kkhs,homework class 9

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Rafting or white water rafting is the challengingrecreational outdoor activity of using an inflatable raft tonavigate a river or other bodies of water. This is usually doneon white water or different degrees of rough water, in order to

thrill and excite the raft passengers. The development of thisactivity as a leisure sport has become popular since the mid-1970s. It is considered an extreme sport, as it can bedangerous.

White water rafts

The modern raft is an inflatable boat, consisting of verydurable, multi-layered rubberized (hypalon) or vinyl fabrics(PVC) with several independent air chambers. The length variesbetween 3.5 m (11 ft) and 6 m (20 ft), the width between 1.8 m(6 ft) and 2.5 m (8 ft). The exception to this size rule is usuallythe packraft, which is designed as a portable single-person raftand may be as small as 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) long and weigh aslittle as 4 pounds (1.8 kg).

Rafts come in a few different forms. In Europe and Australasia,

the most common is the symmetrical raft steered with a paddleat the stern. Other types are the asymmetrical, rudder-controlled raft and the symmetrical raft with central helm (oars)or Stern Mounts with the oar frame located at the rear of theraft. Rafts are usually propelled with ordinary paddles and oroars and typically hold 4 to 12 persons. In Russia, rafts areoften hand made and are often a catamaran style with twoinflatable tubes attached to a frame. Pairs of paddlers navigate

on these rafts. Catamaran style rafts have become popular inthe western United States as well, but are typically rowedinstead of paddled.

Grades of white water


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Rafting on the Pacuare River, Costa Rica.

Main article: International Scale of River Difficulty

Below are the six grades of difficulty in white water rafting.

They range from simple to very dangerous and potential deathor serious injuries.

Grade 1: Very small rough areas, might require slightmaneuvering. (Skill level: very basic)Grade 2: Some rough water, maybe some rocks, might requiresome maneuvering. (Skill level: basic paddling skill)Grade 3: Whitewater, small waves, maybe a small drop, but no

considerable danger. May require significant maneuvering.(Skill level: experienced paddling skills)Grade 4: Whitewater, medium waves, maybe rocks, maybe aconsiderable drop, sharp maneuvers may be needed. (Skilllevel: whitewater experience)Grade 5: Whitewater, large waves, large volume, possibility oflarge rocks and hazards, possibility of a large drop, requiresprecise maneuvering. (Skill level: advanced whitewater

experience)Grade 6: Class 6 rapids are considered to be so dangerousthat they are effectively unnavigable on a reliably safe basis.Rafters can expect to encounter substantial whitewater, hugewaves, huge rocks and hazards, and/or substantial drops thatwill impart severe impacts beyond the structural capacities andimpact ratings of almost all rafting equipment. Traversing aClass 6 rapid has a dramatically increased likelihood of ending

in serious injury or death compared to lesser classes. (Skilllevel: successful completion of a Class 6 rapid without serious


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injury or death is widely considered to be a matter of great luckor extreme skill and is considered by some as a suicidalventure)

Techniques

This section does not cite any referencesor sources. Please help improve this sectionby adding citations to reliable sources.Unsourced material may be challengedand removed. (August 2010)

Rafts in white water are very different vehicles than canoes or

kayaks and have their own specific techniques to maneuverthrough whitewater obstacles.

Punching Rafts carry great momentum, and on rivershydraulics that are dodged by canoes and kayaks are oftenpunched by rafts. This involves the rafting crew paddling theraft to give it enough speed to push through the hydraulicwithout getting stopped.

High siding If a raft is caught in a hydraulic it will oftenquickly go sideways. In order to stop the raft flipping on itsinside edge, the rafters can climb to the side of the raft furthestdownstream, which will also be the side of the raft highest inthe air leading to its name. In this position the rafters may beable to use the draw stroke to pull the raft out of the head

Capsizing

Dump truck Rafts are inherently stable crafts because oftheir size and low center of mass and often they will shed gearand passengers before they actually capsize. In the industry if araft dumps some or all of its passengers but remains upright, itis said to have dump trucked.

Left over right or right over left Rafts almost always flipside over side. If the left tube rises over the right tube, the raft

is said to have flipped left over right and vice versa.


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Taco If a raft is soft, or underinflated, it may taco, or reversetaco. Rafts are said to have tacoed if the middle of the raftbuckles and the front of the raft touches or nearly touches theback of the raft. This often is a result ofsurfing in a hydraulic. A

reverse taco is when the nose, or stern of the raft is pulleddown under water and buckles to touch the middle or back, ornose of the raft.

End over end Occasionally rafts will flip end over end. This isusually after the raft has dump trucked to lighten the load,allowing the water to overcome the weight of the boat flippingit vertically before it lands upside down. Rafts will usually taco

and turn sideways, making an end-over-end flip a very rare flipin most rafts.

Down Stream Flip- A raft capsizes after encountering anobstacle i.e. rock, feature like a hydraulic or even another raft.

These objects are usually stationary or possibly surfing in ahydraulic. On this occasion the raft becomes unstable andusually flips over downstream or in the direction of travel. Adownstream flip may be exacerbated by the load or people inthe raft. People may physically assist in the inertia of the flip bypulling the boat over on top of themselves.

Re-righting

Flip line The flip line technique is the most used incommercial rafting where flips are common. The guide will takea loop of webbing that has a biner on it and attach it to the

perimeter line on the raft, Standing on top of the upside downraft they will hold the line and lean to the opposite side fromwhere the flip line is attached, re-righting the raft.

Knee flipping Capsized rafts that are small enough with littleor no gear attached can be knee flipped. This involves therafter holding the webbing on the underside of the raft, andpushing their knees into the outer tube, and then lifting theirbody out of the water, leaning back to overturn the raft.


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T rescue Much like the kayak technique some rafts are largeenough that they need to be overturned with the assistance ofanother raft or land. Positioning the upturned raft or land at theside of the raft the rafters can then re-right the raft by lifting up

on the perimeter line.

T-grip re-flip - The T-grip on a rafting paddle may be used tore-flip light rafts by inserting the Tee into the self bailing holesaround the floor perimeter and re-righting the boat in the samemanner as the flip line technique.

Alluvial - Pertaining to material carried or laid down by runningwater. Alluvium is the material deposited by streams. Itincludes gravel, sand, silt, and clay.

Back Pivot - Turning the raft from a ferry angle to a stem-downstream position.Used in tight places to recover from anextreme ferry angle, this maneuver narrows the passing spaceof the boat and allows it to slide closely past obstructions.

Back roller - A broad reversal such as that formed below a

dam or ledge.Beam - The width of a raft at its widest point.

Biner - Short for Carabiner which means "clip" in Italian. Inrafting, biners are used in rope and pulley rescue systems tosecure things to a raft and as items of adornment in riverrafting.

Tricks

Rock splats If the rafters load the back of the raft, they canpaddle the raft into a rock on the river, having it hit the bottomof the boat instead of the nose; if done correctly this can raisethe raft up vertically on its stern.

Surfing Commercial rafts often use waves on rivers to surf.

Nose dunks Large rafts can enter hydraulics called holes

from downstream and submerge their nose, or reverse taco.This can be a safe way to get rafters wet in a hydraulic.


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Pirouette A move executed by either a sweep or drawstroke, sending the raft spinning with the current. Often usefulfor avoiding obstacles.

Troying - This is a move done by only expert white waterrafters, and is the action of popping the back of the boat for asudden burst of speed.

Safety

White water rafting can be a dangerous sport, especially ifbasic safety precautions are not observed. Both commercialand private trips have seen their share of injuries and fatalities,

though private travel has typically been associated with greaterrisk.[citation needed] Depending on the area, safety regulationscovering raft operators may exist in legislation. These rangefrom certification of outfitters, rafts, and raft leaders, to morestringent regulations about equipment and procedures. It isgenerally advisable to discuss safety measures with a raftingoperator before signing on for a trip. The equipment used andthe qualifications of the company and raft guides are essential

information to be considered.

Like most outdoor sports, rafting in general has become saferover the years. Expertise in the sport has increased, andequipment has become more specialized and increased inquality. As a result the difficulty rating of most river runs haschanged. A classic example would be the Colorado River inthe Grand Canyon or Jalcomulco River in Mexico, which has

swallowed whole expeditions in the past, leaving onlyfragments of boats. In contrast, it is now run safely bycommercial outfitters hundreds of times each year withrelatively untrained passengers.[1]

Risks in white water rafting stem from both environmentaldangers and from improper behavior. Certain features on riversare inherently unsafe and have remained consistently sodespite the passage of time. These would include "keeper

hydraulics", "strainers" (e.g. fallen trees), dams (especially low-


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head dams, which tend to produce river-wide keeperhydraulics), undercut rocks, and of course dangerously highwaterfalls. Rafting with experienced guides is the safest way toavoid such features. Even in safe areas, however, moving water

can always present riskssuch as when a swimmer attempts tostand up on a rocky riverbed in strong current, risking footentrapment. Irresponsible behavior related to rafting whileintoxicated has also contributed to many accidents.

One of the most simple ways to avoid injury while out of a raft,is to swim to an eddy to avoid being taken downstream.

