leadershipinorganizations yukl 2 52222

LEADERSHIP INORGANIZATIONS

Deel 2 van 3 : Hoofdstuk 5 t/m 9Ook verkrijgbaar : Deel 1 : Hoofdstuk 1 tot en met 4

Ook verkrijgbaar : Deel 3 : Hoofdstuk 10 tot en met 15

Bronvermelding:

Titel: Leadership in organizationsZesde drukAuteur: Gary YuklUitgever: Prentice HallISBN: 9780131494848

Aantal pagina’s boek : 560Aantal hoofdstukken boek : 15

De inhoud van dit uittreksel is met de grootste zorg samengesteld. Incidentele onjuistheden kunnen niettemin voorkomen. Je dient niet aan te nemen dat de informatie die Students Only B.V. biedt foutloos is, hoewel Students Only B.V. dat wel nastreeft. Dit uittreksel is voor persoonlijk gebruik en is bedoeld als wegwijzer bij het originele boek. Wij raden altijd aan het bijbehorende studieboek erbij te kopen en dit uittreksel als naslagwerk erbij te houden. In dit uittreksel worden diverse verwijzingen gemaakt naar het studieboek op basis waarvan dit uittreksel is gemaakt.

Dit uittreksel is een uitgave van Students Only B.V. Copyright © 2009 StudentsOnly B.V. Alle rechten voorbehouden. De uitgever van het studieboek is op generlei wijze betrokken bij het vervaardigen van dit uittreksel. Voor vragen kan je je wenden per email aan [email protected].

2www.studentsonly.nl Voor de beste uittreksels !Bron : Leadership in organizations – Gary Yukl

Inhoudsopgave

Hoofdstuk 5 Dyadic Role Making, Attributions, and Followership pag. 3

Hoofdstuk 6 Power and Influence pag. 7

Hoofdstuk 7 Managerial Traits and Skills pag. 11

Hoofdstuk 8 Early Contingency Theories of Effective Leadership pag. 15

Hoofdstuk 9 Charismatic and Transformational Leadership pag. 19


Hoofdstuk 5 Dyadic Role Making, Attributions, and Followership

This chapter describes how a leader develops an exchange relationship with subordinates, interprets subordinate performance and decides how to react to it.

5.1 Leader-Member Exchange TheoryLeader-member exchange (LMX) theory enumerates the role-making processes between a leader and each individual subordinate and the relationship that develops over time.

Initial Version of LMX Theory: Leaders develop a separate exchange relationship with each subordinate that can be high-exchange relationship or low-exchange relationship depending the personal compatibility and subordinate competence and dependability.

Roles Making Stages: The theory suggests there are three possible stages in the leader-subordinate relationship – initial testing phase in which both sides evaluate each other’s motives and attitudes, second stage in which exchange arrangement is refined, mutual trust and respect developed and the third stage is a matured exchange relationship.

Measurement of LMX: LMX has been defined in different way by various studies. Mutual trust, respect, affection, support and loyalty are assumed to be involved in quality exchange relationship, but sometimes LMX is defined to include other aspects of relationship like negotiating latitude and incremental influence. Several different measures of LMX have been used in various studies based on the theory.

Research on Correlates of LMX: Studies have examined links of LMX with other variables. Some suggest that a favorable relation is more likely when the subordinate is competent and dependable and has values and attitudes similar to those of the leader. Some other studies have suggested that when the exchange relationship is favorable, the leader’s behavior is more supportive.

Evaluation of LMX Theory and Research: LMX theory which started as descriptive theory and over time became more prescriptive, despite revisions and refinement has a number of conceptual weaknesses that limits its use. The theory needs more elaboration on the way exchange relationships evolve over time.

5.2 Leader Attributions about SubordinatesAttribution theory describes the cognitive processes used by leaders to know the reasons of effective or ineffective performance by subordinates and select an appropriate reaction.

Two-Stage Attribution Model: Green and Mitchell (1979) describe manager’s response to poor performance as a two-stage process – manager tries to know cause of the poor performance and tries to select an appropriate response to correct the problem.Research on the Model: Several studies have confirmed the major propositions of the attribution model.

Attributions and LMX: Studies suggest attributions about the reason for a subordinate’s performance and manager’s response depend on type of exchange relationship they have.


5.3 Applications: Correcting Performance DeficienciesEffective managers take a supportive and problem-solving approach while correctingperformance deficiencies. The most effective way to provide corrective feedback can be done by gathering information about the performance problem, avoiding attributional biases, providing corrective feedback soon after the problem is noticed, describing the deficiency briefly in specific terms, explaining the adverse impact of ineffective behavior and mutually identifying the reasons for inadequate performance. Besides, the manager needs to ask the person to suggest remedies, express confidence in the person, express a sincere desire to help the person, reach agreement on specific action steps and summarize the agreement and verify agreement in a professional way.

