knowledge, networks and nations_global scientific collaboration in the 21st century

8/7/2019 Knowledge, Networks and Nations_Global Scientific Collaboration in the 21st Century

1/114

Knowledge, networks and nationsGlobal scientific collaboration in the 21st century


2/114

Cover photo: Strain in graphene opens up apseudomagnetic gap. Generated by the CondensedMatter Physics Group at the University ofManchester, this image is a representation of thework at Manchester lead by Professor Andre Geim

FRS, a Royal Society Research Professor, andProfessor Konstantin Novoselov, a Royal SocietyUniversity Research Fellow. Professors Geim andNovoselov were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physicsin 2010 for their groundbreaking experimentsregarding graphene, a form of carbon, which is thethinnest and strongest material ever isolated. Both

men have been cited since their award as global

scientists; both were born and studied in Russia,spent time in the Netherlands, and are now basedhere in the UK, attracting funding and accoladesfrom UK, European, and international sources. Paco Guinea 2010.

Knowledge, Networks andNations: Global scientificcollaboration in the 21st century

RS Policy document 03/11

Issued: March 2011 DES2096

ISBN: 978-0-85403-890-9

The Royal Society, 2011

Requests to reproduce all or part of this

document should be submitted to:

The Royal Society

69 Carlton House Terrace

London SW1Y 5AG

T +44 (0)20 7451 2500

F +44 (0)20 7930 2170

E [email protected]

W royalsociety.org


3/114

Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 3

Executive summary .................................... 5

Recommendations ...................................... 8

The Advisory Group .................................. 10

Conduct of the study .................................11

Introduction: going global ........................ 14

Part 1: Scientific landscape in 2011 ......... 151.1Trendsanddevelopmentsinglobalscience...16 1.1.1 Emergingscientificnations.........................19 1.1.2Assessingresearchqualityandimpact.....24 1.1.3 Globalscientists...........................................26 1.1.4 Braingain,drainandcirculation.................26 1.1.5 Disciplinaryshifts?........................................28 1.1.6 Readingtheresearch...................................29 1.1.7 Openingaccess............................................301.2Applyingscience................................................31 1.2.1BusinessR&D...............................................31 Is business R&D recession proof?...............32 Location of business R&D............................32 1.2.2Patentgrowth...............................................331.3Driversofresearch.............................................34 1.3.1Securingprosperityand stayingcompetitive......................................35

1.3.2Addressingglobalchallenges.....................36 1.3.3Nationalscienceinaglobalage.................361.4Centresforscience............................................37 1.4.1Centresofresearchandinfrastructure......391.5Anewworldorder?........................................... 411.6Theworldbeyond2011.....................................42

Part 2: International collaboration............452.1Patternsofcollaboration....................................46 2.1.1 Collaborationinanationalcontext.............47 2.1.2Whoiscollaboratingwithwhom?.............492.2Regionalcollaboration.......................................54 2.2.1SouthSouthcollaboration: agrowingtrend............................................542.3Whycollaborate?...............................................57

2.3.1Seekingexcellence......................................57 2.3.2Thebenefitsofjointauthorship..................59 2.3.3Capacitybuildingthroughcollaboration....61 2.3.4Thegeopoliticalpotentialof scientificcollaboration.................................622.4Underlyingnetworks.........................................62 2.4.1Tappingintotheglobalnetworks ofscience......................................................632.5Enablingcollaborationtopromote excellentscience................................................64 2.5.1Technology....................................................64 2.5.2Fundingmechanisms..................................672.6Harnessingcollaboration...................................70

Contents

Designsofvasesandteapotsthat

wouldbefoundinahouseofamerchantinCanton,fromDesignsof Chinese buildings,byWilliamChambers,1757.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.


4/114

4 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century

Part 3: Global approachesto global problems .................................... 713.1Scientificsolutions.............................................733.2Globalresearchgovernance.............................74 3.2.1Challenge-ledresearchinitiatives...............75 3.2.2Integratingchallengesand maximisingresources..................................77 3.2.3Buildingcapacityandresilience.................78

3.3Casestudies.......................................................79 3.3.1Theworldslargestwarningsystem: theIntergovernmentalPanelon ClimateChange(IPCC)................................80 3.3.2Centresofexcellenceinagriculture: theConsultativeGrouponInternational AgriculturalResearch(CGIAR)....................83 3.3.3Atransformativeimpactonglobalhealth: theBillandMelindaGatesFoundation......86 3.3.4Towardssustainableenergy: theInternationalTokamak ExperimentalReactor(ITER).......................90 3.3.5CapturingtheinitiativeonCO

2:

theglobaleffortstodeploycarbon captureandstorage(CCS)technology......933.4Co-ordinatedeffortstotackle globalproblems..................................................97

Conclusions and recommendations:Cultivating the globalscientific landscape................................. 103

Glossary of acronyms ............................. 108

Acknowledgments ...................................110

MapofChina,fromAn embassy fromthe East-India Company of the UnitedProvinces to the Grand Tartar Cham,byJohnNieuhoff,1669.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.


5/114


Scienceisaglobalenterprise.Todaythereareover7millionresearchersaroundtheworld,drawingonacombinedinternationalR&DspendofoverUS$1000billion(a45%increasesince2002),andreadingandpublishinginaround25,000separatescientificjournalsperyear.Theseresearcherscollaboratewitheachother,motivatedbywishingtoworkwiththeverybestpeopleandfacilitiesinthe

world,andbycuriosity,seekingnewknowledgetoadvancetheirfieldortotacklespecificproblems.

Knowledge, Networks and Nationsreviews,basedonavailabledata,thechangingpatternsofscience,andscientificcollaboration,inordertoprovideabasisforunderstandingsuchongoingchanges.Itaimstoidentifytheopportunitiesandbenefitsofinternationalcollaboration,toconsiderhowtheycanbestberealised,andtoinitiateadebateonhowinternationalscientificcollaborationcanbeharnessedtotackleglobalproblemsmoreeffectively.FromSingaporetoSouthAfrica,newresearchers

andresearchcommunitiesarereshapingthelandscapeforscienceandinnovation,solongdominatedbytheUSA,JapanandEurope.Thisreportexploresthischanginggeographyofscienceandinnovation.InPart1,itmapsandinvestigateswhereandhowscienceisbeingcarriedoutaroundtheworldandthewaysinwhichthispictureis

changing. Science in 2011 is increasingly global,occurringinmoreandmoreplacesthaneverbefore.Scienceisaddressingquestionsofglobalsignificance.Itissupportedbygovernments,business,philanthropistsandcharities.

Thereareparticularcountrieswherethisincreasedactivityisespeciallystriking,withinvestmentandscientificproductivityoutstrippinggeneraltrendsofgrowth.TheriseofChinahasbeenespeciallynotable,overtakingJapanandEuropeintermsofitspublicationoutputinrecentyears.BeyondChina,rapiddevelopmentshavealsotakenplaceinIndia, Brazilandnew emergent scientific

nationsintheMiddleEast,South-EastAsiaandNorthAfrica,aswellasastrengtheningofthesmallerEuropeannations.

However,the traditional scientificsuperpowers still lead the field.TheUSA,WesternEuropeandJapanallinvestheavilyinresearchandreceiveasubstantialreturnintermsofperformance,withlargenumbersofresearcharticles,thelionsshareofcitationsonthosearticles,andsuccessfultranslation,asseenthroughtheratesofpatentregistration.

Thecontinuedstrengthofthetraditionalcentresofscientificexcellenceandtheemergenceofnewplayersandleaderspointtowardsanincreasinglymultipolar scientific world,inwhichthedistributionofscientificactivityisconcentratedinanumberofwidelydispersedhubs.

Beyond these hubs, science is alsoflourishing.Therecognitionoftherole

thatsciencecanplayindrivingeconomicdevelopment,andinaddressinglocalandglobalissuesofsustainability,hasledtoincreasedresearchactivityandtheapplicationofscientificmethodandresultswithinlessdevelopedcountries.

Executive summary


6/114


Part2revealstheshiftingpatternsofinternationalcollaboration.Internationalscienceislargelyconductedthroughbottom-up,informalconnections,asscientistsbecomemoremobileandaslargeandoftencomplexdataaresharedattheclickofabutton.Buttop-down,solutions-orientedinitiativesarealsohelpingtoshapetheresearchlandscape,asscientistsorganisethemselves,orarebeing

organised,totacklesharedconcerns. The scientific world is becoming increasinglyinterconnected,with internationalcollaboration on the rise.Todayover35%ofarticlespublishedininternationaljournalsareinternationallycollaborative,upfrom25%15yearsago.

Collaboration is growing for a variety ofreasons.Developmentsincommunicationtechnologiesandcheapertravelmakeiteasierthaneverbeforeforresearcherstoworktogether;thescaleofresearchquestions,andtheequipmentrequiredtostudydemandsthatresearchersaremobileandresponsive.Collaborationenhances the qualityofscientificresearch,improves the efficiencyand effectivenessofthatresearch,andisincreasingly necessary,asthescaleofbothbudgetsandresearchchallengesgrow.