To combat the illusion that rafting is akin to an amusementpark ride, and to underscore the personal responsibility eachrafter faces on a trip, rafting outfitters generally requirecustomers to sign waiver forms indicating understanding andacceptance of potential serious risks. Rafting trips often beginwith safety presentations to educate customers about problemsthat may arise.

White water rafting is often played for the adrenaline rush and

this can become a problem for participants' safety. White waterrafting accidents have occurred but are not common.

Due to this the overall risk level on a rafting trip withexperienced guides using proper precautions is low.[citationneeded] Thousands of people safely enjoy raft trips every year.

Environmental issues

Rafting in Montenegro


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Like all outdoor activities, rafting must balance its use of naturewith the conservation of rivers as a naturalresource and habitat. Because of these issues, some rivers nowhave regulations restricting the annual and daily operating

times or numbers of rafters.

Conflicts have arisen when rafting operators, often in co-operation with municipalities and tourism associations, alterthe riverbed by dredging and/orblasting in order to eliminatesafety hazards or create more interesting whitewater featuresin the river. Environmentalists argue that this may havenegative impacts to riparian and aquatic ecosystems, while

proponents claim these measures are usually only temporary,since a riverbed is naturally subject to permanent changesduring large floods and other events.

Rafting contributes to the economy of many regions which inturn may contribute to the protection of riversfrom hydroelectric power generation, diversion for irrigation,and other development. Additionally, white water rafting tripscan promote environmentalism. By experiencing firsthand thebeauty of a river, individuals who would otherwise beindifferent to environmental issues may gain a strong desire toprotect and preserve that area because of their positiveoutdoor experience.

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Trekking

Trekis a long, adventurous journey undertaken on foot inareas where common means of transport are generally notavailable. Trekking should not be confusedwith mountaineering.

Etymology

The term derived fromthe Afrikaans word trek(noun), trekken (verb), (literally


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meaning to "pull, travel"), became a word in Englishlanguage in mid 19th century, and means a long arduous

journey, typically on foot.[1]

Trekking in the Himalayas

The Himalayan routes are famous for attracting a large numberof trekkers. Typical trekking regionsin Nepal are Annapurna, Dolpo, Langtang,Manaslu, and MountEverest. Other popular trekking routes in India include Chandra

Taal, Gomukh, Hemkund, KafniGlacier, Kangchenjunga,Kedarnath, Kedartal, MilamGlacier, Nanda Devi Sanctuary, PindariGlacier, Richenpong, Roopkund, Sar Pass, Satopanth

Tal, Saurkundi Pass,Singalila Ridge, and Valley of Flowers.

The Himalayan foothills are just ideal for trekking, Hiking andCamping offering energetic out-door people a different and

exciting option for a Adventure holiday. The Garhwal andKumaon regions of Uttaranchal are the most populardestinations for trekkers, though Chamba and Manali inHimachal Pradesh, Dajeeling & Sikkim himalayas in the northeast and Ladakh and Zanskar in

Jammu and Kashmir, haveinteresting trekking routes as well.

A trekking expedition is as much adiscovery of nature as a discoveryof one's self. It also provides aperfect and balanced exercise for limbs, sheds excess body fat,keeps you agile and leaves you fitter than ever before. So pickup your rucksack and get going off the beaten track, on to theHimalaya where the trail seems to disappear over yonder ridgeand leads somewhere.........


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The Indian Himalaya have attracted geologists, geographers,Trekkers and lovers of nature. They have a strange fascinationfor artists, poets, photographers and mystics. They are aparadise for Trekkers and mountaineers and are the cradle of

thousands of rivers, streams and glaciers.

India trekking arranges trekking tours, mountain biking tour,rafting tours, Jeep safaris tours, and cultural tours in thisinteresting and varied Himalayan region.

Low altitude treks, generally below 3000 m, on easy trails.

Treks on some more difficult itineraries, generally below4500 m. They are suitable for any fit person able to walk 5to 6 hours per day.

High altitude treks (up to 5500 m), often with important

altitude differences in the daily stages. They requirefitness and endurance.

RECOMMENDED TREKKING PROGRAMS

Day by Day Program Duration DifficultyMaximum

altitude

Across Zanskar(Darcha - Lamayuru)

26 days 5090 m

Across Zanskar

(Darcha-Padum)18 days 5090 m

Across Zanskar

(Padum-Lamayuru)18 days 5050 m


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The High Rupshu

Plateau Trek17 days 5300 m

Markha Valley Trek 14 days 5030 m

Gangotri-Goumukh

Trek21 days 4450 m

The Source of the

Ganges Trek25 days 4450 m

Sham and Indus

monasteries Trek15 days 4200 m

Darjeeling and SikkimTrek

17 days 3640 m

Sikkim and

Kanchenjunga Trek20 days 4940 m

Sikkim and

Kanchenjunga Trek23 days 4940 m

From Darjeeling to

Kanchenjunga Trek 23 days 4940 m

Mountaineering

Mountaineering or mountain climbing isthe sport, hobby or profession ofhiking, skiing,and climbingmountains. While mountaineering began asattempts to reach the highest point of unclimbed big mountainsit has branched into specializations that address differentaspects of the mountain and consists of three areas: rock-craft,snow-craft and skiing, depending on whether the route chosenis over rock, snow or ice. All require experience, athletic ability,

and technical knowledge to maintain safety.[2]


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Mountaineering is often called Alpinism, especially inEuropean languages, which implies climbing with difficulty suchhigh mountains as the Alps. A mountaineer with such great skillis called an Alpinist. The word alpinism was born in the 19th

century to refer to climbing for the purpose of enjoyingclimbing itself as a sport or recreation, distinct from merelyclimbing while hunting or as a religious pilgrimage that hadbeen done generally at that time.[3]

The UIAA or Union Internationale des Associationsd'Alpinisme is the world governing body in mountaineering andclimbing, addressing issues like access, medical, mountain

protection, safety, youth and ice climbing.[4]

Technique

Climbers descending the ridge of Aiguille du Midi (France)

Snow

Compacted snow conditions allow mountaineers to progress onfoot. Frequently crampons are required to travel efficiently oversnow and ice. Crampons have 8-14 spikes and are attached to

a mountaineer's boots. They are used on hard snow (neve) and


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ice to provide additional traction. Using various techniquesfrom alpine skiing and mountaineering to ascend/descend amountain is a form of the sport by itself, called skimountaineering. Ascending and descending a snow slope safely

requires the use of an ice axe and many different footworktechniques that have been developed over the past century,mainly in Europe. The progression of footwork from the lowestangle slopes to the steepest terrain is first to splay the feet to arising traverse, to kicking steps, to front pointing the crampons.

The progression of ice axe technique from the lowest angleslopes to the steepest terrain is to use the ice axe first as awalking stick, then a stake, then to use the front pick as adagger below the shoulders or above, and finally to swingingthe pick into the slope over the head. These various techniquesmay involve questions of differing ice-axe design depending onterrain, and even whether a mountaineer uses one or two iceaxes. Anchors for the rope in snow are sometimes unreliable,and include the snow stakes, called pickets, deadmandevicescalled flukes which are fashioned from aluminium, or devisedfrom buried objects that might include an ice axe, skis, rocks orother objects.Bollards, which are simply carved out ofconsolidated snow or ice, also sometimes serve as anchors.

Glaciers

When travelling over glaciers, crevasses pose a grave danger.These giant cracks in the ice are not always visible as snow canbe blown and freeze over the top to make a snowbridge. Attimes snowbridges can be as thin as a few inches. Climbers usea system of ropes to protect themselves from such hazards.Basic gear for glacier travel includes crampons and ice axes.

Teams of two to five climbers tie into a rope equally spaced. If aclimber begins to fall the other members of the team performa self-arrest to stop the fall. The other members of the teamenact a crevasse rescue to pull the fallen climber from thecrevasse.

Ice


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Ice climbing

Multiple methods are used to safely travel over ice. If theterrain is steep but not vertical, then the lead climber canplace ice screws in the ice and attach the rope for protection.Each climber on the team must clip past the anchor, and thelast climber picks up the anchor itself. Occasionally, slingedicicles or bollards are also used. This allows for safety shouldthe entire team be taken off their feet. This technique is knownas Simul-climbing and is sometimes also used on steep snowand easy rock.

If the terrain becomes too steep, standard iceclimbing techniques are used in which each climber is belayed,moving one at a time.

Shelter

"Basecamp" redirects here. For the online project manager,

see Basecamp (software). For the live music service,

see Basecamp Productions.

Climbers use a few different forms of shelter depending on thesituation and conditions. Shelter is a very important aspect of

safety for the climber as the weather in the mountains may be


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very unpredictable. Tall mountains may require many days ofcamping on the mountain.

Base Camp

The "Base Camp" of a mountain is an area used for staging anattempt at the summit. Base camps are positioned to be safefrom the harsher conditions above. There are base camps onmany popular or dangerous mountains. Where the summitcannot be reached from base camp in a single day, a mountainwill have additional camps above base camp. For example,the southeast ridge route on Mount Everest has BaseCamp plus (normally) camps I through IV.