5.4 Follower Attributions and Implicit TheoriesFollowers make attributions about the competence and the intentions of their leader and how they perceive the leader has important implication for the organization. If leaders are perceived as competent they are likely to retain their position or get promotions while leaders perceived incompetent are likely to be replaced.

Determinants of Follower Attributions: On the basis of performance trend, leader’s decisive, direct and relevant actions and innovative changes in the strategy, followers judge a leader’s competence. Leaders who are concerned about followers and mission than about personal benefit are perceived as more sincere and committed.


Implicit Leadership Theories: Implicit leadership theories, the beliefs and assumptions about the characteristics of effective leaders, affect how leaders are evaluated.

5.5 Impression ManagementExemplification, ingratiation, self-promotion and intimidation are four impression management tactics, the behavior used for influencing how others perceive you, relevant for the study of leadership.

Exemplification involves bahavior intended to show dedication and loyalty to the mission and to the organization, ingratiation is to influence the target persons to perceive that s/he has desirable social qualities, self promotion is to show that you are competent and value to the organization and intimidation is used to arouse fear and respect by showing that s/he is a dangerous person and can harm you.

Impression Management by Followers: Studies have examined how followers use impression management tactics to influence bosses. The research suggested the effects of tactics like ingratiation and self-promotion used by followers depend on their interpersonal skills and other determinants of the job outcome.

Impression Management by Leaders: Leaders use impression management tactics when constraints and unpredictable events make it difficult for them to exert much influence over the organizational performance, and to avoid appearance of failure.

5.6 Follower Contributions to Effective LeadershipMotivated and competent followers are necessary for successful performance of a leader. Followers also contribute to the effectiveness of a group by maintaining cooperative working relationship, offering constructive dissent, sharing leadership functions and supporting leadership development.

The Courageous Follower: Effective followers are courageous, responsible and proactive. They are people with a strong commitment to the organization and its mission. Effective followers can help a leader decide and do better.

5.7 Self-Management Self-management, also called self-leadership or self-control, is a set of strategies to improve one’s own bahavior.

Self-Management Strategies: Self-Management strategies can be behavioral as well as cognitive. Behavioral strategies include self-reward, self-punishment, self-monitoring, self-goal setting, self-rehearsal, and modification of cues that encourage undesirable bahavior. Cognitive strategies, which help you build self-confidence and optimism about doing a task, include positive self-talk and mental rehearsal to do a difficult task.

How Leaders Encourage Self-Management: Leaders can encourage followers for self-management by explaining the rationale for self-management strategies and inspire the subordinates to use the techniques by following them first.

5.8 Applications: Guidelines for Followers Followers can be effective, improve their relationship with a leader, resist improper influence from the leader, provide advice to the leader and challenged flawed plans.


They should find out what they are expected to do, take initiative to deal with problems, keep the boss informed about their decisions, encourage leaders to provide honest feedback, support manager’s effort to make necessary changes.

5.9 Integrating Leader and Follower RolesMany people in an organization have dual roles of a leader and a follower and to be effective in both, it is necessary to find ways to integrate these two roles.


Hoofdstuk 6 Power and Influence

This chapter describes key concepts related to power, different sources of power, power for leadership effectiveness, processes by which power is gained or lost and how power is enacted in different forms of influence behavior.

6.1 Conception of Power and InfluencePower and authority have been used in different ways by different writers.

Power: Power is the capacity to influence the target persons in the desired direction at a given point of time.

Authority: Authority is the right to influence others to accomplish certain tasks in an organization or a social system.

Outcomes of Influence Attempts: Three distinct outcomes of influence attempts –commitment, compliance and resistance – need to be differentiated for a proactive influence attempt.

Influence Processes: Instrumental compliance, internalization and personal identification are three influence processes, as proposed by Kelman (1958), are qualitatively different but more than one process may occur at a time.

6.2 Power Types and SourcesThere are two types of power – position power and personal power. Position power, the potential influence derived from a position, includes legitimate power, reward power, coercive power, information power and ecological power. Personal power, the potential influence derived from leader’s characteristics, includes referent power and expert power.

Legitimate Power: Power coming from a legitimate or formal authority in an organization is legitimate power. The leader/agent has the right to make the request and the target person/ follower has the obligation to comply. The outcome of the legitimate power is affected by the way it is exercised. Thus to be more effective, the agent should make polite and clear requests instead of an arrogant demand, explain the reasons for a request, not cross the scope of authority, follow proper channel and insist on compliance.

