to activation of calcium pores, allowing terminal that leads to activation of calcium pores, allowing tremendous quantities of calcium ions to enter the sensory tremendous quantities of calcium ions to enter the sensory terminal. This causes greatly increased transmitter release, terminal. This causes greatly increased transmitter release, thereby markedly facilitating synaptic transmission. thereby markedly facilitating synaptic transmission.

Thus in a very indirect way, the associative effect of stimulation Thus in a very indirect way, the associative effect of stimulation the facilitator neuron at the same time that the sensory neuron is the facilitator neuron at the same time that the sensory neuron is stimulated causes prolonged increase in excitatory sensitivity of stimulated causes prolonged increase in excitatory sensitivity of the sensory terminal, and this establishes the memory trace.the sensory terminal, and this establishes the memory trace.

Short and long term Short and long term memorymemory

Eric Kandel showed initially that weaker stimuli give rise to a form of short Eric Kandel showed initially that weaker stimuli give rise to a form of short term memory, which lasts from minutes to hours. The mechanism for this term memory, which lasts from minutes to hours. The mechanism for this "short term memory" is that particular ion channels are affected in such a "short term memory" is that particular ion channels are affected in such a manner that more calcium ions will enter the nerve terminal. This leads to manner that more calcium ions will enter the nerve terminal. This leads to an increased amount of transmitter release at the synapse, and thereby to an increased amount of transmitter release at the synapse, and thereby to an amplification of the reflex. This change is due to a phosphorylation of an amplification of the reflex. This change is due to a phosphorylation of certain ion channel proteins, that is utilizing the molecular mechanism certain ion channel proteins, that is utilizing the molecular mechanism described by Paul Greengard. described by Paul Greengard.

A more powerful and long lasting stimulus will result in a form of long term A more powerful and long lasting stimulus will result in a form of long term memory that can remain for weeks. The stronger stimulus will give rise to memory that can remain for weeks. The stronger stimulus will give rise to increased levels of the messenger molecule cAMP and thereby protein increased levels of the messenger molecule cAMP and thereby protein kinase A. These signals will reach the cell nucleus and cause a change in kinase A. These signals will reach the cell nucleus and cause a change in a number of proteins in the synapse. The formation of certain proteins will a number of proteins in the synapse. The formation of certain proteins will increase, while others will decrease. The final result is that the shape of increase, while others will decrease. The final result is that the shape of the synapse can increase and thereby create a long lasting increase of the synapse can increase and thereby create a long lasting increase of synaptic function. synaptic function.

In contrast to short term memory, long term memory requires that new In contrast to short term memory, long term memory requires that new proteins are formed. If this synthesis of new proteins is prevented, the proteins are formed. If this synthesis of new proteins is prevented, the long term memory will be blocked but not the short term memory.long term memory will be blocked but not the short term memory.

Consciousness and its Consciousness and its mechanisms mechanisms

Consciousness is special form of perceiving Consciousness is special form of perceiving surroundings and goal-orientated activity of person with surroundings and goal-orientated activity of person with interrelation to surroundings. Only social life forms interrelation to surroundings. Only social life forms consciousness. It involves life experience of entire consciousness. It involves life experience of entire society. society.

This ability of prefrontal areas to keep track of many This ability of prefrontal areas to keep track of many bits of information could well explain abilities to bits of information could well explain abilities to prognosticate, do plan for the future, delay action in prognosticate, do plan for the future, delay action in response to incoming sensory signals, consider the response to incoming sensory signals, consider the consequences of motor actions even before they are consequences of motor actions even before they are performed, solve complicated mathematical, legal, or performed, solve complicated mathematical, legal, or philosophical problems, correlate all avenues of philosophical problems, correlate all avenues of information in diagnosing rare diseases and control our information in diagnosing rare diseases and control our activities in accord with moral laws.activities in accord with moral laws.

Notion “emotions” Notion “emotions”

Emotions are aspect of higher nervous activity that characterize Emotions are aspect of higher nervous activity that characterize subjective attitude of person to various stimuli arousal in subjective attitude of person to various stimuli arousal in surroundings. surroundings.

Emotional status reflects actual needs of man Emotional status reflects actual needs of man and helps in its realization. and helps in its realization.

Nervous structures Nervous structures and emotional and emotional reactionsreactions

Areas of the Areas of the brain that play brain that play an important an important role in therole in the production of production of emotions emotions include the include the reticular reticular formation,formation, the the limbic system, limbic system, and the and the cerebral cortex. cerebral cortex.

