las biografias de crim

8/10/2019 Las Biografias de Crim

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Mensuration de la coude[Measurement of the cubit (from the tip of the middle finger tothe elbow)]A photograph from Alphonse Bertillon's photo album from his exhibition at the 1893World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago.

Courtesy of the National Gallery of Canada, OttawaImage 1 of 1

Alphonse Bertillon (18531914)

Alphonse Bertillon (18531914), the son of medical professor Louis Bertillon, was aFrench criminologist and anthropologist who created the first system of physicalmeasurements, photography, and record-keeping that police could use to identifyrecidivist criminals. Before Bertillon, suspects could only be identified througheyewitness accounts and unorganized files of photographs.

Bertillon began his career as a records clerk in the Parisian police department. Hisobsessive love of order led him to reject the unsystematic methods used to identifysuspects and motivated him to develop his own method, which combined systematicmeasurement and photography. In 1883, the Parisian police adopted his anthropometricsystem, calledsignaleticsor bertillonage. Bertillon identified individuals bymeasurements of the head and body, shape formations of the ear, eyebrow, mouth, eye,etc., individual markings such as tattoos and scars, and personality characteristics. Themeasurements were made into a formula that referred to a single unique individual, andrecorded onto cards which also bore a photographic frontal and profile portrait of thesuspect (the "mug shot"). The cards were then systematically filed and cross-indexed, sothey could be easily retrieved. In 1884, Bertillon used his method to identify 241 multipleoffenders, and after this demonstration, bertillonagewas adopted by police forces inGreat Britain, Europe, and the Americas.

But bertillonagewas difficult to implement. The measuring tools needed frequentrecalibration and maintenance; the process was labor intensive, requiring rigorouslytrained, highly motivated and competent technicians, and was expensive. Whenindividuals were measured several times, even well-trained officers made theirmeasurements in different ways and sometimes failed to obtain the exact same numbers.Measurements could also change as the criminal aged. Eventually, police departments

began to abandon bertillonagein favor of fingerprint identification, although someelements, such as the inventorying of basic information and features, scars, tattoos, andthe mug shot, were retained.

One of Bertillon's most important contributions to forensics was the systematic use ofphotography to document crime scenes and evidence. He devised a method ofphotographing crime scenes with a camera mounted on a high tripod, to document and


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survey the scene before it was disturbed by investigators. He also developed "metricphotography," which used measured grids to document the dimensions of a particularspace and the objects in it.

By the mid-1890s, Bertillon had achieved international celebrity, through articles in

popular publications, exhibition displays, and international expositions. He foughtvociferously against those who advocated fingerprint identificationbut eventuallyincorporated fingerprinting into his system, albeit grudgingly. He also worked to furtherthe development of other forensic scientific techniques, such as handwriting analysis,galvanoplastic compounds to preserve footprints and other impressions, ballistics, and adynamometer which measured the degree of force used in breaking and entering.

Bertillon System of Criminal Identification

The techniques of criminal identification used by American law enforcementtoday are rooted in the science of anthropometry, which focuses on the

meticulous measurement and recording of different parts and components of thehuman body. Generally, law enforcement of the late 19th and very early 20th

centuries believed that each individual had a unique combination ofmeasurements of different body parts, and comparing these measurements

could be used to distinguish between individuals.

Alphonse Bertillon was a French criminologist who first developed thisanthropometric system of physical measurements of body parts, especially

components of the head and face, to produce a detailed description of anindividual. This system, invented in 1879, became known as the Bertillonsystem, or bertillonage, and quickly gained wide acceptance as a reliable,

scientific method of criminal investigation. In 1884 alone, French police usedBertillons system to help capture 241 repeat offenders, which helped establishthe systems effectiveness. Primarily, investigators used the Bertillon system to

determine if a suspect in custody had been involved in previous crimes. Lawenforcement agencies began to create archives of records of known criminals,which contained his or her anthropometric measurements, as well as full-face

and profile photographs of the perpetrator (now commonly known as "mugshots,"

which are still in use today).

The Bertillon system was introduced in the U.S. in 1887 by R.W. McClaughry,Warden of the Illinois State Penitentiary at Joliet. McClaughry translated

Bertillons 1885 edition ofSignaletic Instructions Including the Theory andPractice of Anthropometrical Identificationfrom French to English, and its use inthe States became quickly and widely accepted. The Bertillon system continued


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as the dominant criminal identification method both in the U.S. and Europe foralmost three decades. In 1903, the case of the West Brothers demonstrated

the reliability of the emerging science of fingerprint identification over that of theBertillon system.

In 1903, a man named Will West was committed to the penitentiary atLeavenworth, Kansas, where he was photographed and measured using the

Bertillon system. Will Wests measurements were found to be almost identical toa criminal at the same penitentiary named William West, who was committed formurder in 1901 and was serving a life sentence. Furthermore, their photographs

showed that the two men bore a close physical resemblance to one another,although it was not clear that they were even related. In the ensuing confusionsurrounding the true identities of the two men, their fingerprints conclusivelyidentified them and demonstrated clearly that the adoption of a fingerprint

identification system was more reliable than the older Bertillon system.

Bertillons anthropometric measurement system never quite recovered itsexclusive status as the preferred criminal identification system. It was eventually

displaced by fingerprint analysis, although Bertillon measurements werecommonly used in conjunction with fingerprinting into the early decades of the

20th century. Today, fingerprint analysis is used by law enforcement agencies allover the world to track down criminals and conclusively identify them.

Many artifacts in the collection of the Museum serve to document the history of

criminal identification techniques, including those used in earlier centuries and

decades but which were superseded by more advanced and accurate scientifictechniques. The arc of this technological evolution is important to preserve.

Through the study of such artifacts, the public can learn about American law

enforcement not only as it exists now, but also discover the history and

influences that made the field what it is today.

Eugne Franois Vidocq was an 18th century French crook-turned-cop who wasa confidant of at least two famous contemporary French writers and aninspiration for many others around the world.


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Victor Hugo based not one but two characters in Les Miserableson Vidocq -both Jean Valjeanand Inspector Javert. Honore Balzac's character Vautran, inPere Goriot, was also modeled after him.

Vidocq's legendary crime-solving reputation was also lauded in Poe's Murders in

the Rue Morgueand in Herman Melville's Moby Dick. The fugitive in CharlesDickens' Great Expectationswas also inspired by Vidocq's real-life exploits.