However,the primary driver of mostcollaboration is the scientists themselves.Indevelopingtheirresearchandfindinganswers,scientistsareseekingtoworkwiththebestpeople,institutionsandequipmentwhichcomplementtheirresearch,wherevertheymaybe.

Theconnectionsofpeople,throughformalandinformalchannels,diasporacommunities,virtualglobalnetworksandprofessionalcommunitiesofsharedinterestsareimportantdriversofinternationalcollaboration.These networksspan the globe. Motivated by the bottom-up

exchange of scientific insight, knowledge

and skills, they are changing the focus of

science from the national to the global level.Yetlittleisunderstoodaboutthedynamicsofnetworkingandthemobilityofscientists,howtheseaffectglobalscienceandhowbesttoharnessthesenetworkstocatalyseinternationalcollaboration.

Collaboration brings significant benefits,bothmeasurable(suchasincreasedcitationimpactandaccesstonewmarkets),andlesseasilyquantifiableoutputs,suchasbroadeningresearchhorizons.Thefacilitationofcollaboration,therefore,hasapositiveimpactnotonlyonthescienceconducted,butonthebroaderobjectivesforanysciencesystem(bethatenhancingdomesticprosperityoraddressingspecificchallenges).


7/114


Part3ofthisreportexplorestheroleofinternationalscientificcollaborationinaddressingsomeofthemostpressingglobalchallengesofourtime.Thereportconcentratesonfivecasestudies,andconsidersthestrengthsandshortcomingsofexistingmechanismswhichbringscientificcommunitiestogethertoaddressglobalchallenges.IPCC, CGIAR, the Gates Foundation, ITER and

efforts to deploy carbon capture and storagetechnologydemonstratehowscienceisalreadybeingusedtorespondtothesechallenges,andprovidemodelsandlessonsforhowitmightbebetterdeployedinthefuture. Theglobalscientificcommunityisincreasinglychargedwithordrivenbytheneedtofindsolutionstoarangeofissuesthatthreatensustainability.These global challenges havereceived much attention in recent years, and

are now a key component of national and

multinational science strategies and many

funding mechanisms. Global challenges are interdependent and

interrelated:climatechange,water,foodandenergysecurity,populationchange,andlossofbiodiversityareallinterconnected.Thedynamicbetweentheseissuesiscomplex,yetmanyglobalassessmentandresearchprogrammes

aremanagedseparately,oftenreflectingalackofco-ordinationinthepolicysphere.Governments,civilsocietyandtheprivatesectorneedtotakeabroaderperspectiveonglobalchallengesinordertoappreciatehowtheyareinterrelated.

Globalchallengesarebeingaddressedviaanumberofdifferentorganisationalmechanisms:throughintergovernmentalorinternationalbodies,throughnationalsystems,andbyprivateindividualsandcorporations.Thesemechanismsoftendeploynovelandinnovativeformsofpartnership,someofwhichworkwell,otherslessso.Valuable lessons can be drawn from

existing models in designing, participatingin and benefiting from global challenge

research. Science is essential for addressing global

challenges, but it cannot do so in isolation.Awiderangeofapproacheswillberequired,includingtheappropriateuseoffinancialincentives,incorporatingnon-traditionalformsofknowledge,andworkingwiththesocialsciencesandwiderdisciplines.Scienceiscrucialbutitisunlikelytoproducealltheanswersbyitself:thescienceinfrastructureworksbestwhenitissupportedby,andenables,othersystems.

All countries have a role in the global effortto tackle these challenges,bothindefiningandprioritisingthemandinusingglobalresearchoutputtoinformlocal,nationalandregionalresponses.Thisneedisincreasinglybeingacknowledgedforinclusivityandcapacitybuilding

acrossregionsandcontinents,inhelpingtomeet(national)needs,andindevelopingaglobalinfrastructurethatisresilienttonewchallenges.


8/114


Knowledge, Networks and Nations

concludes with a set of recommendations

to further strengthen global science.Thisreportcallsformorecreative,flexibleandbetter-resourcedmechanismstoco-ordinateresearchacrossinternationalnetworksandtoensurethatscientistsandsciencecanfulfiltheirpotential.Italsocallsformorecomprehensiveandinclusiveways

ofmeasuringandevaluatingthesciencewhichisdeliveredandappliedinallitsformsaroundtheworld.Finally,thereporthighlightstheimportanceofscienceandthewiderevidencebaseinunderpinningrobustpolicymaking,especiallyaroundsharedglobalchallenges.Understandingglobalsciencesystems,their

mechanismsandmotivations,isessentialifwearetoharnesstheverybestsciencetoaddressglobalchallengesandtosecurethefutureofourspeciesandourplanet.

Recommendations1. Support for international science should be

maintained and strengthened

Evenindifficulteconomictimes,nationalgovernments need to maintain investment

in their science basetosecureeconomicprosperity,tapintonewsourcesofinnovationand

growth,andsustainvitalconnectionsacrosstheglobalresearchlandscape.Sustainedinvestmentbuildsanationscapacitytoassimilateexcellentscience,whereveritmayhavebeenconducted,forthatcountrysbenefit.

International activities and collaborationshould be embedded in national science

and innovation strategiessothatthedomesticsciencebaseisbestplacedtobenefitfromthe

intellectualandfinancialleverageofinternationalpartnerships.

Commitments to multinational researchefforts and infrastructures should not be

seen as easy targets for cuts during a period

of economic turbulence.Tocutsubscriptionstojointresearchendeavours,withoutduediligenceandassessment,isafalseeconomy.Bydisengagingfromtheseefforts,countriesruntheriskofisolatingtheirnationalscienceandlosing

relevance,qualityandimpact.

2. Internationally collaborative science should be

encouraged, supported and facilitated

Research funders should provide greatersupport for international research

collaborationthroughresearchandmobilitygrants,andothermechanismsthatsupportresearchnetworks.

National border agencies should minimisebarriers to the flow of talented people,ensuringthatmigrationandvisaregulationsarenottoobureaucratic,anddonotimpedeaccessforresearcherstothebestscienceandresearchacrosstheworld.

National research policies should be flexibleand adaptiveinordertoensurethatinternationalcollaborationbetweentalentedscientistsisnotstifledbybureaucracy.

3. National and international strategies for

science are required to address global

challenges

Recognisingtheinterconnectednessofglobalchallenges,funders of global challengeprogrammes should devise ways to better

co-ordinate their efforts, share good practice,

minimise duplication and maximise impact.

Wherepossible,theseshoulddrawonexistinginfrastructureorsharedtechnology.


9/114


National research funding should beadaptive and responsive to global challenges,supportingtheinterdisciplinaryandcollaborativenatureofthesciencerequiredtoaddresstheseissues.

In devising responses to global challenges,governments worldwide need to rely on

robust evidence-based policy making,and

bringexcellentscientistsintothepolicyadvisoryprocess.

4. International capacity building is crucial to

ensure that the impacts of scientific research

are shared globally

Researchers and funders should commit tobuilding scientific capacity in less developed

countriestohelpimprovetheirabilitytoconduct,access,verifyandusethebestscience,andtoensurethattheycancontributetoglobalscientificdebatesanddeveloplocalsolutionstoglobalproblems.

Scientific capacity building must involvefinancial support for authors in developing

countries to publish in open access journals.Openaccesspublishinghasmadeawealthofscientificliteratureavailabletothedevelopingworld,butconverselyhasmadeitharderfor

theirscientiststopublishundertheauthorpaysmodel.

National academies, learned societies andother similar institutions should actively

promote public and wider stakeholder

dialogue to help identify, shape and

respond to global challenges and their local

manifestations.

5. Better indicators are required in order to

properly evaluate global science

UNESCO (and other agencies such as theOECD) should investigate new ways in which

trends in global science can be captured,

quantified and benchmarked,inordertohelpimprovetheaccuracyofassessmentsofthequality,useandwiderimpactofscience,

aswellastogaugethevitalityoftheresearchenvironment. There is a specific lack of data on the flow

and migration of talented scientists and

their diaspora networks.UNESCO,OECDandothersshouldinvestigatewaysofcapturingthisinformationasapriority,whichwouldenablepolicymakerstobetterunderstand,nurtureandoverseeglobalscienceforthebenefitofsocietyasawhole.

Instructivememoireonthenewchronologicaltableofthehistory

ofChina,bytheViceroyofCanton,1724.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.