Hut

The European alpine regions, in particular, have a networkofmountain huts (called "refuges" in France, "rifugi" in Italy,"cabanes" in Switzerland, "Htten" in Germany and Austria,"Bothies" in Scotland, "koa" in Slovenia, "chaty" in Slovakia,"refugios" in Spain, "hytte" or "koie" in Norway, and "cabane" in

Romanian). Such huts exist at many different heights, includingin the high mountains themselves in extremely remote areas,more rudimentary shelters may exist. The mountain huts are ofvarying size and quality, but each is typically centred on acommunal dining room and have dormitories equipped withmattresses, blankets or duvets, and pillows; guests areexpected to bring and to use their own sleeping bag liner. Thefacilities are usually rudimentary but, given their locations, huts

offer vital shelter, make routes more widely accessible (byallowing journeys to be broken and reducing the weight ofequipment needing to be carried), and offer good value. InEurope, all huts are staffed during the summer (mid-June tomid-September) and some are staffed in the spring (mid-Marchto mid-May). Elsewhere, huts may also be open in the fall. Hutsalso may have a part that is always open, but unmanned, a so-called winter hut. When open and manned, the huts are

generally run by full-time employees, but some are staffed on avoluntary basis by members of Alpine clubs (such as Swiss


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Alpine Club and Club alpin franais) or in North Americaby Alpine Club of Canada. The manager of the hut, termed aguardian or warden in Europe, will usually also sellrefreshments and meals; both to those visiting only for the day

and to those staying overnight. The offering is surprisinglywide; given that most supplies, often including fresh water,must be flown in by helicopter, and may include glucose-basedsnacks (such as Mars and Snickers bars) on which climbers andwalkers wish to stock up, cakes and pastries made at the hut, avariety of hot and cold drinks (including beer and wine), andhigh carbohydrate dinners in the evenings. Not all huts offer acatered service, though, and visitors may need to provide forthemselves. Some huts offer facilities for both, enabling visitorswishing to keep costs down to bring their own food and cookingequipment and to cater using the facilities provided. Bookingfor overnight stays at huts is deemed obligatory, and in manycases is essential as some popular huts; even with more than100 bed spaces may be full during good weather and atweekends. Once made, the cancellation of a reservation isadvised as a matter of courtesy and, indeed, potentially ofsafety, as many huts keep a record of where climbers andwalkers state they planned to walk to next. Most huts may becontacted by telephone and most take credit cards as a meansof payment. In the UK the term Hut is used for any cottage orcabin used as a base for walkers or climbers and these aremostly owned by mountaineering clubs for use by members orvisiting clubs and generally do not have wardens or permanantstaff, but have cooking and washing facilities and heating. Inthe Scottish Highlands small simple unmanned shelters withoutcooking facilities known as Bothies are maintained to break upcross country long routes and act as base camps to certainmountains.

Bivouac (bivy or bivvy)

Main article: Bivouac shelter


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In the mountaineering context, a bivouac or "biv(v)y" is amakeshift resting or sleeping arrangement in which the climberhas less than the full complement of shelter, food andequipment that would normally be present at a conventional

campsite. This may involve simply getting a sleeping bagand Bivouac sack/bivvy bag and lying down to sleep. Typicallybivvy bags are made from breathable waterproof membranes,which move moisture away from the climber into the outsideenvironment while preventing outside moisture from enteringthe bag. Many times small partially sheltered areas such asa bergschrund, cracks in rocks or a trench dug in the snow areused to provide additional shelter from wind. These techniqueswere originally used only in emergency; however someclimbers steadfastly committed to alpine style climbingspecifically plan for bivouacs in order to save the weight of atent when suitable snow conditions or time is unavailable forconstruction of a snow cave. The principal hazard associatedwith bivouacs is the greater level of exposure to cold and theelements.

Tent

Night Camp at Mount Whitney

Tents are the most common form of shelter used on themountain. These may vary from simple tarps to much heavierdesigns intended to withstand harsh mountain conditions. Inexposed positions, windbreaks of snow or rock may be requiredto shelter the tent. One of the downsides to tenting is that highwinds and snow loads can be dangerous and may ultimately


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lead to the tent's failure and collapse. In addition, the constantflapping of the tent fabric can hinder sleep and raise doubtsabout the security of the shelter. When choosing a tent,alpinists tend to rely on specialised mountaineering tents that

are specifically designed for high winds and moderate to heavysnow loads. Tent stakes can be buried in the snow ("deadman")for extra security.

Snow cave

Snow Cave on Mount Hood

Where conditions permit snow caves are another way to shelterhigh on the mountain. Some climbers do not use tents at highaltitudes unless the snow conditions do not allow for snowcaving, since snow caves are silent and much warmer thantents. They can be built relatively easily, given sufficient time,using a snow shovel. A correctly made snow cave will hoveraround freezing, which relative to outside temperatures can bevery warm. They can be dug anywhere where there is at leastfour feet of snow. The addition of a good quality bivvy bag andclosed cell foam sleeping mat will also increase the warmth ofthe snow cave. Another shelter that works well is a quinzee,which is excavated from a pile of snow that has been workhardened or sintered (typically by stomping). Igloos are used bysome climbers, but are deceptively difficult to build and requirespecific snow conditions.

Hazards


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Climbing over a Crevasse Bridge

Mountaineering is considered to be one of the most dangerousactivities in the world. Loss of life is not uncommon on most

major extreme altitude mountaineering destinations everyyear. Dangers in mountaineering are sometimes divided intotwo categories: objective hazards that exist without regard tothe climber's presence, like rockfall, avalanches and inclementweather, and subjective hazards that relate only to factorsintroduced by the climber. Equipment failure and falls due toinattention, fatigue or inadequate technique are examples ofsubjective hazards. A route continually swept by avalanches

and storms is said to have a high level of objective danger,whereas a technically far more difficult route that is relativelysafe from these dangers may be regarded as objectively safer.

In all, mountaineers must concern themselves with dangers:falling rocks, falling ice, snow-avalanches, the climber falling,falls from ice slopes, falls down snow slopes, falls intocrevasses and the dangers from altitude and weather.[5] To

select and follow a route using one's skills and experience tomitigate these dangers is to exercise the climber's craft.

Falling rocks


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Climbing a steep rocky cliff

Every rock mountain is slowly disintegrating due to erosion, theprocess being especially rapid above the snow-line. Rock faces

are constantly swept by falling stones, which may be possibleto dodge. Falling rocks tend to form furrows in a mountain face,and these furrows (couloirs) have to be ascended with caution,their sides often being safe when the middle is stoneswept.Rocks fall more frequently on some days than on others,according to the recent weather. Ice formed during the nightmay temporarily bind rocks to the face but warmth of the dayor lubricating water from melting snow or rain may easily

dislodge these rocks. Local experience is a valuable help ondetermining typical rock fall on such routes.

The direction of the dip of rock strata sometimes determinesthe degree of danger on a particular face; the character of therock must also be considered. Where stones fall frequentlydebris will be found below, whilst on snow slopes falling stonescut furrows visible from a great distance. In planning an ascentof a new peak or an unfamiliar route, mountaineers must lookfor such traces. When falling stones get mixed in considerable


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quantity with slushy snow or water a mud avalanche is formed(common in the Himalayas). It is vital to avoid camping in theirpossible line of fall.

Falling ice

The places where ice may fall can always be determinedbeforehand. It falls in the broken parts of glaciers (seracs) andfrom overhanging cornices formed on the crests of narrowridges. Large icicles are often formed on steep rock faces, andthese fall frequently in fine weather following cold and stormydays. They have to be avoided like falling stones. Seracs areslow in formation, and slow in arriving (by glacier motion) at acondition of unstable equilibrium. They generally fall in or justafter the hottest part of the day. A skillful and experienced ice-man will usually devise a safe route through a most intricateice-fall, but such places should be avoided in the afternoon of ahot day. Hanging glaciers (i.e. glaciers perched on steepslopes) often discharge themselves over steep rock-faces, thesnout breaking off at intervals. They can always be detected bytheir debris below. Their track should be avoided.

Falls from rocks

A rock climber's skill is shown by their choice of handhold andfoothold, and their adhesion to the holds once chosen. Muchdepends on the ability to estimate the capability of the rock tosupport the weight placed on it. Many loose rocks are quite firmenough to bear a person's weight, but experience is needed to

know which can be trusted, and skill is required in transferringthe weight to them without jerking. On rotten rocks the ropemust be handled with special care, lest it should dislodge loosestones on to those below. Similar care must be given tohandholds and footholds, for the same reason. When ahorizontal traverse has to be made across very difficult rocks, adangerous situation may arise unless at both ends of thetraverse there are firm positions. Mutual assistance on hard

rocks takes all manner of forms: two, or even three, peopleclimbing on one another's shoulders, or using an ice


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axe propped up by others for a foothold. The great principle isthat of co-operation, all the members of the party climbing withreference to the others, and not as independent units; eachwhen moving must know what the climber in front and the one

behind are doing. After bad weather steep rocks are oftenfound covered with a veneer of ice (verglas), which may evenrender them inaccessible. Crampons are useful on suchoccasions.

