BE103:Communication Skills Topics to be covered in the Language laboratory sessions:1. Basic Grammar & Vocabulary

1.1. Synonyms 1.2. Antonyms 1.3. Analogies 1.4. Sentence completion 1.5. Correctly Spelt Words 1.6. Idioms 1.7. Proverbs 1.8. Common errors

2. Phonetic symbols and pronunciation.3. Listening skills (Including Listening Comprehension)4. Reading Skills (Including Reading Comprehension)5. Writing Skills (Including structuring resume and cover letter)6. Speaking Skills7. Body Language8. Oral Presentation: Preparation and delivery using audio – visual aids

with stress n body language and voice modulation (Topic to be selected by the teacher.)

Final Assessment Should be based on Assignment, presentation and interview

Activities 1. Basic Grammar & Vocabulary (Synonyms /Antonyms, Analogies, sentence completion, correctly spelt words, idioms, proverbs, common errors).1.1 Synonyms

Common Words

Synonyms List

About approximately, nearly, close to, almost, approachingAmazing astonishing, startling, stunning, dazzling, remarkableAwesome impressive, fabulous, astonishing, outstandingAwful dreadful, alarming, frightful, terrible, horrid, shockingBad offensive, repulsive, corrupt, wicked, defectiveBeautiful attractive, appealing, alluring, gorgeous, handsome

Begin commence, initiate, introduce, launch, originateBig huge, immense, massive, enormousBoring tedious, tiresome, commonplace, monotonousBut yet, still, nevertheless, though, however, moreoverChange alter, transform, vary, diversifyChoose select, elect, nominate, identify, preferCool rad, killer, wonderful, marvelous, fantastic, awesomeDefinitely unquestionably, precisely, positively, clearlyEasy effortless, natural, comfortable, relaxedExcellent superior, unsurpassed, superb, magnificentExciting thrilling, stirring, rousing, chillingFast swift, quick, fleet, hasty, instantFinish complete, conclude, achieve, deplete, consumeFun pleasant, pleasurable, amusing, entertaining, jollyFunny comical, amusing, entertaining, bizarre, laughableGet obtain, receive, acquire, achieveGive donate, supply, deliver, distributeGood satisfactory, fine, competentGot received, obtained, attained, succeded inGreat tremendous, remarkable, superior, expert, wonderfulGuy man, dude, person, fellow, boyHappy pleased, joyous, elated, jubilant, cheerful, delightedHard complex, complicated, difficult, rigorous, harshHelp assist, aid, support, serve, sustainHurt injure, impair, harm, damage, woundImportant significant, substantial, meaningful, critical, vitalInteresting absorbing, fascinating, thoughtprovoking, appealing,

entertaining

Antonyms

abeyance  continuanceabjure  espouseabrogate  instituteabstemious  Self-indulgentabstruse  obviousacrimonious  harmoniousadhere  detachadmonition  countenancebaleful  beneficentbalm  irritantbanal   originalbane  blessingbaneful  salubriousbeatific  impishcalumniate  vindicatecamaraderie  animositycandid  secretive

capitulation  resistancecapricious  steadfastcaptious  tolerantcarnal  spiritualdevout  impiousdiabolical  seraphicdiatribe  praisedifferentiate  combine

1.3 Analogy

An analogy is a comparison between two things that are usually thought to be different from each other, but have some similarities. They help us understand things by making connections and seeing relationships between them based on knowledge we already possess. Analogies are a ubiquitous staple of standardized tests.

Types of Analogies include:

Synonym (happy : joyful :: sad : depressed) Antonym (inflation : deflation :: frail : strong) Characteristic (tropical : hot :: polar : cold) Part/Whole (finger : hand :: petal : flower) Degree (mist : fog :: drizzle : tropical storm) Type (golden retriever : dog :: salmon : fish) Tool/Worker (pen : writer :: voice : singer) Action/Object (fly : airplane :: drive : car) Item/Purpose (knife : cut :: ruler : measure) Product/Worker (poet : poem :: baker : pie

Choose the pair of words that best express a relationship similar to that of the original pair. Then write the bridge sentence(s) to the right. A finger is part of a hand. A leaf is part of a tree.1. UNDERQUALIFIED: CREDENTIALSTentative: doubtTenacious: determinationlackluster: enthusiasmepicurean: appreciation2. ANARCHIST: GOVERNMENTactivist: diversityfeminist: menpolitician: orderabolitionist: slaveryteetotaler: prohibition

Bridge Sentence:A characteristic of an anarchist is to oppose government. A characteristic of abolitionist is to oppose slavery.3. PROPAGANDA : OPINIONsermon: moralitycommercial : economybattle : violencediatribe : negativityeulogy : deathBridge Sentence:The function of propaganda is to influence others’ opinion. The function of sermon is to influence others morality.4. COUCH : FURNITUREbookcase : encyclopediaknife : cutlerybed : canopycinema : rentalprotestor: villainBridge Sentence:A couch is a type of furniture.A knife is a type of cutlery.5. SURREPTITIOUS : OBVIOUSscholarly: professionalharmonious : musicalpacifying : enragingsponsored : bribedartistic : masterfulBridge Sentence:Surreptitious is the opposite of obvious.Pacifying is the opposite of enraging.6. FINALE : MUSICAL

inning : baseballstitch : tapestrymystery : novelbarista : coffeehomestretch : raceBridge Sentence:The finale is the final part of a musical.The __________ is the final part of a__________.7. LISTEN : EAVESDROPgrin : smiledonate : relinquishassume : concludeprognosticate : guessmove : sneakBridge Sentence:To listen stealthily is to eavesdrop.To __________ stealthily is to __________.8. GLUTTON : MODERATIONbraggart : humilityprofessor : knowledgesage : wisdomlawyer : prudencecaretaker : affectionBridge Sentence:Someone who is a glutton lacks moderation.Someone who is a __________ lacks __________.1.4 Sentence Completion

Directions: Complete the sentence using the word or set of words for each blank that best fits the meaning of the sentence as a whole.1. Under the ______ of their mother, the newborn kittens knew they were

protected, since any predator would have to harm their mother before it could get to them.