10/114


Advisory GroupProfessorSirChrisLlewellynSmithFRS(Chair),DirectorofEnergyResearch,UniversityofOxfordProfessorSirLeszekBorysiewiczKBEFRS,ViceChancellor,UniversityofCambridgeProfessorLornaCasseltonFRS,ForeignSecretaryandVicePresident,TheRoyalSocietyProfessorSirGordonConwayKCMGDLFRSFRGS,

ProfessorofInternationalDevelopment,ImperialCollegeLondonProfessorMohamedHassan,Co-Chair,InterAcademyPanel(IAP);ExecutiveDirectoroftheAcademyofSciencesfortheDevelopingWorld(TWAS)(untilMarch2011)ProfessorMelissaLeach,Director,STEPSCentre,InstituteofDevelopmentStudies,UniversityofSussexProfessorAngelaMcLeanFRS,AllSoulsSeniorResearchFellow,DepartmentofZoology,UniversityofOxfordProfessorGoverdhanMehtaFRS,CSIRBhatnagarFellowandHonoraryProfessor,DepartmentofOrganicChemistry,IndianInstituteofScienceProfessorJohnMitchellOBEFRS,DirectorofClimateScience,MetOfficeDrColinOsborne,RoyalSocietyUniversityResearchFellow,DepartmentofAnimalandPlantSciences,

UniversityofSheffieldProfessorMartynPoliakoffCBEFRS,ResearchProfessorinChemistry,TheUniversityofNottinghamDrPhilRufflesCBEFREngFRS,FormerDirector,EngineeringandTechnology,RollsRoyceplcProfessorCarolineWagner,SchoolofInternationalAffairs,PennsylvaniaStateUniversity

Royal Society Science Policy CentreLukeClarke,PolicyAdviserLauraDawson,SeniorPolicyAdviserNatalieDay,SeniorPolicyAdviserDrTraceyElliott,HeadofInternationalHarrietHarden-Davies,InternTonyMcBride,HeadofStrategyJamesMeadway,SeniorPolicyAdviser

SarahMee,PolicyAdviserIanThornton,PolicyAdviserDrJamesWilsdon,DirectorofSciencePolicyRapelaZaman,SeniorPolicyAdviser

Review PanelTheRoyalSocietygratefullyacknowledgesthecontributionofthereviewers.TheReviewPanelwasnotaskedtoendorsetheconclusionsorrecommendationsofthereport,nordidtheyseethefinaldraftofthereportbeforeitsrelease.

ProfessorJohnPethicaFRS(Chair),PhysicalSecretary,RoyalSocietyProfessorBruceAlbertsForMemRS,DepartmentofBiochemistryandBiophysics,UniversityofCaliforniaSanFranciscoProfessorJuanAsenjo,President,ChileanAcademyofSciences

DrMatthewFreemanFRS,Head,DivisionofCellBiology,MRCLaboratoryofMolecularBiologyProfessorSirBrianHeapCBEFRS,FormerDirector,InstituteofAnimalPhysiologyandGeneticsResearchProfessorGeoffreyOldhamCBE,HonoraryProfessor,SPRUScienceandTechnologyPolicyResearch,UniversityofSussex

The Advisory Group


11/114


ThestudyleadingtothisreportwasoverseenbyanAdvisoryGroupofFellowsoftheRoyalSocietyandotherdistinguishedexperts,supportedbythestaffoftheRoyalSocietySciencePolicyCentre.Elsevierhasprovidedfinancialsupport,andfullaccesstotheirpublicationdatabasesandanalyticalservicesthroughoutthestudy.Thedraftingofthereport,itsconclusionsandrecommendationsarethoseofthe

RoyalSocietyalone.Knowledge, Networks and Nations: Global scientificcollaboration in the 21st centuryhasbeenapprovedbytheCounciloftheRoyalSociety.

Advisory Group and terms of referenceTheRoyalSocietyestablishedanAdvisoryGroupmadeupofinternationallyrenownedscientistsandsciencepolicyexpertsfromaroundtheworld,chairedbySirChrisLlewellynSmithFRS.Theaimofthestudy,asoutlinedintheTermsofReference,wastoprovideananalysisoftheglobalscientificlandscapein2011foraglobalaudienceofscientists,governments,business,internationalorganisationsandNGOs.Itsspecificgoalswereto: Provideanoverviewofhow,where,whyandbywhomscientificresearchisbeingcarriedoutacrosstheworld,andthewaysinwhichthispictureischanging.

CompilebothquantitativeandqualitativeevidencetoofferanoverviewofthesedevelopmentsthroughtheuseofElseviersandotherdatabasessuchasUNESCOandOECD,andbymakinguseoftheSocietysextensiveinternationalnetworks,includingitsglobalFellowshipofover1,400outstandingindividualsfromallareasofscience,mathematicsandengineering.

Identifyandassessillustrativeexamplesofopportunitiesandchallengesthesechangespresentforpolicymakers,scientists,intergovernmentalagenciesandbusiness.

Examineanddiscusshowinternationalscientificcollaborationcanbebetterutilisedtoaddressglobalproblemssuchasclimatechange,foodandwatersecurity,andinfectiousdiseases.

Drawconclusionsaboutthecollaborativenatureofresearchinthe21stcentury,andconsiderthepotentialimplicationsforpolicymakers.

ThestudywasformallylaunchedinJanuary2010.

Collection of evidenceEvidencegatheringfortheprojecttookplaceinfiveways: aformalprocess,throughadetailedCallforEvidence;

aspecialdiscussionsessionformembersoftheInterAcademyPanel,heldtocoincidewithitsGeneralAssemblyattheRoyalSocietyinJanuary2010;

face-to-faceandtelephoneinterviewswithkeyfiguresininternationalscienceandsciencepolicyfromaroundtheworld;

extensivedeskresearch;

dataanalysis,includingworkwithElsevier.

Conduct of the study


12/114


Call for evidenceTheCallforEvidencewassentouton27April2010toFellowsoftheRoyalSociety,RoyalSocietyResearchFellowsandtheworldsscienceacademies,throughtheInterAcademyPanel(IAP),theAcademyofSciencesfortheDevelopingWorld(TWAS),andtheUKGovernmentsScienceandInnovationNetwork(SIN).

Wereceived80responsesfromindividuals,academies,researchinstitutions,governmentdepartmentsandotherorganisationsfromaroundtheworld.Thesearelistedattheendofthereport.

Elsevier methodologyUnlessotherwiseindicated,allofthedatarelatingtopublicationoutputandimpactinthisreporthavebeenprovidedbyElsevier.Wewouldliketoacknowledgetheanalysisandinsightsprovidedby

thefollowingindividuals: DrAndrewPlume,AssociateDirector,Scientometrics&MarketAnalysisResearch&AcademicRelations

MayurAmin,SeniorVicePresidentResearch&AcademicRelations

DrHenkMoed,SeniorScientificAdvisorAcademic&GovernmentMarkets

NielsWeertman,VicePresident,SciVal

Academic&GovernmentMarketsPublicationdataarederivedfromScopus,the

worldslargestabstractandcitationdatabaseofpeer-reviewedliterature.Scopuscontainsover41millionrecordsacross18,000journalsandcoversregionalaswellasinternationalliterature.Publicationoutputsinthisreportaredefinedasarticles,reviewsandconferencepaperspublishedinthesejournals.Whereweconsideroveralltotalsofpublications,

theseincludeoutputsinalldisciplines.

Defining global scienceTheRoyalSocietydefinesscienceasnaturalknowledge.Inpractice,thisincludesthenaturalsciences,mathematicsandengineering.Forthepurposesofthisreport,wherewediscussoveralltotalsofpublications,theseincludesocialsciences,theartsandhumanities(inpractice,theserepresentaverysmallproportionofpublicationoutput8.9%);

thiscoverageisusedtomatchtheinputstatistics,whichallregisterresearchandresearchers,whicharedisciplineneutral.However,ourexamples,casestudiesandobservationsaredrawnfromthescientificcommunity.Throughoutthisreport,weuseanumber

ofsourcestocharacteriseandquantifywhatishappeninggloballyinscience.Inthisweareconstrained,tocertainextents,bytheavailabledata.Inordertoachievethewidestinternationalcoverage,

wehavemadeuseofUNESCOdataonthenumbersofresearchers,1andtheexpenditureonresearchanddevelopmentasindicatorsofexpenditureandmanpowerinscience(althoughalargeproportionofresearchanddevelopmentisspentonDratherthanRand,assuch,reachesbeyondstrictsciencespending).


13/114


ThesestatisticsareavailablethroughtheUNESCOInstituteofStatistics,andhavebeencomprehensivelypresentedandanalysedintherecentUNESCOScienceReport,publishedinNovember2010.Publicationandpatentdataareincompleteproxies

forscientificoutputandscientifictranslation,thefirstbeingpredominantlytheoutputofacademicscience,andtheotherrelatingtotheexploitationof

ideasandconceptsratherthannecessarilybeingspecificallyscientific.However,theyarethetwomainquantifiable,globallycollated,andcommonlyusedsourcesofdataontheproductionandconsumptionofscience.Byusingthesedata,wearereflectingthecurrenttermsofreferencefordiscussionsofglobalscience.Itiswidelyacceptedthattheyareinadequatetofullyexploretherichnessof21stcenturyscience.Thepaucityofrichersourcesofdataoffersachallengetonational,multilateralandglobal

bodiestoexplorewaysofbettermeasuringtheinputs,outputsandimpactsoftheglobalscientificlandscape.

1 TheOECDdefinesresearchersasprofessionalsengagedintheconceptionorcreationofnewknowledge,products,processes,methodsandsystemsandalsointhemanagementoftheprojectsconcerned.SeeOECD(2002).Frascati manual: proposed standard

practice for surveys on researchand experimental development.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.

