leadershipinorganizations yukl 3 22442

LEADERSHIP INORGANIZATIONS

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Titel: Leadership in organizationsZesde drukAuteur: Gary YuklUitgever: Prentice HallISBN: 9780131494848

Aantal pagina’s boek : 560Aantal hoofdstukken boek : 15

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Inhoudsopgave

Hoofdstuk 10 Leading Change in Organizations pag. 3

Hoofdstuk 11 Leadership in Teams and Decision Groups pag. 7

Hoofdstuk 12 Strategic Leadership by Executives pag. 10

Hoofdstuk 13 Developing Leadership Skills pag. 13

Hoofdstuk 14 Ethical Leadership and Diversity pag. 16

Hoofdstuk 15 Overview and Integration pag. 19


Hoofdstuk 10 Leading Change in Organizations

This chapter describes different organizational change processes, how leaders can implement change, and how leaders influence organization culture and develop a vision.

10.1 Change Processes in OrganizationsLeaders can implement organizational changes successfully if they understand the reasons for resistance to change, different types of changes, phases in the change process and importance of using appropriate models for understanding organizational changes.

Resistance to Change: People resist major change due to various reasons like lack of trust on people who propose it, belief that change is unnecessary, doubt that the change is not feasible, threats of personal loss of income, personal fear and loss of power.

Stages in the Change Process: Lewin (1951) in his change process theory divides change process into three phases – unfreezing, changing and refreezing and said all the three phases are important for successful change.

Stages in Reaction to Change: Another process theory suggests the pattern of reaction to change has four stages – denial, anger, mourning and adaptation.

Different Types of Organizational Change: Changes in an organization can be attitude-centred and role-centred. The attitude-centred changes involve changing attitudes by introducing a culture change program. The role-centred change involves redesigning jobs to include different activities. Change can also be in technology and strategy.

Systems Models for Organizational Diagnosis: Systems model which admits complex relationship and cyclical causality can be used to improve organizational diagnosis. Diagnosis is conducted to understand the reasons for a problem and how to deal with it.

10.2 Influencing Organization CultureChanges in an organization need some changes in organizational culture which indirectly influence the motivation and behavior of the organization members.

Nature of Organization Culture: Culture of an organization is the shared assumptions and beliefs about the world and their place in it. Culture helps us understand environment and determine how to respond to it.

Primary Ways to Influence Culture: Leaders can influence organizational culture in various ways such as by paying proper attention through proper planning and monitoring, by responding to crisis situations, by role modelling – showing loyalty, self-sacrifice and service beyond the call of duty, by recognising contributions and allocating rewards, and by their choice of criteria for recruiting, selecting, promoting and dismissing people.

Secondary Ways to Influence Culture: The secondary ways by which leaders can influence culture of an organization are by emphasizing some activities, through planning sessions, reports and development programs and by making formal statements.

Cultural Forms: Organizational symbols, slogans and rituals are cultural forms which can be changed to influence the culture.


Culture and Growth Stages of Organizations: The influence of a leader on the organizational culture varies depending on the developmental stage of the organization. The culture in a young and successful organization is likely to be strong. In mature organization, the culture will be more unconscious and less uniform as there will be many different subcultures. It is difficult to change culture in a matured organization.

10.3 Developing a VisionA clear vision for a better future can be useful to guide change in an organization.

Desirable Characteristics for a Vision: A vision should be simple and provides a picture of a desirable future with detail action steps. It should appeal to values, hopes and ideals of the organization. It should be challenging but realistic.

Elements of a Vision: The core of a vision is the mission of the organization. A successful vision not only describes what the organization does but explains why it is worthwhile and exciting to do it. A vision provides glimpse of a possible future in which all the major values are realized. A mission statement, strategic objective, value statement or slogans have some elements of a vision but they are not constitutes of a vision.


Procedures for Developing a Vision: Good understanding of the organization including its operations, products, services, markets, competitors, is essential to develop an effective vision. An effective vision is not created in a single moment but develops during a lengthy process of exploration, discussion, and refinement of ideas.

Leaders should involve key stakeholders, identify strategic objectives with wide appeal, look for values and ideals in the current ideology which can be continued with the new vision, link the vision to core competencies to develop an effective vision.