A. aegisB. negligenceC. truancyD. apostasyE. primogeniture

2. In the decade after the revolution, the new government seemed to ______and was never quite ______; this period ultimately led to a second revolution in which the current ruling party took power.A. careen ... ephemeralB. fortify ... falteringC. waver ... flimsyD. coagulate ... tenableE. totter ... stable

3. Despite his ______ upbringing, Vladimir proved quite adept at navigating city life. A. urbaneB. acridC. bucolicD. cosmopolitanE. harsh

4. Macbeth received what he thought was ______ prediction from three witches, but his attempts to make the auspicious portents come true tragically failed in the end.A. an ominousB. a momentousC. a lamentableD. a sinisterE. a propitious

5. The clownfish eats organisms that could potentially harm the sea anemone, while the anemone provides the clownfish with a safe shelter; both organisms benefit from this ______relationship. A. docileB. disjointedC. amenableD. symbioticE. contrary

6. Because the boy had told so many ______ tales about seeing wolves, none of the villagers believed him when he actually did see a wolf.A. fallaciousB. verifiableC. scrupulousD. fictitiousE. concrete

7. Athens is remembered by historians as a peaceful society known for its philosophers and scientists, while its neighbor, Sparta, is remembered for its ______ people and focus.A. chivalrousB. contentiousC. controversialD. inflammatoryE. martial

8. The storm ______ our efforts to hold a company picnic in the park last weekend, because it was impossible to stay outdoors in such a ______.A. destroyed … squalorB. bolstered … torrentC. thwarted … downpourD. increased … monsoonE. ruined … tragedy

9. The two rich cousins were very similar to each other in their ______ lifestyles: both spent money freely and ostentatiously displayed the ______ of their homes to their less wealthy neighbors. A. lavish … opulenceB. frugal … miseryC. stingy … sumptuousnessD. austere … grandeurE. luxurious … deficiency

10. Tim was such a worthless and lazy contributor to the group that his inclusion in it served as ______, rather than an advantage, to the group’s progress.A. a hindranceB. a positive C. an onusD. a cancerE. a boon

1.5 Correctly Spelt Words

Spelling rules are a bit like weather forecasts: we may use them, but we really can't depend on them to be right 100% of the time. In fact, the only foolproof rule is that all spelling rules in English have exceptions. Nevertheless, many writers find that certain rules help them to remember how to spell particular types of words, especially those formed by adding suffixes (or endings). Here we'll look at four spelling rules that should be helpful to you.

1. Using I Before EUse i before e, except after c, or when sounded as "a" as in "neighbor" and "weigh."EXAMPLES: believe, chief, piece, and thief; deceive, receive, weigh, and freightCOMMON EXCEPTIONS: efficient, weird, height, neither, ancient, caffeine, foreign

2. Dropping the Final EDrop the final e before a suffix beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) but not before a suffix beginning with a consonant.EXAMPLES:ride + ing = ridingguide + ance = guidancehope + ing = hopingentire + ly = entirelylike + ness = likeness

arrange + ment = arrangementCommon Exceptions: truly, noticeable

3. Changing a Final Y to IChange a final y to i before a suffix, unless the suffix begins with i.Examples:defy + ance = defianceparty + es = partiespity + ful = pitifultry + es = triestry + ing = tryingcopy + ing = copyingoccupy + ing = occupyingCommon Exceptions: journeying, memorize

4. Doubling a Final ConsonantDouble a final single consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) when both of these conditions exist:

(a) a single vowel precedes the consonant;(b) the consonant ends an accented syllable or a onesyllable word.

Examples:stop + ing = stoppingadmit + ed = admittedoccur + ence = occurrencestoop + ing = stoopingbenefit + ed = benefiteddelight + ful = delightful

MISSPELLING CORRECT SPELLINGacheive achieveaccidently accidentallybeleive believebeleif beliefcatagory categorycommittment commitmentcopywrite copyrightdefinately definitelydesireable desirablediety deityecstacy ecstasyembarass embarrassfacist fascistflourescent fluorescentfourty fortygoverment governmentgrammer grammar

hieght, heigth heighthygeine hygieneindependance independencejudgement judgmentknowlege knowledgelazer lasermaintainance maintenancemillenium millenniumneccessary necessaryneice nieceoccurence occurrenceoppurtunity Opportunitypavillion Pavilionpeice Piecepercieve Perceiveperserverance Perseverancepersue Pursueremeber Rememberrestrant Restaurantroomate roommate or roommaterythm Rhythmsimiliar Similarspeach speechstragedy Strategythier Theirthroughly Thoroughlytommorrow Tomorrowvaccuum Vacuumvegeterian VegetarianWendesday Wednesdaywierd weird (exception: Wierd programming

language)writting Writingyour you're (you are)

1.6 IDIOMSAn IDIOM is a group of words with a unique meaning. Knowing what the individual words mean doesn't usually help you understand the meaning of an idiom.

IDIOM   (noun) The noun IDIOM has 4 senses:1.  a manner of speaking that is natural to native speakers of a language2.  the usage or vocabulary that is characteristic of a specific group of

people3.  the style of a particular artist or school, college or movement

4.  an expression whose meanings cannot be inferred from the meanings of the words that make it up

Bookworm - someone who reads a lotMy sister is a bookworm and is always reading a book. 

Copycat - someone who copies the work of anotherSentence - The children called the girl a copycat when they saw her copying the test of another student. 

 Cover a lot of ground - to complete a lot of material in a class or courseSentence - We covered a lot of ground during the first month of the science class. 

Crack a book - to open a book to study (usually used in the negative)Sentence - I did very well in the course even though I did not crack a book until the last week of classes. 

Draw a blank - to get no response from someone when you ask him or her a questionSentence - The teacher drew a blank when she asked about the boy's plans for the weekend. 

Eager beaver - someone who works very hard and is very enthusiasticSentence - The young girl is an eager beaver and always comes to class before the other students. 

Flunk out - to fail a courseSentence - The boy was very smart but he flunked out of his language class. 