PagefromanotebookonscientificexpeditionstoMatoGrosso,Brazil,1967to1969,byIainBishop.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.
http://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9202081E.PDFhttp://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9202081E.PDFhttp://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9202081E.PDFhttp://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9202081E.PDFhttp://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9202081E.PDFhttp://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9202081E.PDFhttp://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9202081E.PDF


14/114


Introduction: going globalWhenHenryOldenbergfoundedtheworldsfirstscientificpublicationin1665,2itdrewonemergingideasfromGermany,Italy,Hungary,FranceandeventheBermudas.Itenjoyedawideinternationalreadership.Oldenburg,andtheotherfoundingfellowsoftheRoyalSociety,dedicatedthisfirsteditionofPhilosophicalTransactionstosharingtheHappyinventionsofobligingMenallovertheworld,

totheGeneralBenefitofMankind.ButOldenbergcouldneverhaveimaginedhowmanyobligingmenandwomenwouldbecontributingtoscientificknowledgeacrosstheworldin2011.Sciencehastransformedourlivesinwayswhichwouldhavebeeninconceivablein1665.Justhowitwillevolveoverthecomingcenturyisequallyinconceivable.Yetonethingseemscertain:scienceisinherentlyinternationalandwillonlybecomemoreso.AsLouisPasteuronceputit,Knowledgebelongs

tohumanity,andthusscienceknowsnocountryandisthetorchthatilluminatestheworld.Largelyfundedatanationallevelandconductedprimarilyinnationalinstitutions,scienceisstillmoredeterminedbyplacethanPasteursdeclarationwouldsuggest.Andyet,itisaworldwideendeavour.In2008,218countriesproducedover1.5millionresearchpapers,fromTuvalusonepaper,totheUKs98,000,Chinas163,000,andtheUSAs320,000.3In2007,Sweden

spentnearly3.7%ofitsgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)onresearchanddevelopment(R&D),Canadaspent2%,emergingIndiaspent0.8%,andoilrichSaudiArabia0.04%.4Researchinvestmentandoutputarefarfromevenlyspreadacrosstheworld,

buttherearefewplaceswhicharenotinsomewaypartofthescientificlandscape.Scienceisconductedinmoreplacesthanever

before,butitisalsomoreinterlinked.Overone-thirdofresearchpapersarethedirectresultofinternationalcollaboration,withauthorsaddressesfrommorethanonecountry.5Thenumberofinternationallyco-authoredpapershasmorethandoubledsince

1990.

6

Researchersareincreasinglymobile,travellinglongdistancestoworkwiththebestcolleaguesintheirfield,toaccessresourcesandshareideasandfacilities.Andtheyarebeingsupportedinternationallythroughcross-borderfundingfrominternationalorganisations(charities,philanthropicfundingandbusiness),multilateralinitiativesbetweengovernmentsandresearchcouncils,multinationalfundingbodiesandsharedscientificinfrastructure.Thescientificcommunityisinfluencedby

globalisation,andisalsodrivenbyitsowndynamics.Scientistshavebeenbothmotivatedandenabledtoworkacrossdisciplinaryandinternationalbordersbytechnologicaladvancesandshiftsingeopolitics.Butsciencehasalwayspushedboundaries,betheytechnologicalornationalandpolitical.Globalscienceisincreasing,butitisalsonothingnew.ThefoundingmembersoftheRoyalSociety350yearsagolookedbeyondnationalborderstoextendthefrontiersof

naturalknowledge.Todaysscientificpioneerswillneedtoknowhowtonavigatethechangingglobalscientificlandscapeiftheyaretokeepextendingthosefrontiers.Thisreportisintendedtohelpthemunderstandthedynamicsofthiscomplexandfast-evolvingphenomenon.

2 On6March1665,thefirstissueofPhilosophicalTransactionswas

publishedundertheeditorshipofHenryOldenburg,whowasalsotheSecretaryoftheSociety.

3 DatafromElseviersScopus.

4 DatafromtheUNESCOInstitute

forStatisticsDataCentre,Montral,Canada.


6 LeydesdorffL&WagnerC(2005).Mapping global science using

international co-authorships: acomparison of 1990 and 2000.InternationalJournalofTechnologyandGlobalization3.Foradiscussionofhowinternational

collaborationhasgrownoverallandattheregionallevel,see

WagnerC&LeydesdorffL(2005).Network structure, self-organizationand the growth of internationalcollaboration in science.ResearchPolicy34,10,16081618.
http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/cwagner/collabnets.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/cwagner/collabnets.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/cwagner/collabnets.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/cwagner/collabnets.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/cwagner/collabnets.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/cwagner/collabnets.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/


15/114


AnewmanifestationofthecelebratedMollowtriplet,oneofthefundamentalspectralshapesoflight-matterinteraction,fromDrElenadelValle,RoyalSocietyNewtonInternationalFellow,SchoolofPhysicsandAstronomy,UniversityofSouthampton.ThetripletasfoundbyMollowemergesinthelightemittedbyanatomwhenexcitedbyalaser.Thedepictedtripletisthecounterpartemissionfromanatomwhenexcitedincoherentlyinsideacavity.DrElenadelValle,2010.

PART 1

Scientific landscapein 2011


16/114


PART1

Scientificlandscapein2011

Scienceisgrowingglobally.Sincethebeginningofthe21stcentury,theglobalspendonresearchanddevelopmenthasnearlydoubled,publicationshavegrownbyathird,andthenumberofresearcherscontinuestorise(seeTable1.1).NorthAmerica,Japan,EuropeandAustralasiahaveallwitnessedgrowth,witheachincreasingspendingbyaroundone-thirdbetween2002and2007.Inthesameperiod,developingcountries,7includingtheemergingeconomiesofChina,IndiaandBrazil,morethandoubledtheirexpenditureonR&D,increasingtheircontributiontoworldR&Dspendingby7percentagepointsfrom17%to24%.8

Table1.1.Global science by numbers.9

Spend on researchand development

Numbers ofresearchers

Number ofpublications

US$ %GDP

2007 1145.7bn 1.7 7.1m 1.58m

2002 790.3bn 1.7 5.7m 1.09m

Thearchitectureofworldscienceisalsochanging,withtheexpansionofglobalnetworks.Theseinvolvenetworksofindividuals,mostlyself-organisedbutsometimesorchestrated(asintheHumanGenomeProject).Somenetworksarebasedoncollaborationsatinternationalorganisations(suchasCERN);others

arefundedinternationally,bymultinationalbusinesses(whichfundtheirownlaboratoriesandworkinuniversitiesacrosstheglobe),bymajorfoundations(suchasGates),orbycross-nationalstructuressuchastheEU.Theseglobalnetworksincreasinglyexertasignificantinfluenceontheconductofscienceacrosstheworld.

1.1 Trends and developments in globalscienceTheUSAleadstheworldinresearch,producing20%oftheworldsauthorshipofresearchpapers,10dominatingworlduniversityleaguetables,11andinvestingnearlyUS$400billionperyearinpublicandprivateresearchanddevelopment.12TheUK,Japan,GermanyandFranceeachalsocommandstrongpositionsinthegloballeaguetables,producinghighqualitypublicationsandattractingresearcherstotheirworldclassuniversitiesandresearchinstitutes.Thesefivecountriesaloneareresponsiblefor59%ofallspendingonscienceglobally.13

However,thesecountriesdonotcompletelydominateglobalscience.Between1996and2008theUSAlostone-fifthofitsshareoftheworldsarticleauthorship,Japanlost22%andRussia24%.TheUK,GermanyandFrancealsofellbackinrelative

terms.14Figure1.1showshowthenumberofarticleshasgrownandhowtheirdistributionacrosstheworldhaschangedinrecentyears,betweentheperiods1999to2003(Figure1.1a)and2004to2008(Figure1.1b).Thetraditionalscientificleadershavegradually

losttheirshareofpublishedarticles.Meanwhile,Chinahasincreaseditspublicationstotheextentthatitisnowthesecondhighestproducerofresearch

outputintheworld.IndiahasreplacedtheRussianFederationinthetopten,climbingfrom13thin1996totenthbetween2004and2008.FurtherdownthelistSouthKorea,Brazil,Turkey,SouthEastAsiannationssuchasSingapore,Thailand,andMalaysia,andEuropeannationssuchasAustria,GreeceandPortugalhaveallimprovedtheirstandingsintheglobalscientificleaguetables.15


17/114


Key

United States

Japan

United Kingdom

Germany

France

China

Italy

Canada

Russian Federation

India

Spain

Other

Changesintherankingofnationswithintheleaguetablesareshiftingatthesametimeastotaloutputisincreasing.Forexample,Italymaintainedasteadyshareofpublicationsbetween1996and2008(3.5%ofworldproductioninbothyears,fluctuatingbetween3%and4%overthewholeperiod);butinordertoholdthispositionitincreaseditsnumberofarticlesby32%.Allovertheworld,somecountriesarerunningtostandstill16whileothersarebreakingintoasprint.

Figure1.1. Proportion of global publicationauthorship by country17The top ten producing countries in each periodare shown. Fig a. 1999-2003. Fig b. 2004-2008

26%

8%

7%

7%5%4%

4%3%

3%

3%

30%

21%

6%

7%

6%4%

10%

4%

3%

3%

2%

34%

Fig a Fig b

7 BasedonthestandardUnitedNationsStatisticsDivisionclassification(compositionofmacrogeographical(continental)regions,geographicalsub-regions,andselectedeconomicandothergroupings).