Reward Power: Power that stems from the authority to allocate resources and rewards is reward power, which also a perception by the subordinate/ target person that the leader has the reward desired by him/her. The outcome of reward power is affected by the way it is exercised. Thus, the agent should offer the kind of reward the target person desires, give rewards that are fair and ethical, promise rewards that you can deliver, explain the criteria for giving rewards and give rewards if requirements are met.

Coercive Power: Power that is obeyed due to a fear of punishment is called coercive power. This power should be used when absolutely necessary. When it is used to maintain discipline, make people understand the consequences of violation, avoid the appearance of personal hostility or personal rejections, express a sincere desire to help the person comply with role expectations and use punishment that is legitimate and fair if non-compliance continues even after warnings have been given.


Referent Power: Power derived from the target person’s desire to please the agent and to gain and maintain his approval is called referent power. Referent power can be acquired and maintained by showing acceptance and positive regard, being supportive and helpful, demonstrating trust and respect, keeping promises and treating people fairly. It can be used over subordinates, peers and superiors.

Expert Power: Power that stems from expertise or task-relevant knowledge and skill is called expert power. The target person complies as s/he thinks the agent has the best knowledge to solve or do the task. Expert power can be exercised in the best way by explaining the request or proposal clearly and the agent should not made rash, careless or inconsistent statements.

Information Power: This type of power is derived from the control over information. Access to vital information and control over its distribution can be source of upward, downward and lateral influence.

Ecological Power: Power derived from the agent who has control over technology, physical environment and organization of the work is ecological power, also called situational engineering or ecological control.

6.3 How Power Is Acquired or LostThere are two theories – social exchange theory and strategic contingencies theory – that explain how power is lost and gain over time. The two theories have many similar features even as they focus on power processes at different levels of analysis and suggested demonstrated expertise is important for the acquisition of power.

Social Exchange Theory: This theory explains how power is gained and lost as reciprocal influence processes. Person who is more loyal and demonstrated competence in solving problems and making decisions related to the task will be accorded more power. Innovative proposals when become successful become a source for more power. Leaders who are incompetent and fail to show initiative will lose esteem and influence.

Strategic Contingencies Theory: This theory describes how different subunits in an organization gain and lose power in an organization. It suggests that the power of a subunit depends on its expertise in dealing with important problems, its centrality within the workflow and the extent to which its expertise is unique.

6.4 Consequences of Position and Personal PowerStudies on the use of different forms of power by leaders suggest that effective leaders rely more on personal power -- expert and referent power which were found to be positively correlated with subordinates satisfaction and performance. Results for position power like legitimate, reward and coercive power were inconsistent.

6.5 How Much Power Should Leaders Have?The amount of power for leader effectiveness depends on the nature of the task and organization and the leader’s skills. The likelihood of success of a leader increases by combining personal and position power. Position power can be used to enhance personal power. A leader with much position power is tempted to rely on it extensively instead of using personal power. This leads to resentment and rebellion among followers. Personal power is less susceptible to misuse as compare to position power.


6.6 Influence TacticsThere are three general types of influence tactics, the behavior used to influence others –impression management tactics, political tactics and proactive influence tactics. Self-promotion and ingratiation are examples of impression management tactics. An attempt to influence the decision making is a political tactics. A simple request based on legitimate power is proactive influence tactics.

Research to Identify Proactive Tactics: Studies have identified behaviors like rational persuasion, exchange of favors, ingratiation, assertiveness, coalition and upward appeal, consultation, inspirational appeals and legitimising as proactive tactics.

Rational Persuasion: The agent uses explanations, logical arguments and factual evidence in rational persuasion to influence the target person.

Apprising: The agent influence the target person’s behavior by saying that the request or proposal will benefit him in his/her career.

Inspirational Appeals: The agent inspires the target person to make him/her committed for a request or proposal.

Consultation: The target person is consulted and asked for suggestion on a request with an aim to get support from him/her on a decision already made by the agent.

Exchange Tactics: The agent makes a request to the target person to certain task suggesting a favor or an incentive in return.

Collaboration: The target person offers to collaborate by providing necessary resources and assistance if the target person carries out a request or a proposal.

Personal Appeals: The agent requests a target person to do certain task out of friendship or asks for a personal favor.

Ingratiation: The agent uses praise and flattery while making a request to the target person to do certain tasks.