From the old school - ideas that were popular in the past but which are no longer popular or commonSentence - My grandmother is from the old school and always made her children make their own lunches and walk to school. 

Get through (a course or a set of materials) - to finish a course or a set of materialsSentence - The boy was a very good student and got through every course that he took. 

Hit the books - to begin to study hardSentence - After relaxing all weekend I hit the books on Sunday evening. 

Honor roll - a list of people or students with exceptional achievementsSentence - My neighbor was on the honor roll during his last year in high school. 

In pen - written or signed with a penSentence - The teacher asked the students to make sure that they wrote the essay in pen. 

Know one's ABCs - to know the most basic things about something

Sentence - The students worked hard and everyone knew their ABCs very well. 

 Learn (something) by rote - to learn or memorize something without thinking about itSentence - We learned many verbs by rote in the foreign language class. 

Live in an ivory tower - to not be aware of the realities of everyday lifeThe university professor lived in an ivory tower and had no idea what was going on around him. 

Old boy network - the situation where people (usually men) who went to the same school help each other get good jobsSentence - It was necessary to be part of an old boy network to get a job at the law firm. 

Pass with flying colors - to pass something easily and with a high scoreI was able to pass the science test with flying colors. 

Play hooky - to not go to school when you shouldSentence - The boys played hooky and went to the video game center for the afternoon. 

Read between the lines – to extract the implied meaning Sentence - One must read between the lines to understand the situations completely . 

School of hard knocks - the ordinary experience of learning from work and daily lifeSentence - The girl left school early and began to learn about life in the school of hard knocks. 

School of thought - a particular way or philosophy of thinking about somethingSentence - There are many schools of thought about how to learn a foreign language. 

Teach one's grandmother to cook eggs- to try to tell or teach something to someone who knows more than you do about it

Sentence - Teaching some of the students how to use a computer is like teaching my grandmother to cook eggs. Most of them know more than I do. 

University of life - the daily life and work where you learn more than from going to universitySentence - My grandfather began to work on the family farm when he was fourteen and learned everything from the university of life. 

Work one's way through college - to work at a job to help pay for your college or university expensesSentence - My brother worked his way through college at the local supermarket. 

1.7 Proverbs

"The best things in life are free."

We don't have to pay for the things that are really valuable, like love, friendship and good health.

"A stitch in time saves nine."Repair something as soon as it is damaged.

That's a small repair job, do it now and you'll need one stitch, and do it later and you'll need 9 stitches.

"Still waters run deep." people, who are calm and tranquil on the outside, often have a strong, "deep" personality

"He teaches ill, who teaches all." A good teacher lets students discover some things for themselves

"Better untaught than ill taught." It's better not to learn something than to learn it badly.

"Don't cross your bridges before you come to them”- Don't worry about problems before they arrive.

"Soon learnt, soon forgotten." Something that is easy to learn is easy to forget.

"Even a worm will turn." Everybody will revolt if driven too far.

"It was the last straw that broke the camel's back." There is a limit to everything.

"The way to a man's heart is through his stomach."

"If the stone fall upon the egg, alas for the egg! If the egg fall upon the stone, alas for the egg!"

Life just isn't fair, the stone will always break the egg. Life's like that!

"Where there's a will there's a way."

If we have the determination to do something, we can always find the path or method to do it.

"Marry in haste, and repent at leisure."

"One tongue is enough for a woman." This proverb is another way of saying that women talk too much.

"If you wish good advice, consult an old man."

"The best advice is found on the pillow."

"All clouds bring not rain."

"You can't tell a book by its cover."

"Bad news travels fast."

"No news is good news."

This is like the proverb "Bad news travels fast." If we are waiting for news about someone, it's probably good if we hear nothing because "bad news" would arrive quickly.

"Live and let live."

This proverb suggests that we should not interfere in other people's business. We should live our own lives and let others live their lives.

"Birds of a feather flock together."

The whole proverb means that people of the same type or sort stay together. They don't mix with people of another type.

1.8 Common Errors

Which one is wrong?1. Accused of

The man was accused of the murder. The man was accused with the murder.

2. Alive & live Only three people were alive after the accident.

Only three people were live after the accident 3. Alternative & alternate

Is this the only solution? Isn’t there an alternate option?Is this the only solution? Isn’t there an alternative option?

4. Among & between The three boys divided the cake among themselves.The three boys divided the cake between themselves.

5. As & like He’s an engineer but works as a driver.

He’s an engineer but works like a driver. 6. Attempt & intend

She tried to climb Mount Kilimanjaro last year but failed. This year she’ll attempt it again.She tried to climb Mount Kilimanjaro last year but failed. This year she’ll intend it again.

7. Believe I don’t believe anything she ever says.I’m not believing anything she ever says.

8. Boring I find the economics class boring.I’m boring at the economics class.

9. Can’t & mustn’t It can’t be Silvia. It’s too early!It mustn’t be Silvia. It’s too early!

10. Casual It was a casual meeting. We met by chance.We were expected to wear casual clothes so I didn’t bring a tie.

11. Certainly & surely Unemployment is certainly rising. Look at these figures!Unemployment is surely rising. Look at these figures!

12. Deduce & deduct She deduced he was the murderer.She deducted he was the murderer.

13. Depend from In a hierarchical organization employees depend from one boss.In a hierarchical organization employees depend on one boss.

14. Depend on My decision will depend of the information I have.My decision will depend on the information I have.

15. Dessert & desert

Would you like apple pie for desert?Would you like apple pie for dessert?

16. Except We’ll finance all the new projects except for Joe’s, which will be discontinued.We’ll finance all the new projects except Joe’s, which will be discontinued.

17. ExplainPlease explain me your theory.Please explain your theory to me.

18. Familiar I can’t remember her face but her name does sound familiar.We have a large family so I invited several familiars to the wedding.

19. Few & littleWe need a few dollars to meet our savings goal.We need a little dollar to meet our savings goal.

20. For & since I’ve waited for three hours already.I’ve waited since three hours already.

21. Good & wellThis is a good book.This is a well book.

Intend & attempt I attempt to attend university when I finish school.I intend to attend university when I finish school

22. Ladder & stairs Shall I move the ladder under the chandelier so you can change the bulb?Shall I move the stairs under the chandelier so you can change the bulb?