10.4 Implementing ChangeThe success of efforts to change an organization depends on when, where and how various aspects of the change are implemented.

Responsibility for Implementing Major Change: Top management in the organization should encourage, support and provide necessary resources to facilitate change. They should not dictate how to do it.

The Pace and Sequencing of Changes: There are two opinions about the pace and sequencing of changes. Some say there should be rapid introduction throughout the organization while others suggest gradual introduction to different units.

10.5 Applications: Guidelines for Leading ChangeThe leadership behaviors that are needed for successful implementation of change can be grouped into two – political/organizational actions and people-oriented actions.

Political/Organizational Actions: When implementing major changes, leaders should determine who can oppose or facilitate change, build a broad coalition to support it, fill major positions with competent people, use task force to guide implementation, make dramatic and symbolic changes that affect the work and monitor the progress of change.

People-Oriented Actions: The process of implementing change involves motivating, supporting and guiding people. The leaders should create a sense of urgency about the need for change, help people to deal with the change, provide opportunities for early successes and keep people informed about the progress of change.

10.6 Innovation and Organizational LearningOrganizational learning is always required to become successful. The new knowledge can be created internally or acquired from outside the organization.

Internal Creation of New Knowledge: Many organizations have dedicated subunits for research and development and for assessing and improving work processes. They are important source of innovations in organizations.

External Acquisition of New Knowledge: Knowledge and new ideas can be acquired from outside of the organization. Identifying the best practices adopted in successful organizations and imitating them is an external acquisition of new knowledge.

Knowledge Diffusion and Application: New ideas and knowledge should be made available to staff for their effective use. Training, seminar, workshops and conferences should be organised to teach people about the new ideas and technology.


Learning Organizations: Learning organizations are those which learn rapidly and use new ideas and knowledge to become more effective.

10.7 Applications: Guidelines for Increasing Learning and InnovationsLeaders at all levels in an organization can help create favorable condition for learning and innovation. For increasing learning and innovation, leaders should encourage appreciation for innovation, encourage and facilitate learning, help people improve their mental models, leverage learning from surprises and failures, facilitate sharing of knowledge and ideas, set innovation goals and reward entrepreneurial behavior.


Hoofdstuk 11 Leadership in Teams and Decision Groups

This chapter describes leadership in various types of teams and examines effective leadership in meeting held to solve a problem or make a decision.

11.1 Nature of TeamsDifferent small task groups or teams are found in an organization. They can be functional operating teams, cross-functional teams, self-managed teams and executive teams.

Functional Teams: Such units are related to basic functions of an organization and the members have jobs that are specialized and part of the same basic function. Authority of internal leader, duration of existence and stability of membership is high.

Cross-Functional Teams: This type of team coordinates interdependent activities among specialized subunits and usually includes representatives from various functional sub-units. Most crosss-functional teams are temporary but some of such teams may be permanent addition to the organization.

Self-Managed Teams: In such team, much of the responsibility and authority vested in a manager’s position is turned over to the team members. Such teams are responsible for producing a distinct product or service. Duration of existence and stability of membership is high in such teams.

Virtual Teams: Members of such teams are geographically separated and they seldom if ever meet face-to-face. They communicate through computer and telecommunications technology. Any type of unit can be a virtual team, but most cross-functional teams come under this category.

11.2 Determinants of Team PerformanceCollective processes that determine team performance can be examined to understand leadership in teams. By influencing these processes in a positive way, leaders can improve team performance.

Commitment to Shared Objectives: High motivation to attain shared objectives of the organization lead to high group performance.

Member Skills and Role Clarity: If members have the required skills and knowledge and they know what to do, the group performance will be higher.

Internal Organization and Coordination: Proper organization of teams and coordination also help group performance.

External Coordination: Effective dealing – coordination and adaptation -- with external environment help a team perform better.Resources and Political Support: Proper supply of relevant resources helps a team perform better.

Mutual Trust and Cooperation: High level cooperation and mutual trust among members lead to high team performance.


Collective Efficacy and Potency: Collective efficacy or potency – the shared belief of members that the team is capable of achieving the task – can enhance team performance.