8 UNESCO(2010).UNESCO sciencereport 2010.DatafromUNESCOInstituteforStatistics,publishedinUNESCOScienceReport2010(p2,Table1).UNESCOPublishing:Paris,France.DataareprovidedinUS$peggedatcurrentprices(2007pricesin2007,2002pricesin2002)andreflectpurchasingpowerparity.

9 Spendonresearchanddevelopment:datafromUNESCOInstituteforStatistics,publishedinUNESCOScienceReport2010(p2,Table1).Numberofresearchers:

datafromUNESCOInstituteforStatisticsDataCentre,UNESCOInstituteforStatistics:Montral,Canada.Numberofpublications:datafromElseviersScopus.

10 DatafromElseviersScopus.Ifanauthoronapapergivesacountryashisorheraddress,thatpaperisassignedtothatcountry.SoapaperwhichhasbeenwrittenbyauthorsintheUK,SpainandGermanywouldbeassignedasasinglepaperineachcountry(that

paperthereforebeingaccountedforthreetimesasanationalpaper).Figure1.1showsthetotalnumberofindividualpaperswithoutanymultiplecounting.Thetotalnumberofnationalpapers(ie.withpaperscountedmultipletimesifthereareauthorsbasedinmorethanonecountry)in2007was1,580,501;in2002thiswas1,093,564.TheUSAproduced316,317nationalpapersin2008(221,707withtheUSAasthesoleauthors,and94,610incollaborationinternationally);this

represents19.97%ofallnationalpapersglobally.

11 TheQSrankingshavesixUSuniversitiesinthetop10

(CambridgeintheUKisrankedfirst,andtheotherthreearealsointheUK).IntheTimesHigherEducationWorldUniversityRankingstheUSAholdsthetopfivepositions,sevenofthetop10placesand27ofthetop50(theremainingthreeinthetop

tenareintheUK).IntheARWURankingsthefourtoppositionsand17ofthetop20areUSuniversities(theremainingthreeinthetop20aretheUniversitiesofCambridge,OxfordandTokyo).Source:AcademicRankingofWorldUniversities(2010)availableonlineathttp://www.arwu.org/ARWU2010.jsp;QSTopUniversityRankings(2010)athttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/home;TimesHigherEducationWorldUniversity

Rankings(2010)at http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.html,accessed29September2010.

12 NationalScienceBoard(2010).Science and engineering indicators2010.NationalScienceFoundation:Arlington,VA,USA.

13 DatafromUNESCOInstituteforStatistics,publishedinUNESCOScienceReport2010(p2,Table1).



16 RoyalSociety(2010).The scienticcentury: securing our futureprosperity.RoyalSociety:London,UK.

17 DatafromElseviersScopus.Thesechartsshowthetop10countriesbynumberofpublications,withallothercountriesincludedintheothersegment.Thepiechartsarescaledtorepresenttheincreasedvolumeofpublicationsinthe

twotimeperiods.In19992003therewere5,493,483publicationsglobally,andin20042008therewere7,330,334.
http://www.unesco.org/science/psd/publications/science_report2010.shtmlhttp://www.unesco.org/science/psd/publications/science_report2010.shtmlhttp://www.unesco.org/science/psd/publications/science_report2010.shtmlhttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://www.arwu.org/ARWU2010.jsphttp://www.arwu.org/ARWU2010.jsphttp://www.arwu.org/ARWU2010.jsphttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/homehttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/homehttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/homehttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.htmlhttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.htmlhttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.htmlhttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.htmlhttp://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind10/start.htmhttp://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind10/start.htmhttp://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind10/start.htmhttp://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind10/start.htmhttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.htmlhttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.htmlhttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.htmlhttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/homehttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/homehttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/homehttp://www.arwu.org/ARWU2010.jsphttp://www.arwu.org/ARWU2010.jsphttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://www.unesco.org/science/psd/publications/science_report2010.shtmlhttp://www.unesco.org/science/psd/publications/science_report2010.shtml


18/114

PART1



Box1.1.A note on the dataExpenditureonresearchanddevelopment(R&D)isusedthroughoutthisreportasaproxyforspendingonscience.Grossexpenditureonresearchanddevelopment(GERD),ascollatedbytheOECDandUNESCO,andusedinthisreport,includesinvestmentbygovernmentandbusinessenterprise,fundingfromoverseassources,andothersources,whichcanincludefundingbyprivatefoundationsandcharities.Inareasofthereportwedistinguishbetweentheproportionofthisgrossexpenditurespentbybusinessenterprise(BERD),andthatspentbygovernment(GOVERD).Thisisacommonlyused,yetlargelyunsatisfactoryproxyforscience(and/orresearch)spending.Alargeproportionofresearchand

developmentisspentonDratherthanR(withthelargestproportionspentonproductdevelopment).Assuch,thisfiguregoesbeyondtheactualamountofmoneydedicatedtofundingresearch,

inwhicheversector,butitisassumedthatthishassomerelationshiptotheupstreaminvestmentinsciencethatprecedesit.Unlessotherwisestated,wherechangesin

expenditureovertimearediscussedinthereport,thefiguresusedarebasedoncurrentUS$prices(2004dollarsin2004,2008dollarsin2008)andpurchasingpowerparity,18ascalculatedbyeithertheOECDorUNESCO.Whenwerefertopapersinthereport,this

referstopeer-reviewedarticleswhichhaveappearedininternationaljournals.Thesedatahavebeendrawn,unlessotherwisenoted,fromElseviersScopusdatabase.19Wherewediscussoveralltotalsofpublications,theseincludesocialsciences,theartsandhumanities(inpractice,theserepresentaverysmallproportionof

publicationoutput8.9%);thiscoverageisusedsoastomatchtheinputstatistics,whichallregisterresearchandresearchers,whicharedisciplineneutral.

Article:CroonianLecture:Ontheanatomicalstuctureoftheeye,byEverardHome,drawingsbyFranzBauer.PTvol112,1822,pp76-85.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.


19/114


1.1.1EmergingscientificnationsChinasriseuptherankingshasbeenespeciallystriking.ChinahasheavilyincreaseditsinvestmentinR&D,withspendinggrowingby20%peryearsince1999toreachoverUS$100billionayeartoday(or1.44%ofGDPin2007),20inpursuitofitsgoalofspending2.5%ofGDPonR&Din2020.21Chinaisalsoturningouthugenumbersofscienceandengineeringgraduates,with1.5millionleavingitsuniversitiesin2006.22

China,India,SouthKoreaandBrazilareoftencitedasrisingpowersinscience.23Indiaproducesroughly2.5millionscienceandengineeringgraduateseachyear.24In2008,India,theworldssecondmost

populouscountry,succeededinsendingitsfirstunmannedflighttothemoon,becomingonlythefourthcountrytolandacraftonthelunarsurface.Brazil,inlinewithitsaspirationtobeanaturalknowledgeeconomy,buildingonitsnaturalandenvironmentalresources,isworkingtoincreaseresearchspendingto2.5%ofGDPby202225(fromjustover1.4%in2007).26SouthKoreahaspledgedthatR&Dspending,(3.2%ofGDPin2007),willreach5%ofGDPby2012.27

Thesecountriesarenotaloneinrapidlygrowingtheirsciencebases.Overthelast15years,eachoftheG20countrieshasbeenincreasingitsresearchproductionandmosthavescaleduptheproportion

18 Purchasingpowerparity(PPP)measurestheamountofagivencurrencyneededtobuythesamebasketofgoodsandservicesasoneunitofthereferencecurrencyinthisreport,theUSdollar.Itishelpfulwhencomparinglivingstandardsindifferentcountries,asitindicatestheappropriateexchangeratetousewhenexpressingincomesandpricesindifferentcountriesinacommoncurrency.

19 ForfurtherinformationonthemethodologyusedbyElsevier,pleaseseetheConductofthe

Studyonpage11.20 OECD(2006).China will become

worlds second highest investor inR&D by end of 2006, nds OECD.Pressrelease,4December2006.OfficeforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.

21 TheStateCouncilofthePeoplesRepublicofChina(2006).Thenational medium- and long-termprogram for science and technologydevelopment (20062020): anoutline.Beijing,China.

22 MinistryofScienceand

TechnologyofthePeoplesRepublicofChina(2007).S&Tstatistics data book 2007.Beijing,China.Thisistheequivalentof

0.66%oftheChinesepopulationagedbetween15and24,whichwasprojectedtobe228,663,000in2010accordingtotheUnitedNationsPopulationDivision.UNESCOstatisticsindicatethatthemostrecentfiguresoftotalscience,engineering,manufacturingandconstructiongraduates,expressedasapercentageoftheirprojectedpopulationof1524-year-oldsfor2010(aspertheUNstatisticsabove),wouldequal0.95%intheUSA(428,256graduatesinthesedisciplinesin2008againstaprojectedpopulationaged1524

of44,880,000in2010),and1.73%intheUK(140,575graduatesinthesedisciplinesin2007againstaprojectedpopulationof8,147,000in2010).Thesearenotperfectcomparisons,asthemostrecentyearforwhichwehavegraduatedataavailablevariesbycountry,anditdoesnottakeintoaccountgraduatesabovethisagerange,ortheproportionofpeopleinthelowerendofthisagerangewhoareunlikelytograduateattheirage.Sources:PopulationDivisionoftheDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairsoftheUnitedNationsSecretariat(2008).Worldpopulation prospects: the 2008revision.Availableonlineathttp://esa.un.org/unpp,accessed7

January2011;UNESCOInstituteforStatisticswebsite:http://www.uis.unesco.org/,accessed13January2011.

