Part 1: Overview

A History of Migration ➤The Hmong ethno-linguistic group originated in the area around the Yellow River & Yangtze River of China, where they lived for at least a few thousand years.

➤In the late 1700s and early 1800s, they began moving into the highlands of Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam.

➤After involvement in the Vietnam War, many Hmong began immigrating to the United States (this has dramatically shaped Hmong-American culture and will be addressed later). ➤Besides a few graduate students, there were no Hmong living in the US before 1975.

➤ Today, there are about 7 million Hmong in the world, and 260,000 in the United States. ➤ California has the largest Hmong population in the US (91,224), followed by Minnesota (66,181), Wisconsin (49,240), and North Carolina (10,854). ➤ Michigan has the fifth largest Hmong population, with 5,924. ➤ There are significant Hmong populations in the Detroit-Wayne-Warren metro area, which includes Pontiac, and the Lansing-East Lansing- Owosso metro area.

China 4,500,000 Vietnam 1,068,189 Laos 460,000 Thailand 151,080 United States 260,073 France 15,000 Other 8,446 Total 6,462,788

Demographic Information

Income ! US Hmong median family income in 2010 was $47,465, compared to $62,112 among entire

US population. ! Hmong per capita income was $11,012, compared to $26,942 in overall population.

! 25.3% of Hmong families lived below the poverty line, compared to 10.3% of US families. ! But— the poverty rate has fallen from nearly 70% in 1989. ! The Hmong homeownership rate increased from 13% in 1990 to 46.4% in 2010.

Education ! 37.7% of Hmong American adults over 25 have less than a high school diploma, compared to

14.7% of the overall US population. ! 14.5% have earned bachelor’s degree or higher, compared to 28% of overall population. ! But— both of these percentages have more than doubled since 1990. ! Hmong men’s educational attainment exceeds Hmong women. ! But— Hmong women have narrowed that gap, and perhaps even eliminated and surpassed it,

since 1990.

Language and Communication ! There are many dialects in the Hmong language family, but most Hmong in the United

States speak either White Hmong or Green Hmong. ! The dialects are usually mutually intelligible, but White Hmong is considered simpler and

is often favored by young people, and is the most common dialect for interpretation and mass communication.

! Second generation Hmong and beyond are likely to understand Hmong, but some may not speak it as well.

! Historically, Hmong is an oral language. The Hmong had no established written system before missionaries began transcribing using the Western alphabet in the 1950s.

! Memory, oral history, and oral communication are very important to Hmong culture.

Family and Social Structure ! Traditionally, Hmong society is patriarchal, and organized around clans with a “profound

respect for elders and ancestral ties.” ! Extended family is highly valued and it is important to maintain close connections within

one. Ideally, members of extended families live close to one another.” ! Multigenerational homes are very common. This is due to both culture and socioeconomic

difficulties.

Belief and Tradition ! Traditional spiritual practices for Hmong include animism, which emphasizes respect for

the spirits that inhabit objects and the natural world, and ancestor worship, which depends on shaman to communicate between the living and spirit worlds.

! Starting in the 1950s, missionaries in Laos began converting Hmong to Christianity.

! In the 1970s and 1980s, Christian relief organizations played a significant role in helping the Hmong people, both in Southeast Asian refugee camps and as sponsors in the US. This introduced many more Hmong people to Christianity and influenced their conversion.

! Roughly 50% of Hmong-Americans are Christian. Many combine traditional Hmong and Christian spirituality.

! The Hmong New Year is a significant and festive tradition that celebrates harvest, family, community, and ancestors

Hospitality ! Hmong take pride in being gracious and welcoming hosts who feed their guests. ! Hmong-Americans are generally delighted when non-Hmong show interest in their culture,

and are happy to share and discuss it. ! “Only the house is crowded; the people are not.”

Food ! “We don't have any formal recipes per say, but it's pretty much stir-fry any vegetables

with meat, vegetable soup with or without meat. It's pretty simple. We have adopted cuisine from other cooking, like Laotian, Thai, and Vietnamese.”

! Vegetables grown in home and community gardens are an important part of Hmong-American food and culture.

Pa Ndau~ “Flower Cloth” ! Hmong embroidery ! The older type of pa ndau featured abstract designs

and was used in clothing. ! Later, Hmong began using pa ndau to tell stories. It

became an especially important form of expression, preservation of memory, and income in refugee camps.

Part 2: The Experience of Hmong-Americans

Based on observations and interviews I conducted at the Oakland Hmong Baptist Church in Pontiac, Michigan, and oral histories collected by Martha Bloomfield in Hmong Americans in Michigan.

“What do you wish your teachers had known about Hmong culture?” Tou Vang: “The history… The Secret War… General Vang Pao, who passed away a few years

ago.”

The Secret War “The Secret War, the biggest covert operation in CIA history, and its ramifications would tear into the history of a

people, break into the pages of their lives, and let the winds of war and earth blow them all over the world…”

~Kao Kalia Yang (in The Latehomecomer)

! Term for the secret US involvement in Laos that occurred during the Vietnam War. ! Between 1959 and 1975, the US trained and recruited Hmong agents to gather intelligence

and fight the Vietnamese and Lao Communists. ! 35,000 Hmong died fighting in the Secret War. ! Laotian Hmong were already a persecuted minority, but collaboration with the US

intensified it. ! So, when the Americans pulled out, they needed to get out of Laos.