11.3 Leadership in Different Types of TeamsLeadership roles in different types of teams are similar in many ways but each of the teams has some unique challenges for leaders.

Cross-Functional Teams: An effective leader in a cross-functional team should have technical expertise to communicate about technical matters with members, cognitive skills to understand how different functions are relevant to the success of a project, interpersonal skills to understand the needs and values of members, project management skills and political skills to gain resources and approval from top management.

Self-Managed Work Teams: An effective internal leader, selected by members, in self-managed teams should be able to coordinate and implement the team decision. And an effective external leader has to play the role of a facilitator, supervisor and coach.

Virtual Teams: In comparison to traditional teams and co-located teams, virtual teams have some unique challenges for leaders. Lack of face-to-face contacts makes it difficult for a leader to monitor the member performance and influence the members.

11.4 Procedures for Facilitating Team LearningTeam leaders can encourage and facilitate team learning. After activity reviews and dialogue sessions can be useful for facilitating team learning.

After-Activity Reviews: Learning can happen by after-activity review, also known as an after-action review or post-mortem, a procedure for collectively analyzing the processes and outcomes of a team activity.

Dialogue Sessions: Team learning is possible if the members understand each other’s perceptions and role expectations. It also depends on proper or accurate interpretation of feedback about the outcomes of an action.

11.5 Applications: Guidelines for Team BuildingLeaders can help improve cohesiveness and mutual cooperation among members, and let them identify with the group – all the objectives of team building.

For team-building, the leaders should emphasize mutual interest, identify shared objectives and explain why cooperation is necessary, use rituals and ceremonies, use symbols to develop identification with the group, facilitate social interaction, tell people about group activities and achievement, conduct process analysis sessions, organise alignment sessions and increase incentives for mutual cooperation.

11.6 Decision Making in GroupsGroups are used to make decisions in organizations. The major determinant of the decision quality is the process by which a group arrives at a decision.

Determinants of Group Processes: Group processes are influenced the characteristics of the team such as the group size, members’ status differentials, amount of cohesiveness in the


group, member diversity with regard to personality and demographic attributes, emotional maturity of members, physical environment and communication technology.

11.7 Leadership Functions in MeetingsLeadership plays vital role in decision makings processes. Leaders should also maintain balance in conducting meeting. He should not be too passive or too domineering.

Task and Group Maintenance Functions: Task functions include process structuring, stimulating and clarifying communication, summarizing and testing of consensus among members. The group maintenance function includes gatekeeping, harmonizing, supporting, standard setting and process analyzing.

Who Should Perform the Leadership Functions: There are two views on whether the task and group maintenance functions should be performed by the team leader or two separate task and maintenance leaders.

Another debate is on whether the leaders should perform both types of functions or encourage members to share responsibility for performing them. The leader-centred view is that the leader should keep discussion focused on the task, retain control over final decision and protect his authority in the group. The group-centred view is that the leader should be a consultant, advisor, teacher and facilitator rather than a dictator or a manager.

11.8 Applications: Guidelines for Leading MeetingsFor improving group effectiveness to solve problems and make decisions, leaders should inform people about necessary preparations for a meeting, share essential information with group members, describe the problem without implying the cause or solution, allow ample time for idea generation and evaluation, separate idea generation from idea evaluation, encourage and facilitate participation, encourage positive restatement and idea building, use systematic procedures for solution evaluation, encourage members to look for an integrative solution, encourage efforts to reach consensus when feasible and clarify responsibilities for implementation.


Hoofdstuk 12 Strategic Leadership by Executives

The chapter enumerates strategic leadership and other related areas such as strategic management, decision making and strategic behaviors.

12.1 Constraints on ExecutivesThis section describes situational constraints on executives’ discretion and various situational aspects that determine the influence executives have on the performance.

Internal Constraints: Powerful inside forces or coalitions in the organization and strong organizational culture that is resistant to change are the internal constraints.

External Constraints: The nature of products and services, the market types, powerful external stakeholders and political-legal factors can be external constraints.

Constraints and Executives Traits as Joint Determinants: Internal and external constraints interact with each other and with the skills and personality of leaders to influence the leadership behaviors.