23 SeeBoundK(2007).India: theuneven innovator;WebbM(2007).South Korea: mass innovationcomes of age;WilsdonJ&KeeleyJ.China: the next sciencesuperpower?;BoundK(2008).Brazil, the natural knowledgeeconomy.Demos:London,UK;AdamsJ&WilsdonJ(2006).The new geography of science:UK research and internationalcollaboration; AdamsJ&King

C(2009).Global research report:Brazil;AdamsJ,KingC&SinghV(2009).Global research report:India;AdamsJ,KingC&MaN(2009).Global research report:China.Evidence,aThomsonReutersbusiness:Leeds,UK.Battelle(2009).2010 globalR&D fund-ing forecast.Battelle:Columbus,OH,USA.WilsdonJ(2008).The new geography ofscience.PhysicsWorld,October2008.GilmanD(2010).The newgeography of global innovation.GoldmanSachsGlobalMarketsInstitute:NewYork,NY,USA.

24 BoundK(2007).India: the uneveninnovator.Demos:London,UK.Indiaspopulationagedbetween

15and24wasprojectedtobejustunder234millionaccordingtotheUN.Ifallthose2.5milliongraduateswerewithinthatagerange,theywouldrepresent1.07%ofthepopulationinthatagerange.Source:UnitedNationswebsite.World population prospects: the2008 revision.PopulationDivisionoftheDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairsoftheUnitedNationsSecretariat.Availableonlineathttp://esa.un.org/unpp,accessed7January2011.

25 KuglerH(2011).Brazil releasesscience blueprint.SciDev.Net,7

January2011.Availableonlineathttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.html,accessed17January2011.

26 PetherickA(2010).Science safein Brazil elections.Natureonline,29September2010.Availableonlineathttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.html,accessed17January2011.

27 StoneR(2008).SouthKorea aims to boost statusas science and technologypowerhouse. ScienceInsider,23December2008.Availableathttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.html.
http://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,2340,en_2649_201185_37770522_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,2340,en_2649_201185_37770522_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,2340,en_2649_201185_37770522_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,2340,en_2649_201185_37770522_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National%20Outline%20for%20Medium%20and%20Long%20Term%20S&T%20Development.dochttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National%20Outline%20for%20Medium%20and%20Long%20Term%20S&T%20Development.dochttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National%20Outline%20for%20Medium%20and%20Long%20Term%20S&T%20Development.dochttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National%20Outline%20for%20Medium%20and%20Long%20Term%20S&T%20Development.dochttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National%20Outline%20for%20Medium%20and%20Long%20Term%20S&T%20Development.dochttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National%20Outline%20for%20Medium%20and%20Long%20Term%20S&T%20Development.dochttp://www.most.gov.cn/eng/statistics/2007/index.htmhttp://www.most.gov.cn/eng/statistics/2007/index.htmhttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://www.uis.unesco.org/http://www.uis.unesco.org/http://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://www.scribd.com/doc/1037304/Demos-Korea-Innovationhttp://www.scribd.com/doc/1037304/Demos-Korea-Innovationhttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlaschinahttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlaschinahttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlaschinahttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/brazilhttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/brazilhttp://www.demos.co.uk/files/Demos_Evidence_China.pdf?1240939425http://www.demos.co.uk/files/Demos_Evidence_China.pdf?1240939425http://www.demos.co.uk/files/Demos_Evidence_China.pdf?1240939425http://researchanalytics.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/GRR-Brazil-Jun09.pdfhttp://researchanalytics.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/GRR-Brazil-Jun09.pdfhttp://researchanalytics.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/GRR-Brazil-Jun09.pdfhttp://science.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/grr-India-oct09_ag0908174.pdfhttp://science.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/grr-India-oct09_ag0908174.pdfhttp://science.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/grr-India-oct09_ag0908174.pdfhttp://researchanalytics.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/grr-china-nov09.pdfhttp://researchanalytics.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/grr-china-nov09.pdfhttp://researchanalytics.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/grr-china-nov09.pdfhttp://www.rdmag.com/uploadedFiles/RD/Featured_Articles/2009/12/GFF2010_ads_small.pdfhttp://www.rdmag.com/uploadedFiles/RD/Featured_Articles/2009/12/GFF2010_ads_small.pdfhttp://physicsworld.com/cws/archive/print/21/10http://physicsworld.com/cws/archive/print/21/10http://physicsworld.com/cws/archive/print/21/10http://www2.goldmansachs.com/ideas/global-markets-institute/featured-research/innovation-doc.pdfhttp://www2.goldmansachs.com/ideas/global-markets-institute/featured-research/innovation-doc.pdfhttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://www2.goldmansachs.com/ideas/global-markets-institute/featured-research/innovation-doc.pdfhttp://www2.goldmansachs.com/ideas/global-markets-institute/featured-research/innovation-doc.pdfhttp://physicsworld.com/cws/archive/print/21/10http://physicsworld.com/cws/archive/print/21/10http://www.rdmag.com/uploadedFiles/RD/Featured_Articles/2009/12/GFF2010_ads_small.pdfhttp://www.rdmag.com/uploadedFiles/RD/Featured_Articles/2009/12/GFF2010_ads_small.pdfhttp://researchanalytics.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/grr-china-nov09.pdfhttp://researchanalytics.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/grr-china-nov09.pdfhttp://science.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/grr-India-oct09_ag0908174.pdfhttp://science.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/grr-India-oct09_ag0908174.pdfhttp://researchanalytics.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/GRR-Brazil-Jun09.pdfhttp://researchanalytics.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/GRR-Brazil-Jun09.pdfhttp://www.demos.co.uk/files/Demos_Evidence_China.pdf?1240939425http://www.demos.co.uk/files/Demos_Evidence_China.pdf?1240939425http://www.demos.co.uk/files/Demos_Evidence_China.pdf?1240939425http://www.demos.co.uk/publications/brazilhttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/brazilhttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlaschinahttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlaschinahttp://www.scribd.com/doc/1037304/Demos-Korea-Innovationhttp://www.scribd.com/doc/1037304/Demos-Korea-Innovationhttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://www.uis.unesco.org/http://www.uis.unesco.org/http://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://www.most.gov.cn/eng/statistics/2007/index.htmhttp://www.most.gov.cn/eng/statistics/2007/index.htmhttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National%20Outline%20for%20Medium%20and%20Long%20Term%20S&T%20Development.dochttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National%20Outline%20for%20Medium%20and%20Long%20Term%20S&T%20Development.dochttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National%20Outline%20for%20Medium%20and%20Long%20Term%20S&T%20Development.dochttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National%20Outline%20for%20Medium%20and%20Long%20Term%20S&T%20Development.dochttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National%20Outline%20for%20Medium%20and%20Long%20Term%20S&T%20Development.dochttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,2340,en_2649_201185_37770522_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,2340,en_2649_201185_37770522_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,2340,en_2649_201185_37770522_1_1_1_1,00.html


20/114


PART1


Argentina

Australia

Brazil

China

India

Indonesia

Mexico

Re

publicofKorea

SaudiArabia

SouthAfrica

Turkey

Canada

France

Germany

Italy

Japan

Rus

sianFederation

U

nitedKingdom

UnitedStates

10%

8%

6%

4%

0%

-2%

2%

-4%

Argentin

a

Australi

a

Braz

il

Chin

a

Indi

a

Indonesi

a

Mexico

SaudiArabi

a

Korea,Republico

f

SouthAfric

a

Turke

y

Canad

a

Franc

e

German

y

Italy

Japan

RussianFederation

UnitedKingdom

UnitedState

s

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

16%

18%

20%

Figure1.2. Science in the G20G8 labelled in red. Fig a. Annual growth in publications 1996-2008.28Fig b. Annual growth in GDP spending on R&D 1996-200729

Fig a Fig b


21/114


oftheirGDPspentonR&D(seeFigure1.2).Increasedinvestmentandincreasedpublicationshavetakenplaceintandem.Thegrowthofcommitmenttoscienceinanumberofthenon-G8nationsisespeciallystriking.