Vidocq's life story is amazing. As a fugitive from French justice, he first offeredhis services as a police spy and informer. Later, he became so successful atcatching criminals that he was named the first chief of the Sret, in 1811.Vidocq eventually directed a force of 28 detectives, all of whom were also formercriminals.

Eugne Franois Vidocq is considered by historians and those in law

enforcement to be the father of modern criminal investigation. Monsieur Vidocq:

introduced record keeping (a card-index system), criminalistics, and thescience of ballistics into police work;

was the first to make plaster-of-paris casts of foot/shoe impressions; was a master of disguise and surveillance; held patents on indelible ink and unalterable bond paper; and founded the first modern detective agency and credit bureau, Le

Bureau des Renseignements.

After he resigned from the Sret, Vidocq published Memoires, a book whichbecame a best-seller in Europe and firmly established him as the world's greatestdetective.

Vidocq's regard for his fellow man also was legendary. He was a philanthropist

who helped the poor and abandoned of Paris. At the same time that he was

pursuing the guilty, he was also freeing the innocent. Vidocq's personal

character, coupled with his skills as an investigator, are the source of The Vidocq

Society's inspiration for solving crime and helping others.


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EUGENE-FRANCOIS VIDOCQ: THE WORLDS FIRST DETECTIVE[1]By Jim fisher

Criminal investigation, as a specialized function within the field of law enforcement, hasonly been practiced since the first or second decade of the twentieth century, and then by

only a handful of practitioners. Modern law enforcement didnt exist until the turn of thetwentieth century. Up until then, civil order was maintained by the military, privatesecurity, citizen groups, members of crime victims families, and vigilante organizations.

Beginning in 1285, the English employed a method of policing referred to as the watchand ward, a system comprised of unpaid constables and night watchmen. The watch andward systems in England and colonial America were ineffective against rising crimerates. Homicide, rape, and other crimes of violence were dealt with, if dealt with at all,outside the government. Victims of theft, if they wanted their property returned, had tooffer rewards to watchmen, or ransom it back from the thieves. Eventually the system

collapsed under the weight of staggering crime and untrained constables and watchmen.

The first remotely modern police agency in England, the metropolitan police of London(Scotland Yard), was established in 1829. The New York City Police Department,Americas first professional law enforcement agency, was established in 1844 as

governmentally independent of the judiciary. According to todays standards, however,the New York City Police Department was a decentralized, undisciplined and relativelyineffective operation. The police in different parts of the city wore different uniforms,laws were not evenly enforced throughout the boroughs, and corruption was rampant. Itwould be decades before criminal records would be properly maintained, investigativeprocedures established, and qualified patrolmen and detectives hired, trained andsupervised.

In America, the first detective bureau was created in 1857 by the New York City PoliceDepartment, but it would be thirty years before the department would employ their firstcelebrated detective, Thomas J. Byrnes. Born in Ireland in 1842, Byrnes came to NewYork City as a child. He fought in the Civil War and in 1863 joined the New York CityPolice Department as a patrolman. In 1878, as a detective, he solved a three milliondollar bank burglary in Manhattan. Two years later he was named chief of the forty-mandetective bureau. At this time New York City, one-third the size of London, had threetimes the crime, including some 30,000 professional thieves and 2,000 gambling

houses. Having taught his detectives to identify criminals according to the way theycommitted their crimes, a particularly useful lead in burglary investigation, Byrnesbecame the American father of the M.O. technique in criminal investigation. He was alsoone of the first in America to routinely use informants, and because he had a reputation ofbeating confessions out of suspects, is considered the father of the third degree. That theacquisition of confessions through physical force was considered progress in the fieldsays a lot about this period in the history of criminal investigation.[2]
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Allan Pinkerton was perhaps the most celebrated and innovative criminal investigator ofthe mid to late nineteenth century in America. Born in Glasgow, Scotland in 1819, hemoved to the United States in 1842 where he took up the trade of barrel maker. He

joined the Cook County Sheriffs office shortly thereafter and in 1849 was appointed the

Chicago Police Departments first detective. He resigned in frustration a year later to

form his own private investigative agency. By 1869, with offices across the country, thePinkerton National Detective Agency, forty years before the creation of the FBI, was thecountrys first national investigative force. Its motto, We Never Sleep, and its logo ofthe unblinking eye, became part of American culture and the symbol of professionalcrime fighting.

Pinkerton was one of the first in America to understand the value of criminal recordkeeping, and as such began collecting and recording information of individual criminalsin the era before Alphonse Bertillons body measurements and the science of

fingerprinting. Whenever a Pinkerton man took an offender into custody, he made note

of scars, tattoos, moles and other notable physical characteristics that distinguished thisperson from everyone else. Pinkerton also amassed the nations largest roguesgallery. The photographs were initially daguerreotypes, then tintypes, and when the wet-plate process was developed after the Civil War, the agency mounted their prints onpaper. The reverse sides of these paper mounted photographs bore detailed physicaldescriptions of subjects, including notes regarding the offenders criminal specialty.[3]

Because there were only a handful of dedicated criminal investigators in America duringthis era, Thomas Byrnes and Allan Pinkerton were aberrations. The first American texton general criminal investigation wasnt published until 1930.[4] The word detectivedidnt find its way into the Oxford Dictionary until 1843.

Charles Dickens, in his 1853novelBleak House, featuring Inspector Bucket, a character inspired by Dickens friendInspector Field of Scotland Yard, was the first writer to use the word detective.

Prior to the mid-1800s when pioneers like Thomas Byrnes and Allan Pinkerton werelaying the groundwork for modern criminal investigation, before the era of scientificcriminal identification, it was virtually impossible to identify and appropriately deal withhabitual offenders. Unless a police officer, jailor, or victim remembered a criminalsface, the offender could use an alias to avoid being arrested on an outstanding warrant, oras an escapee, avoid being returned to prison. Few defendants of this era were everconvicted as repeat offenders. The problems in trying to identify criminals during this

period is described in a 1935 text, published in America, calledModern CriminalInvestigation:

They (the criminals) were planless, unmethodical, and gave rise to seriousmistakes. Contemporary accounts from the beginning of the nineteenth century of theidentification parades in London give a good picture of the conditions which existed in

olden times. Owing to the heavy penalties dealt to second offenders, criminals made
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every possible effort to appear as first offenders. In order to check up on these persons,certain days of the week were designated for a parade of the newly arrestedcriminals. They were lined up in the prison yard, and experienced policemen from thedifferent districts of the city scrutinized them carefully to discover whether criminalswere posing under assumed names.[5]

The attempt to identify and keep track of criminals, in more barbaric times, led to thepractice of branding. In France criminals were branded with red-hot irons as werecriminals in Holland, Russia, and China which didnt abandon the practice until 1905. InEngland and colonial America it wasnt uncommon for offenders to have their ears

cropped or their nostrils split. In ancient India, adulterers had their noses amputated.