Avalanches

Main article:Avalanche

Triple Avalanches on Mt. Index

Every year, 120 to 150 people die in small avalanches in theAlps alone. The vast majority of Alpine victims are reasonablyexperienced male skiers aged 2035 but also include skiinstructors and guides.[citation needed] However a significant number

of climbers are killed in Scottish avalanches often on descentand often triggered by the victims. There is always a lot ofpressure to risk a snow crossing. Turning back takes a lot ofextra time and effort, supreme leadership, and mostimportantly there is seldom an avalanche that proves the rightdecision was made. Making the decision to turn around isespecially hard if others are crossing the slope, but any nextperson could become the trigger.


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There are many types of avalanche, but two types are of themost concern. These are Snow Avalanches and IceAvalanches:

Snow Avalanches

Slab avalanche

This type of avalanche occurs when a plate of snow breaksloose and starts sliding downhill; these are the largest and mostdangerous.

Hard slab avalanche

This type of avalanche is formed by hard-packed snow in acohesive slab. The slab will not break up easily as it slides downthe hill, resulting in large blocks tumbling down the mountain.

Soft slab avalanche

This type of avalanche is formed again by a cohesive layer ofsnow bonded together, the slab tends to break up more easily.

Loose snow avalancheThis type of avalanche is triggered by a small amount ofmoving snow that accumulates into a big slide. Also known as a"wet slide or point release" avalanche. This type of avalanche isdeceptively dangerous as it can still knock a climber or skier offtheir feet and bury them, or sweep them over a cliff into aterrain trap.

Dangerous slides are most likely to occur on the same slopespreferred by many skiers: long and wide open, few trees orlarge rocks, 30 to 45 degrees of angle, large load of fresh snow,soon after a big storm, on a slope "lee to the storm". Solarradiation can trigger slides as well. These will typically be apoint release or wet slough type of avalanche. The addedweight of the wet slide can trigger a slab avalanche. Ninetypercent of reported victims are caught in avalanches triggered

by themselves or others in their group.[citation needed]


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Ice Avalanches are a hazard that exists in glaciated mountainranges. They are caused by the collapse of unstable ice blocksfrom a steep or overhanging part of a glacier, referred to asahanging glacier. Due to the fact that they are part of a glacier,

ice avalanches can have large amounts of rock in them. Iceavalanches are quite dangerous because they can travel longdistances, sometimes as far as 8 km out onto the glacier valleyfloor. Ice avalanches are a common everyday occurrence inranges such as the Alaska Range, Saint Elias Mountains,or Columbia Icefield.

When going off-piste or travelling in alpine terrain, parties are

advised to always carry:avalanche beacon

probe

shovel (retrieving victims with a shovel instead of hands is fivetimes faster)[citation needed]

They are also advised to have had avalanche training.

Ironically, expert skiers who have avalanche training make up alarge percentage of avalanche fatalities; perhaps because theyare the ones more likely to ski in areas prone to avalanches,and certainly because most people do not practice enough withtheir equipment to be truly fast and efficient rescuers. [citationneeded]

Even with proper rescue equipment and training, there is a one-

in-five chance of dying if caught in a significant avalanche, andonly a 50/50 chance of being found alive if buried more than afew minutes. The best solution is to learn how to avoid riskyconditions.[citation needed]

Ice slopes


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Mountaineers descending mixed rock, snow and ice slope inwinter High Tatras.

For travel on slopes consisting of ice or hard

snow, crampons are a standard part of a mountaineer'sequipment. While step-cutting can sometimes be used on snowslopes of moderate angle, this can be a slow and tiring process,which does not provide the higher security of crampons.However, in soft snow or powder, crampons are easilyhampered by balling of snow, which reduces theireffectiveness. In either case, an ice axe not only assists withbalance but provides the climber with the possibility of self-

arrest in case of a slip or fall. On a true ice slope however, anice axe is rarely able to effect a self-arrest. As an additionalsafety precaution on steep ice slopes, the climbing rope isattached to ice screws buried into the ice.

Snow slopes

Part of the Haute Route between Franceand Switzerland; twoalpinists can be seen following the trail in the snow.


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Snow slopes are very common, and usually easy to ascend. Atthe foot of a snow or ice slope is generally a big crevasse,called a bergschrund, where the final slope of the mountainrises from a snow-field or glacier. Such bergschrunds are

generally too wide to be stepped across, and must be crossedby a snow bridge, which needs careful testing and apainstaking use of the rope. A steep snow slope in badcondition may be dangerous, as the whole body of snow maystart as an avalanche. Such slopes are less dangerous ifascended directly, rather than obliquely, for an oblique orhorizontal track cuts them across and facilitates movement ofthe mass. New snow lying on ice is especially dangerous.Experience is needed for determining the feasibility ofadvancement over snow in doubtful condition. Snow on rocks isusually rotten unless it is thick; snow on snow is likely to besound. A day or two of fine weather will usually bring new snowinto sound condition. Snow cannot lie at a very steep angle,though it often deceives the eye as to its slope. Snow slopesseldom exceed 40. Ice slopes may be much steeper. Snowslopes in early morning are usually hard and safe, but the samein the afternoon are quite soft and possibly dangerous; hencethe advantage of an early start.

Crevasses

Crevasses on Mount Baker

Crevasses are the slits or deep chasms formed in the substanceof a glacier as it passes over an uneven bed. They may be openor hidden. In the lower part of a glacier the crevasses are open.


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Above the snow-line they are frequently hidden by arched-overaccumulations of winter snow. The detection of hiddencrevasses requires care and experience. After a fresh fall ofsnow they can only be detected by sounding with the pole of

the ice axe, or by looking to right and left where the openextension of a partially hidden crevasse may be obvious. Thesafeguard against accident is the rope, and no one should evercross a snow-covered glacier unless roped to one, or evenbetter to two companions. Anyone venturing onto crevassesshould be trained increvasse rescue.

Weather

Lenticular Cloud before Bad Weather

Sun Beams in the Valley

The primary dangers caused by bad weather centre around thechanges it causes in snow and rock conditions, makingmovement suddenly much more arduous and hazardous thanunder normal circumstances.

Whiteouts make it difficult to retrace a route while rain mayprevent taking the easiest line only determined as such under


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dry conditions. In a storm the mountaineer who usesa compass for guidance has a great advantage over a merelyempirical observer. In large snow-fields it is, of course, easier togo wrong than on rocks, but intelligence and experience are the

best guides in safely navigating objective hazards.

Summer thunderstorms may produce intense lightning.[5] If aclimber happens to be standing on or near the summit, theyrisk being struck. There are many cases where people havebeen struck by lightning while climbing mountains. In mostmountainous regions, local storms develop by late morning andearly afternoon. Many climbers will get an "alpine start"; that is

before or by first light so as to be on the way down whenstorms are intensifying in activity and lightning and otherweather hazards are a distinct threat to safety. High winds canspeed the onset ofhypothermia, as well as damage equipmentsuch as tents used for shelter.[5][6] Under certain conditions,storms can also create waterfalls which can slow or stopclimbing progress. A notable example is the Fhn wind actingupon the Eiger.

Altitude

Rapid ascent can lead to altitude sickness.[5][7] The besttreatment is to descend immediately. The climber's motto athigh altitude is "climb high, sleep low", referring to the regimenof climbing higher to acclimatise but returning to lowerelevation to sleep. In the South American Andes, the chewingofcoca leaves has been traditionally used to treat altitude

sickness symptoms.

Common symptoms of altitude sickness include severeheadache, sleep problems, nausea, lack of appetite, lethargyand body ache. Mountain sickness may progress to HACE (HighAltitude Cerebral Edema) and HAPE (High Altitude PulmonaryEdema), both of which can be fatal within 24 hours.[5][7][8]

In high mountains, atmospheric pressure is lower and this

means that less oxygen is available to breathe.[5] This is the


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underlying cause of altitude sickness. Everyone needs toacclimatise, even exceptional mountaineers that have been tohigh altitude before.[9] Generally speaking, mountaineers startusing bottled oxygen when they climb above 7,000 m.

Exceptional mountaineers have climbed 8000-metrepeaks (including Everest) without oxygen, almost always with acarefully planned program of acclimatisation.

Solar radiation

Solar radiation increases significantly as the atmosphere getsthinner with increasing altitude thereby absorbingless ultraviolet radiation.[5][6] Snow cover reflecting the radiationcan amplify the effects by up to 75% increasing the risks anddamage from sunburn and snow blindness.[6]

In 2005, researcher and mountaineer John Semple establishedthat above-average ozone concentrations on theTibetanPlateau may pose an additional risk to climbers.[10]

Volcanic activity

Some mountains are active volcanoes as in the case of themany stratovolcanoes that form the highest peaks in islandarcs and in parts of the Andes. Some of these volcanicmountains may cause several hazards if they erupt, suchas lahars, pyroclastic flows, rockfalls, lava flows,heavy tephra fall, volcanic bomb ejections and toxic gases.

Styles of mountaineering

There are two main styles of mountaineering: Expeditionstyle and Alpine style.

