literature reviewjr

The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance


By

James P. Rooney

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the

Master of Education Degree

at

Fitchburg State College

Advanced Research in Education

EDUC 8310

November 21, 2011

1


Introduction

The U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) 2008 Physical Activities

Guidelines for Americans recommend that school age children, ages 6-17, should participate in

60 minutes or more of physical activity each day. When children and adolescents participate in at

least 60 minutes of physical activity every day, multiple health benefits accrue (Collingwood,

Sunderlin, Reynolds, & Kohl, 2000). The CDC recognizes that regular physical activity builds

healthy bones and muscles, improves muscular strength and endurance, reduces the risk for de-

veloping chronic disease risk factors, improves self-esteem, and reduces stress and anxiety. Be-

yond these known health effects, physical activity may also have beneficial influences on aca-

demic performance.

Schools present a unique opportunity to help provide school aged children meet the daily

physical exercise requirements. With 56 million students attending schools daily, education has

the structure to provide and teach students the benefits of daily physical activity (Wilkins, Gra-

ham, Parker, Westfall, Fraser, & Tembo, 2003). School aged children can participate in many

different styles of physical activity, depending on age and access to programs in their schools

and communities (Strong, Malina, & Blimkie, 2005). Most youth however do not meet the daily

recommended level of physical activity. In 2010 the CDC reported that only 17.1% of high

school students meet the recommendation for physical activity. According to the School Health

Polices and Programs Studies of 2006, 69.3% of elementary schools, 83.9% of middle schools,

and 95.2% of high schools required physical education. However according to the same study

only 3.8% of elementary schools, 7.9% of middle schools, and 2.1% of high schools provided

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daily physical education or its equivalent (150 minutes per week in elementary schools; 225 min-

utes per week in middle schools and high schools) for the entire school year. The CDC’s 2007

Youth Risk Behavior survey indicated that 69.7% of school aged children (ages 6-17) did not par-

ticipate in daily physical education classes.

Even with the known health benefits and childhood obesity on the rise, many school sys-

tems have downsized or eliminated PE under the assumption that more classroom time will im-

prove academic performance and increase standardized test scores (Salis, McKenzie, Kolody,

1999). No Child Left Behind (NCLB) has been one of the largest contributors to this trend. By

linking federal and state funding to schools yearly progress in math and reading test scores,

NCLB has created a system in which classes like Physical Education, music and art are consid-

ered nonessential. A 2007 Center on Education Policy study found that since NCLB passed in

2002, 44% of schools have responded by cutting nonessential subjects including physical educa-

tion. To compound the effects that NCLB has had on the downsizing of physical education

classes across the nation, the United States is currently in the mist of a national economic depres-

sion. School budgets are being forced to tighten and when they do often the first cuts come from

the nonessential physical education departments (Salis, et al., 1999).

As stated, reducing the time spent in quality physical education classes is going hamper a

student’s ability to meet the recommended daily exercise requirements, thus limiting the multiple

health benefits associated. But does eliminating physical education in favor of core academic

subjects improve learning in schools? This review will look at the suggestions of the current lit-

erature that removing physical education from our schools does not increase academic perfor-

mance but it may also limit a student’s ability to be an effective learner. It will review how daily

exercise provides many benefits to students such as decreased stress, improved attention span

3


and self esteem (Salis, et al., 1998), and how more recently studies have described the effects of

exercise on cognitive and executive function (Tomporowski, Davis, Miller & Naglieri, 2008).

Physical Education’s effect on Academic Achievement

Researchers have found that devoting more instructional time to physical education, re-

cess or in-school physical activity programs does not harm academic performance. Many studies

show that students' achievement levels remained unchanged when schools increased instructional

time for physical education (Wilkins, et al., 2003). In Australia researchers looked at 5th graders

in seven schools throughout the country. They increased instructional time in physical education

for some students by up to 4 hours per week. After 14 weeks, there were no significant differ-

ences in math or reading achievement between students who had additional physical education

time and students who participated in the regular 1.5 hours of physical education a week (Dwyer,

Coonan, Leitch, Hetzel, & Baghurst, 1983). A California study investigated the effect on aca-

demic achievement of a two-year program in elementary schools that doubled the amount of time

students spent in physical education. Neither overall academic achievement nor achievement in

language arts and reading were negatively affected (Sallis et al.,1999). Despite receiving nearly

an hour less of daily instruction in core academic subjects, a group of 214 6th graders in Michi-

gan enrolled in daily physical education classes, had grades and standardized test scores similar

to those of students not taking physical education (Coe, Pivarnik, Womack, Reeves, & Malina,

2006). Ten elementary schools in British Columbia participated in a study that evaluated the ef-

fects of daily classroom physical activity sessions on academic performance. Students attending

the schools that used the daily classroom activity sessions spent approximately 50 more minutes

per week in physical activity. However their standardized test scores in language, mathematics,

and were on par with those of students in control schools (Ahamed, MacDonald, Reed, & et al.,

4


2007). These studies and more show that increasing daily physical activity does not have a nega-

tive effect on academic achievement.