It was during this period, before the time of Thomas Byrnes and Allan Pinkerton, that athirty-four-year old Frenchman and ex-convict named Eugene-Francois Vidocq, beganworking as an undercover operative for Monsieur Henry, the Paris Prefect of

Police. Vidocq wasnt a professional criminal, his problems with the law had to do withhis killing a man in a duel, a man he had caught in bed with is wife. His habit ofescaping from prison had lengthened his sentences for minor offenses, creating a certainnotoriety and begrudging respect among the police. His experience as a convict alsomade him familiar with the world of the criminal, knowledge he put to good use insolving crimes. He was so successful, Monsieur Henry, in 1811, put Vidocq in charge ofFrances first investigative bureau, a unit within the Paris Police Department called the

Surete. In time the Suretewould become so effective, its services would be madeavailable to all of France.

Shortly after he was made head of the Surete,Vidocq hired, as investigators, eight ex-convicts. Operating on the theory that it takes a crook to catch a crook, Vidocqconcocted sham arrests of his men in order to get them into prison where they developedintelligence on the criminal world. He got them out of prison by arranging fakeescapes. During his first year as head of the Surete, Vidocq and his men arrested 812major offenders, all of whom were convicted and sent to prison.

Throughout his twenty-three year career as head of the Surete, the colorful andflamboyant investigator, using disguises and ruses, would frequent the jails, taverns, and

back streets of Paris, mingling with the citys most notorious killers, robbers, and

thieves. Whenever he caught a criminal red-handed, Vidocq would offer the subject two

options: he could either go to prison, or work as an informant. Using this technique,Vidocq recruited a small army of snitches who kept him informed of underworldactivities.

The use of undercover operatives and informants werent Vidocqs only investigativeinnovations. He was the first to collect criminal intelligence and maintain records onindividual offenders. He kept files of index cards containing names, alias, physical
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descriptions, and arrest histories for every arrestee. An arrest card would also include adescription of the offenders criminal specialty and his method of operation. Forexample, if a burglar was known as a second-story house-thief who only operated at nightwhen the occupants were asleep, this would be noted on the card. By 1833, Vidocqsoffender files filled an entire room and kept four record clerks working full time.

In Vidocqs day, there was no such thing as forensic science. In fact, there was very littlescience. Nevertheless, Vidocq utilized, along with his other tricks of the trade, aprimitive form of forensic science that in a number of cases brought criminals tojustice. In this he was a true pioneer, a man of great ambition, imagination andtalent. He is perhaps one of the few geniuses to practice the art and science of criminalinvestigation. What follows are examples how he brought science and scientificmethodology to the investigation of crime:[6]

Sometime during the 1820s, Vidocq investigated a case involving a man named Lambert

who had used a letter he had forged to swindle a widow out of her estate. At Lambertstrial, the defendant claimed that the victim had mistaken him for someone else, a case ofmisidentification. In support of this defense, Lamberts attorney planned to present hisclient as a respectable, law-abiding citizen who had never been in trouble with the law.

Vidocq took the stand on behalf of the prosecution, and anticipating the defense, broughtwith him an index card from his criminal files--at that time made up of 60,000 of them--that contained Lamberts name, physical description, criminal record, and method of

operation as a con man and swindler. Having never been exposed like this, Lambert wasstunned. Vidocq, in addressing the issue of the forged letter, informed the court that hehad consulted four professors at the University of Paris who had assured him that a

persons handwriting was unique. He then showed the jury the questioned letter andsamples of the defendants handwriting. All of this was to much for the defendant whorose from the defense table, confessed his crime, and begged for mercy.

Vidocq, by comparing questioned writing with the defendants known handwriting toidentify him as the writer of a forged document, was fifty years ahead of his time. Hewas using expertise and standard forensic methodology before forensic scienceexisted. Through this case, he became the worlds first forensic document examiner.

In 1822, Isabelle dArcy, the young wife of a Paris businessman, was shot to death in a an

apartment she shared with her husband. Her killer had fired a bullet into herforehead. Because she was much younger than her wealthy husband, and had a lover, the

police suspected that the husband had shot her with one of his dueling pistols. Vidocq

examined the dueling pistols and found that the interior of the barrels were free of

gunshot residue, making it doubtful that either gun was the murder weapon. He also

determined that the victims jewelry was missing which caused him to suspect theft as the

motive, thus eliminating the husband as the prime suspect.


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To learn more about the general nature of the murder weapon, Vidocq asked theundertaker to take the slug out of the victims head, which was in effect a crudeautopsy. At the time, postmortem examinations were being performed in England,America and in several European countries, but in France cutting into a dead body wasconsidered desecration of a corpse.[7] The undertaker removed the bullet, but did so

secretly to avoid a public uproar. Once Vidocq had the bullet, he was able to determinethat it was too large to have been fired by the husbands dueling pistols.

Suspecting the victims boyfriend, Vidocq searched his apartment and found a pistol and

the victims jewelry. The fatal bullet fit nicely into the chamber of the suspectsfirearm. When confronted with the evidence, the boyfriend confessed that he hadmurdered his lover for her jewelry. Vidocq had applied, a hundred years before itbecame a court-accepted discipline, the science of forensic firearms identification.

In 1825 a self-made millionaire named Mattieu was found beaten to death in his Paris

mansion where he lived alone. In searching the crime scene, Vidocq found bloodstainson the hardwood floor in the second-story study, stains on the marble staircase leading tothe first floor, and dried blood on the front door latch. Vidocq figured that Mattieu hadcaught and struggled with an intruder who had killed him. The blood on the staircase andon the door latch, according to Vidocqs thinking, had come from the burglar. Without asuspect in mind, Vidocq visited taverns in Paris frequented by thieves and came upon aknown burglar who looked like he had recently been in an altercation. In order to getsamples of the suspects blood, Vidocq picked a fight with this man. When the dustsettled, Vidocq wiped the suspects face with his handkerchief. At the police station,Vidocq treated his blood-soaked handkerchief with a chemical that turned the drying

bloodstains into a bright red color. He applied the same chemical to the crime sceneblood left by the intruder, and when those stains turned bright red as well, concluded thathe had connected his suspect, through his blood, to the murder site. Confronted withVidocqs findings, the suspect confessed, and a month later was executedby guillotine.