23. Large enough This boat isn’t large enough for all our family.

This boat isn’t enough large for all our family.24. Many & much

Many people came today.Much people came today.

25. Most Most managers have arrived.Most of managers have arrived.

26. Must We must increase prices.We must to increase prices.Now & actuallyHe used to be a secretary. He’s a manager now.He used to be a secretary. He’s a manager actually.

27. People Most people are interested in their health.Most people is interested in their health.

28. Prize & price She’s an excellent student and won the first price.She’s an excellent student and won the first prize.

29. Raise & rise Farmers raise cattle.Farmers rise cattle.

30. Safe & secure Is your neighborhood safe? There are many robberies in mine.Is your neighborhood secure? There are many robberies in mine.

2. PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of the sounds of language.  These sounds are called

phonemes. There are literally hundreds of them used in different languages.  Even a single language like English requires us to distinguish about 44!  The key word here is distinguish.  We actually make much finer

discriminations among sounds, but English only requires 44.  The other discriminations are what let us detect the differences in accents and dialects,

identify individuals, and differentiate tiny nuances of speech that indicate things beyond the obvious meanings of the words.

The Principal Organs of Articulation The Vocal Tract

In order to study the sounds of language, we first need to study the vocal tract.  Speech starts with the lungs, which push air out and pull it in.  The original purpose was, of course, to get oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide.  But it is also essential for speech.  There are phonemes that are little more than breathing:  the h for example.

Next, we have the larynx, or voice box.  It sits at the juncture of the trachea or windpipe coming up from the lungs and the esophagous coming up from the stomach.  In the larynx, we have an opening called the glottis, an epiglottis which covers the glottis when we are swallowing, and the vocal cords.  The vocal cords consist of two flaps of mucous membrane stretched across the glottis, as in this photograph:

The vocal cords can be tightened and loosened and can vibrate when air is forced past them, creating sound.  Some phonemes use that sound, and are called voiced.  Examples include the vowels (a, e, i, o, and u, for example) and some of the consonants (m, l, and r, for example).  Other phonemes do not involve the vocal cords, such as the consonants h, t, or s, and so are called unvoiced.

The area above the glottis is called the pharynx, or upper throat.  It can be tightened to make phryngeal consonants.  English doesn’t have any of these, but they sound like when you try to get a piece of food back up out of your throat.

At the top of the throat is the opening to the nasal passages (called the nasopharynx, in case you are interested).  When we allow air to pass into the nose while speaking, the sounds we make are called nasal.  Examples include m, n, and the ng sound of sing.

Much of the action during speech occurs in the mouth, of course, especially involving the interaction of the tongue with the roof of the mouth.  The roof of the mouth has several specific areas:  At the very back, just before the nasal passage, is that little bag called the uvula.  Its major function seems to be moisturizing the air and making certain sounds called, obviously, uvular.  The best known is the kind of r pronounced in the back of the mouth by

some French and German speakers.  Uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal sounds are often refered to as gutterals.

Next, we have the soft palate, called the velum.  If you turn your tongue back as far as it will go and press up, you can feel how soft it is.   When you say k or g, you are using the velum, so they are called velar consonants.

Further forward is the hard palate.  Quite a few consonants are made using the hard palate, such as s, sh, n, and l, and are called palatals.  Just behind the teeth is the dental ridge or alveolus.  Here is where many of us make our t’s and d’s alveolar consonants.

At the very outer edge of the mouth we have the teeth and the lips.  Dental consonants are made by touching the tongue to the teeth.  In English, we make the two th sounds like this.  Note that one of these is voiced (the th in the) and one is unvoiced (the th in thin).

At the lips we can make several sounds as well.  The simplest, perhaps, are the bilabial sounds, made by holding the lips together and then releasing the sound, such as p and b, or by keeping them together and releasing the air through the nose, making the bilabial nasal m.  We can also use the

upper teeth with the

Consonants

Places of articulation

Place/Manner

bilabial

labiodental

dental

alveolar

palatoalveolar

palatal

velar

uvular

glottal

plosive p b t d k gfricatives fv θ ð s z ʃ ʒ haffricate dʃ tʒ nasal m n ŋlaterals lFrictionless continuant

r

Semivowel w j Consonants are sounds which involve full or partial blocking of airflow.  In

English, there are about 24 consonants. They are classified in a number of different ways, depending on the vocal tract details we just discussed.

1.  Stops, also known as plosives.  The air is blocked for a moment, then released.  In English, they are p, b, t, d, k, and g.

a.  Bilabial plosives: p (unvoiced) and b (voiced)b.  Alveolar plosives:  t (unvoiced) and d (voiced)c.  Velar plosives:  k (unvoiced) and g (voiced)

In other languages, we find labiodental, palatal, uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal plosives as well, and retroflex plosives, which involve reaching back to the palate with the corona of the tongue.

In many languages, plosives may be followed by aspiration, that is, by a breathy sound like an h.  In Chinese, for example, there is a distinction between a p pronounced crisply and an aspirated p.  We use both in English (pit vs poo), but it isn’t a distinction that separates one meaning from another.

2.  Fricatives involve a slightly resisted flow of air.  In English, these include f, v, θ ð , s, z, ʃ ʒ and h.

a.  Labiodental fricatives:  f (unvoiced) and v (voiced)b.  Dental fricatives: θ (as in thin unvoiced) and ð (as in the voiced)c.  Alveolar fricatives:  s (unvoiced) and z (voiced)d.  Palatal fricatives:  ʃ (unvoiced) and ʒ (like the s in vision voiced)e.  Glottal fricative:  h (unvoiced)

3.  Affricates dʃ tʒ are sounds that involve a plosive followed immediately by a fricative at the same location. 

4.  Nasals are sounds made with air passing through the nose.  In English, these are m, n, and ŋ.

a.  Bilabial nasal:  mb.  Alveolar nasal:  nc.  Velar nasal:  ŋ

5.  Liquids are sounds with very little air resistance.  In English, we have l and r, which are both alveolar, but differ in the shape of the tongue.  For l, we touch the tip to the ridge of the teeth and let the air go around both sides.  For the r, we almost block the air on both sides and let it through at the top.  Note that there are many variations of l and r in other languages and even within English itself!