A mountaineer who adopts Alpine style is referred to asan Alpine Mountaineer. Alpine Mountaineers are typicallyfound climbing in medium-sized glaciated mountain areas suchas the Alps orRocky Mountains. Medium-sized generally refersto altitudes in the intermediate altitude (7,000' to 12,000') and

first half ofhigh altitude (12,000' to 18,000') ranges. However,alpine style ascents have been done throughout history


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on extreme altitude (18,000' to 29,000') peaks also, albeit inlower volume to expedition style ascents. Alpine style refers toa particular style of mountain climbing that involves a mixtureof snow climbing, ice climbing, rock climbing, and glacier travel,

where climbers generally single carry their loads betweencamps, in a single push for the summit. Light and fast is themantra of the Alpine Mountaineer.

The term alpine style contrasts with expedition style (ascommonly undertaken in the Himalayan region or other largeranges of the world), which could be viewed as slow and heavy,where climbers may use porters, pack animals, glacier

airplanes, cooks, multiple carries between camps, usage offixed lines etc. A mountaineer who adopts this style of climbingis referred to as anExpedition Mountaineer. Expeditionmountaineers still employ the skill sets of the alpinemountaineer, except they have to deal with even higheraltitudes, expanded time scale, longer routes, foreign logistics,more severe weather, and additional skills unique toexpeditionary climbing. The prevalence of expedition style

climbing in the Himalaya is largely a function of the nature ofthe mountains in the region. Because Himalayan base campscan take days or weeks to trek to, and Himalayan mountainscan take weeks or perhaps even months to climb, a largenumber of personnel and amount of supplies are necessary.

This is why expedition style climbing is frequently used on largeand isolated peaks in the Himalaya. In Europe and NorthAmerica there is less of a need for expedition style climbing on

most medium-sized mountains. These mountains can often beeasily accessed by car or air, are at a lower altitude and can beclimbed in a shorter time scale. Expedition stylemountaineering can be found in the larger high altitude andextreme altitude North American ranges such as the AlaskaRange and Saint Elias Mountains. These remotemountaineering destinations can require up to a 2 week trek byfoot, just to make it to base camp. Most expeditions in these

regions choose a glacier flight to basecamp. Route length in


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days from basecamp can vary in these regions, typically from10 days to 1 month during the climbing season. Wintermountaineering on major peaks in these ranges can generallyconsume between 30 to 60 days depending on the route, and

can generally only be tackled via expedition stylemountaineering during this season.

The differences between, and advantages and disadvantagesof, the two kinds of climbing are as follows:[2]

Expedition style

uses multiple trips between camps to carry supplies up to

higher camps

group sizes are often larger than alpine style climbs becausemore supplies are carried between camps

fixed lines are often used to minimize the danger involved incontinually moving between camps

supplemental oxygen is frequently used

higher margin of safety in relation to equipment, food, time,and ability to wait out storms at high camps

avoidance of being trapped in storms at high altitudes andbeing forced to descend in treacherous avalanche conditions

possible higher exposure to objective hazards such asavalanches or rockfall, due to slower travel times betweencamps

higher capital expenditures

longer time scale

Alpine style

climbers only climb the route once because they do notcontinually climb up and down between camps with supplies


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fewer supplies are used on the climb therefore fewer personnelare needed

alpine style ascents do not leave the climber exposed to

objective hazards as long as an expedition style climb does;however, because of the speed of the ascent relative to anexpedition style climb there is less time for acclimatization

supplemental oxygen is not used

danger of being trapped at high altitude due to storms,potentially being exposed to HAPE or HACE

lower capital expenditures

shorter time scale

Locations

Mountaineering has become a popular sport throughout theworld. In Europe the sport largely originated in the Alps, and isstill immensely popular there. Other notable mountain rangesfrequented by climbers include the Caucasus,

the Pyrenees, Rila mountains, theTatraMountains and Carpathian Mountains. In North Americaclimbers frequent the Rocky Mountains, the SierraNevada ofCalifornia, the Cascades of the Pacific Northwest, thehigh peaks of The Alaska Range and Saint Elias Mountains.

There has been a long tradition of climbers going onexpeditions to the Greater Ranges, a term generally used for

the Andes and the high peaks of Asia includingthe Himalayas, Karakoram,Hindu Kush, Pamir Mountains,TienShan and Kunlun Mountains. The Poles with a strong trackrecord in high mountains, call climbing in the Himalayas andKarakoram - himalaism. In the past this was often onexploratory trips or to make first ascents. With the advent ofcheaper, long-haul air travel, mountaineering holidays in theGreater Ranges are now undertaken much more frequently and

ascents of even Everest and Vinson Massif(the highestmountain in Antarctica) are offered as a "package holiday".


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Other mountaineering areas of interest include the SouthernAlps ofNew Zealand, the Coast Mountains ofBritish Columbia,the Scottish Highlands, and the mountains ofScandinavia,especiallyNorway.

History

Fannie Bullock Workman made ascents into the Himalayas atthe turn of the 20th century.

Though it is unknown whether his intention was to reach asummit, "tzi the Iceman" ascended at least 3,210 metres(10,530 ft) in the Alps about 5,300 years ago. His remains werefound at that altitude, preserved in a glacier.

The first recorded mountain ascent in the Common Era isRoman Emperor Hadrian's ascent ofEtna (3,350 m) to see thesun rise in 121.

Peter III of Aragon climbed Canigou in the Pyrenees in the lastquarter of the 13th century.

The first ascent of the Popocatpetl (5,426 m in Mexico) wasreported in 1289 by members of a local tribe (Tecanuapas)[citation

needed]


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Jean Buridan climbed Mont Ventoux around 1316.[11]

The Italian poet Petrarch wrote that on April 26, 1336 he,together with his brother and two servants, climbed to the top

ofMont Ventoux (1,909 m). His account of the trip wascomposed later as a letter to his friend Dionigi di Borgo SanSepolcro.[12]

The Rocciamelone (3,538 m) in the Italian Alps was climbed in1358.

In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, ascents were made ofnumerous high peaks in the Andes, for religious purposes by

the citizens of the Inca Empire and their subjects. Theyconstructed platforms, houses and altars on many summits andcarried out sacrifices, including human sacrifices. The highestpeak they are known for certain to have climbedis Llullaillaco (6,739 m). They may also have ascended thehighest peak in the Andes,Aconcagua (6,962 m) as a sacrificevictim has been found at over 5,000 m on this peak.[13]

In 1492 the ascent ofMont Aiguille was made by orderofCharles VIII of France. The Humanists of the 16th centuryadopted a new attitude towards mountains, but the disturbedstate of Europe nipped in the bud the nascent mountaineeringof the Zurich school.

Leonardo da Vinci climbed to a snow-field in the neighborhoodofMonte Rosa and made scientific observations.

in 1573, Francesco De Marchi reached the summit ofGranSasso (2912m) in central Italy.

In 1642 Darby Field made the first recorded ascent ofMountWashington, then known as Agiocochook, in New Hampshire.

Konrad Gesner andJosias Simmler ofZurich visited anddescribed mountains, and made regular ascents. The use oficeaxe and rope were locally invented at this time. No mountain

expeditions of note are recorded in the 17th century.


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Richard Pococke and William Windham's historic visitto Chamonix was made in 1741, and set the trend forvisiting glaciers.

The first attempt to ascend Mont Blanc was made in 1775 by aparty of natives. In 1786 Dr Michel-Gabriel Paccard andJacquesBalmat gained the summit for the first time. Horace-Bndictde Saussure, the initiator of the first ascent followed next year.

The Norwegian mountain climber,Jens Esmark was the firstperson to ascend Snhetta in 1798, part of the Dovrefjellrange in Southern Norway. The same year he led the firstexpedition toBitihorn, a small mountain in the southernmostoutskirts ofJotunheimen, Norway. In 1810 he was the firstperson to ascend Mount Gaustatoppen inTelemark, Norway.

The Grossglockner was climbed in 1800, the Ortler in 1804,theJungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812, andthe Breithorn in 1813. Thereafter, tourists showed a tendencyto climb, and the body of Alpine guides began to come intoexistence as a consequence.

The British scientist, SirJohn Herschel, makes an ascent in1824 where on July 23 he carries out a barometricdetermination of the height ofMount Etna.

Citlaltpetl (5720 m in Mexico) was first climbed in 1848 by F.Maynard & G. Reynolds.


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Mountaineers, circa 1900

Systematic mountaineering, as a sport, is usually dated from

Sir Alfred Wills's ascent of the Wetterhorn in 1854. The firstascent ofMonte Rosawas made in 1855.

The Alpine Club was founded in London in 1857, and was soonimitated in most European countries. Edward Whymper'sascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 marked the close of the mainperiod of Alpine conquest, the Golden age of alpinism, duringwhich the craft of climbing was "invented" and "perfected", the

body of professional guides formed and their traditions fixed.Passing to other ranges, the exploration of the Pyrenees wasconcurrent with that of the Alps. The Caucasus followed, mainlyowing to the initiative ofD. W. Freshfield; it was first visited byexploring climbers in 1868, and most of its great peaks wereclimbed by 1888.

The Edelweiss Club Salzburg was founded in Salzburg in 1881.

Eventually 3 of its members made the first ascent on two Eight-thousanders, Broad Peak (1957) and Dhaulagiri (1960).