Vidocqs blood identification technique made headlines all over Europe, earning him the

reputation of being the worlds first scientific investigator. Vidocq must have realizedthat in 1825 there was no way to scientifically identify blood, let alone individualizeit. The ability to identify human blood, and group it into three categoriesA, B, andABwouldnt come until two German scientists developed the technology in 1900. Thetechnique of individualizing blood wouldnt exist until themid-1980s when scientists

discovered DNA fingerprinting.

Vidocqs exploitation of incriminating evidence, including phony scientific proof, tocoax confessions out of suspects, in an era when it was customary, and legal, simply tobeat admissions out of people, put him far ahead of his time. In America, confessionsacquired through physical abuse, if found to be trustworthy evidence by the court,were admissible up until 1936 when the U.S. Supreme Court, inBrown v. Mississippi


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prohibited the use of all confessions acquired through violence. In America, well into thetwentieth century, the idea of tricking confessions out of suspects instead of beating themout, was not standard operating procedure. The first American book on the techniquesof nonviolent criminal interrogation, of using persuasion and psychology to get suspectsto confess, wasnt published until 1942.[8] Vidocqs methods of criminal interrogation

and his interest in physical, crime scene evidence--for example he was the first to makeplaster-of-paris casts of footwear impressions--would lay dormant for decades. He wastoo far ahead of his time to have an impact on the future of criminal investigation withinhis own lifespan.

As early as 1820, Vidocqs efforts to keep track of and identify habitual offenders got

him thinking about fingerprints as a method of physically individualizingarrestees. While Vidocq wasnt the first to think about the ridgeson the skin of thefingers, hands and feetin 1684 an Englishman named Nehemiah Grew described thisaspect of human anatomy in a book; and a contemporary of Vidocqs, another

Englishman, J.E. Purkinje, published a thesis in Latin describing finger and palmridgesVidocq was the first to consider the law enforcement and investigative potentialof fingerprints. In 1880, sixty years after Vidocqs interest in the subject, a Scottishphysician named Henry Faulds wrote a letter to the English journalNatureentitled, OnThe Skin Furrows of the Hand, in which he contemplated the use of finger marks as

valuable crime scene evidence.[9]In America, Mark Twain, in his books,Life on theMississippi(1883) andPuddnhead Wilson,a detective novel published in 1894,mentioned fingerprints.

In the 1820s,Vidocq tried to take inked impressions of some of his arrestees, but the ink

dried on their fingers before he could transfer the impression onto paper. He didntrealize that slow-drying printers ink was perfect the job. Even if he had found a way to

fingerprint offenders, these impressions would simply be an addition to his index card

system. Until 1901 when the Englishman Edward Richard Henry found a way to group

and classify fingerprint patterns, there was no way to use fingerprints as a method of

filing and retrieving criminal histories.[10] Vidocq continued to experiment with

fingerprints up until the day he left the Surete, at one point preserving fingerprint

impressions in clay. When he died a wealthy and famous man in 1857 at the age of 82,

no one was thinking of fingerprinting as a way to scientifically identify

criminals. Vodocq, not unlike many forward-thinking pioneers, died without the

satisfaction of knowing how accurately he had foreseen the future of criminalinvestigation and forensic science
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The original New Scotland Yard, now called theNorman Shaw Buildings

By 1887, the Met headquarters had expanded from 4 Whitehall Place into severalneighbouring addresses, including 3, 5, 21 and 22 Whitehall Place; 8 and 9 GreatScotland Yard, and several stables.

[1]Eventually, the service outgrew its original site, and

new headquarters were built on theVictoria Embankment,overlooking theRiverThames,south of what is now theMinistry of Defence's headquarters. In 1888, during theconstruction of the new building, workers discovered the dismembered torso of a female;the case, known as the 'Whitehall Mystery', has never been solved. In 1890, policeheadquarters moved to the new location, which was named New Scotland Yard. By thistime, the Met had grown from its initial 1,000 officers to about 13,000 and needed moreadministrative staff and a bigger headquarters. Further increases in the size andresponsibilities of the force required even more administrators, and in 1907 and 1940,New Scotland Yard was extended further. This complex is now a Grade Ilisted structureknown as theNorman Shaw Buildings.

The original building at 4 Whitehall Place still has a rear entrance on Great ScotlandYard. Stables for some of themounted branchare still located at 7 Great Scotland Yard,across the street from the first headquarters.

By the 1960s the requirements of modern technology and further increases in the size ofthe force meant that it had outgrown its Victoria Embankment site. In 1967 New ScotlandYard moved to the present building onBroadway,which was an existing office blockacquired under a long-term lease; the first New Scotland Yard is now partly used as thebase for the Met'sTerritorial Support Group.

Current headquarters of Scotland Yard[edit source|editbeta]

The Met'ssenior management team,who oversee the service, is based at New ScotlandYard at 10Broadway,close toSt. James's Park station,along with the Met's crimedatabase. This uses a national computer system developed for major crime enquiries byall British forces, calledHome Office Large Major Enquiry System, more commonlyreferred to by its acronymHOLMES,which recognises the great fictional detectiveSherlock Holmes.The training programme is called 'Elementary', after Holmes's well-known, yet apocryphal, phrase "elementary, my dear Watson". Administrative functionsare based at theEmpress State Building,and communication handling at the three

Metcallcomplexes, rather than at Scotland Yard.

A number of security measures were added to the exterior of New Scotland Yard duringthe 2000s, including concrete barriers in front of ground-level windows as acountermeasure againstcar bombing,a concrete wall around the entrance to the building,and a covered walkway from the street to the entrance into the building. Armed officers
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13/35

from theDiplomatic Protection Grouppatrol the exterior of the building along withsecurity staff.

TheMetropolitan Police Authoritybought thefreeholdof the building for around 120million in 2008.