12.2 Biased Attributions about Chief ExecutivesPeople make biased attributions about leaders who do not have direct interactions with subordinates and other members in an organization.

Determinants of Attributions: Leaders who take decisive decisions and actions during crisis situation in an organization leading to effective results are viewed as exceptional. Highly visible actions during crisis influence followers’ perception about the leader.

Attributions and Executive Discretion: Attributions of a leader’s ability and the perceptions about the need for change have impact on the leader’s capacity to influence the performance of the organization.

12.3 Research on Effects of Leadership SuccessionResearch on the leadership succession suggests that if the successor is more skilled than the leader s/he succeeds, performance is likely to improve. If the successor is less able, the performance of an organization is likely to decline.

12.4 Evolutionary Change and Strategic LeadershipEvolutionary stage of an organization has an impact on the top executives’ influence on the organizational performance.

Periods of Reorientation: Periods of reorientation in an organization may be triggered by a performance decline and environmental changes such as new competition, major changes in technology and different political regulatory climate. During reorientation period, top leaders make major changes in the strategy, structure and work processes.

Periods of Convergence: Periods of convergence follows periods of upheaval and revolutionary change in an organization. During the periods of convergence, small incremental changes are made to reinforce the new strategy and increase the consistency between strategy, organization structure, culture and people.


Influence of Top Management: Top-level executives mediate between forces of stability and forces of change. The way executive perceive these different forces and deal with them has major implications on the organizational performance. Top-level executives have less impact when the environment of an organization is stable. The potential influence of top executives is much larger when major changes in the environment threaten to undermine the effectiveness of the existing strategy.

12.5 Political Power and Strategic LeadershipPower struggle among different factions and coalitions determine the amount of change that occurs in an organization. Most powerful subunit in an organization likely to have more say in the decision making and often get one of its members selected as the CEO.

12.6 Executive Tenure and Strategic LeadershipCEO’s tenure also affects his/her behavior. In the initial stage, a CEO’s behavior is greatly influenced by the implicit mandate given to him/her by the owner. The new CEO tries to demonstrate early successes. In next stage, the executive may influence to select a new strategy and begin to implement it. Later s/he will try to bolster the new strategy.

12.7 Executive TeamsThe top management team in organizations usually has the CEO and other executives who assist the CEO in chalking out strategy and assume the responsibilities of the chief operating officer in managing the internal operations of the organization.

Potential Advantages of Executive Teams: An executive team has the potential to make better decisions, important tasks are less likely to be neglected when there are many people to share the burden and there will be more commitment to implement the decision.

Executive Teams and Organizational Effectiveness: It is not only the characteristics of the CEO, but the attributes of the members of an executive team influence the organizational effectiveness.

12.8 How Leaders Influence Organizational PerformanceThe effectiveness of an organization is a long-term prosperity and survival and depends on three types of determinants: efficiency and process reliability, human relations and resources and innovation and adaptation to the environment.

Efficiency and Process Reliability: Efficiency is carrying out operations in such a way that minimizes costs. Efficiency can be increased by better designing of work processes, using new technology and better coordination of organizational activities. Process reliability is avoiding unnecessary delays, errors, quality defects, or accidents. Process reliability can be improved by using extra resources, but this may reduce efficiency.

Innovation and Adaptation: Innovation and adaptation is required for an organization to be effective during environmental changes.

Human Resources and Relations: Performance will be better if an organization has the required human resources -- the task-relevant skills and experience of the unit members -- and if there is better cooperation, mutual trust and commitment among the members.


Leader Influence on Performance Determinants: Leaders can improve the effectiveness of an organization by improving performance determinants. Leaders can influence performance determinants by changing behaviors as per the situation, and implementing formal programs, management systems and aspects of formal structure.

Flexible, Adaptive Leadership: Flexible adaptive leadership is needed to deal effectively with the difficult challenges in an organization posed by trade-offs, competing objectives and changing situations.

12.9 Monitoring the EnvironmentMonitoring of the environment is one of the important activities of upper-level managers. Monitoring can help leaders identify threat and opportunities for the organization and collect relevant information required for strategic planning and crisis management.

