introduction to machine learning for microarray analysis jennifer listgarten october 2001 (for the...

Introduction to Machine Introduction to Machine Learning for Microarray Learning for Microarray AnalysisAnalysis

Jennifer ListgartenOctober 2001

(for the non-computer scientist)

OutlineOutline

• Introduction to Machine LearningIntroduction to Machine Learning

• Clustering (Thoroughly)Clustering (Thoroughly)

• Principal Components Analysis (Briefly)Principal Components Analysis (Briefly)

• Self-Organizing Maps (Briefly)Self-Organizing Maps (Briefly)

Perhaps another time:Perhaps another time:

• ‘‘Supervised’ vs. ‘Unsupervised’ LearningSupervised’ vs. ‘Unsupervised’ Learning

• Neural Networks and Support Vector MachinesNeural Networks and Support Vector Machines

OutlineOutline





What is Machine LearningWhat is Machine Learning

Definition: The ability of a computer to recognize patterns that have occurred repeatedly and improve its performance based on past experience.

Questions for Machine Questions for Machine LearningLearning

• Which genes are co-regulated?Which genes are co-regulated?

• Which genes have similar functional Which genes have similar functional roles?roles?

• Do certain gene profiles correlate Do certain gene profiles correlate with diseased patients?with diseased patients?

• (Which genes are upregulated/downregulated?)(Which genes are upregulated/downregulated?)

The Data: How to think The Data: How to think about itabout it

In Machine Learning, each data point is a vector.

Example:

Patient_X= (gene_1, gene_2, gene_3, …, gene_N)

Expression Ratio for Gene 3


Each vector ‘lives’ in a high-dimensional space.

N is normally larger than 2, so we can’t visualize the data.

Expression Ratio for Gene 3

Our GoalOur Goal

Tease out the structure of our data from the high-dimensional space in which it lives.

Breast cancer patients

Healthy patients


Two ways to think of data Two ways to think of data for Microarray for Microarray ExperimentsExperiments

1. All genes for one patient make a vector:Patient_X= (gene_1, gene_2, gene_3, …, gene_N)

Two ways to think of data Two ways to think of data for Microarray for Microarray ExperimentsExperiments

1. All genes for one patient make a vector:Patient_X= (gene_1, gene_2, gene_3, …, gene_N)

2. All experiments for one gene make a vector:Gene_X= (experiment_1, experiment_2 …, experiment_N)

OutlineOutline


• ClusteringClustering

– Hierarchical ClusteringHierarchical Clustering

– K-means ClusteringK-means Clustering

– Stability of ClustersStability of Clusters

• Principal Components AnalysisPrincipal Components Analysis

• Self-Organizing MapsSelf-Organizing Maps

Clustering DataClustering Data

Want ‘similar’ data to group together.Want ‘similar’ data to group together.

Problems:Problems:

• Don’t know which definition of ‘similar’ to Don’t know which definition of ‘similar’ to use in order to extract usefuluse in order to extract useful information.information.

• Without external validation, difficult to tell Without external validation, difficult to tell if clustering is if clustering is meaningful.meaningful.

• How many clusters? How many clusters?

SimilaritySimilarity

• MetricMetric: Formal name for ‘: Formal name for ‘measure of measure of

similaritysimilarity’ between 2 points.’ between 2 points.

• Every clustering algorithm (hierarchical, k-Every clustering algorithm (hierarchical, k-

means, means, etc.etc.) needs to decide on a metric.) needs to decide on a metric.

• Can argue in favour of various metrics, but Can argue in favour of various metrics, but no correct answer. no correct answer.

Some MetricsSome Metrics

• Euclidean distance: Euclidean distance:

• Correlation based: Correlation based:

• Mutual Information based: Mutual Information based:

i

ii YX 2)(

i Y

ii

X

ii YYXX

N 1

)()(

),(log),(

YpXp

YXpYXp

X and Y here are two vectors (eg. two patients)

OutlineOutline

• Introduction to general Machine LearningIntroduction to general Machine Learning







Outline of Hierarchical Outline of Hierarchical ClusteringClustering

1. Start by making 1. Start by making everyevery data point its own data point its own cluster.cluster.

2. Repeatedly combine ‘closest’ clusters until 2. Repeatedly combine ‘closest’ clusters until only one is left.only one is left.

(example to follow)(example to follow)

Initially each datum is its own cluster.

Simple Example - Step 1

Legend: Data point (patient)

One cluster

A

G

C

E

B

D

F

High-dimensional point

Combine the two closest clusters.



One cluster

A

G

C

E

B

D

F

E F DENDOGRAM

Again: Combine the next two closest clusters.



One cluster

A

G

C

E

B

D

F

E F B C DENDOGRAM

And again...



One cluster

A

G

C

E

B

D

F

D E F B C DENDOGRAM

And again...