[4]

In May 2013 the Met confirmed that the New Scotland Yard building on Broadway willbe sold and the force's headquarters will be moved to the Curtis Green Building on theVictoria Embankment,which will be renamed Scotland Yard. A competition wasannounced for architects to redesign the building prior to the Met moving to it in 2015.

[5]

In popular culture[edit source|editbeta]

Scotland Yard has become internationally famous as a symbol of policing, and detectivesfrom Scotland Yard feature in many works ofcrime fiction.They were frequent allies,

and sometimes antagonists, ofSherlock HolmesinArthur Conan Doyle's famous stories(for instance,Inspector Lestrade). It is also referred to inAround the World in EightyDays.

Many novelists have adopted fictional Scotland Yard detectives as the heroes or heroinesof their stories.John Creasey's stories featuringGeorge Gideonare amongst the earliestpolice procedurals.CommanderAdam Dalgliesh,created byP. D. James,and InspectorRichard Jury,created byMartha Grimesare notable recent examples. A somewhat moreimprobable example isBaroness Orczy's aristocratic female Scotland Yard detectiveMolly Robertson-Kirk, known asLady Molly of Scotland Yard.Agatha Christie'snumerous mystery novels often referenced Scotland Yard, most notably in herHerculePoirotseries.

During the 1930s, there was a short-livedpulp magazinecalled variously Scotland Yard,Scotland Yard Detective Storiesor Scotland Yard International Detective, which, despitethe name, concentrated more on lurid crime stories set in the United States than anythingto do with the Metropolitan Police.

Leslie Charterisfeatures Detective Inspector (later Detective Chief Inspector)ClaudEustace Tealof Scotland Yard in several of hisSaintnovels, a character who reappearedin various dramatic incarnations of the series, notably on television byIvor Dean.

Scotland Yardwas the name of a series of cinemafeaturettesmade between 1953 and1961. Introduced byEdgar Lustgarten,each episode featured a dramatised reconstructionof a "true crime" story. The series was succeeded byThe Scales of Justice,which dealtwith a similar theme.

In theJames Bond novels and short storiesby Ian Fleming and others,AssistantCommissioner Sir Ronald Vallanceis a recurring fictional character who works for
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Ronnie_Vallancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronnie_Vallancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bond_novelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scales_of_Justicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_crimehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Lustgartenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Featurettehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivor_Deanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Templarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claud_Eustace_Tealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claud_Eustace_Tealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Charterishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulp_magazinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hercule_Poirothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hercule_Poirothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agatha_Christiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Molly_of_Scotland_Yardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroness_Orczyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha_Grimeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Juryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._D._Jameshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Dalglieshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_proceduralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gideonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Creaseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Around_the_World_in_Eighty_Days_(novel)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Around_the_World_in_Eighty_Days_(novel)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inspector_Lestradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Conan_Doylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherlock_Holmeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_fictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scotland_Yard&veaction=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scotland_Yard&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland_Yard#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Embankmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland_Yard#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freehold_(law)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Police_Authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomatic_Protection_Group


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Scotland Yard.Gala Brand,who works for Ronnie Vallance at Scotland Yard, is featuredin the 1955 novelMoonraker.

Fabian of the Yardwas a television series filmed and transmitted by theBBCbetween1954 and 1956, based upon the career of the by then retiredDetective InspectorRobert

Fabian. A long running gag to end skits inMonty Python's Flying Circusis a policemanin a tan raincoat and afedorabursting in, and announcing himself as so-and-so "of theYard".[6][7][8][9]

Famous Slough

William James Herschel and the discovery of

fingerprinting

previous section next section

William James Herschel was born in Slough on 9th

January 1833, the grandson of astronomer William

Herschel, and the son of John Herschel, also anastronomer. His father asked him to choose a career

other than astronomy, so he joined the East IndiaCompany, and in 1853 was posted to Bengal.

Following the Indian Mutiny of 1858, Herschel becamea member of the Indian Civil Service, and was posted

to Jungipoor. In July 1858 he drew up a contract with alocal man, Mr Konai, for the supply of road-making

materials. In order to prevent Konai denying his

signature at a later date, Herschel made him put ahand-print on the document.

Herschel continued to experiment

with hand-prints, soon realising that

only fingers needed to be used. He
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collected prints from friends and

family, and came to the conclusion

that a person's fingerprints do not

change over time. He suggested to

the governor of Bengal thatfingerprints should be used on legal

documents, in order to prevent

impersonation and the repudiation

of contracts, but this suggestion

was not acted upon.

Prints of hands

and fingers

made by W. J.

Herschel

In 1877, Herschel was appointed Magistrate of

Hooghly. He instituted the taking of pensioners'fingerprints, so that their pensions could not be

collected by an imposter. He also began the

fingerprinting of criminals, so that their jail sentencescould not be carried out by a hired impostor.

Herschel returned to England in 1878, and in 1880published a letter in 'Nature', explaining hisexperiences with fingerprinting. In 1916, the yearbefore he died, he published an account of his work

entitled 'The Origin of Fingerprinting'.

Although he developed the technique of fingerprinting,

Herschel only ever used it as an administrative tool. He

did not realise that it could be used to catch criminals -it was Francis Galton and Edward Henry, building onthe foundations that Herschel had laid, that turned

fingerprinting into a tool for fighting crime.

Sir William James Herschel, 2nd Baronet(9 January 183324 October 1917)[1]was aBritish officer inIndiawho usedfingerprintsfor identification oncontracts.