6.  Semivowels are sounds that are, as the name implies, very nearly vowels.  In English, we have w and j, which you can see are a lot like vowels such as oo and ee, but with the lips almost closed for w (a bilabial) and the tongue almost touching the palate for y (a palatal).  They are also called glides, since they normally “glide” into or out of vowel positions (as in woo, yeah, ow, and oy).In many languages, such as Russian, there is a whole set of palatalized consonants, which means they are followed by a y before the vowel.  This is also called an onglide.

Front vowels

ɪ iː e æ

Back Vowels

ʊ uː ɑː ɒ ɔː

Central vowels

ʌ ɜː ə

Dipthongs

eɪ aɪ ɔɪ əʊ aʊ ɪə eə ʊə

VowelsVowel length is marked with a colon after the vowel, e.g. i:

Nasal vowels are shown by placing a tilde over the vowel, e.g. ã

There are dozens more phonemes beyond the ones in the preceding charts, but one set is particularly interesting:  clicks.  Clicks are sounds made by creating a vacuum with the tongue and then suddenly snapping the tongue away.  We use these ourselves, though not as parts of words:  When we “tsk tsk,” when we make clucking sounds, and when we make a click in the side of our mouths when we tell a horse to get a move on.  Clicks are used in the Bushman languages and in the Bantu languages that had prolonged contact with them.  The best known is the Bantu language Khosa, because of the famous South African singer Miriam Makeba.

Stress and Tones

In many languages around the world, including English, words are differentiated by means of stress.  One syllable is usually given a higher pitch ("up" the musical scale) and sometimes a bit more force.  This is how we differentiate affect (as in influence) and affect (as in emotion), for example.  In longer words, there may even be a second semistressed syllable, as in mathematics:  mat has the primary stress, math has the secondary stress.  In IPA, primary stress is indicated by preceding the syllable with a high vertical line, secondary with a low vertical line.

Note that even when we do not need to use stress to differentiate words, we use it anyway.  Sometimes we can tell where a person is from by how they use stress:  insurance is usually stressed on the sur; southerners stress it on the in.  But many languages do not use stress at all.  To our ears, they sound rather monotone.

Some other languages use dynamic stress or tones.  Swedish is an example.  This means that there is actual change of stress within syllables.  In Swedish, there are two tones: 

The single tone starts high and goes down.  If a single tone word has a second syllable, that syllable is unstressed.  Single tone words don’t sound very unusual to English speakers. The double tone is only found in two syllable words.  The first pitch starts in the middle range of pitch and the second tone starts high and goes down.  If there is a third syllable, it is unstressed.  The double tone gives the word a singsong quality to English speakers.

These tones differentiate many words in Swedish.  In the single tone, anden, tomten, biten, and slaget mean the duck, the building, the bit, and the battle, respectively.  In the double tone, they mean the spirit, the elf, bitten, and beaten, respectively!  English uses dynamic stress or tones also, but only one whole phrases, such as the rising pitch at the end of questions.

But many languages in Africa and Asia use far more complex tones, and in fact are called tonal languages.  Chinese is the best known example.  Although words are often more than one syllable in3. Listening skills

Ten Ways to Improve Your Listening Skills

“Too often we underestimate the power of a touch, a smile, a kind word, a listening ear, an honest compliment, or the smallest act of caring, all of which have the potential to turn a life around.”Leo Buscaglia

The following ten guidelines will help you become a better listener:1. Minimize both internal and external distractions. You can’t always

get rid of a headache, but you can close the windows if the driver of a truck is outside revving his engine.

2. Adjust your listening to the situation. If you’re listening to a lecture for an exam in Biology class, you’ll want to pay closer attention than if you’re watching the local news. In the former situation, you’ll probably take notes.

3. Show you’re listening by your nonverbal communication. You might nod, shake your head, or raise your eyebrows. Adjust your posture accordingly. Make eye contact.

4. If you’re listening to a speech or attending a business meeting, determine the most important points and develop a method to remember them. You might repeat them mentally or even jot them down briefly.

5. When you’re listening to a friend with a problem, demonstrate empathy. Show her you understand what she is going through.

6. Realize that people don’t necessarily want you to solve their problem. They may simply want to share how they are feeling. Save advice for another time, unless you’re asked for it.7. Don’t interrupt. Let the person finish what he is saying before you

explain your point of view or ask questions.8.Don’t prejudge a person’s message by the way he looks. You can learn something from almost anyone.

9.Stay focused on the subject. It’s easy to let your mind wander, especially if the subject isn’t important to you. Train yourself to concentrate.10.Remain clearheaded, even if the topic is emotional. Perhaps someone is discussing the victories of the recent election, and you were passionate about a losing candidate. When emotions become involved, you may end up in the middle of a shouting match, which will resolve nothing. Present your points calmly. You’ll gain credibility by doing so.4. Reading Skills Comprehension