One cluster

A

G

C

E

B

D

F

D E F B C A DENDOGRAM

And again...



One cluster

A

G

C

E

B

D

F

G D E F B C A DENDOGRAM

And again...



One cluster

A

G

C

E

B

D

F

G D E F B C A

Metric Scale

DENDOGRAM

Digression:‘Distance’ Digression:‘Distance’ between clustersbetween clusters

3 common ways:3 common ways:

1. Single-Linkage

2. Complete-Linkage

3. Average-Linkage

What we get out of HCWhat we get out of HC

• A A hierarchicalhierarchical set of clusters. set of clusters.

• A dendogram showing which data A dendogram showing which data points are most points are most closely relatedclosely related, as , as defined by the metric.defined by the metric.

A B C D E F G A B C D E F G

What we get out of HCWhat we get out of HC

• Can we tell how data points are Can we tell how data points are related by looking at the related by looking at the horizontalhorizontal positions of the data pointspositions of the data points......? ?

• Must be careful about interpretation Must be careful about interpretation of the dendogram - example to of the dendogram - example to follow.follow.

A B C D E F G

G D E F B C A

Notice that we can swap branches while maintaining the tree structure.

G D F E B C A

Notice that we can swap branches while maintaining the tree structure.

G D F E B C A

Again...

B C A G D F E

Again...

B C A G D F E

Again...

How many ways to swap branches if there are N data points?

B C A G D F E

Again...

How many ways to swap branches if there are N data points?

2N-1

For N=100

2N-1=1.3 x 1030

Two data points that were close together in one tree, may be far apart in another.

G D F E B C A B C A G D F E

1. G and A far apart

2. G and A close

1 2

Two data points that were close together in one tree, may be far apart in another.

G D F E B C A B C A G D F E

1. G and A far apart

2. G and A close

1 2

There is a way to help overcome the arbitrariness of the branches: Self-Organizing Maps - SOMs - discuss later

Lesson LearnedLesson Learned

Be careful not to overinterpret Be careful not to overinterpret the results of hierarchical the results of hierarchical clustering (along the horizontal clustering (along the horizontal axis).axis).

What is HC used for?What is HC used for?

• Typically, grouping genes that are co-Typically, grouping genes that are co-regulated.regulated.

(Could use for grouping patients too.)(Could use for grouping patients too.)

• While useful, it is a While useful, it is a relatively simplerelatively simple, , unsophisticated tool. unsophisticated tool.

• It is more of a It is more of a visualization toolvisualization tool, rather , rather than a mathematical model.than a mathematical model.

A B C D E F G

OutlineOutline







K-Means ClusteringK-Means Clustering

GoalGoal: Given a desired : Given a desired number of number of clustersclusters,,

• find out the find out the clustercluster centerscenters

• find out which data find out which data point belongs to point belongs to each clustereach cluster

Legend: Data point (patient) Cluster centre

Must specify that we want 3 clusters.

Outline of K-Means Clustering

•Step 1 - Decide how many clusters (let’s

say 3).

•Step 2 - Randomly choose 3 cluster centers.


•Step 3 - Choose a metric.

•Step 4 - Assign each point to the cluster that it is ‘closest’ to (according to metric).

Outline of K-Means Clustering•Step 5 - Recalculate cluster centres using means of points that belong to a cluster.

•Step 6 - Repeat until convergence (or fixed number of steps, etc.). Newly calculated

cluster centres


Another step.... assign points to clusters.

Reassign Points


And the final step.... reposition the means.

Newly calculated cluster centres


And the final step.... reassign points.

Reassign Points

Variations of K-Means:

•K-Median Clustering (uses median to

find new cluster positions instead of

mean).

Use median/mean/etc/ to reposition cluster.

Related to K-Means Clustering:

•Mixture of Gaussians (now clusters have a width as well) - Gaussian Probability Distribution instead of a metric. Other differences too.

2

2

2/2 2

)(exp

)2(

1)cluster_k|(

k

kd

k

XXp

Soft Partition (vs. Hard)

Comments on K-Means Comments on K-Means ClusteringClustering

• May not converge nicely, need May not converge nicely, need multiple random restarts.multiple random restarts.

• Results are straightforward (unlike Results are straightforward (unlike hierarchical clustering).hierarchical clustering).

• Still a Still a relatively simple relatively simple tool - not tool - not much mathematical modelling.much mathematical modelling.

Comments on K-Means Comments on K-Means ClusteringClustering

• Earlier: showed random Earlier: showed random initializationinitialization..

• Can run hierarchical clustering to Can run hierarchical clustering to initializeinitialize K-Means Clustering algorithm. K-Means Clustering algorithm.

• This can help with convergence This can help with convergence problems as well speed up the problems as well speed up the algorithm.algorithm.