[1][2][3]He was

born inSloughinBuckinghamshire(nowBerkshire), a son of the astronomer, JohnHerschel.He lived atWarfieldin Berkshire.
http://www.sloughhistoryonline.org.uk/ixbin/hixclient.exe?a=query&p=slough&f=generic_objectrecord.htm&_IXFIRST_=1&_IXMAXHITS_=1&%3dcms_con_core_identifier=sl-sl-1526_herschelfprint-i-01-000.tif&t=sl-sl-williamjamesherschel&s=uE4DBWxJ8xmhttp://www.sloughhistoryonline.org.uk/ixbin/hixclient.exe?a=query&p=slough&f=generic_objectrecord.htm&_IXFIRST_=1&_IXMAXHITS_=1&%3dcms_con_core_identifier=sl-sl-1526_herschelfprint-i-01-000.tif&t=sl-sl-williamjamesherschel&s=uE4DBWxJ8xmhttp://www.sloughhistoryonline.org.uk/ixbin/hixclient.exe?a=query&p=slough&f=generic_objectrecord.htm&_IXFIRST_=1&_IXMAXHITS_=1&%3dcms_con_core_identifier=sl-sl-1526_herschelfprint-i-01-000.tif&t=sl-sl-williamjamesherschel&s=uE4DBWxJ8xmhttp://www.sloughhistoryonline.org.uk/ixbin/hixclient.exe?a=query&p=slough&f=generic_objectrecord.htm&_IXFIRST_=1&_IXMAXHITS_=1&%3dcms_con_core_identifier=sl-sl-1526_herschelfprint-i-01-000.tif&t=sl-sl-williamjamesherschel&s=uE4DBWxJ8xmhttp://www.sloughhistoryonline.org.uk/ixbin/hixclient.exe?a=query&p=slough&f=generic_objectrecord.htm&_IXFIRST_=1&_IXMAXHITS_=1&%3dcms_con_core_identifier=sl-sl-1526_herschelfprint-i-01-000.tif&t=sl-sl-williamjamesherschel&s=uE4DBWxJ8xmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_William_Herschel,_2nd_Baronet#cite_note-HersFD-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_William_Herschel,_2nd_Baronet#cite_note-HersFD-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_William_Herschel,_2nd_Baronet#cite_note-HersFD-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingerprinthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingerprinthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingerprinthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contracthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contracthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_William_Herschel,_2nd_Baronet#cite_note-HersFD-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_William_Herschel,_2nd_Baronet#cite_note-HersFD-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_William_Herschel,_2nd_Baronet#cite_note-crosby79qif-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_William_Herschel,_2nd_Baronet#cite_note-crosby79qif-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloughhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloughhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloughhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckinghamshirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckinghamshirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckinghamshirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkshirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkshirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkshirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Herschelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Herschelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Herschelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warfieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warfieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warfieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warfieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Herschelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Herschelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkshirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckinghamshirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloughhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_William_Herschel,_2nd_Baronet#cite_note-crosby79qif-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_William_Herschel,_2nd_Baronet#cite_note-HersFD-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_William_Herschel,_2nd_Baronet#cite_note-HersFD-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contracthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingerprinthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_William_Herschel,_2nd_Baronet#cite_note-HersFD-1http://www.sloughhistoryonline.org.uk/ixbin/hixclient.exe?a=query&p=slough&f=generic_objectrecord.htm&_IXFIRST_=1&_IXMAXHITS_=1&%3dcms_con_core_identifier=sl-sl-1526_herschelfprint-i-01-000.tif&t=sl-sl-williamjamesherschel&s=uE4DBWxJ8xmhttp://www.sloughhistoryonline.org.uk/ixbin/hixclient.exe?a=query&p=slough&f=generic_objectrecord.htm&_IXFIRST_=1&_IXMAXHITS_=1&%3dcms_con_core_identifier=sl-sl-1526_herschelfprint-i-01-000.tif&t=sl-sl-williamjamesherschel&s=uE4DBWxJ8xmhttp://www.sloughhistoryonline.org.uk/ixbin/hixclient.exe?a=query&p=slough&f=generic_objectrecord.htm&_IXFIRST_=1&_IXMAXHITS_=1&%3dcms_con_core_identifier=sl-sl-1526_herschelfprint-i-01-000.tif&t=sl-sl-williamjamesherschel&s=uE4DBWxJ8xmhttp://www.sloughhistoryonline.org.uk/ixbin/hixclient.exe?a=query&p=slough&f=generic_objectrecord.htm&_IXFIRST_=1&_IXMAXHITS_=1&%3dcms_con_core_identifier=sl-sl-1526_herschelfprint-i-01-000.tif&t=sl-sl-williamjamesherschel&s=uE4DBWxJ8xm


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Herschel is credited with being the first European to note the value of fingerprints foridentification. He recognized that fingerprints were unique and permanent. Herscheldocumented his own fingerprints over his lifetime to prove permanence. He was alsocredited with being the first person to use fingerprints in a practical manner. As early asthe 1850s, working as a British officer for theIndian Civil Servicein theBengalregion

of India, he started putting fingerprints on contracts.[1]

In 1858, Herschel used whole handprints as a signature on contracts, following theIndianRebellion of 1857,which changed Bengal directly to British control (theBritish Raj,ending control by theBritish East India Company). Local businessman RajyadharKonai

[4]was the first person Herschel handprinted, apparently more as a way of getting

Konai to honor a contract he had signed than as a means of identification; it was onlysometime later that he gave serious thought to the efficacy of fingerprints asidentification

Herschel, William James

18331918BRITISHMAGISTRATE

William James Herschel is considered one of the first Europeans to recognize thevalue of fingerprints for identificationpurposes. He began using fingerprints and

handprints, instead of signatures, in his work as a magistrate in colonial India inthe 1850s and 1860s. He later collaborated with scientist Francis Galton,whose work led to establishing the first fingerprintclassification system,implemented by Scotland Yard in 1901.

Herschel had always been fascinated by fingerprints. As a young man, hecollected the fingerprints of his family members and friends as mementos,noticing that each impression was unique to each person, and that the patternsdidn't change with age. In 1858, when he went to work in Jungipoor, India, aschief magistrate, Herschel found himself looking for a way to seal a contract witha local businessman. He asked for the man's handprint, and this unique methodof signature secured Herschel's deal. Subsequently, Herschel began usinghandprints, and then fingerprints, on pensions, deeds, and jail warrants as a wayto prevent fraud in a society where illiteracy was high.

At approximately the same time, Scottish physician and missionary HenryFauldswas studying the use of fingerprints in Japan. He wrote an articleoutlining his idea of using fingerprints to assist in criminal investigations for the
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He inquired into racial differences, something almost unacceptable today, and was one of thefirst to employ questionnaire and survey methods, which he used to investigate mental imageryin different groups of people.

Although weak in mathematics, despite studying the Mathematical Tripos for two years, his

ideas strongly influenced the development of statistics particularly his proof that a normalmixture of normal distributions is itself normal. Another of his major findings was reversion.This was his formulation of regression and its link to the bivariate normal distribution. His workled him to the study of eugenics [3]:-

Galton may be described as the founder of the study of eugenics. His principal contributions to

science consisted in his anthropological inquiries, especially into the laws of heredity, where thedistinguishing feature of his work was the application of statistical methods. In 1869, in'Hereditary Genius', he endeavoured to prove that genius is mainly a matter of ancestry, and he

followed that up with many other books and papers on various aspects of the subject.