While increasing time spent on physical education has not shown to decrease academic

achievement, schools are still faced with improving standardized test scores. Studies show that

decreasing the amount of physical education instructional time in favor of more time spent on

core academic classes also doesn’t increase academic performance. To examine the effect of de-

creasing time for nonessential subjects, 500 Virginia elementary schools that reduced or elimi-

nated the time students spent in these content areas where studied. The results showed that the

decreased time in nonessential subjects did not increase academic achievement (Wilkins et al.,

2003). Some major studies even show that, in some cases, when students participate in physical

education, academic achievement is positively affected. Evidence shows that increasing physical

education may increase academic achievement (Shephard, LaValle, Volle, LaBarre, & Beaucage,

1994). Studying 4th grade students in Massachusetts two schools, researchers found that students

who received 56 or more hours of physical education per school year scored significantly higher

on Massachusetts' standardized tests (MCAS) in English and language arts than did comparable

students who received 28 hours of physical education per year. There were no significant differ-

ences on mathematics scores (Tremarche, Robinson, & Graham, 2007). A national study by the

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention followed two groups involving 5,316 students from

kindergarten to 5th grade. Females who participated in 70 or more minutes of physical education

per week had significantly higher achievement scores in reading and mathematics than females

who were enrolled in physical education for 35 or fewer minutes per week. Greater exposure to

physical education for males was neither positively nor negatively associated with academic

5


achievement (Carlson, Fulton, Lee, Maynard, Brown, Kohl, et al., 2008).The evidence is clear.

Decreasing time for physical education does not significantly improve academic performance.

Healthy Students Make Good Learners

The link between learning and health is well documented over the last 15 years. Numer-

ous studies have documented the connection between health and academic achievement, with

poor health often negatively affecting students’ attendance, grades and ability to learn in school

(Strong, et al., 2005). When a child continually misses school due to ongoing health problems,

even the best teacher armed with the most interesting curriculum may not be able to teach him.

By contrast, a healthy child is more likely to arrive at school each day eager and able to learn

(Salis, et al., 1999). The academic effects associated with increased physical activity in children

are considered small but positive (Payne & Morrow, 1993), with the benefits outweighing the

potential risks. Particularly the risk of lack of daily exercise continuing into adulthood, leading to

unhealthy risk factors for a variety of health concerns (Janz, Dawson, & Mahoney, 2000). Educa-

tional and health professionals believe that individuals who are physically active and healthy per-

form better in school. Negative health factors are shown to impede motivation and ability to

learn by affecting sensory perceptions; cognition; engagement in school; and absenteeism (Nel-

son & Gordon-Larsen, 2006). The affected areas are interrelated in that if a student is struggling

cognitively, they will be less likely to be engaged and connected to the school, thus more likely

to be absent. Studies have suggested that increased physical activity during the school day in-

duces arousal and reduces boredom, which can lead to increased attention span and concentration

(Nelson & Gordon-Larsen, 2006). It is also suggested that increased activity levels might be re-

lated to increased self-esteem, which would improve classroom behavior as well as performance

(Shephard, Volle, LaValle, LaBarre, JeQuier, & Rajic, 1984).

6


A research study in 2003 sought to identify the relationship between physical fitness and

academic achievement (Haugland, Wold, & Torsheim, 2003). During this study, mathematics

and reading scores from the Stanford Achievement Test were individually matched with the Fit-

nessGram scores of over 900,000 fifth graders, seventh graders, and ninth graders. The results

showed a positive relationship between physical fitness and the test scores in all three grade lev-

els. Higher levels of fitness were associated with even higher levels of academic achievement.

Research on the positive effects of physical activity on increasing concentration, reducing off

task behaviors, and school-related stress is limited. Studies show school aged children often be-

have better, are more attentive and show on par or increased scholastic performance after partici-

pation in exercise through physical education (Pellegrini & Davis, 1993). Students who sit

through long stretches of academic instruction tend to become more restless and fidgety resulting

in reduced concentration (Haugland, et al., 2003). This research leads some experts to believe

that extended sections of instructional time without physical activity might have a negative im-

pact on academic performance. However, Pellegrini and Smith (1993) reviewed a number of

studies and determined that the cognitive performance or improved attention was most likely due

to a mental break between tasks and not physical activity.