General Vang Pao ! Hmong-American hero. ! Led an army of Hmong soldiers and others who were loyal to the Royal Lao government. ! Supported the American forces in exchange for military and humanitarian aid for the

Hmong people. ! Airlifted out of Laos to a military base in Thailand in May 1975, along with his military

supporters and their families. ! Immigrated to the United States, where he was a leader in the Hmong-American community

and a political advocate for Hmong rights. ! Died on January 6, 2011 in Clovis, California. ! A 5-day funeral was held in Fresno. Numerous US veterans organizations attended. ! Thousands of Michigan Hmong mourned his death.

Refugee Camps “We did not have a life in the refugee camp. We wanted to go to school. Our parents had no future. Many people died of sickness and diseases. Every day, the sound of mourning echoed through the camp. It was a scary place. Thai police guards often beat the people who tried to get out to buy food and essentials. Stories of rapes and beatings were an everyday occurrence. The only fun times were Bible studies, soccer games, and volleyball games. Nothing much happened, except death, sickness, and the sounds of mourning. No one wanted to be in the camp. We were there to get away from the Communists. We were afraid to return but had no place to go. Our lives were impaired. That's how we decided to leave and come to America.”

~T. Christoper Thao, as told to Martha Bloomfield

Adjusting To Life in the United States “With freedom and opportunities come incentives to compete and do well. This is one of the outstanding Hmong traits in life: desire to compete (sib twv), to excel and improve one's living conditions (sib twv ua neej).”

~Gary Yia Lee

! First generation Hmong immigrants had to adapt from slash-and-burn subsistence farming in Laos, to confinement and uncertainty in refugee camps, to life in a modern capitalist society.

! Gardening, raising chickens, and fishing have helped many Hmong, especially the elderly, maintain ties to life in Laos.

! Many Hmong have become entrepreneurs. In Michigan, Hmong own over 100 restaurants that serve Chinese and Thai cuisine.

! 37% of employed Hmong work in manufacturing. Many also work in healthcare and social services.

! As more and more Hmong pursue post-secondary education, they are increasingly entering fields like teaching, information technology, engineering, medicine, and journalism.

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Hmong-Americans and Education “My parents saw coming to America as an opportunity to do something good for their family… They told us, ‘We halted our education. We worked so you could go to school. You are our legacy.’ That's why they worked so hard. That's why they are here. They pride themselves in our education.”

~Goe Sheng Xiong, as told to Martha Bloomfield

! Hmong parents tend to value education highly, but their children still face challenges, especially because of language barriers and economic insecurity.

! Bilingual and ESL services in elementary, middle, and high schools are very important. ! Tou said that he really appreciated his high school principal, who asked questions and

wanted to learn about his background and culture. ! He wishes his teachers would have incorporated the culture of their students into the classes.

Even when he learned about the Vietnam War in US History, Hmong were never mentioned.

“What Teachers Can Do To Help Hmong Students” from Learning More About Hmong Students: 1. Teachers should encourage Hmong students to ask questions in class or allow them the opportunity to have an individual conference with the teacher after class to go over schoolwork.

2. Teachers should check for understanding and allow wait-time for questions and clarification prior to testing. Academic-engaged time is extremely important for learning.

3. Teachers should blend Hmong students with other students to help them acquire English skills and should also use cooperative learning strategy to help them excel academically.

4. Teachers may coach Hmong students with praises, explaining that mistakes and failure are part of a learning process.

5. Teachers should pay close attention to students' reading comprehension and writing skills when assessing them, avoiding perceived ability.

6. Teachers should try to hook Hmong students up with academic resources on site to assist them in coping with academic barriers and personal stress as early as possible.

7. Teachers should mentor Hmong students, guiding them through the critical period of their education. Teachers should also try to get parents and friends involved as much as possible.

8. Teachers should provide a window of opportunity for working with struggling Hmong students and should use instructional approaches that accommodate different learning and thinking styles to meet all their students' needs.

9. Teachers should be aware that Hmong students may be a bit slower in responding to a question or trying to make a point and should encourage them to speak up and share their perspectives in class.

10. Teachers should pay close attention to at-risk Hmong students or low achievers and should reach out to silent students and those who sit in the back of the class.

Resources

★Bloomfield, M. A.(2014). Hmong Americans in Michigan. East Lansing: Michigan State

University Press.

Bomar, J. (2004). Hmong history and culture. In Kinship networks among Hmong-American

refugees (pp. 33-39). New York: LFB Scholarly Pub.

Centers For Disease Control. (2012) Overview of Lao Hmong culture. In Promoting Cultural

Sensitivity: Hmong Guide.

★Thao, Cy. The Hmong Genocide and Immigration (paintings). Retrieved from

http://www.chgs.umn.edu/museum/responses/hmongMigration/

Thousands to honor Hmong war hero in Clarkston. (25 January 2011). The Oakland Press.

Timm, J.T. (1994). Hmong values and American education. Equity and Excellence in Education,

27(2), pp. 36-44.

★Vang, C.T. (2003). Learning more about Hmong students. Multicultural Education, 11(2), pp.

10-14.

★Yang, K.K. (2008). The Latehomecomer: A Hmong Family Memoir. Minneapolis, Minnesota:

Coffee House Press.