Applied Psychology in Networking and Career Development

John Jameson

The Chicago School of Professional Psychology

“It seems counterintuitive, but the more altruistic your attitude, the more benefits you will gain from the

relationship.” – Reid Hoffman, LinkedIn Founder

Section I - Introduction

Networking is widely recognized as a top method to find employment, grow business, solve

problems, and enrich careers. Conventional networking strategies are rooted in these purposes, which

align with what Abraham Maslow calls deficiency needs related to survival, physical and emotional

environment, and desire for acceptance, friendship, and love (Daft? Motivation in Organizations?).

Helping others and “Paying it Forward” is recognized as a core construct for networking to work. If no

one took the first step to help another, networking would not work. The theories and research in this

paper support the intrinsic value and fulfillment associated with helping others. A networking model

rooted in helping may enable individuals to fulfill growth needs, learned needs, internal behavioral

drivers, and intrinsic motivations. This paper’s intent is to explore the associated considerations and

potential benefits of a networking model rooted in the satisfying higher level needs. This paper consists

of six sections. The Introduction is this first section. In the second section, modern careers and career

theory will be explored. Section three provides details of today’s workplace engagement statistics.

Section four provides recent research in the areas of employee motivation and behavioral drivers. In

section five, networking core competencies and related research are examined. Section five introduces a

Pay it Forward collaborative networking construct, and the pros and cons of a networking model rooted in

this intent. A high level overview of key points and future research considerations are discussed in the

final section.

Section II – Career Theory

The nature of careers have evolved in the 21st century. Historically, an individual’s career was

defined by the employer-employee relationship. In recent years, advances in technology, organization

capability, entrepreneurship and global markets have contributed to a shift in individual career planning

and management. During The Great recession of 2009, millions of working employees lost jobs, left

unemployed for extended periods of time. In response to the economic crisis and fueled by support from

the US Federal Government, start-ups and small businesses emerged in various sectors. The Great

Recession also led many individuals to question loyalty to employers, and subsequently, the number of

individuals taking a transaction based employee-employer relationships increased. The number of

individuals taking responsibility and ownership over their careers has risen, achieving career stability

(and fulfillment) outside of their employers. By taking ownership, individuals may have a higher

likelihood of fulfilling their unique potential, or self-actualizing. Self-actualization is the highest level

need in Malow’s Hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1954). In addition to jobs, mentoring, volunteering,

entrepreneurship, participating in professional organizations, and blogging are career strategies

individuals are utilizing to achieve ongoing professional development and career satisfaction. This

conceptualization of careers embodies a Post Corporate Careers perspective, described by Peiperal and

Baruch as careers whereby individuals have a multitude of career options, working at smaller firms, ad

hoc projects and self-employment. Post Corporate Careerists have a permanent career, rather than a

permanent job, taking an alternative approach to careers, due to the uncertainty and limited stability

associated with contemporary large corporate employment (Periperal and Baruch, 1997). This approach

is also reflected in the Boundaryless Careers approach. The three components of a boundaryless

perspective are multidirectional mobility patterns, career competencies, and protean orientations. Career

development and support can come from networking both in and outside their organization (Arthur,

Claman, & Defillippi, 1995; Forret & Dougherty, 2004; McCallum & Forret, 2009; Wolff & Moser,

2009). Further career theory exists but will not be explored in this paper as it is not the purpose of this

paper. In the next section employee engagement will be explored.

Section III - Employee Disengagement – A Global Problem

Employee disengagement is a global problem. The Conference Board found that more than half of all US

workers were estimated to be unhappy in their jobs, and in a 2013 Gallup study, globally 87% of the

world’s workers are either not engaged in their jobs or have become actively disengaged (Peters, 2014) .

Finally, in the United States, the annual estimated cost of lost productivity due to actively disengaged

employees is $370B. Satisfaction at work is important to living a happy life. A study of 3000 workers in

seventy-nine countries, found that individuals who took greater satisfaction from their work were 150%

more likely to have a happier life overall (Pryce-Jones, J. Lyubomirsky, S., Salemi, V., 2010). Critical

Theory founders Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno and Herbert Marcuse adopt a Marxist

framework to oppose the destructive effects of capitalism. The aim of critical theory was to

diagnose modern societal problems and identify the nature of social change needed to improve

societies. Critical theory is of relevance to current employee disengagement statistics which may

have resulted from effects of financial deregulations in the 2009 economic crisis. Critical Theory

and recent employee engagement statistics supports the need for Boundaryless Careers and Postcorporate

Careers approaches to careers. In the next section employee motivation and drivers of behavior will be

explored.