Exercise’s Effects on Cognitive Functioning

Although more research needs to be completed, some studies have shown that higher lev-

els of physical fitness have been linked to improvements in cognitive levels for children. Cogni-

tive studies have shown that improved aerobic fitness has positive effects on neuroelectric and

behavioral performance of children during a stimulus task. A landmark study in 1958 by Clarke

7


showed results that supported exercise enhancing cognitive functioning. In 1986 researchers con-

cluded that physical activity produces short-term effects on cognitive tasks, but studies were

mostly inconclusive (Tomporowski and Ellis, 1986). Up to date research shows that exercise has

a small positive effect on cognition, and that single sessions of exercise are not likely to be influ-

ential, whereas chronic exercise that produces fitness improvements are more likely to have an

effect on cognitive functioning (Etnier, Salazar, Landers, Petruzzello, Han, & Nowell, 1997).

As shown, the relationship between cognitive functioning and exercise has produced con-

flicting results. Researchers believe this is because of the large variety of factors being addressed

in these studies. For example, the definition of exercise can vary based on small changes in du-

ration, type, and intensity. Exercise can been characterized as short or long-term, aerobic or

anaerobic. A large variety of cognitive functioning measures have been studied. Measures such

as reaction time, memory, academic performance, arithmetic function, and intelligence tests have

been tested (Blanchette, Ramocki, Stephen, O’Del, & Casey, 2005). Animal and human studies

reveal brain areas involved in physical activity and cognitive functioning are connected, and

chronic exercise could increase those neural connections even more (Shephard, 1997).

The greatest improvements in cognition due to physical activity were found with execu-

tive function. The ability to outline, initiate, and produce activity sequences that make up self

control. Executive function develops in children most actively during the elementary school

years (Davis, Tomporowski, Boyle, Waller, Miller, Naglieri, & Gregoski, 2007). Student’s cog-

nitive functioning may be sensitive to the effect of physical activity, given that the relationship

between children’s brain development, early experiences, and cognitive function are prominent

during this stage of development (Davis, et al., 2007). The greatest response to exercise in re-

gards to executive functioning was found in children’s ability to plan. However, these results

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where only shown to have effect in high duration groups. Children experiencing longer durations

of exercise throughout the day increased their scores for planning by about one-third on the Cog-

nitive Assessment System standardized test (Davis, et al., 2007).

Executive function plays a critical part in planning and organizing for school aged chil-

dren, particularly with the components of inhibition and self-monitoring (Davis et al., 2007).

The awareness to self-monitor behavior through executive function is crucial to children’s abili-

ties to foster creativity, empathy, imagination, and to evaluate thoughts (Davis, et al., 2007) The

capacity to self-monitor behavior is vital for a child’s readiness to thrive in elementary school. In

a study measuring electroencephalography (EEG) brain activity in children while executing a

choice-reaction test, the more fit children executed the task more rapidly and evidenced larger

P3 amplitudes than the less fit children, which reflects processes involved in stimulus evaluation

and categorization (Hillman, Castelli & Buck, 2005). Also, performing complex motor skills

could affect learning by stimulating the prefrontal cortex, which is vital in memory and problem

solving (Shepard, 1997). Research demonstrates that physically active rats have a greater abun-

dance of neural connections, that sustained by more capillaries, than sedentary rats (Shepard,

1997). Furthermore, exercise has shown a change to the hormones that effect arousal, which may

increase a student’s attention in the classroom (Shephard, 1997). Higher levels of aerobic fitness

have been associated with changes in neurocognitive function (Hillman, et al., 2005). Children

scoring higher on fitness testing exhibit a more effective neuroelectric profile on a stimulus dis-

crimination task. The more physically fit children also performed better in behavioral measures

of response accuracy and reaction time, possibly due to a greater allocation of resources to work-

ing memory (Kramer & Hillman, 2006). Higher fit children will also exhibit greater allocation of

attention towards working memory (Hillman, et al., 2005). A meta-analysis conducted of 259

9


public school students in third and fifth grades and found that high scores on field tests of physi-

cal fitness were positively related to academic achievement (Hillman, et al., 2005). Aerobic ca-

pacity has shown to positively effect achievement the most, while a high body mass index (BMI)

negatively effected academic achievement (Hillman, et al., 2005). One study suspects that the

cognitive benefits of physical activity may be even larger for children who are developing central

nervous system structures, than for adults, whereas their brain structure and neuronal systems are

more functionally developed (Davis, et al., 2007). Fitness may also relate to other benefits in the

brain, including differences in the structure and function of brain tissue of elderly adults with in-

creased fitness levels (Kramer & Hillman, 2006).