Let us examine Galton's contribution to statistics in a little more detail. In around 1875 he wasexperimenting with sweet-pea seeds. He used 100 seeds of each of seven different diameters andconstructed a two-way plot of diameters of the original seeds against the diameters of the seedsof the next generation. He noticed that the median diameter of the offspring of the large seedswere less than that of their parents while the median diameter of the offspring of the small seedswere greater than that of their parents. Galton realised that the off-spring tended to revert towardsthe mean size. Certainly he did not understand at this stage that his findings would apply to anytwo-way plot, thinking rather than it was peculiar to the situation with which he wasexperimenting. At first he called the phenomena 'reversion', but later changed the name to'regression'.

In 1884-85 the International Health Exhibition was held and in connection with this Galton setup a laboratory to measure human statistics. He collected data such as height, weight, andstrength of a large number of people devising himself the apparatus used to make themeasurements. This laboratory continued in existence after the International Health Exhibitionclosed and it was the forerunner of the Biometric Laboratory run byKarl Pearsonat UniversityCollege, London.

Galton now made further progress with the ideas he had already formed concerning regression.He made two-way plots of heights of parents and the heights of their adult children. He was ableto draw the plots in such a way that the coefficient of regression became the slope of theregression line. In 1888 he also examined the size of two different organs from the same personand applied the methods he had been developing to study the degree of association of the sizes.He defined an index of correlation as a measure of the degree to which the two were related.However, when there are more than two measures which were correlated, he failed to understandthe complexity of the mathematics involved.

In 1889 Galton publishedNatural inheritancein which presented as summary of the work he haddone on correlation and regression. He gave a good account of the concepts which he had
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introduced as well as the techniques which he had discovered.Karl PearsonreadNaturalinheritanceand it had a profound influence on his thinking:-

It was Galton who first freed me from the prejudice that sound mathematics could only be

applied to natural phenomena under the category of causation. Here for the first time was a

possibility - I will not say a certainty - of reaching knowledge as valid as physical knowledgewas thought to be, in the field of living forms and above all in the field of human conduct.

Among the data which Galton collected in his laboratory were impressions of fingers. He wasable to show that the fingerprint pattern remained constant as the person grew older, and hedevised characteristics of the fingerprints which could be used as unique identifiers of the personbased on grouping the patterns into arches, loops, and whorls. On the topic he publishedFingerprints(1893),Blurred finger prints(1893), andFinger print directory(1895). His identificationsystem became the basis for the classification of Sir Edward R Henry, who later became chiefcommissioner of the London metropolitan police. The Galton-Henry system of fingerprintclassification was published in June 1900, and began to be used at Scotland Yard in 1901 as an

identifier on criminal records. It was soon used throughout the world in criminal investigations.

As well as being an indefatigable investigator of human intelligence, Galton made importantcontributions to the fields of meteorology, anthropometry, and physical anthropology. HepublishedMeteorographica, or methods of mapping the weatherin 1863. He created the termanticyclone and pointed out its importance in weather forecasting. Along with other importantcontributions made to meteorology, this led to him serving on the governing committee of theMeteorological Office.

Galton received many honours for his contributions, perhaps the most notable being that he wasknighted in 1909 [3]:-

He was in his 89th year when the Prime Minister offered to submit his name to the King for aknighthood. With his usual modesty he accepted ...

He also received the Royal Medal from theRoyal Societyin 1876, the Darwin Medal of thesame Society in 1902, and its Copley Medal in 1910. He was awarded the Huxley Medal fromthe Anthropological Institute in 1901 and the Darwin-Wallace Medal from the Linnean Societyin 1908.

He played a major role in British science. In addition to the contributions mentioned above hewas general secretary of the British Association from 1863 to 1867 and was sectional presidenton four occasions. He also served on the Kew committee of the Royal Society. His health beganto limit the contributions he could make as he grew older [3]:-

His first sore trial was his deafness, which cut him off from scientific gatherings where at one

time he was a familiar figure. ... After a time he lost the power of walking and had to exchangehis daily constitutional for a bath chair, but no murmur of complaint escaped him. He dearly

loved the fresh air and cared not how he got it, often sitting in his open balcony when most

persons of his age would have crouched over the
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Vucetich, Juan

7/20/18581/25/1925CROATIANPOLICE OFFICIAL

Juan (Josip) Vucetich was a Croatian-born Argentinean anthropologist and police official who pioneeredthe use of fingerprinting. In 1882, at the age of 24, he left his birthplace of Lesina and immigrated toArgentina. He was one of the front-runners of scientific dactyloscopy (identificationby fingerprints).

Fingerprints were already used on clay tablets for business transactions in ancient Babylon and morerecently in the fourteenth century for identification purposes. But in 1788 J. C. Mayers recognized thatfriction ridges are unique. Until 1890, however, the technology used for individualization was the

anthropometric method designed by the French criminalist Alphonse Bertillon(18531914), based onthe size of body, head, and limbs.

In the 1880s Argentine police considered it necessary to create a department that would take care ofidentifying individuals and commissioned doctor Augusto P. Drago to study the method established by the

Bertillon. Subsequently, the Police of the City of Buenos Aires created a division dedicated toanthropometric identification. While Drago was establishing anthropometric identification in Buenos Aires,Vucetich was investigating fingerprints in the nearby La Plata Office of Identification and Statistics.

Inspired by an article from the French Revue Scientifiquethat reported on the English scientist Francis

Galton's (18221911) experiments with fingerprints and their potential use in identification, Vucetichstarted to collect impressions of all ten fingers to include with the anthropometric measurements he tookfrom arrested men. His intense study led him to confirm that fingerprints could be classified by groups. In1891 Vucetich devised his own fingerprintclassification method by means of impressions. He alsoinvented the necessary elements to obtain the best possible quality of fingerprints and implemented everyresource to systematize the method. It wasn't until 1894, however, that his superiors were convinced thatanthropometrymeasurements were not necessary in addition to full sets of fingerprint records. By thistime Vucetich had refined his classification system and was able to categorize a large number offingerprint cards into small groups that were easily searched.