Section IV – Employee Motivation and Drivers – Recent Research (2013-Present)

Recent employee motivation research provides insight into reasons many employees are

disengaged. What Motivates Me: Put your Passions to Work aims to address the employee disengagement

problem through employee motivation research (Gostick, 2014). Gostick’s team conducted three research

studies on workplace trends encompassing more than 850,000 interviews concluding individuals are

driven by a unique set (or blend) of internal and external drivers. The resulting five Identities or

“motivational drivers” include: Builders, Caregivers, Achievers, Reward Driven, and Thinkers. Identity

descriptions are listed in Table I in the appendix. Gotstick argues that, to a degree, current employer

reward systems are largely monetarily and extrinsically driven. The emergence of Motivation Identities

may lead one to conclude, monetary rewards fall short in motivating all employees and could be an

additional cause of low employee engagement. As a result, employers are implementing more

comprehensive reward systems to acknowledge the diverse employee motivation drivers. Caregivers,

Builders, and potentially other identities might find value embracing a Boundaryless Career or Post

Corporate approach to career management. Further, a pay it forward service oriented approach to

networking might support fulfillment for The Builders, Caregivers, and perhaps the other identities.

Similar to employee extrinsically focused reward systems, many applied networking models are

also rooted in extrinsic rewards. The applied networking models reviewed in this project were

extrinsically rooted, with the intrinsic benefits received from paying it forward serving as a core construct

and benefit (rather than purpose). Daniel Pink presents extensive research of the nonmonetary

motivational drivers of employee behavior in his book Drive. Research by Pink and his cited researchers

conclude employees are driven by three primary drivers: Autonomy, Mastery, and Purpose (Pink, 2009).

Boundaryless and Post Corporate Careers and networking can offer autonomy, enabling individuals to

decide which endeavors to pursue, networking groups to join, who to refer and network with, and

freedom to determine how they want to add value. Individuals can achieve both intrinsic and extrinsic

benefits by exercising autonomy through networking. Mastery involves improving skill and learning.

Utilizing the collaborative networking approach described by Lopata and others in the next section,

individuals can share and learn through networking. Organizations are increasingly paying attention to

the purpose (Pink, 2009). For individuals who might not have the capability to switch jobs or careers,

networking might be a means to find purpose in career. Of future consideration is how networking might

add varied career value to the Motivation Identities. Also of interest is how collaborative networking can

help individuals achieve skill mastery, and find purpose in their career. Networking definitions and

constructs will be examined in the next section.

Section V – Networking: Defining & Core Constructs

In this section the definitions of networking and networking constructs will be examined. Ninety one

constructs relevant to networking success were identified. The seven salient constructs appearing most in

the literature and will be explored in this section are: Goals, Relationships, Social Capital and

Branding, Trust, Referrals, Reciprocity, and Pay it Forward. A survey administered to more than

2000 business professionals throughout the US, UK, Canada and Australia conducted by Misner and

Morgan identified the Top 10 traits of Networking Masters. The top 10 traits are listed in Table II. Also

in the appendix Table VII, Heather Townsend shares Top 10 Behaviors of Great Networkers. Leading

Townsend’s list is being selfless and generous.

Let’s begin by reviewing several definitions (i.e. explanations of what networking is). Andy

Lopata, author of multiple networking books suggests that networking is about mutual support, as a

process of sharing expertise, contacts, ideas, and feedback with those who need it. Lopata explains that

result of effective networking is collaborative, because people are able to achieve results beyond our

individual potential (Lopata, 2011). Ivan Misner, Founder of Business Network International (BNI) and

author of more than a dozen networking books, defines networking as a process of developing contacts

and relationships to increase business, enhance your knowledge, expand your sphere of influence, or

serve the community (Misner, 2008). Heather Townsend, author of the best-selling Business Networking,

defines effective business networking as a process of building up mutually beneficial relationships for

your career or business (Townsend, 2014). Each description above suggests networking is described as a

process. Let’s begin by examining the first networking construct, goals.