A sedentary lifestyle, which is now common among children, may put them at a disad-

vantage for not only physical health but cognitive health as well. There may be crucial periods

during childhood where physical activity has a limited window to develop optimal neural devel-

opment and leave a lasting impact (Davis, et al., 2007). Alternatively, the cognitive benefits of

regular exercise may be similar to the health benefits associated with exercise, which progres-

sively improve with more physical activity but are lost with a period of inactivity (Davis, et al.,

2007).

Although the reasoning is not known, most of these studies agree that exercise is associated with

positive effects in the areas of math, acuity, and reaction time as it relates to cognitive function-

ing (Shepard, 1996). Researchers confirmed that a small but significant relationship between

physical activity and cognitive performance existed.

Pedagogy

Due to the wide scope of research that has been done and the varying results it has pro-

duced, it is difficult for experts to recommend the best practices to see optimal increases in aca-

10


demic performance from physical education. What most research agrees upon is that physical ed-

ucation is a critical component of comprehensive strategies to improve physical and cognitive

health (Carlson, et al., 2008). The National Association for Sport and Physical Education

(NASPE) recommends a minimum of 150 minutes of high quality physical education each week

for children in elementary school and 225 minutes per week for middle school and high school.

Also at least 50 percent of physical education class time should be spent in moderate to vigorous

physical activity (NASPE, 2004). A high-quality physical education program enables students to

develop motor skills, understand movement concepts, participate in regular physical activity,

maintain healthy fitness levels, develop responsible personal and social behavior, and to value

physical activity (NASPE, 2004). To maximize the potential academic benefits of student partici-

pation in physical education class, schools can consider increasing the amount of time students

spend in physical education class and adding components to increase the quality of physical edu-

cation class. Studies showed that some programs were able to increase physical education time

by increasing the number of days per week or the length of class time (Sallis, et al., 1999) . Also,

it is known that increasing the time spent in physical education may increase academic perfor-

mance (Tomporowski, et al., 2008). In addition, the research reviewed here explored several dif-

ferent strategies for enhancing the quality of physical education class, requiring varying levels of

resources. These range from implementing a standards and research based physical education

curriculum to adding specific components to physical education. Recommendations to enhance

the quality of physical education from the CDC (2008) include designing a comprehensive cur-

riculum to meet national and state standards, assessment protocols, and appropriate staff devel-

opment. A well designed physical education curriculum should be based on national, state, or lo-

cal standards that describe what students should know and be able to do as a result of a high-

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quality program. It should be designed to maximize physical activity during lessons and keep

students moderately to vigorously active for at least 50% of class time. Programs should also in-

clude student assessment protocols to determine if students are getting enough physical activity

during class time. Programs that have increased students’ time engaged in physical activity have

provided teachers with appropriate training on ways to minimize time spent on classroom man-

agement, transitions, and administrative tasks (CDC, 2008). The type of exercise that should be

focused on is high level aerobic activity, such as running, swimming and jump rope, and should

replace activities that tend to provide lower levels of physical fitness (Tomporowski, et al.,

2008).

Conclusion

Collectively, the results suggest that high quality physical education is positively related

to academic performance . In addition, increasing time during the school day for physical activity

does not appear to take away from academic performance. Schools can feel confident that main-

taining or increasing time dedicated for physical activity during the school day will not have a

negative impact on academic performance, and it may positively impact students’ academic per-

formance (Ahamed, et al, 2007). Furthermore, research has reported that participating in physical

activity was positively related to academic achievement, academic behaviors, and indicators of

cognitive skills and attitudes, such as concentration, memory, and self-esteem (Hillman,et al.,

2005). Physical education seems to have the largest effect on managing classroom behaviors,

and how the lack of behavioral issues has led to improve academic performance (Haugland,et al,

2003). Although positive correlations have been made, more research is necessary to better un-

derstand the role that physical fitness has on academic performance. Most importantly, the possi-

12


ble influence of economical and cultural variables need to be studied due to the reliance between

these variables and academic performance (Hillman, et al., 2005). Additional research is also

needed to account for possible effects related to the quality of teacher instruction on fitness based

activities (Sallis, et al., 1999). Some studies did not differentiate between exercise type, thus the

data only provides for a general understanding of the relationship between physical fitness and

academic achievement. A more exact approach, which examines the different components of fit-

ness is needed to better understand the potential influence of the various aspects of fitness on

cognitive performance. Overall, physical education has the ability to help students meet the rec-

ommended daily activity levels, achieve various health benefits, and possibly increase their aca-

demic performance.

13


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