lit review version 2

RUNNING HEAD: EFFECTS OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT

Effects of Sexual Harassment on Victims

Mehak Amer

University of Tampa

EFFECTS OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT

Abstract

Multiple researchers have observed the effects of Sexual Harassment on males and females. Both

genders are affected by the harassment and the severity, frequency and duration of the

harassment play a major role in how severe the effects will be. Research has shown that

individuals can experience sexual harassment in educational institutions and at the workplace.

Some effects of sexual harassment include an increased heart rate and suffering from work

withdrawal. Other effects also include depression, anxiety and post traumatic stress disorder

(PTSD). Altogether the research demonstrates that sexual harassment can have many negative

outcomes for the victim.

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Effects of Sexual Harassment on Targets

Sexual harassment has been a part of the lives of most working women since they first

started to work outside of their homes during World War II. However, it was not until 1980

when a legal definition of sexual harassment was introduced (Fitzgerald, 1993). The U.S Equal

Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) defines sexual harassment as a verbal or

physical conduct of sexual nature that interferes with performance of the victim and falls under

two categories of prohibited behaviors. Hostile environment harassment refers to creating an

intimidating or offensive environment through gender harassment (displaying offensive and

hostile attitudes towards members of one gender) and unwanted sexual attention (sexually

inappropriate behaviors such as repeatedly asking on dates that are not welcomed by the

recipient). The next category, sexual coercion, also known as quid pro quo, refers to subtle or

explicit sexual demands in return for job related benefits or to escape demotion (Woodzicka &

LaFrance, 2005; Rotundo, Nguyen & Sackett, 2001).

While both males and females can be the victim of sexual harassment, women are more

likely to be the target. During their working lives, about half of the women will experience some

form of sexual harassment (Woods, Buchanan & Settles, 2009). Although sexual harassment in a

work environment is very common, it can also take place on college campuses and schools with

the perpetrator being anyone from the school staff to a fellow classmate. Almost two thirds of all

college students experience some form of sexual harassment in college, however for many

students sexual harassment begins as early as middle school (Wagner & Wagner, 2013). This is

highly problematic as sexual harassment can shatter the victim’s confidence, which can have a

huge impact on their future education and work life.

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In the past couple of years, sexual harassment has gained a great deal of attention. This

was mainly due to the media focusing on sexual harassment cases that involved prominent

figures such as Clarence Thomas, a man who was appointed to the Supreme Court. Another

major reason that caused the focus to shift towards this crisis was due to its effects on the victim

(Dekker & Barling, 1998). Sexual harassment is known to affect individuals physically and

psychologically, which not only has a major impact on them such as certain mental health

disorders, but also on their work and academic performance. Research has indicated that of all

the victims that experience sexual harassment, minority women face the greatest amount of

harassment when both ethnic and sexual harassment is combined (Berdahl & Moore, 2006).

Those who suffer from sexual harassment also suffer from health problems that are associated

with major workplace stressors (Dekker & Barling, 1988).

School Sexual Harassment

Almost up to 80% of students have reported experiencing some form of direct sexual

harassment before graduating from high school. This is a serious matter as sexual harassment is a

major cause behind the low self-esteem of many students. It is also alarming as many students

feel it is a part of school life. Since several students partake in sexually harassing others, students

believe it is not a big deal since everyone does it (Kopels & Dupper, 1999). Attitudes such as

these can lead to harassing behaviors continuing later on in life or preventing future harassment

that may take place. The type of sexual harassment experienced by most students’ ranges from

nonphysical behavior such as sexual comments or looks to unwanted touching, which involves

touching, pinching or grabbing some part of the body (Kopels & Dupper, 1999). Research has

shown that students who are victims tend to feel worthless and helpless. They feel no one can

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save them and that they are stuck in a situation that has no resolution since many students have

reported the behavior but the perpetrators go unpunished. These students also experience

academic withdrawal. They talk less in class, have a hard time paying attention in school, are

more likely to drop out of classes, school activities and start skipping school more often. Lichty

and Campbell (2012) found from a sample of 223 students that those who experience direct

sexual harassment also experience more psychological stress that affects their academic

performance, leading to a lower GPA.