Legitimating Tactics: The agent’s behavior in this type of influence stems from his/her right as authority to ask the target person to carry out some tasks.

Pressure: The agent uses threat and warning as tactics to influence the target person.

Coalition tactics: The agent gets help from others to influence the target person.

6.7 Power and Influence BehaviorPower and influence behavior are two separate constructs, even as they are interrelated in complex ways. Agent power affect influence tactics and some tactics need a particular type of power to be effective. A leader with relevant power is also more likely to use the tactics for getting desired results.


6.8 Use and Effectiveness of Influence TacticsThis section briefly reviews the major findings of studies on use of influence tactics.

Directional Differences in Use of Tactics: The choice of tactics depends on whether the target person is a subordinate, peer or superior and the position of the agent. Managers also prefer tactics that are socially acceptable and effective for a particular objective.

Sequencing of Tactics in an Influence Attempt: A series of influence episodes occur in influence attempts to carry out some tasks over a period of time. Tactics used initially may be different from the tactics used later.

Effectiveness of Individual Tactics: Effectiveness of an influence tactics depends on factors like the agent’s power, nature of request and potential of tactics. Rational persuasion, consultation, collaboration and inspirational appeals are the most effective tactics while integration, exchange and apprising are moderately effective.

Effectiveness of Tactic Combinations: Effectiveness of tactic combinations depends on how compatible they are with each other. If they are compatible, they increase each other’s effectiveness.

Tactics for Resisting Influence Attempts: When the target person resist or avoid what the agent request, the agent can use the proactive tactics to influence the target person.Limitations of Research on Proactive Influence Tactics: More elaborate research is required on proactive influence tactics as many questions related to the influence tactics have remained unanswered.


Hoofdstuk 7 Managerial Traits and Skills

This chapter describes some personal traits and skills that contribute to leadership effectiveness and advancement.

7.1 Nature of Traits and SkillsTrait refers to a variety of attributes of a person, including aspects of personality, temperament, needs, motive and values. Skill is a person’s ability to do some task effectively. Both the trait and skill are determined together by learning and heredity. Skills can be technical, interpersonal, conceptual and administrative.

7.2 Research on Leader Traits and SkillsSeveral studies have been conducted on the relationship of traits and the managerial success. Some of them have explained why a person is effective in a particular managerial position and why the person is promoted to a higher level position.

Stogdill Reviews of the Early Research: Stogdill reviewed the early studies and concluded that there was no universal leadership trait. Some traits and skills enhance the possibility that a person will be an effective leader but there will be no certainty of effectiveness. A leader with certain traits may be effective in one situation and ineffective in another situation.

McClelland’s Research on Managerial Motivation: The research by McClelland and his associates suggest that managerial motivation is also important for effective leadership. A strong socialized power orientation, a moderately strong need for achievement and a relatively weaker need for affiliation are the motive needs of many effective managers.

Miner’s Research on Managerial Motivation: Miner’s research suggested motivation subscales -- the desire to exercise power, desire to compete with peers and a positive attitude toward authority figures – are correlated most consistently with advancement in large organizations. Managerial motivation predicted advancement in large organization, but the results of the study were inconsistent for small organizations.

Critical Incident Research on Competencies: Effective managers were found to have a strong efficiency orientation, a strong socialized power orientation, high self-confidence and a strong belief in self-efficacy and internal locus of control. They also have strong interpersonal skills and conceptual skills.

Longitudinal Research with Assessment Centres: Desire for advancement, dominance, interpersonal skills, administrative skills and cognitive skills are some of the traits that predict leadership advancement. The prediction of advancement with these traits is more accurate when there is a favorable job situation.

CCL Research on Managers Who Derail: Successful managers are calm, confident and predictable during crises; admitted mistakes, accepted responsibility and took action to fix problems; focused on immediate task and the needs of subordinates; more tactful, sensitive and considerate; and experienced in different types of situations and have broader perspective and expertise.

Derailed managers, who fail to perform successfully, are less able to handle pressure, more prone to moodiness, angry outburst and inconsistent behavior, likely to be defensive about


failure, too ambitious about advancing their career at the expense of others, weak in interpersonal skills and their technical skills are a source of successful problem-solving at lower levels of management.

7.2 Managerial Traits and EffectivenessHigh energy level and stress tolerance, high self-confidence, internal locus of control orientation, emotional stability and maturity, personal integrity, socialized power motivation, moderately high achievement orientation and low need for orientation are some specific traits related to leadership effectiveness.

High energy level and Stress Tolerance: This trait helps manager cope with hectic pace, stressful interpersonal situations and unrelenting demands of managerial jobs.