Networking Core Construct I: Goals

Networking begins with identifying a purpose to network. A second logical step in the

networking process is to set networking goals. Networking goals can be attached to contacts, events,

social media usage, or other networking resources. Goals have a higher likelihood of being achieved if

they are specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and timely: the S.M.A.R.T approach to goal setting

(Kaye, 1997). Setting networking goals that are both specific and applicable is supported and reinforced

by Ivan Misner’s advise for Week 1 in The 29% Solution: 52 Weekly Network Strategies (Misner, 2008).

Step one of Keith Ferrazzi’s Three Step Networking Action Plan is to develop goals that fulfill mission.

Steps two and three include connecting goals to networking resources, and determine the most effective

method of contacting individuals (Ferrazzi, 2005). The first step in Townsend’s Five Step personal

networking strategy is Goals: Setting networking objectives. In short, know why you are networking

before you begin networking. In addition to goal setting, accountability partners increase the likelihood

of goal attainment. Relationships is the next construct reviewed.

Networking Core Construct II: Relationships

Building and managing relationships are essential to growing trust, building brands, and gaining

referrals. The Exedia 5-level relationship model is introduced in introduced in Business Networking, by

Heather Townsend. The Exedia model’s aim is to allow individuals to categorize the state of a

relationship. Identify, Connect, Engage, Collaborate, and Inner-circle are the five relationship categories,

each progressing to a higher degree of trust and deepen knowledge of personal and professional interests.

In networking, individuals must recognize boundaries, and not progress too quickly though the levels.

The guiding principles of Relationship Capital can be utilized to help individuals develop genuine,

positive business and personal relationships. Taylor and Marthy describe relationship capital as the

degree of trust and respect group members have for one another (Taylor and Marthy, 2009). The seven

guiding principles of Relationship Capital, also described as an accounting of interactions between

entities, are Honesty, Accountability, Responsibility, Respect, Support, Trustworthiness, and Emotional

Boundaries (Peters, 2014). Descriptions of each relationship capital guiding principle are listed in Table

5 in the appendix. In networking and relationship building, having unique ideas validated and expanded

upon through collaborative relationships may result in increased relationship capital, self-respect and self-

esteem. Self-respect and self-esteem are integral components of Maslow’s and Alderfer’s needs theories.

The development of networking relationships and affiliation with others may also enable individuals to

fulfill relatedness needs. Relatedness needs are acknowledged in prominent psychology theories of

McClelland, Alderfer, Malsow, and others. As a point of reference, in a psychological context, the need

for affiliation is defined as an attraction to another organism in order to feel reassured from the other that

the self is acceptable (Birch & Veroff, 1996). Professional networking events, groups, and associations

offer ample opportunities offer opportunities to meet and relate with others. McClelland’s Learned Needs

Theory suggests we acquire (and sustain) four needs from childhood include Achievement, Affiliation,

Power, and Autonomy. The theories and research of Maslow, Aderfer, and Pink acknowledge similar

needs. Social Capital and Branding are similar constructs and are grouped together as Networking Core

construct III.

Networking Core Construct III: Social Capital (& Media) and Branding

Building social capital and branding are both essential components of networking success.

Townsend suggests the four ingredients necessary to consistently generate opportunities through

networking. The combination of ingredients in the following equation enable networkers to attract

opportunities:

Opportunity = Credibility x (Personal Brand + Visibility + Social Capital)

Social Capital can be described as resources accumulated through social and interpersonal ties

(Coleman, 1998). Accumulated networking and social capital create opportunities, in the form of

resources that span across societies, industries, levels of work experience, and demographics. (Lin, 1999).