Guidelines of External Monitoring: Leaders can learn about events and changes in the external environment by identifying relevant information to collect, knowing what customers need and want, gaining knowledge about products and activities of competitors and relating environmental information to strategic plans.

12.10 Formulating StrategyStrategy is the planning for carrying out the mission to improve organizational performance and how to remain effective in changing environments.

Guidelines for Formulating Strategy: To develop an effective strategy for the organization, executives should determine long-term objectives, make an assessment of strengths and weakness of the organization, identify core competencies – that knowledge and ability to carryout a particular type of activity, evaluate the need for a major change in strategy, know what are the promising strategies, evaluate the likely outcomes of a strategy, and involve other executives in chalking out strategies.


Hoofdstuk 13 Developing Leadership Skills

This chapter describes various approaches for improving leadership skills and competencies and the major facilitating conditions.

13.1 Leadership Training ProgramsFormal training programs are widely used by organizations to improve skills and competencies relevant for managerial effectiveness and advancement. These types of training programs, usually designed more for lower- and middle- level managers, can be a workshop or a seminar of few hours that focus on a narrow set of skills or a management program that lasts for a year or more.

13.2 Designing Effective TrainingAn effective training program should have clear learning objectives, clear meaningful content, appropriate sequencing of content, right mix of training methods, opportunity for practice the skills to be learned and appropriate follow-up activities. The program should enhance trainees’ self-confidence and provide relevant, timely feedback.

13.3 Special Techniques for Leadership TrainingBehavioral role modeling, case discussion and business games and simulations are three techniques widely used for leadership techniques.

Behavior Role Modeling: Two older methods -- demonstration and role play -- are used in behavior role modeling to enhance interpersonal skills. Trainees observe someone demonstrate how to handle a particular type of interpersonal problem and then practice the behavior in a role play and get non-threatening feedback.

Case Discussion: Cases, the descriptions of events in an organization, are used to develop management skills. Trainees analyze cases and use management principles and quantitative decision techniques to determine how to deal with it. It increases their understanding about situations-managers encounter.

Business Games and Simulations: In games and simulations, trainees analyze complex problems and make decisions and deal with the consequence of their decision. Participants get feedback about group processes and their individual skills and behaviors. This is used for development of managerial skills and competencies.

13.4 Learning from ExperienceLeaders can learn skills from their experience on jobs and emulate effective behaviors from their competent superiors. They can also learn what not to do from superiors who are ineffective. Learning from experience is affected by amount of challenge, variety of tasks or assignments and quality of feedback.Amount of Challenge: Managers learn new skills and gain self-confidence while handling challenging situations such as dealing with a merger or reorganization, leading a cross functional team or task-force, coping with unfavorable business condition,

Variety of Tasks or Assignments: Managers learn much from diverse job experiences.

Relevant Feedback: Leaders learn by analyzing the feedback they get on a decision or on particular handling of a situation in operational assignments.


13.5 Developmental ActivitiesA number of developmental activities can be used to facilitate learning of skills from experience on the job.

Multisource Feedback: Feedback from subordinates, peers, superiors and clients can help a manger know his/her strength and weaknesses. On the basis of feedback, mangers can learn on the job experience. Training and feed-back activities can also occur after feedback form multisource is received. Though multisource feedback has been used widely, but its effectiveness has not been adequately determined.

Developmental Assessment Centres: Assessment centres collect information from diverse sources such as interviews, aptitude tests, situational test and a speaking exercise to measure managerial competencies and potential for advancement.

Developmental Assignments: Managerial skills can be acquired in the current job by carrying out some developmental assignments concurrently with the regular job responsibilities.

Job Rotation Programs: Managers learn many skills in job rotations, during which they are assigned to work in different subunits of the organization for periods of time varying from six months to three years.

Action Learning: It is developing skills and competencies through the combination of formal training and learning from work experience. In this type of learning activity, participants meet a skilled trainer to discuss, analyze and learn from their experience.

Mentoring: Formal mentoring program in which a mentor who is at a higher managerial level than the protégé assists him/her in developing skills and competencies. Mentors can facilitate learning during difficult job transitions. Mentoring has potential benefits but is not always successful.