Like many people acting on the desire to eat healthy and local, Acropolis resident Eduardo Jimenez decided to plant a garden in his backyard. He tilled the soil, he planted the seeds, and he even erected a fence to keep out the deer. Eduardo did everything right. Or so it seems. Harvest time has come, and he has not one tomato, bean, or leaf of lettuce to show for his hard work. How did this happen? The answer comes in the form of a small, brown, particularly smelly insect: the stink bug. Unlike their fastidious cousins, stink bugs feed on some 300 species of plants, including figs, mulberries, corn, and citrus fruits as well as soybeans, legumes, and weeds. Although they do little damage to the plant itself, they make the fruits and vegetables unmarketable. For this reason, stink bugs pose the most serious threat to the big agriculturalists and macro farm operators. Macro farmers have more invested in their produce, and therefore have more to lose. While hobbyists like Eduardo are left to face the disappointment of an unsuccessful garden, macro farmers are forced to live with the loss of entire tracts of cash crops—a fact that has left many barely able to clothe their children or put food on the table. Last season alone, several New Jersey pepper farmers saw 75% of their crops damaged. Pennsylvania lost half of its peach population, and, according to the US Apple Association, apple farmers in the mid Atlantic states lost $37 million. This year could be worse. As a result of this decline in the supply of fresh fruits and vegetables, shoppers have seen adjustments—sometimes quite dramatic—in prices at the grocery store. Prices of apples in Maryland are up 8%. In the north Atlantic states, prices for peppers shot up an astounding 14%. Not only are these items becoming more expensive, but they are also getting harder to find. Last week, Marge Jenkins of Athens, Georgia reported having to check three different stores before stumbling upon a decent batch of peas. And this, she assures us, is a regular occurrence. Accidentally brought from Asia, the stink bug has no natural predators in America, and thus its population is soaring. Reported sightings of stink bugs are becoming increasingly numerous, as the desiccated, brown, trapezoidal shells of the dead bugs are ubiquitous in some areas. This has farmers and scientists alike scratching their heads in search of a remedy. Hope, they believe, may lie with an Asian parasitic wasp, which helpfully lays its eggs inside stink bug eggs. The larvae of the wasp devour the stink bug from the inside. Implementation of such a solution is still several years

away, as scientists must first determine if it is safe for the wasp to be introduced into America. Until then, some farmers are resorting to homemade traps. Others have even contemplated the use of peacocks and praying mantises, which, they hypothesize, will gulp down the little stinkers.

2 Questions1) It is typically a good idea to begin a new paragraph with a transition sentence. Transition sentences are used to introduce a new idea, and to make a smooth shift from the previous paragraph to the next. This helps prevent the reader from getting lost or confused. Using this information, which of the following is the best transition sentence to insert at the beginning of paragraph 2?A. An increasing number of them have been found in North America, occupying over half of the continental United States as well as Mexico and parts of Canada.B. Unbeknownst to Eduardo, the local population of stink bugs has increased dramatically over the last decade, especially in and around the town of Acropolis.C. A member of the Pantatomidae family, stink bugs surprisingly do not share the eating habits of related insects. D. Brown marmorated stink bugs, which first appeared in America in the late 1990s, are now found in over 30 states.E. And this problem isn't specific to Eduardo; it is affecting a wide range of gardeners and farmers alike spanning the continental United States.2) Based on its use in paragraph 2, it can be inferred that fastidious belongs to which of the following word families?A. forward, assertive, proactiveB. demanding, particular, criticalC. delicate, insubstantial, frailD. passionate, fervent, avidE. abstemious, moderate, restrained3) In paragraph 2, the author most likely refers to people like Eduardo as "hobbyists" in order toA. illustrate the type of person who plants a home gardenB. characterize the type of person who is most likely to be affected by stink bugsC. emphasize the idea that gardeners are relatively unskilled compared to farmersD. juxtapose the impact of stink bugs on gardeners with that on farmersE. elucidate the similarities between the gardener and farmer4) According to the author, what is the biggest problem resulting from stink bugs?

A. Hobbyists like Eduardo Jimenez are unable to eat healthy and local. B. Fresh fruits and vegetables are becoming harder to find.C. Peppers and apples are becoming increasingly scarce.D. The price of fresh fruits and vegetables is increasing.E. Macro farmers are losing their crops.5) Based on the information in paragraph 3, it can be inferred that an increase in supply results inA. a decrease in priceB. an increase in demandC. low availabilityD. reduced importanceE. higher values6) Which of the following statements would the author most likely agree with?A. The fight against stink bugs is hopeless.B. There is a possible remedy to the stink bug problem, but it is unlikely to succeed.C. In hopes of eradicating stink bugs, several solutions are in the works.D. While the stink bug problem is difficult, most believe it to be shortlived.E. Scientists have arrived at a foolproof method for eliminating stink bugs.7) Using the passage as a guide, it can be understood that I. Macro farmers commonly use pesticides, artificial hormones, and other synthetic materials.II. Until a solution to the stink bug problem is found, it is probably not a good time to start a home garden in Washington DC.5. Writing skills

Writing a cover letter often seems like a particularly daunting task. However, if you take it one step at a time, you'll soon be an expert at writing cover letters to send with your resume.

A cover letter should complement, not duplicate, your resume. Its purpose is to interpret the data oriented, factual resume and add a personal touch. A cover letter is often your earliest written contact with a potential employer, creating a critical first impression.

There are three general types of cover letters:

The application letter which responds to a known job opening The prospecting letter which inquires about possible positions The networking letter which requests information and assistance in

your job search.

Effective cover letters explain the reasons for your interest in the specific organization and identify your most relevant skills or experiences (remember, relevance is determined by the employer's self-interest). They should express a high level of interest and knowledge about the position.Cover Letter FormatThis cover letter format lists the information you need to include in the cover letter you submit with your resume.

Types of Resumes:There are several basic types of resumes used to apply for job openings. Depending on your personal circumstances, choose a chronological, a functional, combination, or a targeted resume.

Chronological Resume: A chronological resume starts by listing your work history, with the most recent position listed first. Your jobs are listed in reverse chronological order with your current or most recent job, first. Employers typically prefer this type of resume because it's easy to see what jobs you have held and when you have worked at them. This type of resume works well for job seekers with a strong, solid work history.

Functional Resume: A functional resume focuses on your skills and experience, rather than on your chronological work history. It is used most often by people who are changing careers or who have gaps in their employment history.

Combination Resume: A combination resume lists your skills and experience first. Your employment history is listed next. With this type of resume you can highlight the skills you have that are relevant to the job you are applying for, and also provide the chronological work history that employers prefer.Resume With Profile: A resume with a profile section includes a summary of an applicant’s skills, experiences and goals as they relate to a specific job.

Targeted Resume: A targeted resume is a resume that is customized so that it specifically highlights the experience and skills you have that are relevant to the job you are applying for. It definitely takes more work to write a targeted resume than to just click to apply with your existing resume. However, it's well worth the effort, especially when applying for jobs that are a perfect match for your qualifications and experience. 