Social Capital in terms of both accessed and mobilization of embedded resources, enhances the chances

of attaining better resources, and is contingent on the initial positions in the social hierarchies and

extensity of social ties (Lin, 1999). Simplicio suggests influence depends on who you know as much as

what you know, that building favors are a foundation of building strong networking ties (Simplicio, find

date). Branding - In order to have a brand, individuals must be focused on what they do that adds value

(Ferrazzi, 2006). Kaplan Mobray, author of the Ten K’s of Personal Branding, describes personal

branding as a proactive behavior that influences your ability to be sought after, mentioned, and valued;

further suggesting social media is an ATM for your person brand; with more brand currency deposits

made, the more one can withdraw from in the future (Mobray, 2009) . Organization Psychologist

Charmon Parker Williams describes five components of an online brand or identity including: Reputation,

Representation, Associations, Communication and Activity (Parker Williams, 2013). Parker Williams

offers an eight step process to create a personal brand. The eight steps include Self Evaluation,

Understanding Perceptions, Target Market Analysis, Visioning, Conscious Effort/Execution, Testing,

Fine-Tuning & Reinforcement and Re-evaluation (Parker Williams, 2013). Parker’s steps are aligned

with effective networking and may be done while networking, notably the steps including Self-Evaluation

(of unique offering), Visioning (setting networking intention and goals), and finally Testing (networking).

Creating and managing a brand is essential to generating referrals (Lopata, 2011). Gitomer suggests that

becoming well known is the single most valuable element in the entire connection process (Gitomer,

2006). In the next section, the networking core construct of trust will be examined

Networking Core Construct IV: Trust

The importance of trust in developing networking relationships and referral networking is thoroughly

covered in networking literature. High Trust is a construct in Lopata’s Referral Champion model, Peter’s

Relationship Capital Guiding principles, Ferrazzi argues that relationships are solidified by trust. Gitomer

suggests that it may two years to earn someone’s trust and it only takes on minute to lose it (Gitomer,

2008). An individual’s reputation and creditability is at jeopardy when an introduction is made, and

therefore, establishing trust should be a prerequisite to requesting an introduction. In the next section, the

networking core construct referrals will be examined.

Networking Core Construct V: Referrals

Networking works because individuals are referred to individuals, information, and resources. Referral

networking is widely utilized in job search, problem solving, and business development efforts. In the

future referral networking may serve as a root in a Pay it Forward Networking Model. Two applied

referrals models will be examined. In Business Networking, Townsend offers the mnemonic

S.E.R.V.I.C.E. referral framework. SERVICE is a mnemonic for: Specific, Extraordinary client service,

Relationships, Visibility, Initiate, Collaborate, and Educate. A second referral model that has a

quantitative ranking scale is introduced in Lopata’s Recommended: How to Sell through Networking &

Referrals. Lopata describes Referral Champions as individuals with high trust and Willingness to refer,

an Understanding of your business, and Opportunity to refer (are they in contact with your target).

Lopata’s three steps to referral heaven are shared in Table III in the appendix. Lopata’s ten steps to

building an effective referral networking strategy (table IV). Ferrazzi’s suggestion to find “anchor

tenants” mirrors Lopata’s idea of developing referral champions. Ferrazzi offers applied advice to

connect with referrers, while Lopata is methodical in a comprehensive set of steps that culminate in the

development of a referral champion. Referring two individuals who can both benefit by knowing each

other may have intrinsic value. As a result, if the motivation to refer is rooted in intrinsic motivation and

growth needs, any future act of reciprocity from the receiver can be an added bonus. Reciprocity will be

examined as our next networking core construct

Networking Core Construct VI: Reciprocity

Reciprocity is belief that individuals should mutually assist each other; and that when helped,

one should return the favor (Taylor 2009). If an individual’s purpose of networking was intrinsic and

growth needs focused, reciprocity may not be included as a core construct. Psychologist Richard Cialdini

suggests people can capitalize on the norm of reciprocity by giving what they want to receive (Cialdini,

2007). Psychology will help us to understand reciprocity and why networking works. The equity theory

states individuals evaluate what they receive from a job in relation to what they put in (Osland, J., Kolb

D., Rubin, I. & Turner, M, 2007). Some individuals approach new networking contacts or groups with a

similar strategy (Matchers, see Grant in the next section). Adam Rifkin, LinkedIn founder, is aiming to

uproot he tradition norm of reciprocity and fundamentally change our ideas about how we build networks

and who should benefit from them, with the belief that we should see networks as a way to add value to

everyone (Grant, 2009). Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (Motivation in Organizations) suggests

employees rationally evaluate work behaviors and then choose those that they believe will lead to the

work-related rewards that they value most. In a networking context, individuals may pay it forward to

another because the probability of reciprocity is higher. Nowak and Roch (2007) suggest that upstream

reciprocity, a process of helping an unrelated third party after being helped (Chang 2007), is an

evolutionary process because of its potential to deepen the exchange of resources within a network.