Self-Confidence: Leaders with high self-confidence are decisive to deal with problems in a crisis, attempt difficult tasks, set challenging objectives for themselves and take initiative to solve problems. But in case of excessive self-confidence, some dysfunctional behavior may occur.

Internal Locus of Control: This trait is positively associated with leadership effectiveness. People with a strong internal locus of control orientation, who believe in their actions and not destiny, are more confident, take more initiatives, more flexible, adaptive and innovative and have more future oriented perspectives as compared to people with a strong external control orientation, who believe in destiny.

Emotional Stability and Maturity: People who are emotionally stable and matured are well-adjusted, aware about their strengths and weaknesses, less self-centred, less defensive, have self-control and maintain more cooperative relationships.

Personal Integrity: People with integrity are honest, ethical and trustworthy and take responsibility for their actions. Their behavior is consistent with espoused values.

Power Motivation: Mangers with a socialized power orientation are emotionally matured, less egoistic and defensive and more willing to take advice from people with relevant expertise as compared to managers with a personalized power orientation.

Achievement Orientation: Managers with strong achievement orientation have a strong concern for task-objective, willing to assume responsibility for solving task-related problems and set challenging but realistic goals and deadlines. Achievement orientation enhances leadership effectiveness if it is subordinated to a need for socialized power.

Need for Affiliation: Managers should have moderate level of affiliation motivation rather than either high or extremely low. A strong need for affiliation as well as a very low need for affiliation has undesirable consequences in leadership effectiveness.

The Big Five Personality Traits: The five broadly defined personality traits of effective leaders are surgency, conscientiousness, agreeableness, adjustment, and intellectance.


7.3 Managerial Skills and EffectivenessTechnical skills, conceptual skills and interpersonal skills are three broad skill categories relevant to managerial effectiveness.

Technical Skills: Technical skills include knowledge about techniques and equipment used in the concerned unit, knowledge about the organization and knowledge about the organization’s products and services. Technical skills are required for planning and organising work operation, and to direct and train subordinates.

Conceptual Skills: Conceptual skills include analytical ability, logical thinking, concept formation, and inductive and deductive reasoning. It also involves good judgement, intuition, creativity and ability to find meaning is ambiguity and uncertain situations. These skills are required for effective planning, organising and problem solving.

Interpersonal Skills: Interpersonal skills include the ability to understand feelings, attitudes and motives of others, knowledge about group processes and the ability to communicate clearly and persuasively. Empathy, social insight, persuasiveness and oral communication skills are some specific interpersonal skills which are essential for influencing people and enhance the effectiveness of relationship-oriented behavior.

7.4 Other Relevant CompetenciesEmotional intelligence, social intelligence, systems thinking and metacognition are some additional competencies required for effective leadership.

Emotional Intelligence: Emotional intelligence is the ability to express one’s feelings to others, understand feelings of others and integrate emotions and reason in such a way that emotions are used to facilitate cognitive processes and emotions are cognitively managed.Emotional intelligence is relevant for effective leadership as it can help leaders solve complex problems, make better decisions, use time effectively and adjust to the situation.

Social Intelligence: Social intelligence is the ability to know the needs for leadership in a particular situation and choose an appropriate response. Social perceptiveness – the ability to understand the functional needs, problems and opportunities relevant for a group – and behavioral flexibility – the ability to change one’s behavior as per the situational requirements – are two primary components for social intelligence.

Systems Thinking: System thinking, the ability to understand the complex interdependencies among organizational process and the implications of efforts to make changes, is relevant for leaders of all levels.

Ability to Learn: The ability to learn from experience and adapt to changes, also known as metacognition, is one of the most important competencies for effective leadership.

7.5 Situational Relevance of SkillsManagers need many types of skills to adjust to various situations depending upon the managerial levels, the organization type and the external environment.

Skills Needed at Different Levels: The skills requirements for managers vary depending on the level of position in the organization. For higher level managers, conceptual skills are more important than technical skills as they deal with various activities of several subunits. For


low-level managers, technical skills are more important than conceptual and interpersonal skills as they are responsible for the work within their unit.

Transferability of Skills across Organizations: Lower-level managers cannot be transferred to a different functionality as the technical skills at this level are different, whereas top-level managers can be shifted from one industry to another without loss of effectiveness.

Requisite Skills and the External Environment: To adapt to the changing environment such as globalization, technological development and social change, managers need new skills for effective leadership.