Classification of emotionsClassification of emotions

According to subjective status there are positive and According to subjective status there are positive and negative emotions. Negative emotions are sthenic negative emotions. Negative emotions are sthenic (aggression, affect) that stimulate human activity and (aggression, affect) that stimulate human activity and asthenia (horror, sadness, depression) that inhibit asthenia (horror, sadness, depression) that inhibit behaviour. Lower or elementary emotions are caused behaviour. Lower or elementary emotions are caused by organic needs of man or animal as hanger, thirst by organic needs of man or animal as hanger, thirst and survival, so on). and survival, so on).

In humans even lover emotions undergo to cortical In humans even lover emotions undergo to cortical control and are brining up. Social, historical and cultural control and are brining up. Social, historical and cultural customs cause also formation of higher emotions that customs cause also formation of higher emotions that regulates public and private relations in society. Higher regulates public and private relations in society. Higher emotions appear due to consciousness and may inhibit emotions appear due to consciousness and may inhibit lower emotions.lower emotions.

Appearance of emotions Appearance of emotions in ontogenesisin ontogenesis

In newborns emotions of horror, anger, In newborns emotions of horror, anger, pleasure, are revealed just after birth. Hunger, pleasure, are revealed just after birth. Hunger, pain, getting cool, wet bedclothes cause in pain, getting cool, wet bedclothes cause in newborn child negative emotions with grimace newborn child negative emotions with grimace of suffering and crying. Sudden new sound or of suffering and crying. Sudden new sound or loss equilibrium causes horror and loss of free loss equilibrium causes horror and loss of free movement causes anger. movement causes anger.

Final formation of human emotions develops Final formation of human emotions develops gradually with maturation of nervous and gradually with maturation of nervous and endocrine regulatory systems and needs up endocrine regulatory systems and needs up brining. brining.

Biological importance of Biological importance of emotionsemotions

Emotions are important element of human Emotions are important element of human behaviour, creation of conditioned reflexes and behaviour, creation of conditioned reflexes and mentation. mentation.

Negative emotions give fusty evaluation of Negative emotions give fusty evaluation of current situation does it useful or not. current situation does it useful or not. Mobilizing of efforts helps then to satisfy Mobilizing of efforts helps then to satisfy current needs of person. current needs of person.

Positive emotions help to put in memory Positive emotions help to put in memory scheme of behaviour, which was useful and scheme of behaviour, which was useful and have lead to success.have lead to success.

External manifestations External manifestations of emotions of emotions

Motor manifestations of emotions are mimic, Motor manifestations of emotions are mimic, gesticulation, body posture and walk. gesticulation, body posture and walk.

Emotional excitation usually is followed by autonomic Emotional excitation usually is followed by autonomic reactions as blush, dilation of pupils; increase of reactions as blush, dilation of pupils; increase of arterial pressure, rate of heartbeat and breathing. Level arterial pressure, rate of heartbeat and breathing. Level of catecholamines in blood and 17-oxycetosteroides in of catecholamines in blood and 17-oxycetosteroides in urine rises also. urine rises also.

Positive emotion may activate parasympathetic division Positive emotion may activate parasympathetic division of autonomic nervous system. Severe emotional of autonomic nervous system. Severe emotional excitation may result in visceral disorders because of excitation may result in visceral disorders because of circulatory disturbances and excess hormones in circulatory disturbances and excess hormones in blood. blood.

Nerve substrate of Nerve substrate of emotionsemotions

Several limbic structures are particularly concerned with the Several limbic structures are particularly concerned with the affective nature of sensory sensations – that is whether the affective nature of sensory sensations – that is whether the sensations are pleasant or unpleasant. The major rew3ard sensations are pleasant or unpleasant. The major rew3ard centres have been found to be located along the course of the centres have been found to be located along the course of the medial forebrain bundle, especially in the lateral and ventromedial medial forebrain bundle, especially in the lateral and ventromedial nuclei of the hypothalamus. nuclei of the hypothalamus.

Less potent reward centres are found in the septum, amygdala, Less potent reward centres are found in the septum, amygdala, certain areas of the thalamus, basal ganglia, and extending certain areas of the thalamus, basal ganglia, and extending downward into the basal tegmentum of the mesencephalon. The downward into the basal tegmentum of the mesencephalon. The most potent areas for punishment and escape tendencies have most potent areas for punishment and escape tendencies have been found in the central grey area surrounding the aqueduct of been found in the central grey area surrounding the aqueduct of Sylvius in the mesencephalon and extending upward into the Sylvius in the mesencephalon and extending upward into the periventricular zones of the hypothalamus and thalamus. periventricular zones of the hypothalamus and thalamus.

Less potent punishment areas are found in some locations in the Less potent punishment areas are found in some locations in the amygdala and the hippocampus. Electrical recording from the amygdala and the hippocampus. Electrical recording from the brain show that newly experienced types of sensory stimuli almost brain show that newly experienced types of sensory stimuli almost excite areas in the cerebral cortex.excite areas in the cerebral cortex.