Workplace Sexual Harassment

Sexual harassment can have many different effects on employees, which can range from

becoming less committed to their work to lower satisfaction levels (Chan, Lam, Chow &

Cheung, 2008). They become less interested and concerned about their work which further leads

to poor performance and can cause job demotions. Sexual harassment can be a one-time situation

where the perpetrator demands for sexual favors or rapes the victim. However in most cases it is

reoccurring and many individuals can suffer from anxiety, depression, PTSD and even an

increase in alcohol consumption (Rospenda, 2002). Consequently this leads to job withdrawal,

work withdrawal and lowered self-esteem (Chan et al., 2008). Sexual harassment does not only

drain the victim mentally and cause psychological effects, but can also have an impact on the

individual physically. When individuals experience high levels of stress, the human body in

response adapts and starts to function in a different manner. Individuals might experience

suppressed immune functioning and heightened inflammation. This can further cause individuals

to experience sleep disturbance, headaches and even gastrointestinal disorders (Chan et al.,

2008). Some victims might also suffer from a loss of appetite to an increased appetite which can

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cause unwanted weight loss or gain. In majority of the cases, if the harassment is not reported, it

is highly likely that it will continue. Individuals can experience sexual harassment for some days,

while for others it may go on for months or years. Salisbury, Ginorio, Remick & Stringer (1986)

found that the symptoms women experienced due to sexual harassment progressed in stages.

While most research focuses on the long-term effects of sexual harassment since they tend to be

more severe, there has been some research focusing on the immediate effects of sexual

harassment. These immediate and short-term effects indicate that the harassment does not have

to be extreme or last multiple days in order for the victim to feel uncomfortable or threatened.

(Woodzicka & LaFrance, 2005).

Immediate/Short Term Effects

To test the immediate/short term effects of sexual harassment, Funk and Werhun (2011)

conducted a study that involved male participants and a female harasser. Although most males

do not find certain behaviors as sexually harassing, the results showed that men experience

immediate effects of sexual harassment. The males participated in a handgrip task and those that

were in the harassed condition were informed by the female instructor after the task that their

handgrip score was strange and fell among the scores of girls. To test whether the harassment

had caused immediate effects, men in both groups had to solve anagrams, participate in the

Stroop test and complete the handgrip task again. The Stroop test involves participants to name

the colors of the printed words as fast as possible while the words are printed in a color different

than their meaning (Funk & Werhun, 2011). This requires extreme attention and the results

indicated that those who had been harassed took significantly longer to complete the task.

Harassed males solved fewer anagrams and in the second round of the handgrip task they

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demonstrated more strength than their previous grip. The reason behind more strength during the

second handgrip task could be due to men trying to prove their strength and masculinity.

Woodzicka and LaFrance (2005) conducted a similar study, but included all female

participants and a male harasser. Their study measured the effects of sexual harassment on a

woman’s performance during a job interview. The participants in the study were randomly

assigned to a sexual or non-sexual interview. Participants in both groups were asked a set of 16

questions, however for those in the sexual interview group, three out of the 16 questions were of

a sexual nature while the non-sexual interview group received all non-harassing questions.

From this study, the results indicated that the performance of those women who had been

asked the sexualized questions was much worse than the women in the other group. Their

performance had greatly been impaired in different areas such as speech fluency and relevance of

questions asked (Woodzicka & LaFrance, 2005). The participants who had experienced subtle

sexual harassment showed disruption in their speech and also repeated words more frequently. In

addition, they asked fewer questions about the job and more about their performance unlike the

other group (Woodzicka & LaFrance, 2005). When individuals experience sexual harassment,

their academic ability is also compromised.

Schneider, Tomaka and Palacios (2001) also looked at women’s reactions during an

incident of sexual harassment to understand the physiological effects. In their study, women in

the harassment group experienced gender harassment by a male who they had been assigned to

work with for a particular task. Schneider, Tomaka and Palacios (2001) also wanted to see the

women’s interactions with the male after the harassment so following the task performance

women in all groups were asked to present a one-minute presentation to their male partner.

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The findings of the study indicated that women who had been harassed found the task as

more demanding, had greater negative emotional reactions and were less satisfied with the way

things worked out. They also exhibited greater cardiovascular activity such as changes in the

heart rate and systolic blood pressure. Cardiovascular reactivity to stress can cause diseases such

as coronary heart disease and immune functioning and results such as these suggest that women

exposed to sexist behavior may be at a greater risk for negative long-term health consequences

(Schneider, Tomaka & Palacios, 2001).

Long Term Effects

While a single incident can be considered as sexual harassment, most victims of

sexual harassment experience an on-going pattern of offensive behaviors (Schneider, Swan

& Fitzgerald, 1997). Schneider, Swan and Fitzgerald (1997) found that for most women,

harassment lasted from one week to six months. Individuals who experience some form of

sexual harassment for a period of time are more likely to experience PTSD or an increased

level of alcohol consumption.

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Avina and O’ Donohue (2002) define PTSD using the criteria listed in the Diagnostic

and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM- IV) which states

(A) The person has been exposed to a traumatic event in which both of the following

were present:

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(1) the person experienced, witnessed, or was confronted with an event or events that

involved actual or threatened death or serious injury, or a threat to the physical

integrity of self or others;

(2) the person’s response involved intense fear, helplessness or horror;

(B) Re-experiencing the event and extreme distress;

(C) Avoidance of associated stimuli; and

(D) Hyperarousal.