Vucetich's new recognition procedure of the classification system was originally called Icnofalangometraor Galtonean method and was later changed to dactiloscopy at the suggestion of another fingerprintpioneer, Francisco Latzina. It consisted of 101 types of fingerprints that Vucetich personally had classifiedbased on Galton's incomplete taxonomy. On September 1, 1891, Vucetich's method began to be appliedofficially for the individualization of 23 felons, and in March 1892 Vucetich opened the first fingerprintbureau at San Nicholas, Buenos Aires.

Within a short time of the bureau being set up, the first conviction by means of fingerprint evidencein amurdertrial was obtained. In June 1892 a colleague of Vucetich's, Inspector Eduardo Alvarez, tookdigital impressions from a crime scene at Necochea. Eventually, Vucetich was able to identify Francisca

Rojas, who had murdered her two sons and cut her own throat in an attempt to blame a neighboringranch worker. Rojas's bloody print was left on a door post of her hut, taken to the fingerprint bureau forcomparison with the inked fingerprint impressions of the ranch worker, and eventually proved Rojas'sidentity as the murderer.

The insight obtained by the police department through Vucetich's simple and efficient fingerprintingidentification method encouraged the government to widen the filiations procedure and in 1900 the firstidentification cards were issued. Argentinean police adopted Vucetich's method of fingerprinting


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classification and it was widely spread to police forces all over the world for being scientifically efficientand superior to the existing methods.

Vucetich published all his methods, theories, and findings, which eventually were translated in the book

General Instructions for the Anthropometric System and Digital Impressions . His work DactiloscopaComparada(Comparative Dactyloscopy) came out in 1904 and is considered to be his masterpiece,

which led him to receive awards and honors from around the world.

Juan Vucetich created the most flawless system of fingerprint classification and is credited as being thefirst person to use a latent fingerprintto solve a crime. His work and perseverance went beyond hiscommitment. He made investigational trips to India and China trying to find out the origins of identificationby fingerprints, and he attended scientific congresses and published numerous books based on hisfindings.

While Juan Vucetich's system is still used in most Spanish countries, William Henry's system of fingerprintclassification, which was officially adopted by Scotland Yard as their identification system in 1901,continues to be in use in the United States and in Europe. A majority of the identification bureaus aroundthe world use either the Vucetich or the Henry classification system. International organizations such asInterpolnow use both methods.

Juan Vucetich died in the city of Dolores, province of Buenos Aires. He donated his files and his library tothe Faculty of Judicial and Social Sciences of the National University of La Plata, which served to createthe museum that bears his name. In the honor of Vucetic, La Plata Police Academy has been named"Escuela de policia Juan Vucetic."

Waite, Charles E.

18651926

AMERICANFORENSIC SCIENTIST

Forensic scientist Charles E. Waite was involved in a number of landmark advancements in the scienceof ballisticsover the course of his career. He was the first person to compile a catalog of information onfirearms, and was part of the group of scientists who adapted the comparison microscopefor use inballistics comparison. Waite also was a co-founder of the Bureau of Forensic Ballistics.

During the 1910s Waite was working as a special investigator for the New York Attorney General's office.It was at this point that he became involved in a case that would prove pivotal to his career. In 1915, anilliterate farmer in rural New York was accused of a double murder. Investigators hired a firearms expertwho claimed that the bullets used in the murders matched the gun found in the farmer's house. Stielow,the farmer, was convicted to the murders and sentenced to death. However, the New York governor

requested a reinvestigation of the case, and Waite was assigned to the job. He worked with microscopyexpert Max Poser to examine the fatal bullets along with bullets test fired from Stielow's gun, studying thebullets with microscopes. They ultimately determined that Stielow's gun could not have been used in themurders. The man was pardoned and released.

Waite's experience with the Stielow case inspired him to look into developing a scientific system ofcataloging ballistics information in order to prevent future mistakes. For a number of years he collecteddata, visited firearms manufacturers, and traveled around the United States and Europe. Waite, with the


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help of Calvin Goddard, created a database of information that was the first of its kind in the area ofballistics.

In 1925 Waite and fellow scientists Calvin Goddard, Phillip O. Gravelle, and John H. Fisher opened theBureau of Forensic Ballistics in New York, New York. Their goal was to offer firearms identificationservices to agencies across the U.S. About this same time, Waite and the group also adapted the

comparison microscope so that it could be used for bullet comparison. This capability made it mucheasier for examiners to identify matching bullet striations.

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Colonel Calvin Hooker Goddard(18911955) was aforensic scientist,army officer,academic,researcherand a pioneer inforensic ballistics.He was born inBaltimore,Maryland.After graduating from theBoys' Latin School of Marylandin 1907, Goddard graduated with aBachelor of Arts degree in 1911 from theJohns Hopkins Universityand then earned a medicaldegree and graduated in 1915.[1]

Career

He joined theUnited States Armyand became a Colonel. He was also a professor ofpolicescienceatNorthwestern Universityand the Military Editor of theEncyclopaedia Britannica.Hewas also the editor of the American Journal of Police Science, Americas first scientific police

journal. Colonel Goddard commanded the US Army Crime Laboratory inJapanfor a number ofyears afterWorld War II.[2]Calvin Goddard brought professionalism, the use of the scientificmethod, and reliability to Forensic Firearm Identification, at a time when charlatanism wasrampant in this field. Histestimonyin 1923 in the Frye case and others, paved the way forjudicial acceptance of Firearms Identification.[3]According to Goddard's grandson, he may have

been the only army officer who served in four branches:Ordnance Corps,Military Police Corps,Medical Corpsand became aMilitary Historian.[4]

Forensic Ballistics

In 1925 Goddard wrote an article for the Army Ordnance titled "Forensic Ballistics" in which hedescribed the use of thecomparison microscoperegarding firearms investigations. He isgenerally credited with the conception of the term "forensic ballistics", though he later admittedit to be an inadequate name for the science. In April 1925,Major[5]Goddard established theBureau of Forensic Ballistics inNew York Citywith C. E. Waite, Philip O. Gravelle and John H.

Fisher. The Bureau was formed to providefirearmsidentification services throughout America.Goddard researched, authored and spoke extensively on the subject of forensic ballistics andfirearms identification, becoming the internationally renowned pioneer in forensic ballistics. TheBureau of Forensic Ballistics, United States first independent cr

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