Many strategies, best practices, and keys to networking success are available. The constructs

listed above were recognized as important in various literature. As individuals build a networking

strategy it is important to determine which will be most effective and efficient. Up to this point many

human needs have been acknowledged in this paper. Of consideration is how networking may lead to

fulfillment of survival (or deficiency) needs and growth needs. In the next section the role of intrinsic

motivation in collaboration and information share will be explored.

Networking Core Construct VII: Pay it Forward

Giving, Taking, and Matching are three fundamental styles of social interaction. Extensive research

across industries and job functions reveals people who share their knowledge with colleagues end up

earning more raises and promotions (Grant, 2013). Leading Networking & Sales Trainer Jeffrey Gitomer,

encourages networkers to ask themselves how they make people better as a result of connecting (Gitomer,

2006). Emotional management is recognized as a relationship capital guiding principal and vital to

networking success. Rooted in the work by many, Fredrickson developed a Broaden and Build Theory

suggesting positive emotions broaden the scopes of attention, cognition, and action (Fredrickson, 1998,

2001); thereby building physical, intellectual, and social resources (Isen, 1990; Aspinwall, 1998; 2001;

Fredrickson & Joiner 2002). Frederickson argues that emotions can be used as a means of achieving

psychological growth and physical well-being over time. When individuals enjoy an activity or see it as

an opportunity to explore, learn, and actualize our potentials, individuals are intrinsically motivated.

(Coon & Mitterer, 2010). Malone and Lepper suggest challenge, curiosity, control, cooperation and

competition, and recognition influence intrinsic motivation, and activities are intrinsically motivating if

people engaged for the sake of the activity (Malone, Lepper, 1987). Altruism was traditionally

associated with the workplace, but more recently explored in a social networking context. Described

selfless motives (Curry, 2013) and intent of the actor to help another (Currry, 2013), suggests a link

between intrinsic motivation driving altruistic behaviors. Curry’s altruistic behavioral research in social

networks found that emotional closeness is the single best predictor of altruism (AIC=2,196.58) (Curry,

2013). Establishing a reputation as someone who believes in other’s ideas and supports efforts to bring

those ideas to reality enables that individual to develop a network of influence (Simplicio). In Never Eat

Alone, Keith Ferrazzi explores the value of networking and importance not keeping score, claiming that

“generosity is the currency of real networking” and reinforcing his point further, “real networking is

about finding ways to make others successful” (Ferrazzi, 2005).

Section VI: Final Thoughts

Recent labor trends and career theory indicate individuals are more than ever taking a holistic

careers approach. Misaligned employer reward systems have resulted in a highly disengaged global

workforce. Organizations are falling short in creating satisfying careers for individuals. The theories and

supporting research presented in this paper call us to reevaluate how we network, why we network, and

the benefits of a network. Establishing and rooting pay it forward (or collaborative) networking

constructs may result in unique benefits. Several pay it forward (or collaborative) networking constructs

of consideration in future research are mastery, purpose, relatedness, autonomy, self-actualization, and

self-transcendence. Testing models, each with a different pay it forward construct/root, to examine

benefits may provide practitioners and educators with increasing effective networking training programs.

A majority of the networking models shared in this paper have not been tested or empirically validated

and therefore, testing and refining the models should also be considered.

Appendix

Table I: Employee Motivation Identities (Gotstick, 2014)

Identity Description

The Achievers Thrive on tight deadlines, tackle ambitious goals, and love a good challenge and solving a problem.

The Builders Hardwired to develop others and serve those around them.

The Caregivers

Those caring souls who are often more tuned in to others emotions. They are more motivated when they have regular fun at work, and believe balancing time at work and time with their families is important.