Theories of emotionsTheories of emotions

Biological theory of emotions (P.K. Anochkin) considers that life Biological theory of emotions (P.K. Anochkin) considers that life course includes two main stages of behavioural act: 1) formation course includes two main stages of behavioural act: 1) formation of needs and motivations that results from negative emotions and of needs and motivations that results from negative emotions and 2) satisfaction of needs that leads to positive emotions it case of 2) satisfaction of needs that leads to positive emotions it case of complete accordance of image and result of action. Incomplete complete accordance of image and result of action. Incomplete compliance of suspected and real result of action cause negative compliance of suspected and real result of action cause negative emotions and continues behavioural act. emotions and continues behavioural act.

Information theory of emotions (P.V. Simonov)considers that Information theory of emotions (P.V. Simonov)considers that emotions reflect strength human of need and possibility of its emotions reflect strength human of need and possibility of its satisfaction in current moment. In absence of needs emotions satisfaction in current moment. In absence of needs emotions can’t arise. There is also not emotional excitation, if getting excess can’t arise. There is also not emotional excitation, if getting excess information about mode of satisfaction this need. Lac of information about mode of satisfaction this need. Lac of information already causes negative emotions that help to recall to information already causes negative emotions that help to recall to mind life experience and to gather information about current mind life experience and to gather information about current situation.situation.

Neurotransmission of Neurotransmission of emotional excitationemotional excitation

Emotional excitation is spread in the brain due to Emotional excitation is spread in the brain due to variety of neurotransmitters (noradrenalin, variety of neurotransmitters (noradrenalin, acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine and neuropeptides acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine and neuropeptides including opioides. including opioides.

Positive emotions may be explained by revealing Positive emotions may be explained by revealing catecholamines and negative emotions, aggression catecholamines and negative emotions, aggression result from production acetylcholine in the brain. result from production acetylcholine in the brain. Serotonin inhibits both kinds of emotions. Serotonin inhibits both kinds of emotions.

Decrease of serotonin in blood is followed by Decrease of serotonin in blood is followed by groundless anxiety and inhibition of noradrenergic groundless anxiety and inhibition of noradrenergic transmission results in sadness.transmission results in sadness.

Structure Structure of behavioural actof behavioural act

According to theory of functional systems (Anochking) According to theory of functional systems (Anochking) there are such stages of behavioural act: there are such stages of behavioural act:

1) afferent synthesis; 2) taking of decision; 1) afferent synthesis; 2) taking of decision; 3) acceptor of result of action; 3) acceptor of result of action; 4) efferent synthesis (or programming of action);4) efferent synthesis (or programming of action); 5) performing of action; 5) performing of action; 6) evaluation of final result of action. 6) evaluation of final result of action. Due to converging and processing of both sensory Due to converging and processing of both sensory

information and memory traces afferent synthesis in information and memory traces afferent synthesis in the brain is performed. Taking of decision is based on the brain is performed. Taking of decision is based on afferent synthesis by choosing optimal variant of afferent synthesis by choosing optimal variant of action.action.

Neuronal mechanisms of Neuronal mechanisms of behaviourbehaviour

In the very lowest animals olfactory cortex plays essential roles in In the very lowest animals olfactory cortex plays essential roles in determining whether the animal eats a particular food, whether the determining whether the animal eats a particular food, whether the smell of a particular object suggest danger, and whether the odour smell of a particular object suggest danger, and whether the odour is sexually inviting, thus making decisions that are of life-or-death is sexually inviting, thus making decisions that are of life-or-death importance. The hippocampus originated as part of olfactory importance. The hippocampus originated as part of olfactory cortex. cortex.

Very early in the evolutionary development of the brain, the Very early in the evolutionary development of the brain, the hippocampus presumably becomes a critical decision-making hippocampus presumably becomes a critical decision-making neuronal mechanism, determining the importance of the incoming neuronal mechanism, determining the importance of the incoming sensory signals. Once this critical decision-making capability had sensory signals. Once this critical decision-making capability had been established, presumably the remainder of the brain began to been established, presumably the remainder of the brain began to call on it for the same decision making. Therefore, if the call on it for the same decision making. Therefore, if the hippocampus says that a neuronal signal is important, the hippocampus says that a neuronal signal is important, the information is likely to be committed to memory. information is likely to be committed to memory.

Thus, a person rapidly become habituated to indifferent stimuli but Thus, a person rapidly become habituated to indifferent stimuli but learns assiduously any sensory experience that causes either learns assiduously any sensory experience that causes either pleasure or pain. It has been suggested that hippocampus pleasure or pain. It has been suggested that hippocampus provides the drive that causes translation of short-term memory provides the drive that causes translation of short-term memory into long-term memory.into long-term memory.

Biological feedback for Biological feedback for coping stresscoping stress