There are many who argue that PTSD is not caused by sexual harassment as sexual

harassment is not a life threatening situation and hence, does not meet criterion A (Avina & O’

Donohue, 2002). The authors argue that although not all forms of sexual harassment are

considered traumatic, many severe forms of harassment do meet criterion A. A one time

inappropriate remark does not constitute as traumatic but sexual harassment can also be very

severe such as rape or battery at the work place. There are other behaviors as well that lie in the

middle of one time instances and extreme instances and can be traumatic. Examples of such

behaviors include repeated threats to fire unless sexual favors are granted or repeated instances

of sexual comments (Avina & O’ Donohue, 2002).

Although sexual harassment may not involve “actual death”, there are forms of

sexual harassment that pose “a threat to the physical integrity of self.” The three forms

include financial threat, boundary threats and threats to legitimate control (Avina & O’

Donohue, 2002). Sexual harassment is known to impair the ability to work and also causes work

withdrawal. This could lead to the victim getting fired and poses a financial threat. When a

victim is treated as a sexual object, it draws unwanted attention to them, which threatens their

boundary. In other instances, the victim’s control is threatened. This happens when they fear no

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one will believe them or they might get fired after complaining. This usually causes them to stay

silent and fail to report the harassment (Avina & O’ Donohue, 2002).

Stockdale, Logan & Weston (2008) found that unwanted sexual experiences in the

workplace greatly predicted PTSD. The participants in their study were divided into four

groups: 1) no sexual harassment experience, 2) experienced gender harassment only, 3)

experienced gender harassment and unwanted sexual attention and 4) experienced gender

harassment, unwanted sexual attention and sexual coercion. They conducted a baseline

interview and a follow up interview after a year. The authors found that those who had

experienced gender harassment, unwanted sexual attention and sexual coercion, about

65% of them met the criteria for PTSD. The percentage of those who met the criteria was

less amongst the group that experienced unwanted sexual attention and sexual coercion

and least amongst those who experienced only gender harassment. These findings indicate

that the severity of sexual harassment has a great impact on the outcomes. Despite

controlling for other traumatic stressors such as prior abuse and victimization, associations

between sexual harassment and PTSD remained (Avina & O’ Donohue, 2002).

Drinking Outcomes

In a study conducted regarding workplace harassment, services utilization and

drinking outcomes, Rospenda (2002) found that sexual harassment is linked to increased

alcohol consumption and abuse for both males and females. The results indicated that

those who had been harassed were more likely to utilize mental health services.

Participants had to come in for an initial interview and a follow up a year later. Drinking

outcomes were moderated for women who utilized mental health services. However it was

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found that men who had been harassed and utilized mental health services had higher

levels of drinking outcomes (Rospenda, 2002). It was believed that one reason behind such

findings could be because the men might have experienced a more severe form of sexual

harassment.

Males and females both turn to alcohol during times of stress but Richman et al.,

(1999) had a similar finding where there was a difference between the drinking habits of

males and females after sexual harassment. In a study of 2,492 participants (1,336 females

and 1,156 males), Richman et al., (1999) found that for women, harassment relates to

frequency of drinking, drinking to intoxication, drinking to escape from reality and

prescription drug use. Despite being harassed, women do not turn to heavy episodic

drinking. However, for men, harassment related to heavy episodic drinking and

prescription drug use. For men, harassment in the form of disrespectful behavior related to

drinking to intoxication. Increased alcohol consumption related to sexual harassment can

also lead to further distress and worsen any existing health or mental health problems. It

can also be the cause for any new problems as excessive drinking can lead to negative

outcomes such as alcohol related accidents and liver damage (Rospenda, 2002).

Conclusion

Overall research has shown that sexual harassment can have detrimental effects on

both males and females whether they are students or employees. Considering that some

reports have shown that sexual harassment can start as early as elementary school, the

situation needs to be examined further and prevention measures need to be taken (Lichty

and Campbell, 2011). Although females are more likely than males to find ambiguous

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behaviors as sexually harassing and are the target in most instances, males also find certain

behaviors as inappropriate and harassing. In certain instances males find some forms of

sexual harassment flattering, however studies have shown that males suffer from sexual

harassment consequences as well. While many females feel helpless or trapped during

sexual harassment instances, males also experience similar feelings and are more likely to

experience same-sex harassment (Rospenda, 2002). Majority of the research focuses on the

effects of sexual harassment on women as a whole, or men and students as a whole. There is

evidence to support the claim that minority women face the most amount of harassment and

research has also implied that the severity, frequency and duration of harassment play a

significant role in the outcomes. Due to these findings, future research can focus primarily on

minority women and test whether they do suffer from more consequences or not due to sexual

harassment.

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References

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Berdahl, J. L. & Moore, C. (2006) Workplace harassment: Double jeopardy

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psychological and physical outcomes of workplace sexual harassment: A

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lit review version 2

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