Mini Resume: A mini resume contains a brief summary of your career highlights qualifications. It can be used for networking purposes or shared upon request from a prospective employer or reference writer who may want an overview of your accomplishments, rather than a full length resume. 

Nontraditional Resume: A nontraditional resume is a web based version of your resume that may include photos, graphics, images, graphs and other visuals. 

RESUME TIPS AND SUGGESTIONS

1. Final hiring decisions are rarely based solely upon the resume. The resume is your advertisement (just like the Nike swoosh or McDonald’s arches) that will get you an interview. The resume should be a concise, factual, and positive listing of your education, employment history, and accomplishments.

2. Make sure your resume is PERFECT! It only takes one error in spelling, punctuation, or grammar to cause an employer to stop reading. Ask people to proofread your resume. Go over it with a fine tooth comb.

3. Limit your resume to one page. Only people with a great deal of related experience should have resumes longer than one page.

4. One inch margins around the page and blank lines between sections will make all the information easier to read. Use a 10point font size minimum and avoid overuse of italics, bold, and underlining.

5. Since you probably have little work experience, you will want to emphasize your accomplishments in and out of the classroom. Volunteer activities, hobbies, sports, honor roll, and student organizations are things that help define who you are and should be highlighted. List only recent honors and awards unless they are specifically relevant to the position for which you are applying.

6. Present your job objective in a manner that relates both to the company and the job description.

7. Sell yourself! Create a good first impression by highlighting skills and abilities appropriate to the position. If you don’t sell yourself, your resume will stay in the pile with all of the others. Separate yourself!

8. Tell the truth and nothing but the truth! Employers will pick up on “little” white lies when they interview you.

9 Choose your words carefully. In a resume, you need to sound positive and confident, neither too aggressive nor overly modest. Do not use “I.” Each description of your responsibilities should begin with a verb. The following words and phrases are intended as suggestions for thinking about your experience and abilities:

accomplish; achieve; analyze; adapt; balance; collaborate; coordinate; communicate; compile; conduct; contribute; complete; create; delegate direct; establish; expand; improve; implement; invent; increase; initiate; instruct; lead; organize; participate; perform; present; propose; reorganize; research; set up; supervise; support; train; travel; work (effectively, with others)

7. Sell yourself! Create a good first impression by highlighting skills and abilities appropriate to the position. If you don’t sell yourself, your resume will stay in the pile with all of the others. Separate yourself!

8. Tell the truth and nothing but the truth! Employers will pick up on “little” white lies when they interview you.

9 Choose your words carefully. In a resume, you need to sound positive and confident, neither too aggressive nor overly modest. Do not use “I.” Each description of your responsibilities should begin with a verb. The following words and phrases are intended as suggestions for thinking about your experience and abilities:

accomplish; achieve; analyze; adapt; balance; collaborate; coordinate; communicate; compile; conduct; contribute; complete; create; delegate direct; establish; expand; improve; implement; invent; increase; initiate; instruct; lead; organize; participate; perform; present; propose; reorganize; research; set up; supervise; support; train; travel; work (effectively, with others)7. Body Language

Body language is a form of mental and physical ability of human nonverbal communication, which consists of body posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye movements. Humans send and interpret such signals almost entirely subconsciously. James Borg states that human communication consists of 93 percent body language and paralinguistic cues, while only 7% of communication consists of words themselves, however, Albert Mehrabian, the researcher whose 1960s work is the source of these statistics, has stated that this is a misunderstanding of the findings (see Misinterpretation of Mehrabian's rule). Others assert that "Research has suggested that between 60 and 70 percent of all meaning is derived from nonverbal behavior. Body language may provide clues as to the attitude or state of mind of a person. For example, it may indicate aggression, attentiveness, boredom, relaxed state, pleasure, amusement, and intoxication, among many other clues.Understanding body languageThe technique of "reading" people is used frequently. For example, the idea of mirroring body language to put people at ease is commonly used in interviews. Body language can show feelings to other people, which works in return for other people. People who show their body language to you can reveal their feelings and meanings. Mirroring the body language of someone else indicates that they are understood.[ It is important to note that some markers of emotion (e.g. smiling/laughing when happy, frowning/crying when sad) are largely universal, however in the 1990s Paul Ekman expanded his list of basic emotions, including a range of positive and negative emotions, not all of which are encoded in facial muscles. The newly included emotions are:A study in body language.

1. Amusement2. Contempt

3. Contentment4. Embarrassment5. Excitement6. Guilt7. Pride in achievement8. Relief9. Satisfaction10. Sensory pleasure11. Shame

Body language signals may have a goal other than communication. People would keep both these two in mind. Observers limit the weight they place on nonverbal cues. Signalers clarify their signals to indicate the biological origin of their actions. Verbal

communication also requires body language to show that the person you are talking with that you are listening. These signals can consist of; eye contact and nodding your head to show you understand. Physical expressionPhysical expressions like waving, pointing, touching and slouching are all forms of nonverbal communication. The study of body movement and expression is known as kinesics. Humans move their bodies when communicating because, as research has shown it helps "ease the mental effort when communication is difficult." Physical expressions reveal many things about the person using them. For example, gestures can emphasize a point or relay a message, posture can reveal boredom or great interest, and touch can convey encouragement or caution.

One of the most basic and powerful body language signals is when a person crosses his or her arms across the chest..This can indicate that a person is putting up an unconscious barrier between themselves and others. However, it can also indicate that the person's arms are cold, which would be clarified by rubbing the arms or huddling. When the overall situation is amicable, it can mean that a person is thinking deeply about what is being discussed, but in a serious or confrontational situation, it can mean that a person is expressing opposition. This is especially so if the person is leaning away from the speaker. A harsh or blank facial expression often indicates outright hostility.