Executive Coaching: Executive coaching helps managers acquire new relevant skills and competencies to handle specific challenges while staying on the job. In this activity, an external or internal consultant – a successful former executive or a behavioral scientist -- can be engaged to coach executives for a limited period of time ranging from a few months to a year.

Outdoor Challenge Programs: This involves physical activities performed by a group of people in an outdoor setting. An experienced facilitator conducts the activities and provides coaching and helps participants know the link between their experiences in an activity and organizational life. Such activities are designed to improve self-confidence, self-control, risk taking and willingness to give and receive trust in participants.

Personal Growth Programs: Personal growth programs are organised to improve self-awareness and overcome any constraints to psychological growth and development of leadership competencies.


13.6 Self-Help ActivitiesLeadership skills can also be acquired by self-help activities such as by developing a personal vision of career objectives, choosing an appropriate mentor, seeking challenging assignments, improving self-monitoring, getting relevant feedback, learning from mistakes, viewing events from multiple perspectives and being sceptical of easy answer.

13.7 Facilitating Conditions for DevelopmentThe acquisition of leadership skills and competencies can also be facilitated or inhibited by conditions in an organization.

Support by the Boss: The immediate boss can be a facilitator for development of leadership skill in subordinates. Managers preoccupied with immediate crises or their own career development and are insecure and fails to provide honest feedback are unlikely to help subordinates in learning.

Learning Climate: If the learning climate, prevailing attitudes and values about developing new skills, is conducive, more leadership development is likely.

Developmental Criteria for Placement Decisions: Assigning a challenging job to someone who does not possess all the required skills is likely to improve development in competencies.

13.8 A Systems Perspective on Leadership DevelopmentFormal training programs, developmental activities and self-help activities overlap and are interrelated in complex ways.

Relationship among Approaches: Learning from one approach can improve or facilitate learning from other approaches. Formal training programs, developmental activities and self-help activities are related.

Integrating Developmental Activities: Leadership training and development activities can be integrated with each other or with related human resources practices like career counselling, performance appraisal and succession planning.


Hoofdstuk 14 Ethical Leadership and Diversity

This chapter examines ethical leadership, cross-cultural differences in leadership, gender affecting leadership skills and competencies and the major facilitating conditions.

14.1 Ethical Leadership Some leaders use power to advance their own career and for economic gain while some use powers for the benefits of the organization and for subordinates. This sections examines some conceptions of ethical leadership, ethical dilemmas commonly faced by leaders and the ways leaders can do to promote ethical behavior.

General Conceptions of Ethical Leadership: The purpose of an action, the extent to which the behavior is consistent with moral standard and the consequences whether they are fulfilling the self-interest of the person concerned can be considered while judging ethical leadership. Falsifying information, stealing assets for personal use, blaming others for one’s own mistakes and selling secrets to competitors are some unethical behaviors.

Diverse Perspectives on Ethical Leadership: Burns (1978), while defining transformational leadership, says these leaders seek to raise the consciousness of followers by appealing to ideals and moral values like justice, liberty, equality, peace and humanitarianism, not to baser emotions such as fear, greed, jealousy and hatred.Ronald Heifetz (1994), in his book Leadership without Easy Answers, suggests that the type of influence used by leaders includes not only use of rationality and appeal to values but also formal authority. Robert Greenleaf (1970), while defining servant leadership, says the leader must stand for what is good and right even if it is not in the financial interest of the organization. S/he should oppose the social injustice and inequality.

Personal Integrity and Ethical Leadership: Most scholars consider personal integrity, an attribute required for leadership effectiveness, as a requirement for ethical leadership.

Dilemmas in Evaluating Ethical Leadership: For evaluating ethical leadership, the leadership influence process can be looked into. The leadership influence process may involve creating enthusiasm among followers for a risky project, inducing them to change their underlying beliefs and values and influencing decisions that will benefit some people at the expense of others.

Influencing expectations: The way leader influence the follower perception about the risks and prospects of a project is relevant for evaluating ethical leadership. It is unethical to manipulate followers to do something contrary to their self-interest by making false promises or deceiving them about likely outcomes.