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Trained climbers turned their attention to the mountainsofNorth America in 1888, when the Rev. W. S. Green made anexpedition to the Selkirk Mountains. From that time explorationhas gone on apace, and many English and American climbing

parties have surveyed most of the highest peaks; PikesPeak (14,110 ft) having been climbed by Mr. E. James and partyin 1820, and Mt. Saint Elias (18,008 ft) by the Duke of theAbruzziand party in 1897. The exploration of thehighest Andes was begun in 1879-1880, when Whymperclimbed Chimborazo and explored the mountains ofEcuador.

The Cordillera between Chile and Argentina was visited by Dr.Gussfeldt in 1883, who ascended Maipo (17,270 ft) andattemptedAconcagua (22,841 ft). That peak was first climbedby the Fitzgerald expedition in 1897.

New Zealand's Southern Alps were first visited in 1882 by theRev. W. S. Green, and shortly afterwards a New Zealand AlpineClub was founded, and by their activities the exploration of therange was pushed forward. In 1895, Major Edward ArthurFitzgerald, made an important journey in this range. Tom Fyfe

and party climbed Aoraki / Mount Cook on Christmas Day 1894,denying Fitzgerald the first ascent. Fitzgerald was en routefrom Britain with Swiss guide Matthias Zurbriggen to claim thepeak. So piqued at being beaten to the top of Mount Cook, herefused to climb it and concentrated on other peaks in the area.Later in the trip Zurbriggen soloed Mount Cook up a ridge thatnow bears his name.

Of the high African peaks, Mount Kilimanjaro was climbed in1889 by Ludwig Purtscheller and Hans Meyer, Mt. Kenya in1899 by Halford Mackinder,[14] and a peak ofRuwenzori by H. J.Moore in 1900.

The Asiatic mountains were initially surveyed on orders ofthe British Empire. In 1892 Sir William Martin Conway exploredthe KarakoramHimalaya, and climbed a peak of 23,000 ft(7,000 m) In 1895 Albert F. Mummery died while

attempting Nanga Parbat, while in 1899 D. W. Freshfield took


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an expedition to the snowy regions ofSikkim. In 1899, 1903,1906 and 1908 Mrs Fannie Bullock Workman made ascents inthe Himalayas, including one of the Nun Kun peaks (23,300 ft).A number ofGurkha sepoys were trained as expert

mountaineers by Major the Hon. C. G. Bruce, and a good deal ofexploration was accomplished by them.

The Sierra Club was founded byJohn Muir in SanFrancisco, California in 1892.[15]

The first mountains of the arctic region explored were thoseofSpitsbergen by Sir W. M. Conway's expeditions in 1896 and1897.

Aconcagua (22,831 feet), the highest peak of the Andes wasfirst climbed in 1897 and the Grand Teton (13,747 feet)in NorthAmerica's Rocky Mountains was ascended in 1898.

The Italian Duke of the Abruzzi in 1897 made the first ascenton Mount Saint Elias (18,009 feet) which stands at theboundary of Alaska and Canada and in 1906 successfully

climbedMargherita in the Ruwenzori group (16,795 feet) in EastAfrica.

The Andes ofBolivia were first explored by Sir William MartinConway in 1898. Chilean and Argentine expeditions revealedthe structure of the southern Cordillera in the years 1885-1898.Conway visited the mountains ofTierra del Fuego.

The Rucksack Club was founded in Manchester, England in

1902.The American Alpine Club was founded in 1902.

In 1902, the Eckenstein-Crowley Expedition, led bymountaineer Oscar Eckenstein and author and occultist AleisterCrowley, was the first to attempt to scale Chogo Ri (now knownas K2 in the west). They reached 22,000 feet (6,700 m) beforeturning back due to weather and other mishaps.


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In 1905, Aleister Crowley led the first expeditionto Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world.Four members of that party were killed in an avalanche. Theyprobably turned back at around 6,500 metres (21,300 ft),

though in his autobiography Crowley claimed they reached aworld-record height of 25,000 feet (7,600 m).

In 1913, a party including Hudson Stuck ascended MountMcKinley (20,320 feet) in Alaska, the highest peak in NorthAmerica.

A few Olympics in the 1920s included prizes for alpinism, butthese were discontinued after World War II.[16]

The British made several attempts in the 1920s to climb MountEverest. The first in 1921 was more of an exploratoryexpedition but the 1922 expedition reached 8,320 metres(27,300 ft) before being aborted on the third summit attemptafter seven porters were killed in an avalanche. The 1924expedition saw another height record achieved but still failed toreach the summit whenGeorge Mallory and Andrew

Irvine disappeared on the final attempt.

1938 saw the first ascent of the North Face of the Eiger byAndreas Heckmair, Wiggerl Vorg, Fritz Kasparek and HeinrichHarrer. This route was feted as the "last great problem of theAlps" (one of several).

The 1950s saw the first ascents of all the eight-thousanders buttwo, starting with Annapurna in 1950 by Maurice

Herzog and Louis Lachenal. The world's highest mountain(above mean sea level), Mount Everest (8,848 m) was firstclimbed on May 29, 1953 by Sir Edmund Hillary andTenzingNorgay from the south side in Nepal. Just a few monthslater, Hermann Buhl made the first ascent ofNangaParbat (8,125 m), a siege style expedition culminating in aremarkable solo push for the summit, it's the only eight-thousander to be summited solo on the first

ascent. K2(8,611 m), the second highest peak in the world was


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first scaled in 1954 by Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni.In 1964, the final eight-thousander to be climbedwas Shishapangma(8,013 m), the lowest of all the 8,000 metrepeaks.

1973 - The first winter ascent of a seven-thousander, Noshaq,by Andrzej Zawada andTadeusz Piotrowski.

1980 - The first winter ascent of an eight-thousander, MountEverest, by Krzysztof Wielicki and Leszek Cichy.

Melissa Arnot is the only woman to summit Mount Everest fivetimes.

Bungee jumping

Bungee jumping (/bndi/; also spelt "Bungy" jumping)[1][2] isan activity that involves jumping from a tall structure whileconnected to a large elastic cord. The tall structure is usually a

fixed object, such as a building, bridge or crane; but it is alsopossible to jump from a movable object, such as a hot-air-balloon or helicopter, that has the ability to hover above theground. The thrill comes from the free-falling and the rebound.[3] When the person jumps, the cord stretches and the jumperflies upwards again as the cord recoils, and continues tooscillate up and down until all the energy is dissipated.

History


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View from the top of AJ Hackett Bungy Tower, Cairns,Queensland

The word "bungee" originates from West Country

dialect ofEnglish language, meaning "Anything thick andsquat", as defined by James Jennings in his book "Observationsof Some of the Dialects in The West of England" published1825. Around 1930, the name became used for arubber eraser. The word bungy, as used by A J Hackett, is"Kiwi slang for an Elastic Strap".[4] Cloth-covered rubber cordswith hooks on the ends have been available for decades underthe generic name bungy cords.

In April 1960 BBC Television broadcast a documentary filmTheLand Divers of Pentecost, made by David Attenborough, whichfeatured the "land divers" (Sa: Naghol) ofPentecostIsland in Vanuatu, young men who jumped from tall woodenplatforms with vines tied to their ankles as a test of theircourage and passage into manhood.[5][6] A similar practice, onlywith a much slower pace for falling, has been practised asthe Danza de los Voladores de Papantla or the 'Papantla flyers'of central Mexico, a tradition dating back to the days ofthe Aztecs.

A tower 4,000 feet (1,200 m) high with a system to drop a "car"suspended by a cable of "best rubber" was proposed for theChicago World Fair, 1892-1893. The car, seating two hundredpeople, would be shoved from a platform on the tower and thenbounce to a stop. The designer engineer suggested that for

safety the ground below "be covered with eight feet of featherbedding". The proposal was declined by the Fair's organizers.[7]


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Bungee at Kawarau Bridge

The first modern bungee jumps were made on 1 April 1979

from the 250-foot (76 m) Clifton Suspension Bridge in Bristol,by members of the Oxford UniversityDangerous Sports Club.[8] The jumpers were arrested shortly after, but continued with

jumps in the US from the Golden Gate and Royal Gorge bridges,(this last jump sponsored by and televised onthe American programme That's Incredible) spreading theconcept worldwide. By 1982, they were jumping from mobilecranes and hot air balloons.

Organised commercial bungee jumping began with the NewZealander, A J Hackett, who made his first jumpfrom Auckland's Greenhithe Bridge in 1986.[9] During thefollowing years, Hackett performed a number of jumps frombridges and other structures (including the Eiffel Tower),building public interest in the sport, and opening the world'sfirst permanent commercial bungee site; the Kawarau Bridge

Bungy at Queenstown in the South Island ofNew Zealand.[10] Hackett remains one of the largest commercial operators,with concerns in several countries.

Several million successful jumps have taken place since 1980.This safety record is attributable to bungee operators rigorouslyconforming to standards and guidelines governing jumps, suchas double checking calculations and fittings for every jump. Aswith any sport, injuries can still occur (see below), and there

have been fatalities. A relatively common mistake in fatalitycases is to use a cord that is too long. The cord should besubstantially shorter than the height of thejumping platform toallow it room to stretch. When the cord becomes taut and thenis stretched, the tension in the cord progressively increases.Initially the tension is less than the jumper's weight and the

jumper continues to accelerate downwards. At some point, thetension equals the jumper's weight and the acceleration is

temporarily zero. With further stretching, the jumper has an


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increasing upward acceleration and at some point has zerovertical velocity before recoiling upward. See also Potentialenergy for a discussion of the spring constant and the forcerequired to distort bungee cords and other spring-like objects.