OutlineOutline








Stability of ClustersStability of Clusters

• Ideally, want Ideally, want differentdifferent (good) (good) clustering techniques to provide clustering techniques to provide similiarsimiliar results. results.

• Otherwise the clustering is likely Otherwise the clustering is likely arbitrary, not modelling any arbitrary, not modelling any true true structure structure in the data set.in the data set.

OutlineOutline



• Principal Components Analysis Principal Components Analysis (Briefly)(Briefly)


Principal Components Principal Components AnalysisAnalysis(PCA)(PCA)

• Mathematical technique to Mathematical technique to reduce reduce the dimensionality of the datathe dimensionality of the data..

PCA - Dimension PCA - Dimension ReductionReduction

2 Projections Shown

•Some projections are more informative than others.

•While projections differ, the object remains unchanged in original space.

3D2D (two ways)

Why?Why?• Instead of clustering 20,000 Instead of clustering 20,000

dimensional data - cluster 100 dimensional data - cluster 100 dimensional data.dimensional data.

• Typically some dimensions are Typically some dimensions are redundant.redundant.

• Might eliminate noise, get more Might eliminate noise, get more meaningful clusters (?)meaningful clusters (?)

Why?Why?• Instead of clustering 20,000 dimensional Instead of clustering 20,000 dimensional

data - cluster 100 dimensional data.data - cluster 100 dimensional data.

• Typically some dimensions are Typically some dimensions are redundant.redundant.

• Might eliminate noise, get more Might eliminate noise, get more meaningful clusters (?)meaningful clusters (?)

Fewer dimension means easier to Fewer dimension means easier to initialize ML algorithms and get good initialize ML algorithms and get good results.results.

Simple 2D ExampleSimple 2D Example

X

Y

One could cluster these 2D points in 2 dimensions.


X

Y

One could cluster these 2D points in 2 dimensions.

But... what if...


X

We squashed them into 1D.

‘squash’geometric projection


X

Y

X

•Y-Dimension was redundant.

•Only needed X variable to cluster nicely.

Another 2D ExampleAnother 2D Example

X

Y

It is not obvious which dimension to keep now.


X

Y

X

Y

There is no axis onto which we can project to get good separation of the data...


X

Y

But if we project the data onto a combination (linear combination) of the two dimensions... it works out nicely.

X

Y

That was the Intuition Behind That was the Intuition Behind PCAPCAOutline of PCA:Outline of PCA:

• Step 1 - Find the direction that Step 1 - Find the direction that accounts for the largest amount of accounts for the largest amount of variation in the data set, call this variation in the data set, call this EE11..

X

Y

E1

First Principal Component


• Step 1 - Find the direction that Step 1 - Find the direction that accounts for the largest amount of accounts for the largest amount of variation in the data set, call this variation in the data set, call this EE11..

• Step 2 - Find the direction which is Step 2 - Find the direction which is perpendicular perpendicular ((orthogonal/uncorrelated)orthogonal/uncorrelated) to to EE11 and and accounts for the next largest amount accounts for the next largest amount of variation in the data set, call this of variation in the data set, call this EE22 . .


• Step 3 - Find 3Step 3 - Find 3rdrd next best direction next best direction which is orthogonal to the other 2 which is orthogonal to the other 2 directions - call this directions - call this EE3.3.

•• • • • •

• Step N - Find the NStep N - Find the Nthth such direction. such direction. (If there were N dimensions to begin (If there were N dimensions to begin with).with).

PCA - Some Linear PCA - Some Linear Algebra...Algebra...

T

NNNN

N

NNNNN

N

NNNN

N

vvv

vvv

uuu

uuu

ccc

ccc

...

............

............

...

000

............

000

000

...

............

............

...

...

............

............

...

21

11211

2

1

21

11211

21

11211

VUC

Covariance Matrix of Original Data

Principal Components

Variance in each Component

Singular Value Decomposition (SVD)

2nd Principal Component

Principal Components Principal Components AnalysisAnalysis

• Typical dimensional reduction might Typical dimensional reduction might be:be:

1 million 1 million 200,000, 200,000,

which might retain 95% of the original which might retain 95% of the original information.information.

• Reduction depends on set of data.Reduction depends on set of data.

PCA - Useful for PCA - Useful for clustering?clustering?• It turns out that PCA can lead to It turns out that PCA can lead to

worseworse clustering than simply using clustering than simply using the original data (not necessarily).the original data (not necessarily).

• PCA is often used in conjunction PCA is often used in conjunction with other techniques, such as with other techniques, such as Artificial Neural Networks, Support Artificial Neural Networks, Support Vector Machines, Vector Machines, etc.etc.

PCA - Interesting Side PCA - Interesting Side NoteNote• PCA is the basis PCA is the basis

for most of the for most of the Face Face RecognitionRecognition systems currently systems currently in use.in use.