Influencing values and beliefs: Some scholars believe that an attempt to change the underlying values and beliefs of individual followers is unethical even when the intended results are to benefit followers and the organization.

Multiple stakeholders: Evaluation of a leader’s decisions and actions gets complicated due to multiple stakeholders who have conflicting interests.

Promoting Ethics vs. Opposing Unethical Practices: Some scholars make a distinction between doing things to promote ethics and doing things to encourage unethical practices.


Ethics can be promoted by ethical behavior, facilitating a set code of ethical conduct and initiating discussion with colleagues about ethics. Opposing to unethical practices can include refusing to comply with unethical assignments, opposing unethical decisions, and threatening to publicize unethical practices.

Determinants of Ethical Leadership: The stage of a person’s moral development, individual traits and situational aspects are the determinants of ethical leadership. A leader who is at higher level of moral development is regarded as more ethical than a leader who is at lower level of moral development. Leaders with destructive and self-oriented behaviors are more likely to indulge in unethical activities. Unethical behavior is more likely in organizations with high pressure for increased productivity.

Future Research on Ethical Leadership: Ethical leadership is a relatively new topic and studies are required on the topic.

14.2 Gender and Leadership Practitioners and scholars have taken great interest in the possible difference between men and women in leadership behavior and effectiveness and discrimination against women in leadership selection.

Sex-Based Discrimination: The belief that men are more qualified to be leaders may be the reason for favoring men over women in filling high-level leadership position.

Implicit theories: The biased beliefs about the skills and behaviors required to an effective leader may be a reason for sex-based discrimination.

Stereotypes and Role expectation: The popular stereotypes and role expectations for men and women have an influence on the sex-based discrimination.

Other explanations: Exclusion of women form informal networks that aid advancement, intentional efforts by men to hold most powerful positions and difficulties created by competing family demands are some of the other reasons for discrimination.

Feminine advantage: Proponents of feminine advantage theory contend that women are more likely than men to possess the values and skills necessary for effective leadership.

Research on Gender Differences: Reviewers of studies comparing men and women with regard to their leadership behavior or skill and leadership effectiveness have mixed views. Some say there is no evidence of important gender differences in leadership behaviors or skills. Some say there are gender-related differences for some behaviors in some situations.

14.3 Leadership in Different CulturesDifferent aspects of cross-cultural leadership, the process by which culture influences leadership perceptions and behaviors and the research on cross-cultural leadership are discussed in this section.

Importance of Cross-Cultural Research: Cross-cultural research on leadership has become more important because of increasing globalizations of organizations. Leaders are now required to influence people from other cultures.


Cultural Influences on Leadership Behavior: Cultural values and traditions can influence the attitudes and behaviors of a leader in different ways.

Types of Research and Difficulties: Cross-cultural research has examined four types of questions: 1) differences in beliefs about effective leadership behavior, 2) differences in the conceptualization of leadership behavior, 3) differences in the actual pattern of leadership behavior in each country, and 4) differences in the relationship of leadership behavior to outcomes such as subordinate satisfaction, motivation and performance.

Cross-Cultural Differences in Leadership: Cross-cultural research finds both similarities and difference in the patterns of leadership behaiors, beliefs in effective leadership and use of leadership practices.

The GLOBE Project: Preliminary results of GLOBE project, a cross-cultural study of leadership in 62 different cultures, indicate that integrity, visionary, inspirational, decisive, diplomatic, achievement-oriented, team-integrator and administrative skills are rated highly relevant for effective leadership in all cultures. Some attributes found to vary widely in relevance across cultures are: ambitious, cautious, compassionate, domineering, formal, independent, indirect, intuitive, logical, orderly, risk taker and self-effacing.

14.4 Managing DiversityThe amount of diversity with regard to race, ethnic identity, age, education, socio-economic level and gender is increasing at work place because of globalisation of business, mergers, joint ventures and strategic alliances. Managing diversity is an important responsibility of leaders in 21st century.

Foster Appreciation and Tolerance of Diversity: For managing diversity effectively, leaders should set an example in their behavior of appreciation of diversity, promote understanding of different values, and support others who promote tolerance of diversity.