7.6 Evaluation of the Trait ResearchStudies have been conducted in finding out the traits and skills relevant for managerial effectiveness and advancement and progress has been made but there are methodological and conceptual limitations that have hindered the research. Further research is required on how traits are inter-related and how they interact to influence leader’s behavior. More attention is also required from researchers on the idea of balance of traits for effective leadership.

7.7 Applications for ManagersManagers can improve relevant competencies by maintaining self-awareness and developing relevant skills and self-development.


Hoofdstuk 8 Early Contingency Theories of Effective Leadership

This chapter describes six contingency leadership theories that explain effectiveness of leadership in terms of situational moderator variables, situational aspects that enhance or nullify the effects of a leader’s traits or behavior.

8.1 LPC Contingency ModelLPC contingency theory explains how the situational variables have moderating influence on the relationship between a leader trait (LPC) and the subordinate performance.

Leader LPC Score: High leader LPC score indicates the leader’s primary motive is to have close interpersonal relationship with other people including subordinates and achievement of task objectives is a secondary motive. A low score LPC leader’s primary motive is achievement of task objectives and interpersonal relationship is secondary.

Situational Variables: Three situational variables – leader-member relations, position power and task structure – have moderating influence on the leadership effectiveness and LPC score or the subordinate performance.

Propositions: The situation is favorable for the leader if the relations with subordinates are good, the leader has substantial position power and the task is well-structured. When the leader-subordinate relation is not good, the situation is least favorable for the leader, position power is low and the task is unstructured.

Research on the Theory: A large number of studies, conducted to test the LPC contingency theory, have supported the model but not for every octant and not as strongly for field studies as for laboratory studies.

Conceptual Weaknesses: The theory does not explain how a leader’s LPC score affects group performance. Lack of explicit situational variables and leader behaviors also limit the utility of the model. The model also does not say about medium LPC leaders.

8.2 Path-Goal Theory of LeadershipThe path-goal theory of leadership explains how the behavior of a leader influences the performance and satisfaction of subordinates.

Explanatory Processes: A leader’s behavior can influence the efforts and satisfaction of subordinates who believe valued outcomes can be achieved by efforts and they put efforts if that will succeed.

Leader Behaviors: The theory suggests four broad categories of leadership behaviors –supportive leadership, directive leadership, participative leadership and achievement-oriented leadership.

Situational Variables: The path-goal theory suggests that situational variables influence the effect of leadership behavior on subordinate effort and satisfaction.

Major Propositions: When the task is not interesting, supportive leadership leads to higher subordinate effort and satisfaction. If the task is unstructured and complex and the


subordinates are inexperienced, directive leadership will result in increased subordinate satisfaction and effort.

Research on the Theory: Studied conducted to test the path-goal theory has mixed results. Results of most of the studies testing the theory could not be interpreted due to methodological limitations. More studies are required to test the theory.

Conceptual Weaknesses: Some conceptual weaknesses limit the utility of the theory. The path-goal theory relies on expectancy theory as the primary basis for explaining leader influence. Expectancy theory does not incorporate some important aspects of human motivation. It also relies on broad categories of leadership behavior.

8.3 Situational Leadership Theory This theory suggested appropriate types of leadership behavior for different levels of subordinate maturity with regard to the work.

Major Propositions: The leader should use task-oriented behavior and be directive if the subordinate is very immature. The leader can decrease the amount of task-oriented behavior and provide relation-oriented behavior if the subordinate’s maturity increases up to a moderate level. The leader should use a low level of task-oriented behavior and more relation-oriented behavior if the subordinate is much matured.

Evaluation of the Theory: A few studies which have been conducted to test the theory support the proposition. There are some limitations in the theory. It does not clearly explain which behavior influences subordinate performance. The theory also does not consider other situation variables which are important for deciding the appropriate leadership behavior.

8.4 Leadership Substitutes Theory Leadership substitutes theory suggests the aspects of the situation that make leadership behavior redundant or irrelevant. Various characteristics of the task, subordinates and organization become as substitutes for leadership or neutralizes the effects of leadership. Substitutes make some leadership behavior unnecessary and redundant, whereas neutralizers prevent the leader from doing anything to improve conditions.

Subordinate Characteristics: Experience, ability, training and professional orientation are substitutes for leadership behavior while the subordinate’s indifference toward rewards controlled by the manager serve as neutralizer.

Task Characteristics: If the task is structured, routine and repetitive, that will be a substitute for leadership behavior. If the task automatically provides feedback, there will be no need for the leader to provide feedback. That will be a substitute for the leadership behavior. If the task is satisfying, there is no need for the leader to inspire the subordinates and they will be motivated by themselves.