The Bloukrans River Bridge was the first bridge to be 'bungeejumped off' in Africa when Face Adrenalin introduced bungeejumping to the African continent in 1990. Bloukrans BridgeBungy has been operated commercially by Face Adrenalin since1997, and is the highest commercial bridge bungy in the world.[11]

In April 2008 a 37-year-old Durban man, Carl Mosca Dionisio,made bungy jumping history when he jumped off a 30 m(100 ft) tower attached to a bungy cord made entirely of18,500 condoms.[12][13][14][15]

Equipment

Bungee Jump in Normandy, France (Souleuvre Viaduct)

The elastic rope first used in bungee jumping, and still used bymany commercial operators, is factory-produced braided shockcord. This consists of many latex strands enclosed in a tough


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outer cover. The outer cover may be applied when the latex ispre-stressed, so that the cord's resistance to extension isalready significant at the cord's natural length. This gives aharder, sharper bounce. The braided cover also provides

significant durability benefits. Other operators, including A. J.Hackett and most southern-hemisphere operators, useunbraided cords with exposed latex strands (pictured at right).

These give a softer, longer bounce and can be home-produced.

There may be a certain elegance in using only a simple ankleattachment, but accidents where participants became detachedled many commercial operators to use a body harness, if only

as a backup for an ankle attachment. Body harnesses generallyderive from climbing equipment rather than parachuteequipment.

The highest jump

Looking down from atop the Verzasca Dam bungee towernear Locarno inTicino, Switzerland

In August 2005, AJ Hackett added a SkyJump to the MacauTower, making it the world's highest jump at 233 metres(764 ft).[16] The SkyJump did not qualify as the world'shighest bungee as it is not strictly speaking a bungee jump, butinstead what is referred to as a 'Decelerator-Descent' jump,using a steel cable and decelerator system, rather than anelastic rope. On 17 December 2006, the Macau Tower startedoperating a proper bungee jump, which became the "Highest

Commercial Bungee Jump In The World" according to the


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Guinness Book of Records. The Macau Tower Bungy has a"Guide cable" system that limits swing (the jump is very closeto the structure of the tower itself) but does not have any effecton the speed of descent, so this still qualifies the jump for the

World Record.

Another commercial bungee jump currently in operation is just13m smaller, at 220 metres (720 ft). This jump, made withoutguide ropes, is from the top of the Verzasca Dam near Locarno,Switzerland. It appears in the opening scene of theJamesBond film GoldenEye. The Bloukrans Bridge Bungy in SouthAfrica and the Verzasca Dam jumps are pure freefall swinging

bungee from a single cord.Bloukrans Bridge Bungy has been operated by Face Adrenalincommercially since 1997 and uses a pendulum bungee system.It is 216m high, from the platform to the river below.[17] It is thehighest commercial bridge bungy in the world.[11]

Guinness only records jumps from fixed objects to guaranteethe accuracy of the measurement. John Kockleman however

recorded a 2,200-foot (670 m) bungee jump from a hot airballoon in California in 1989. In 1991 Andrew Salisbury jumpedfrom 9,000 feet (2,700 m) from a helicopter over Cancun for atelevision program and with Reebok sponsorship. The fullstretch was recorded at 3,157 feet (962 m). He landed safelyunder parachute.

One commercial jump higher than all others is at the Royal

Gorge Bridge in Colorado. The height of the platform is 321metres (1,053 ft). However, this jump is rarely available, as partof the Royal Gorge Go Fast Gamesfirst in 2005, then again in2007. Previous to this the record was held in West Virginia,USA, by New Zealander Chris Allum, who bungee jumped 823 ft(251m) from the New River Gorge Bridge on "Bridge Day" 1992to set a world's record for the longest bungee jump from a fixedstructure.

In popular culture


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Bungee jumping from theSouleuvre Viaduct inNormandy

Several major movies have featured bungee jumps, mostfamously the opening sequence of the 1995JamesBond film GoldenEye in which Bond makes a jump over theedge of a dam in Russia (in reality the dam isin Switzerland: Verzasca Dam, and the jump was genuine, notan animated special effect). The jump in the dam later makesan appearance as a Roadblock task in the 14th season of the

reality competition series The Amazing Race.It appears in the title of the South Korean film Bungee Jumpingof Their Own (Beonjijeompeureul hada ; 2001),although it does not play a large part in the film.

A fictional proto-bungee jump is a plot point in the MichaelChabon novel The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay.

In the film Selena, in whichJennifer Lopez plays SelenaQuintanilla-Perez, she is shown bungee jumping at a carnival.

This actual event took place shortly before Selena's murder onMarch 31, 1995.

Variations

Catapult

In "Catapult" (Reverse Bungee or Bungee Rocket) the 'jumper'

starts on the ground.[18] The jumper is secured and the cord


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stretched, then released and shooting the jumper up into theair. This is often achieved using either a crane or a hoistattached to a (semi-)perma structure. This simplifies the actionof stretching the cord and later lowering the participant to the

ground.

Twin Tower

"Twin Tower" is similar with two oblique cords. There are twotowers, each with a cord leading the jumper. When the cordsare stretched the jumper is released and shoots straight up.[19]

Trampoline

"Bungy Trampoline" uses, as its name suggests, elements frombungy and trampolining. The participant begins on a trampolineand is fitted into a body harness, which is attached via bungycords to two high poles on either side of the trampoline. Asthey begin to jump, the bungy cords are tightened, allowing ahigher jump than could normally be made from a trampolinealone.

Running

"Bungee Running" involves no jumping as such. It merelyconsists of, as the name suggests, running along a track (ofteninflatable) with a bungee cord attached. One often has a velcro-backed marker that marks how far the runner got before thebungee cord pulled back. This activity can often be found atfairs and carnivals and is often most popular with children.

Ramp

Bungee jumping off a ramp. Two rubber cords - the "bungees" -are tied around the participant's waist to a harness. Thosebungee cords are linked to steel cables along which they canslide due to stainless pulleys. The participants bicycle, sled orski before jumping.

Suspended Catch Air Device


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SCAD diving is similar to bungee jumping in that participant isdropped from a height, but in this variation there is not a cord;instead the participant falls into a net.[20][21]

Safety and possible injury

Jumping at Kawarau Bridge inQueenstown, New Zealand, April2007.

Bungee jumping injuries may be divided into those that occurafter jumping secondary to equipment mishap or tragicaccident, and those that occur regardless of safety measures.In the first instance, injury can happen if the safety harnessfails, the cord elasticity is miscalculated, or the cord is not

properly connected to the jump platform. In 1986 MichaelLush died of multiple injuries after bungee jumping for a stunton a BBC television programmeand in 1997 Laura Patterson,one of a 16-member professional bungee jumping team, died ofmassive cranial trauma when she jumped from the top level ofthe Louisiana Superdome and collided head-first into theconcrete-based playing field. She was practicing for anexhibition intended to be performed during the halftime

show ofSuper Bowl XXXI. In 2002 Chris Thomas died after his


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harness tore off during a charity jump in Swansea, Wales: itwas later claimed that the harness was not safe for his weight.[22] On New Year's Eve 2011, Erin Langworthy, an Australianwoman was plunged into the Zambezi River at Victoria Falls,

where she nearly drowned with her feet still tied together afterher bungee rope snapped during a jump.[23]

Injuries that occur despite safety measures generally relate tothe abrupt rise in upper body intravascular pressure duringbungee cord recoil. Eyesight damage is the most frequentlyreported complication.[24][25][26][27][28][29][30] Impaired eyesightsecondary to retinal haemorrhage may be transient [28] or take

several weeks to resolve.[26]

In one case, a 26 year old woman'seyesight was still impaired after 7 months.[27] Whiplash injuriesmay occur as the jumper is jolted on the bungee cord and in atleast one case, this has led to quadriplegia secondary to abroken neck. Very serious injury can also occur if the jumper'sneck or body gets entangled in the cord. [31] More recently,carotid artery dissection leading to a type of stroke afterbungee jumping has also been described.[32] All of these injuries

have occurred in fit and healthy people in their twenties andthirties. Bungee jumping has also been shown to increasestress and decrease immune function.[33]

Rock climbing is an activity in which participants climb up,down or across natural rock formations or artificial rock walls.

The goal is to reach the summitof a formation or the endpoint

of a pre-defined route without falling. To successfully completea climb you must return to base safely, due to the length andextended endurance required accidents are more likely tohappen on decent than ascent, especially on the larger multiplepitches (class III- IV and /or multi-day grades IV-VI climbs).Rock climbing competitions have objectives of completing theroute in the quickest possible time or the farthest along anincreasingly difficult route. Scrambling, another activity

involving the scaling of hills and similar formations, is similar to


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rock climbing. However, rock climbing is generallydifferentiated by its sustained use of hands to support theclimber's weight as well as to provide balance.