Consistent eye contact can indicate that a person is thinking positively of what the speaker is saying. It can also mean that the other person doesn't trust the speaker enough to "take their eyes off" the speaker. Lack of eye contact can indicate negativity. On the other hand, individuals with anxiety disorders are often unable to make eye contact without discomfort. Eye contact can also be a secondary and misleading gesture because cultural norms about it vary widely. If a person is looking at you, but is making the arms across chest signal, the eye contact could be indicative that something is bothering the person, and that he wants to talk about it. Or if while making direct eye contact, a person is fiddling with something, even while directly looking at you; it could indicate that the attention is elsewhere. Also, there are three standard areas that a person will look which represent different states of being. If the person looks from one eye to the other, then to the forehead, it is a sign that they are taking an authoritative position. If they move from one eye to the other, then to the nose, that signals that they are engaging in what they consider to be a "level conversation" with neither party holding superiority. The last case is from one eye to the other and then down to the lips. This is a strong indication of romantic feelings.

Disbelief is often indicated by averted gaze, or by touching the ear or scratching the chin. When a person is not being convinced by what someone is saying, the attention invariably wanders, and the eyes will stare away for an extended period.

Boredom  is indicated by the head tilting to one side, or by the eyes looking straight at the speaker but becoming slightly unfocused. A head tilt may also indicate a sore neck, trust or a feeling of safety (part of the neck becomes uncovered, hence vulnerable; It's virtually impossible to tilt our head in front of someone we don't trust or are scared of) or Amblyopia, and unfocused eyes may indicate ocular problems in the listener.

Interest can be indicated through posture or extended eye contact, such as standing and listening properly.

Deceit or the act of withholding information can sometimes be indicated by touching the face during conversation. Excessive blinking is a wellknown indicator of someone who is lying. Recently, evidence has surfaced that the absence of blinking can also represent lying as a more reliable factor than excessive blinking.

Some people use and understand body language differently, or not at all. Interpreting their gestures and facial expressions (or lack thereof) in the context of normal body language usually leads to misunderstandings and misinterpretations (especially if body language is given priority over spoken language). It should also be stated that people from different cultures can interpretate body language in different ways.Prevalence of nonverbal communication in humans

Some researchers put the level of nonverbal communication as high as 80 percent of all communication when others state the figures could be at or around 5065 percent. Different studies have found differing amounts, with some studies showing that facial communication is believed 4.3 times more often than verbal meaning, and another finding that verbal communication in a flat tone is 4 times more likely to be understood than a pure facial expression. Albert Mehrabian is noted for finding a 7%38%55% rule, supposedly denoting how much communication was conferred by words, tone, and nonverbal language (facial expression in this case). However he was only referring to cases of expressing feelings or attitudes.Proxemics

 Personal space

Introduced by Edward T. Hall in 1966, proxemics is the study of measurable distances between people as they interact with one another.[8] The distance between people in a social situation often discloses information about the type of relationship between the people involved. Proximity may also reveal the type of social setting taking place.

1. Intimate distance  ranges from touching to about 18 inches (46 cm) apart, and is reserved for lovers, children, as well as close family members and friends, and also pet animals.

2. Personal distance begins about an arm's length away; starting around 18 inches (46 cm) from the person and ending about 4 feet (122 cm) away. This space is used in conversations with friends, to chat with associates, and in group discussions.

3. Social distance ranges from 4 to 8 feet (1.2 m 2.4 m) away from the person and is reserved for strangers, newly formed groups, and new acquaintances.

4. Public distance includes anything more than 8 feet (2.4 m) away, and is used for speeches, lectures, and theater. Public distance is essentially that range reserved for larger audiences.

Proximity range varies with culture.Unintentional gestures

Beginning in the 1960s, there has been huge interest in studying human behavioral clues that could be useful for developing an interactive and adaptive human machine system. Unintentional human gestures such as making an eye rub, a chin rest, a lip touch, a nose itch, a head scratch, an ear scratch, crossing arms, and a finger lock have been found conveying some useful information in specific context. Some researchers have tried to extract such gestures in a specific context for educational applications. In poker games, such gestures are referred to as "tells" and are useful to players for detecting deception clues or behavioral patterns in an opponent(s).There is also a huge interest in learning to avoid any unintentional gesture that might leave a negative impression on the onlookers. A large number of people are starting to attend special sessions on controlled body behaviour and take advice from expert sociologists. Learning good body language, such as living styles of foreign people, is important during interaction in any sort of global community.8. Oral PresentationTypes of Oral Presentation

Impromptu Extemporaneous Scripted Memorized

You will deliver presentations to four types of audiences clients and customers colleagues in your organization fellow professionals at technical conferences the public

Preparing and delivering an oral presentation consists of six steps Analyze the speaking situation. Organize and develop the presentation. Prepare the presentation graphics. Choose effective language. Rehearse the presentation. Deliver the presentation

Here is the typical time allotment in a 20minute presentationTask Time (minutes)Introduction 2

Body First major point 4 Second major point 4 Third major point 4 Conclusion 2 Questions 4

Follow these five guidelines in introducing a presentation: Introduce yourself. State the title of your presentation. Explain the purpose of the presentation. State your main point. Provide an advance organizer.

Follow these four guidelines in concluding a presentation: Announce that you are concluding. Summarize the main points. Look to the future. Invite questions politely

An effective graphic has five characteristics It presents a clear, well supported claim. It is easy to see. It is easy to read. It is simple. It is correct

In planning your graphics, consider four aspects of the speaking situation: length of the presentation audience aptitude and experience size and layout of the room equipment

Select from the six basic media for presentation graphics: computer presentations slide projector overhead projector chalkboard or other hard writing surface objects handouts

Use language to signal three kinds of presentation elements: advance organizers summaries transitions

Follow these three guidelines for using memorable language: Involve the audience. Refer to people, not to abstractions. Use interesting facts, figures, and quotations.

Pay attention to five aspects of vocalizing: volume speed

pitch articulation nonfluencies

Follow these four guidelines for facing an audience: Maintain eye contact. Use natural gestures. Don’t block the audience’s view of the screen. Control the audience’s attention.

Be prepared for these four problems you might encounter in answering questions:

You’re unsure everyone heard the question. You don’t understand the question. You get a question that you have already answered in the

presentation. A belligerent member of the audience rejects your response and insists

on restating his or her original point.