Group and Organization Characteristics: In case of formalization of roles and procedures of the organization, there is no need for the leader to tell the subordinates. Also, if the rules and policies of the organization are inflexible, leader cannot make changes to facilitate efforts of subordinates and that serves as neutraliser to leadership behavior. Cohesive work group and dispersed subordinate work sites also can be substitutes and neutralizers for leadership behavior.


Implication for Improving Leadership: Some situations have so many neutralizers that they make it difficult or impossible for a leader to succeed. In that case, one approach is to alter the situation to make it more favorable for the leader by removing neutralizers and another approach is increase substitutes and makes leadership less important.

Research on the Theory: Studies have supported some aspect of the model and others have not been tested or supported.

Conceptual Weaknesses: The theory does not give a detailed rationale for each substitute and neutralizer. It is also not possible to identify specific substitutes and neutralizers for broadly categories of behaviors.

Summary: Although the theory provides a different perspective on leadership, it has become difficult to test the model due its complexity.

8.4 Multiple-Linkage ModelThe model describes the interacting effects of a leader behavior and situational variables on intervening variables to improve group effectiveness.

Intervening Variables: Six intervening variables -- task commitment, ability and role clarity, organization of the work, cooperation and mutual trust, resources and support, and external coordination interact with each other to determine the effectiveness of a group or organizational unit. Deficiency in any of the variables may hamper group effectiveness even as other variables are not deficient. The relative importance of the intervening variables depends on the type of work unit and other aspects of the situation.

Situational Influence on Intervening Variables:

Intervening variables are affected by a variety of situational variables in addition to the actions of the leader.

Short-Term Actions to Correct Deficiencies: Leaders can improve the performance of the group by taking direct action to correct deficiencies in intervening variables.

Long-Term Effects on Group Performance: In the long run, the leader can improve the performance of the group by taking action to make the situation more favorable. Those actions may involve reducing constraints, increasing substitutes, changing the relative importance of the intervening variables.

Evaluation of the Multiple-Linkage Model: One of the first contingency theories to focus on leadership processes at group level, multiple-linkage model is more complex and comprehensive than earlier theories.

8.5 Cognitive Resources TheoryThe model deals with cognitive leadership behaviors and examines the conditions under which cognitive resources are related to group performance.

Proposition: Situational variables like interpersonal stress, group support and complexity in task determine whether a leader’s intelligence and experience enhance the performance of the


group. Directive leader behavior is an intervening variable used to explain how a leader’s cognitive resources affect group performance.

Research on Cognitive Resources Theory: Studies have supported the proposition of the cognitive resources theory.

Limitations of the Research: Studies to test the theory have inconsistent results and some of the results have not been tested due to methodological problems. Also some aspects of the theory have not been tested adequately.

Conceptual Weaknesses: The weakness of the theory lies in the fact that it uses general intelligence as major trait variable instead of any specific aspect of intelligence.

8.6 General Evaluation of Contingency TheoriesAll the seven theories have situational moderator variables, but the variety of variables is higher in some theories than in others. Three of the theories have explicit intervening variables that help in explaining how leaders influence the performance of subordinates.

8.7 Application for ManagersThe contingency theories and related research on leadership provide some guidelines that can be used by managers to increase subordinate performance and satisfaction. Managers should be aware about processes, people, trends and external events, use more planning for a long, complex task, consult people with relevant expertise, provide guidance to group members, provide more direction and briefings when a crisis occurs, provide coaching for the work andmore supportive to someone with a highly stressful task.


Hoofdstuk 9 Charismatic and Transformational Leadership

This chapter describes some major theories which have influenced the conceptions of charismatic and transformational leadership and provides some guidelines for leaders.

9.1 Two Early TheoriesCharisma: The earlier theories of charismatic leadership were influenced by the ideas of sociologist Max Weber who defines the term as a form of influence, based not on tradition or formal authority rather on follower perception that the leader has some exceptional qualities. The neocharismatic theories incorporate some of Weber’s ideas.

Transforming Leadership: The theory of transforming leadership was influenced by James McGregor Burns (1978) who compared transforming leadership with transactional leadership. Transforming leadership appeals to the values and emotions of followers while in transactional leadership, the followers get motivated for their benefits.

9.2 Attribution Theory of Charismatic LeadershipThe charismatic theory suggests that follower attribution of charismatic qualities of a leader is determined by the leader’s behavior, expertise and the situational aspects.

Leader Traits and Behaviors: Charismatic leaders advocate a vision that is highly discrepant from the status quo, act in unconventional ways to achieve that, make self-sacrifices, take personal risks and inspire followers with emotional appeals.