TurkeyhasimproveditsscientificperformanceataratealmostrivallingthatofChina.Havingdeclaredresearchapublicpriorityinthe1990s,theTurkishGovernmentincreaseditsspendingonR&Dnearlysix-foldbetween1995and2007,andnowspendsmoreannuallyincashtermsthaneitherDenmark,FinlandorNorway.30Overthisperiod,theproportionofTurkeysGDPspentonR&Drosefrom0.28%to0.72%,andthenumberofresearchersincreasedby43%.31Fourtimesasmanypaperswerepublishedin2008asin1996.32Thenumberofpublicationsfrom Iranhasgrown

fromjust736in1996to13,238in2008makingit

thefastestgrowingcountryintermsofnumbersofscientificpublicationsintheworld.33InAugust2009,Iranannouncedacomprehensiveplanforsciencefocusedonhighereducationandstrongerlinksbetweenindustryandacademia.TheestablishmentofaUS$2.5millioncentrefornanotechnologyresearchisoneoftheproductsofthisplan.OthercommitmentsincludeboostingR&Dinvestmentto

4%ofGDP(0.59%ofGDPin2006),andincreasingeducationto7%ofGDPby2030(5.49%ofGDPin2007).34Since1996,R&DasapercentageofGDPin

Tunisiahasgrownfrom0.03%to1.25%in2009.35Duringthesameperiod,asubstantialrestructuringofthenationalR&Dsystemsawthecreationof624researchunitsand139researchlaboratories,ofwhich72aredirectedtowardslifeandbiotechnologicalsciences.36Lifesciencesandpharmaceuticalsremainatoppriorityforthecountry,withthegovernmentannouncinginJanuary2010thatitwantedtoincreasepharmaceuticalsexportsfive-foldinthenextfiveyearswhilealsoaimingtohave60%oflocalmedicineneedscoveredbythecountrysownproduction.37

In1996,Singaporeinvested1.37%ofGDPinR&D.By2007thishadreached2.61%ofGDP. 38Thenumberofscientificpublicationshasgrownfrom

2,620in1996to8,506in2008,almosthalfofwhichwereco-authoredinternationally. 39TheAgencyforScience,TechnologyandResearch(A*STAR)iscentraltothegovernmentscommitmenttoinvestmentinworldclassresearchandinfrastructure,andoverseesSingapores14researchinstitutesandassociatedcentreswithinflagshipdevelopmentssuchasBiopolisandFusionopolis.40AtacostofoverUS$370million,


29 DatafromUNESCOInstituteforStatisticsDataCentre,Montral,Canada.Notethatstatisticsforsomecountriesacrosstheperiodareincomplete.Theclosestaccountableyearsintheperiodareusedwherecompletestatisticsarenotavailable.

30 OECD(2010).Main science andtechnology indicators (MSTI): 2010edition, version 1.Organisation

forEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.

31 OECD(2009).Main science andtechnology indicators (MSTI): 2009

edition.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.


33 Science-Metrix, Thirty years ofscience.Montreal:http://www.Science-Metrix.com,accessedNovember2010.

34 SawahelW(2009).Iran: 20-yearplan for knowledge-basedeconomy.UniversityWorldNews.

35 MadikizelaM(2005).The scienceand technology system of theRepublic of Tunisia.FromCountryStudies:ArabStates,UNESCO

website.Availableonlineathttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/les/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdf.

36 MadikizelaM(2005).The scienceand technology system of theRepublic of Tunisia.FromCountryStudies:ArabStates,UNESCOwebsite.Availableonlineathttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/les/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdf.

37 GlobalArabNetwork(2010).Tunisia to boost pharmaceutical &biotechnological industry. GlobalArabNetwork,13January2010.

Availableonlineathttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.html .

38 DatafromtheUNESCOInstituteforStatisticsDataCentre.Montral,Canada.


40 Seehttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspx,accessed29September2010.
http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.science-metrix.com/http://www.science-metrix.com/http://www.science-metrix.com/http://www.science-metrix.com/http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20090827175231370http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20090827175231370http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20090827175231370http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20090827175231370http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspxhttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspxhttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspxhttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspxhttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspxhttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspxhttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20090827175231370http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20090827175231370http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20090827175231370http://www.science-metrix.com/http://www.science-metrix.com/http://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=eng


22/114


PART1


Biopolisisahigh-techbiomedicalparkwhichthegovernmentlaunchedin2003.Sincethen,thecountrysbiotechexpertisehascontinuedtoexpandandisattractingsomebigplayerssuchasNovartis,GlaxoSmithKlineandRoche. 41Thepictureofscientificresearchisalsostarting

tochangeacrosstheMiddleEast,wherethereareanumberofsignificantnewcommitmentstoscience.Gas-richQataraimstospend2.8%ofGDPonresearchby2015.Withapopulationofjustover1.4million(ofwhicharound85%areforeignworkers)andacurrentGDPofUS$128billion,thistarget,ifrealised,wouldcombinetogiveGERDpercapitaofUS$2,474.42Sincethemid-1990s,theQatariGovernmenthasintroducedanumberofeducationreformsandhasinvestedaroundUS$133billionininfrastructureandprojectsdesignedtocreateaknowledge-basedeconomy. 43TheUnited Arab

EmiratesisattemptingtocreatetheworldsfirstfullysustainablecityandinnovationhubtheMasdarInitiative.Duetoopenin2011,Masdarwilleventually

house50,000peopleand1,500businessesfocusedonrenewableenergyandsustainabletechnologies. 44GE,BP,Shell,MitsubishiandRolls-Royceareamongthosewhohavejoinedasstrategicpartners.45Elsewhere,manyoftheworldspoorestcountries

haveplacedsciencebehindmoreimmediatepriorities,suchashealthcareandprimaryeducation.Thisisnottosaythatscienceandresearcharenothavinganimpactinthelessdevelopedworldatall,orthattherearenosignsofgrowth.Cambodiaproducedonlysevenarticlesin1996,butincreasedthisto114by2008.BothUgandaandPeru,inthesameperiod,increasedtheiroutputsfour-fold,albeitfromlowbases(Ugandafrom116to477papers,Perufrom153to600).46Inthesecountries,aselsewhere,thereisoftenalsoawealthofinformalinnovationcarriedoutbyfarmers,47localhealthpractitionersandsmallfirmsfrequentlydrawingonlocalknowledge

andlargelyunacknowledgedinformalmetrics,letalonepublishedinresearchpapers.48

TheKingofTonkinandretinueontheirwaytoaceremonialblessingoftheground.AnillustrationforSamuelBaronsA description of the kingdomof Tonqueen,1685.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.


23/114


24/114


PART1


Somegovernmentsanddevelopmentpartnersareembracingthefactthatscienceisnotaluxurywhichisthepreserveofdevelopedcountries.Theyrecognisethattechnologyandinnovationarekeytoachievinglong-termeconomicandsocialdevelopment,49andthatscienceandscientificadvicearevitalassetsingovernance.50PaulKagame,PresidentofRwanda,hasbeenastrongadvocateforsciencefordevelopment,sayingWeinAfricamust

eitherbegintobuildourscientificandtechnologicaltrainingcapabilitiesorremainanimpoverishedappendagetotheglobaleconomy.51AfricanscienceministersresolvedinMarch2010that2011wouldbethestartofanAfricandecadeforscience,promisingincreasedresearchbudgetsandattemptstousescienceandtechnologytodrivedevelopment.52Althoughencouraging,politicalcommitmentstoinvestinsciencearegreetedcautiouslybymany

scientistsacrossAfricaandinotherpoorcountries.Itwasin1980thatAfricanpresidentsagreedtoincreaseresearchspendingto1%ofGDP,aspartoftheLagosPlanofAction,53butby2007Sub-SaharanAfricancountriesstillspentanaverageofjust0.5%oftheirGDPonscienceandtechnology.54Africanleadersreiteratedtheir1%target,thistimeagreeingtoreachitby2010,55butSouthAfricaistheonlysub-Saharancountrythatisclose,spending0.92%inthe

2008to2009financialyear.56

1.1.2AssessingresearchqualityandimpactAsresearchoutputhasgrown,sohavethelevelsatwhichresearchersciteoneanotherswork.Citationsareoftenusedasameansofevaluatingthequalityofpublicationsrecognitionbyanauthorspeersindicatesthatthescientificcommunityvaluestheworkthathasbeenpublished.Theyare,however,alaggingindicator,aswellasasometimescrudeone.Lookingattheglobalpictureinrecentyears,we

canseethatcitationsareincreasingatagreaterrate

thanpublicationsbetweentheperiods1999to2003and2004to2008publicationsgrewby33%andcitationsby55%(seeFigure1.3).57However,whenexaminingcitationpatterns,themovementinnationalperformancehasnotbeenasdramaticaswithpublicationnumbers.SwitzerlandandAustraliafelldowntherankings,tobereplacedbyChinaandSpaininthelatterperiod,buttheperformanceofChina,forexample,doesnotmirrorthatnations

growthininvestmentorpublicationoutput.Citationscontinuetobemuchmoreconcentratedthanthejournalarticlesthemselves.Itwilltakesometimefortheabsoluteoutputof

emergingnationstochallengetherateatwhichthisresearchisreferencedbytheinternationalscientificcommunity.Thereisalsodiversificationwithsomecountriesshowingleadershipinspecificfields,suchasChinainnanotechnology,58andBrazilinbiofuels,59

butthescientificallyadvancednationscontinuetodominatethecitationcounts.Citationsare,however,onlyonemeansof

benchmarkingtheexcellenceofresearchoutput.WithoverUS$1,000billioneachyearbeingspentonR&D,itisunsurprisingthatfundersandgovernmentswanttoknowwhatvaluetheyaregettingfortheirmoney.IntheUK,theimpactandexcellenceagenda

hasdevelopedrapidlyinrecentyears.TheResearchAssessmentExercise,apeerreviewbasedbenchmarkingexercisewhichmeasuredtherelativeresearchstrengthsofuniversitydepartments,60isduetobereplacedwithanewResearchExcellenceFramework,whichwillbecompletedin2014.61TheUKResearchCouncilsnow(somewhatcontroversially)askallapplicantstodescribethepotentialeconomicandsocietalimpactsoftheirresearch.TheExcellenceinResearchforAustralia(ERA)initiativeassessesresearchqualitywithinAustraliashighereducationinstitutionsusinga


25/114


combinationofindicatorsandexpertreviewbycommitteescomprisingexperienced,internationallyrecognisedexperts.Theimpactagendaisincreasinglyimportantfor

nationalandinternationalscience(inEurope,theCommissionerforResearch,InnovationandSciencehasspokenabouttheneedforaEurope-wideinnovationindicator).63Thechallengeofmeasuringthevalueofscienceinanumberofwaysfacesall

ofthescientificcommunity.Achievingthiswilloffernewinsightsintohowweappraisethequalityofscience,andtheimpactsofitsglobalisation.