Rock climbing is a physically and mentally demanding sport,one that often tests a climber's strength, endurance, agility andbalance along with mental control. It can be a dangerous sportand knowledge of proper climbing techniques and usage ofspecialised climbing equipment is crucial for the safecompletion of routes. Because of the wide range and variety ofrock formations around the world, rock climbing has beenseparated into several different styles and sub-disciplines.[1]

While not an Olympic event, rock climbing is recognized bythe International Olympic Committee as a sport.

History

Main article: History of rock climbing

Climbing in Germany, circa 1965. Note the lack of intermediateprotection points and the potentially deadly tie-in method,which demonstrate the maxim of the day: "The leader must not

fall."


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Paintings dating from 400 BC show Chinese men rock climbing.In early America, the cliff-dwelling Anasazi in the 12th centurywere thought to be excellent climbers. Early European climbersused rock climbing techniques as a skill required to reach the

summit in their mountaineering exploits. The 1880s sawEuropean rock climbing become an independent pursuit outsidemountain climbing.[2]

Although rock climbing was an important componentof Victorian mountaineering in the Alps, it is generally thoughtthat the sport of rock climbing began in the last quarter of thenineteenth century in various parts of Europe. Rock climbing

evolved gradually from an alpine necessity to a distinct athleticactivity.

Aid climbing, climbing using equipment that acts as artificialhandhold or footholds, became popular during the period 1920-1960, leading to ascents in the Alps and in Yosemite Valley thatwere considered impossible without such means. However,climbing techniques, equipment and ethical considerationshave evolved steadily. Today, free climbing, climbing on holdsmade entirely of natural rock, using gear solely for protectionand not for upward movement, is the most popular form of thesport. Free climbing has since been divided into several sub-styles of climbing dependent on belayconfiguration.

Over time, grading systems have also been created in order tomore accurately compare the relative difficulties of climbs.

StyleIn How to Rock Climb, John Long notes that for moderatelyskilled climbers simply getting to top of a route is not enough,how one gets to the top matters.[3] In rock climbing, style refersto the method of ascending the cliff. There are three mainstyles of climbing: on-sight, flash, and redpoint. To on-sight aroute is to ascend the wall without aid or any foreknowledge. Itis considered the way to climb with the most style. Flashing is

similar to on-sighting, except that the climber has previous


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information about the route including talking about the betawith other climbers. Redpointing means to make a freeascent of the route after having first tried it.[4][5][6]

Types of climbing

Main article: Types of climbing

Most of the climbing done in modern times is considered freeclimbingclimbing using one's own physical strength, withequipment used solely as protection and not as supportasopposed toaid climbing, the gear-dependent form of climbingthat was dominant in the sport's earlier days. Free climbing is

typically divided into several styles that differ from one anotherdepending on the choice of equipment used and theconfigurations of their belay, rope and anchor systems.

As routes get higher off the ground, the increased risk of life-threatening injuries necessitates additional safety measures. Avariety of specialized climbing techniques and climbingequipmentexists to provide that safety. Climbers will usually

work in pairs and utilize a system of ropesand anchors designed to catch falls. Ropes and anchors can beconfigured differently to suit many styles of climbing, androped climbing is thus divided into further sub-types that varybased on how their belay systems are set up. Generallyspeaking, beginners will start with top roping and/oreasy bouldering and work their way up to lead climbing andbeyond.

Aid climbing

Main article: Aid climbing

Still the most popular method of climbing big walls, aidclimbers make progress up a wall by repeatedly placing andweighting gear which is used directly to aid ascent andenhance safety.

Free climbing


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Main article: Free climbing

The most commonly used method to ascend climbs refers toclimbs where the climber's own physical strength and skill are

relied on to accomplish the climb. Free climbing may rely ontop rope belay systems, or on lead climbing to establishprotection and the belay stations. Anchors, ropes andprotection are used to back up the climber and are passive asopposed to active ascending aids. Subtypes of free climbingare trad climbing and sport climbing. Free climbing is generallydone as "clean lead" meaning no pitons or pins are used asprotection.[7]

Bouldering

Bouldering in Joshua Tree National Park,United States.

Main article: Bouldering

Climbing on short, low routes without the use of the safety ropethat is typical of most other styles. Protection, if used at all,typically consists of a cushioned bouldering pad below the

route and a spotting, a person who watches from below anddirects the fall of the climber away from hazardous areas.Bouldering may be an arena for intense and relatively safecompetition, resulting in exceptionally high difficulty standards.

Solo climbing

Main article: Solo climbing

Deep-water soloing (DWS)


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Main article: Deep-water soloing

Similar to free soloing in that the climber is unprotected andwithout a rope, but different in that if the climber falls, it is into

deep water instead of on to the ground.Free soloing

Main article: Free soloing

Free soloing is single-person climbing without the use of anyrope or protection system whatsoever. If a fall occurs and theclimber is not over water (as in the case of deep water soloing),the climber is likely to be killed or seriously injured. Thoughtechnically similar to bouldering, free solo climbing typicallyrefers to routes that are far taller and/or far more lethal thanbouldering. The term "highball" is used to refer to climbing onthe boundary between soloing and bouldering, where what isusually climbed as a boulder problem may be high enough for afall to cause serious injury and hence could also be consideredto be a free solo.

Roped solo climbing

Main article: Roped solo climbing

Solo climbing with a rope secured at the beginning of the climballowing a climber to self-belay as they advance. Once the pitchis completed the soloist must descend the rope to retrieve theirgear, and then reclimb the pitch. This form of climbing can beconducted free or as a form of aid climbing.

Lead climbing

Main article: Lead climbing


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Leader belays the second on Illusion Dwellerin Joshua TreeNational Park, United States.

In lead climbing, the first climber will climb from the ground upwith rope directly attached to his or her harness, and not

through a top anchor. The second person, belays the leader byfeeding out enough rope to allow upward progression withoutundue slack. As the leader progresses he clips the rope, usinga quickdraw, to intermediate points of protection such asactive cams, or passive protection such as nuts; this limits thelength of a potential fall. The leader also may clip into pre-drilled bolts. If the climber is lead climbing in an indoor climbinggym, they will almost always attach quickdraws to fixed bolts in

the wall, from which they will attach the rope to the quickdrawas they would if they were lead climbing outdoors.

Because the climbing rope is of a fixed length, the leader canonly climb a certain distance. Thus longer routes are broken upinto several pitches; this is known as multi-pitch climbing. Atthe top of a pitch, the leader sets up an anchor and then belaysthe second up to the anchor; as the second follows the route

taken by the leader, the second removes the equipment placedalong the way in order to use it again on the next pitch. Once


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both are at the anchor, the leader begins climbing the nextpitch and so on until the top is reached.

In either case, upon completion of a route, climbers can walk

back down if an alternate descent path exists, or rappel(abseil) down with the rope.

Unlike top-rope climbing where the climber is always supportedby an anchor located above the climber, lead climbing oftenhas scenarios where the climber will be attached to a pointunder him or her. In these cases, if the climber were to fall, thedistance fallen would be much greater than that of top-ropeand this is one of the main reasons lead climbing can bedangerous. The fall factor is the ratio of the height a climbersfalls and the length of rope available to absorb the fall. Thehigher the fall factor, the more force placed on the climber asthe ropes decelerates them. The maximum fall factor is 2. It isoften advised that climbers who are interested in lead climbingshould learn from experienced climbers and participate intraining sessions before actually lead climbing on their own.

Sport climbing

Main article: Sport climbing

Unlike traditional rock climbing, sport climbing involves the useof protection (bolts) or permanent anchors which are attachedto the rock walls.

Traditional climbing

Main article: Traditional climbing

Traditional or trad climbing involves rock climbing routes inwhich protection against falls is placed by the climber whileascending. Gear is used to protect against falls but not to aidthe ascent directly.

Top rope climbing

Main article: Top rope climbing


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Top roping Balthazar(12), in the Morialta ConservationPark near Adelaide, South Australia. Top roping is the mostaccessible style of climbing for beginners.

Climbing with the protection of a rope that's already suspendedthrough an anchor (or also known as a "top rope system") atthe top of a route. Abelayer controls the rope, keepingit taut and preventing long falls. Due to its reduced risk, mostbeginners are introduced to climbing through top-roping.

In top rope climbing, an anchor is set up at the summit of aroute prior to the start of a climb. Rope is run through theanchor; one end attaches to the harness of the climber and theother to the belay device on the belayer. The belayer keeps therope taut, taking in the slack in the rope as the climber

progresses which helps minimize the length of the fall if aclimber falls. This type of climbing is widely regarded as thesafest type of climbing, with the lowest chance of injury.

Climbing techniques

Different types of rock require different techniques tosuccessfully climb.

Crack climbing


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Main article: Crack climbing

Crack climbing is a type of rock climbing that ascends cracksand uses specialized climbing techniques. Cracks used in

climbing vary in size from ones you can barely fit a pinky fingerto those that fit an entire body. Climbers use techniques suchas jamming, laybacking, and stemming. Some climbers usegloves made out of athletic tape to protect their hands.

Face climbing

Main article: Face climbing

Face climbing is a type of climbing where climbers use featuresand irregularities in the rock such as finger pockets and edgesto ascend a vertical rock face.

Slab climbing

Main article: Slab climbing

Slab climbing is a type of rock c

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