Influence Processes: Followers of charismatic leaders get influenced by their desire to please and imitate the leader. Charismatic leaders create a sense of urgency and followers put effort to achieve the vision. The influence is also due to internalization of values.

Facilitating Conditions: Charismatic leaders face situational variables such as follower disenchantment, and they are more likely to emerge in crisis situation.

9.3 Self-Concept Theory of Charismatic LeadershipThe theory identifies charismatic leader’s behaviors and their traits and skills.

Indicators of Charisma: The impact of a charismatic leader on follower is profound and unusual. Followers perceive the leader’s belief is correct and willingly obey the leader.

Leader Traits and Behaviors: They have a strong need for power, high self-confidence and strong conviction in their own ideals. They articulate an appealing vision.

Influence Process: Social identification, internalization and augmentation of individual and collective self-efficacy are some of the sources of Charismatic leader influence. The self concept theory does not emphasize personal identification. Facilitating Conditions: Charismatic leaders the vision make harmonious with follower’s identities and values. Crisis condition is not necessary for effectiveness of a charismatic leader but a crisis condition favor the emergence of a charismatic leader.


9.4 Other Conceptions of CharismaSome other conceptions of charisma have been discussed in this section providing useful insights into the nature of Charismatic leadership.

Psychodynamic Processes: Theorists explain influence of charismatic leaders in terms of Freudian psychodynamic processes in follower as regression, transference and projection.

Social Contagion and Charisma: Social contagion is the process which explains how the followers of a charismatic leaders influence each other. It involves spontaneous spread of emotional and behavioral reactions among a group of people.

Close and Distance Charisma: The attributions of charisma for followers who interact directly and have close contact with the leader differ from attributions made by followers who view the leader from a distance. Close charismatics are described in terms of their effects on follower motivation, task behavior and identification with leader while distant charismatics in terms of their achievements and effects on follower political attitudes.

Routinization of Charisma: Three approaches for routinization of charisma -- transferring of charisma to a designated successor through rites and ceremonies, creating an administrative structure that will continue to implement the leader’s vision with rational-legal authority and embed the leader’s vision in the culture of the organization.

9.5 Consequences of Charismatic LeadershipPositive and Negative Charismatics: Negative consequences can be charismatic leader may work for self-gain and dominate followers. Positive consequences can be the leaders emphasize internalization of values rather than self benefits.

The Dark Side of Charisma: Negative outcomes of charismatic leader may be because of adoration, excessive confidence and optimism, reduction in good suggestions by followers and less or no criticism from followers.

Effects of Positive Charismatics: Followers will have growth and development and the organization will have a dynamic and competitive environment.

Practical Implications for Organizations: Critics say charismatic leadership is risky as power is often misused, the radical change charismatic leadership likely to bring in an organization may not be appropriate and it may not survive after the leader’s departure.

9.10 Transformational LeadershipLeader Behaviors: Transformational leader show idealized influence, individualized consideration, inspirational motivation and intellectual stimulation.

Influence Processes: The influence process for transformational leadership appears to involve instrumental compliance, internalization and personal identification.

Facilitating Conditions: Transformational leadership remains effective in all situations. It is more likely to be important in a dynamic and unstable environment.


9.11 Research Methods for Assessing the TheoriesA wide variety of research methods have been used in the study on leadership.

Survey Research: Field survey studies have been used more often than any other method for study on charismatic and transformational leadership.

Laboratory Experiments: A small number of laboratory experiments have been conducted on charismatic and transformational leadership.

Field Experiments: Field experiments were conducted with real leaders in organizational settings on transformational and charismatic leadership.

Descriptive and Comparative Studies: Some descriptive studies look for attributes among leaders identified as charismatic or transformational and some others compared leaders identified as either charismatic or transformational.


Intensive Case Studies: Intensive case studies on individual charismatic leaders were also conducted to know their attributes and the effect on followers.

9.12 Transformational vs. Charismatic LeadershipSome theorists suggest transformational and charismatic leadership as essentially equivalent and some others view them as distinct but overlapping processes.

9.12 Evaluation of the TheoriesThe research relevant for the theories of transformational leadership has generally been supportive, but few studies have examined the underlying influence processes.

9.13 Applications: Guidelines for LeadersStudies on transformational leadership suggest leaders who seek to inspire followers, enhance their self-confidence and make them committed should articulate a clear and appealing vision, explain how the vision can be attained, demonstrate self-confidence and conviction, express full faith and confidence in followers, use dramatic, symbolic actions to emphasize key values and set an example by exemplary behavior.

leadershipinorganizations yukl 2 52222

Documents