• egeg. Security in . Security in airports airports etc.etc. Principal ‘Face’

Directions

OutlineOutline





Self-Organizing Maps Self-Organizing Maps (SOMs)(SOMs)

• Way to visualize high-dimensional Way to visualize high-dimensional data in a low-dimensional space.data in a low-dimensional space.

• Commonly view data in 1 or 2 Commonly view data in 1 or 2 dimensions with SOMs.dimensions with SOMs.

Self-Organizing Maps Self-Organizing Maps (SOMs)(SOMs)

Can think of SOMs as a Can think of SOMs as a crosscross between between K-Means ClusteringK-Means Clustering and and PCAPCA::

Self-Organizing Maps Self-Organizing Maps (SOMs)(SOMs)Can think of SOMs as a Can think of SOMs as a crosscross between between K-K-

Means ClusteringMeans Clustering and and PCAPCA::

K-MeansK-Means: find Cluster centres.: find Cluster centres.

PCAPCA: reduce dimensionality of the cluster : reduce dimensionality of the cluster centres. (centres. (i.e. i.e. impose a ‘structure’ on the impose a ‘structure’ on the relationship between cluster centres)relationship between cluster centres)

(At the same time!)(At the same time!)

Self-Organizing MapsSelf-Organizing Maps

Example: Impose a 1D structure on the cluster centres.

1 Dimension

5000 Dimensions

Self-Organizing MapsSelf-Organizing Maps•This imposes an ordering on the cluster centres.

1 Dimension

5000 Dimensions

32 41

1

24

3

Self-Organizing MapsSelf-Organizing Maps•This imposes an ordering on the data points.

•Data points from Cluster 1 come before points in Cluster 2, etc.

•Then order based on proximity to neighbouring clusters.

1 Dimension

5000 Dimensions

32 41

5

3

21

987

64

13

12

11

10

17

15

16

14

1918

Self-Organizing MapsSelf-Organizing MapsWhat is important to know for our immediate interest:

SOM imposes a unique ordering on the data points.

1 Dimension

5000 Dimensions

32 41

5

3

21

987

64

13

12

11

10

17

15

16

14

1918

SOMs and Hierarchical SOMs and Hierarchical ClusteringClustering

G D F E B C A

Recall the problem of arbitrariness in the order of the branches in Hierarchical Clustering?

Can use SOMs to help.

Hierarchical Clustering

(dendogram)

SOMs, Eisen, ClusterSOMs, Eisen, Cluster

G D F E B C A

Eisen’s Cluster can use the ordering from the SOM, to do hierarchical clustering.

1) Run 1D SOM on data set.

2) Build dendogram using ordering from SOM.

Hierarchical Clustering

(dendogram)

5

3

2 1

987

64

12

11

10

1715

16

14

1918

13

Self-Organizing MapsSelf-Organizing Maps

• Not normally what SOMs are used Not normally what SOMs are used for (for (i.e.i.e. hierarchical clustering) hierarchical clustering)

• Mainly used for visualization, and as Mainly used for visualization, and as a first step before further analysis.a first step before further analysis.

• Can also use 2D, 3D SOMs.Can also use 2D, 3D SOMs.

Concluding RemarksConcluding Remarks

I hope that I managed to:I hope that I managed to:

1) Give some idea of what machine 1) Give some idea of what machine learning is about (‘structure’ in high-learning is about (‘structure’ in high-dimensional spaces).dimensional spaces).

2) The intuition behind several 2) The intuition behind several techniques, and familiarity with techniques, and familiarity with their names.their names.

Main Ideas of PCAMain Ideas of PCA• For N dimensional data, find N directions.For N dimensional data, find N directions.

• Can represent any one of our original data points Can represent any one of our original data points using (using (a linear combination)a linear combination) of these N directions: of these N directions:

i.e.i.e.

NN EaEaEaEa ......Patient_X 332211

Nth direction

),...,,,(Patient_X 321 Naaaa

Main Ideas of PCAMain Ideas of PCA• Key IdeaKey Idea: Can represent : Can represent

extremely well any one of our extremely well any one of our original data points using fewer original data points using fewer than N directions:than N directions:

dNdN EaEaEaEa ......Patient_X 332211

),...,,,(Patient_X 321 dNaaaa

Fewer than N directions.


X

Y

But if we project the data onto a combination (linear combination) of the two dimensions... it works out nicely.

X

Y

Concluding RemarksConcluding Remarks

Understand the algorithms behind Understand the algorithms behind your analysis. Blind application can your analysis. Blind application can lead to erroneous conclusions.lead to erroneous conclusions.

introduction to machine learning for microarray analysis jennifer listgarten october 2001 (for the...

Documents

certain gene profiles

data point patient

simple example step

machine learningwhich

machine learningdefinition

itin machine learning

neach vector

closest clusters