The Reward Driven Those who are typically more extrinsically motivated, driven to win prizes, whether money or applause or the admiration of others.

The ThinkersThose who are often more creative, who love to learn, enjoy a varied routine, and like to feel an adrenaline rush now and then.

Table II: Top 10 Traits of Networking Masters (Misner & Morgan, 2000)

Rank Master Networker Trait1 Timely follow up on referrals2 Positive Attitude3 Enthusiasm/motivation4 Trustworthiness5 Good listening skills6 Commitment to networking 24/77 Gratitude8 Helpfulness9 Sincerity

10 Dedicated to working one’s network

Table III: Three Steps to Referral Heaven (Lopata, 2011)

Step Action

1The person referring you identifies someone who has a problem you may be able to solve.

2The person referring you talks to your prospect, who is interested in speaking with you.

3 Your prospect expects your call

Table IV: Ten Steps to Effective Referral Strategy (Lopata, 2011)

What are you looking for?

1.       Understand the difference between a tip, lead, recommendation, and referral

2.       Who is your ideal referralWhere will they come from?

3.       Recognize who is in your network4.       Know who to turn to for referralsa.       How much do they trust youb.      How well do they understand what you do andc.       Opportunity to refer. Do they speak to the right people5.       Pick potential champions

Helping People Refer you6.       Put yourself in their shoes – what do they need to know?

7.       Make it personal to them – recognize easily, know their network and it should be easy

8.       Get your message right – make sure they know what you do (i.e. problems you solve). Explain what problem they might be facing, outline the solution, make it clear how the client could benefit)

Following up

9.       Track the results using the Referral Book System – helps users to prompt referral activity, monitor what comes in and track results. Ensures promises are delivered upon, measure what business that comes in through referral.

  10.   Say Thank you

Table V: Relationship Capital Guiding Principles (Peters, 2014)

Principle DescriptionHonesty The quality of communicating and acting truthfullyAccountability Acceptance of liability for the consequences of choicesResponsibility The sense that one's own actions are the source or cause of outcomesRespect The positive feeling of esteem for self or otherSupport The act of giving help, moral or psychological assistance, or advocacy, either to self or anotherTrustworthiness The confident expectations of reliability of self or another

Emotional Boundaries Limitations imposed to indicate what is permissible within one's value system

Table VI: Networking Action Plan (Ferazzi, 2005)

Step Action1 Development of the goals that will fulfill a mission2 Connect those goals to the people, places, and things that will help get the job done

3 Determine the best way to reach out to the people who will help accomplish goals

Table VII: 14 Great Networker Behaviors (Townsend, 2014)

Step  Great Networker Behavior1 Be selfless and generous.2 Be “always open for networking”3 Be interested in people first and foremost, business second4 Be positive and enthusiastic5 Be focused and disciplined6 Cultivate a win-win mentality7 Be Brave8 Be committed9 Be willing to experiment

10 Be curious 11 Be tenacious and persistent12 Be authentic13 Seek first to understand

14 Act like a host

Table VIII: 17.5 Strategies, Guidelines, and Rules for Connecting (Gitomer, 2006)

Number Strategies, Guidelines, & Rules for Connecting

1 Be friendly first, and everything else will fall into place

2 Project your self-image in a way that breeds confidence in others

3Your ability to look someone in the eye as you speak to them is a tell-tale sign of your own self-respect.

4 Your consistent positive attitude will breed positive response and positive results

5 No connection is made without some form of risk

6 Ninety percent of success is showing up prepared

7The less you focus on your need to meet, the more likely it is that your connection will be successful

8Take a genuine interest in other people before you ask them to take a genuine interest in you

9The sooner you can find something in common with the other guy, the sooner all the barriers will disappear

10 The higher up the ladder you go, the more cautious people will be of your advances

11 Your projected image will often determine your ability to make a real connection

12 People judge you by every action that you take

13 Provide Value

14 Transfer your message with excellent communication skills

15Staying in touch is more important and more valuable thn making the initial connection

16 Read everyday. You don't know what day a powerful connection will be made

17 Your present reputation determines your future fate. 

17.5Be yourself.  Talk real, act real, be real, and you will find that others will do the same in return

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