China

Spain

Other

Key

United States

Japan

United Kingdom

Germany

France

Australia

Italy

Canada

Netherlands

Switzerland

36%

9%

8%7%

5%

4%

3%

3%

2%2%

21%

30%

8%

7%

5%5%

4%

4%

3%

4%

3%

27%

Fig a Fig b

Figure1.3. Comparative proportionof global citations by country62

The top ten cited countries in each period are shown.Fig a. 1999-2003. Fig b. 2004-2008

49 ConwayG&WaageJ(2010).Science and innovation for

development.UKCollaborativeonDevelopmentSciences:London,UK.

50 RoyalSociety(2010).Science: anundervalued asset in governancefor development.RoyalSociety:London,UK.

51 KagameP(2006).SpeechbyRwandanPresident,PaulKagame,attheRoyalSocietyon18September2006.

52 NordlingL(2010).African nationsvow to support science.Nature465,994995.

53 OrganizationofAfricanUnity(1980).Lagos plan of action for theeconomic development of Africa

19802000.TheOrganizationofAfricanUnitywasdisbandedin

2002andreplacedbytheAfricanUnion.

54 DatafromUNESCOInstituteforStatistics,publishedinUNESCOScienceReport2010(p2,Table1).

55 AfricanUnion(2007).Assembly ofthe African Union, eighth ordinarysession, 2930 January 2007,Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: decisionsand declarations.Assembly/AU/Dec.161(VIII).AfricanUnion:AddisAbaba,Ethiopia.

56 DepartmentofScienceandTechnology,South Africa (2010).

South Africa maintains steadygrowth in R and D expenditure.Pressrelease,9September2010.DepartmentofScienceand

Technology:CapeTown,SouthAfrica.


58 RoyalSociety(2010).The scienticcentury: securing our futureprosperity.RoyalSociety:London,UK.

59 BoundK(2008).Brazil, the naturalknowledge economy.Demos:London,UK.

60 Seehttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htm.

61 Seehttp://www.hefce.ac.uk/research/ref/,accessed7January2011.

62 DatafromElseviersScopus.Thesechartsshowthetopten

countriesbynumberofcitations,withallothercountriesincludedintheothersegment.Thepiechartsarescaledtorepresenttheincreasedvolumeofpublicationsinthetwotimeperiods.In19992003therewere23,639,885citationsglobally,andin20042008therewere36,562,135.

63 FinneganG(2010).Geoghegan-Quinn: we must communicate ourR&D.Euractiv.com(EuropeanUnionInformationWebsite),5May2010.Availableonlineathttp://www.euractiv.com/en/

innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702.
http://www.ukcds.org.uk/publication-Science_and_Innovation_for_Development-172.htmlhttp://www.ukcds.org.uk/publication-Science_and_Innovation_for_Development-172.htmlhttp://royalsociety.org/science-governance/http://royalsociety.org/science-governance/http://royalsociety.org/science-governance/http://royalsociety.org/science-governance/http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100623/full/465994a.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100623/full/465994a.htmlhttp://www.uneca.org/itca/ariportal/docs/lagos_plan.PDFhttp://www.uneca.org/itca/ariportal/docs/lagos_plan.PDFhttp://www.uneca.org/itca/ariportal/docs/lagos_plan.PDFhttp://www.au.int/files/SUMMIT_EN_29_30_JANUARY_2007_BCP_ASSEMBLY_OF_THE_AFRICAN_UNION_%20EIGHTH%20_ORDINARY_SESSION.PDFhttp://www.au.int/files/SUMMIT_EN_29_30_JANUARY_2007_BCP_ASSEMBLY_OF_THE_AFRICAN_UNION_%20EIGHTH%20_ORDINARY_SESSION.PDFhttp://www.au.int/files/SUMMIT_EN_29_30_JANUARY_2007_BCP_ASSEMBLY_OF_THE_AFRICAN_UNION_%20EIGHTH%20_ORDINARY_SESSION.PDFhttp://www.au.int/files/SUMMIT_EN_29_30_JANUARY_2007_BCP_ASSEMBLY_OF_THE_AFRICAN_UNION_%20EIGHTH%20_ORDINARY_SESSION.PDFhttp://www.au.int/files/SUMMIT_EN_29_30_JANUARY_2007_BCP_ASSEMBLY_OF_THE_AFRICAN_UNION_%20EIGHTH%20_ORDINARY_SESSION.PDFhttp://www.au.int/files/SUMMIT_EN_29_30_JANUARY_2007_BCP_ASSEMBLY_OF_THE_AFRICAN_UNION_%20EIGHTH%20_ORDINARY_SESSION.PDFhttp://www.sudafrica.it/documenti/SOUTH%20AFRICA%20%20MAINTAINS%20STEADY%20GROWTH%20IN%20R%20AND%20D%20EXPENDITURE.dochttp://www.sudafrica.it/documenti/SOUTH%20AFRICA%20%20MAINTAINS%20STEADY%20GROWTH%20IN%20R%20AND%20D%20EXPENDITURE.dochttp://www.sudafrica.it/documenti/SOUTH%20AFRICA%20%20MAINTAINS%20STEADY%20GROWTH%20IN%20R%20AND%20D%20EXPENDITURE.dochttp://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://www.demos.co.uk/publications/brazilhttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/brazilhttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htmhttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htmhttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htmhttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htmhttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htmhttp://www.hefce.ac.uk/research/ref/http://www.hefce.ac.uk/research/ref/http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.hefce.ac.uk/research/ref/http://www.hefce.ac.uk/research/ref/http://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htmhttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htmhttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htmhttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htmhttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htmhttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/brazilhttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/brazilhttp://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://www.sudafrica.it/documenti/SOUTH%20AFRICA%20%20MAINTAINS%20STEADY%20GROWTH%20IN%20R%20AND%20D%20EXPENDITURE.dochttp://www.sudafrica.it/documenti/SOUTH%20AFRICA%20%20MAINTAINS%20STEADY%20GROWTH%20IN%20R%20AND%20D%20EXPENDITURE.dochttp://www.sudafrica.it/documenti/SOUTH%20AFRICA%20%20MAINTAINS%20STEADY%20GROWTH%20IN%20R%20AND%20D%20EXPENDITURE.dochttp://www.au.int/files/SUMMIT_EN_29_30_JANUARY_2007_BCP_ASSEMBLY_OF_THE_AFRICAN_UNION_%20EIGHTH%20_ORDINARY_SESSION.PDFhttp://www.au.int/files/SUMMIT_EN_29_30_JANUARY_2007_BCP_ASSEMBLY_OF_THE_AFRICAN_UNION_%20EIGHTH%20_ORDINARY_SESSION.PDFhttp://www.au.int/files/SUMMIT_EN_29_30_JANUARY_2007_BCP_ASSEMBLY_OF_THE_AFRICAN_UNION_%20EIGHTH%20_ORDINARY_SESSION.PDFhttp://www.au.int/files/SUMMIT_EN_29_30_JANUARY_2007_BCP_ASSEMBLY_OF_THE_AFRICAN_UNION_%20EIGHTH%20_ORDINARY_SESSION.PDFhttp://www.au.int/files/SUMMIT_EN_29_30_JANUARY_2007_BCP_ASSEMBLY_OF_THE_AFRICAN_UNION_%20EIGHTH%20_ORDINARY_SESSION.PDFhttp://www.uneca.org/itca/ariportal/docs/lagos_plan.PDFhttp://www.uneca.org/itca/ariportal/docs/lagos_plan.PDFhttp://www.uneca.org/itca/ariportal/docs/lagos_plan.PDFhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100623/full/465994a.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100623/full/465994a.htmlhttp://royalsociety.org/science-governance/http://royalsociety.org/science-governance/http://roy

knowledge, networks and nations_global scientific collaboration in the 21st century

Documents