Provide Equal Opportunity: Leaders should provide equal opportunity to all diverse members of the organizaton so that they can make full use of the talent.


Hoofdstuk 15 Overview and Integration

This chapter summarizes the major topics about leadership discussed in earlier chapters and examines convergence across different approaches for studying leadership.

15.1 Major Findings in Leadership ResearchMajor findings of studies on leadership effectiveness are summarized briefly.

The Leadership Situation: Leaders face lots of requests, problems, inquiries and requests from subordinates, peers, superiors and outsiders. Effective leaders behave as per the situation, the nature of work and dependencies involving different parties.

Leadership Behavior: Effective leaders identify problems and develop a mental agenda of short-term and long-term objectives and strategies. Then, they use task, relations, and change-oriented behavior as per the situation.

Power and Influence: Power and influence are important aspects of leadership. Leaders try to influence different members in and outside of the organization. Influence and the manner of exercising power by leaders vary depending on situations.

Traits and Skills: Leaders require technical, conceptual and interpersonal skills. The relative importance of different skills varies depending on situations. Effective leadership also needs some personality traits that help to determine a leader’s desire to gain power.

15.2 Toward an Integrating Conceptual FrameworkIntegrating conceptual framework allows the reciprocal influence processes. Leader behavior is influenced by a variety of factors -- traits, power, situational demands and constraints and feedback about the success criteria. Leader power is determined jointly by leader traits, aspects of the situation and feedback effects of success of failure. In this model, intervening variables mediates between the effects of leadership behavior on the performance of individual followers, team performance and organizational performance. Leaders can influence the intervening variables.

15.3 Biases in the Conceptualization of LeadershipBiases, narrow focus and superficiality of most leadership theory and research have affected the efforts to develop an integrating framework on the leadership conception.

Heroic Individual vs. Shared Leadership: Many early studies emphasized the primary importance of a single heroic individual. The recent transformational leadership theories are based on this belief that influence is unidirectional and it flows from leaders to followers. But leaders cannot or seldom meet such expectation. In this theory, some important aspects of leadership did not receive as much attention as they deserve. In case of shared leadership, functions are shared by the members of the unit.

Dyadic vs. Collective Focus: Theories which take a dyadic perspective emphasizes the influence processes between a leader and a single follower. Some aspects of leadership have not been considered in dyadic perspective and it has limited the scope of leadership theory and research. Some other theorists advocate that leadership involves influencing collective processes that will ensure the survival and effectiveness of an organization.


Importance of Explanatory Processes: Most of the theories lack explanations explanatory processes. The theories suggest relationships or casual effects without explaining why they occur.

15.4 Issues about Research MethodsThis section explains some issues related to research methods.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Methods: Quantitative methods are biased and questions are poorly suited for studying leadership. Interpretation in intensive single case studies and comparative case studies in qualitative methods are subjective.

Survey vs. Experimental Studies: Survey studies are easier to conduct but have many shortcomings. Experiments in laboratory and field settings are appropriate for many types of leadership and facilitate opportunity to determine causality. Experiments have limitations like use of weak manipulations and use of convenience samples of students.

Level of Analysis: Individual, dyadic, or group level of analysis has been used by most survey research on leadership behavior. It is important to consider an appropriate level of analysis for the theoretical constructs and measures.


Other Methodological Issues: In many leadership studies, samples used are not appropriate for the research objective and designs. Most of the leadership research study events that occur during a brief time. Studied are required to examine leadership processes that took place over a period of time.

15.5 Concluding ThoughtsThis section has some author’s observations about the essence of leadership.The Essence of Effective Leadership: The 10 most important functions leadership should perform are: 1) help interpret events’ meaning, 2) create alignment on objectives and strategies, 3) build task commitment and optimism, 4) build mutual trust and cooperation, 5) strengthen collective identity, 6) organise and coordinate activities, 7) facilitate collective learning, 8) obtain necessary resources and support, 9) develop and empower people, 10) promote social justice and morality.The State of the Field: Substantial progress has been made in the study of leadership, which started as a scientific discipline more than a half century ago. In spite of that, much remains to be learned in the field.

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