CULTURE AND CULTURAL HERITAGE MANAGEMENT

Introduction

According to Cultural heritage refers to the legacy of physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group of society that inherited them from past generations, maintained them in the present and bestowed for the benefit of future generations. Cultural heritage appreciation varies both in time and space. For example, where Europeans values monumentality, Africans disregards it over the associated sacred values hence the European perspective that African heritage as barbaric. The most important factors about a culture are however always preserved such as language. The vocation of managing this heritage is known as Cultural heritage management and is a branch of Cultural Resource Management.

Valuing Cultural Heritage

As we discuss the importance of the past to our educational system, as a basis for our contemporary identity, cultural creativity, and community development, we sometimes take its benefits for granted. Usually, people say; those who do not know the past are doomed to repeat it"; that "the past is the foundation for modern identity"; that "our heritage is what we cherish and must pass on to future generations." We earnestly repeat these statements, often without stopping to reflect seriously on whether they are really true or even what they really mean.

As a result, our shared heritage of historic buildings and archaeological sites, sacred shrines and forests, traditions, and folklore are all too often seen by political leaders and budget cutters as valuable perhaps, but not among the most pressing public priorities. And in times of economic contraction as was the Zimbabwean case around the late nineties, budgets for cultural heritage management and research are among the first to be cut.

Heritage is thus important because it helps researchers understand;

Identity Through its conservation and commemoration, heritage helps foster a sense of modern identity among individuals and communities? It helps shape our behavior regarding issues such as educational policies, social, and economic behavior, political perspective etc.

Culture Our cultural heritage defines our present laws and policies of cultural heritage management. This helps us define "mainstream" or majority heritage from minority. Commemoration of the past facilitates the coexistence of distinct cultures, rather than emphasize the historical and cultural boundaries between them? As such, heritage related initiatives actually help preserve the fabric of disintegrating cultures and communities.

Economics Cultural heritage such as our monuments and traditions of the past can be viable

resources for local economic development. Economically, societies can benefit through heritage tourism. Though it can economically empower communities, there are hidden costs to a community and in most cases, the investment-return ratio for heritage development does not favour them. As such, heritage managers could develop alternative economic activities and benchmarks for the benefit of the local communities whilst protecting the heritage safely.

Ecology Recognition of heritage can also help us reflect on the past hence helping us maintain a balance between intergenerational rights and responsibilities. How do we maintain a sustainable balance between appreciation of the past and awareness of the challenges of the future? heritage managers have to capitalise on the link between the guiding principles of the environmental movement and sustainable heritage management thus we dismantle the artificial partition between “Nature” and “Culture”

Civil Society

Culture impacts heavily on heritage policies, encouraging all sectors, stakeholders, and communities to participate in heritage planning and commemoration, have a positive social effect? Democratization" of heritage participation also encourages democratic public discourse. Heritage also enables policies and projects to be designed in such ways that enhance community identity, sustainable cultures, and local economies and serve as tools for the wider cause of social development and positive social change?

How is culture manifested?

Physical or Tangible heritage

This refers to those materials that one can touch, see because they are enshrined in some physical form which everybody could voluntarily confirm on. Such materials would include buildings, architectural designs, historic places, monuments, cultural landscapes, ecofacts, artifacts etc

Intangible heritage

This refers to those aspects of a culture which cannot be touched or stored within a museum environment but can only be observed and protected through reinterpretation by the people who observe them such as sacred values, myths and taboos. These are argued to only exist in the mindset of the community that recognizes them. This explains the diversity of cultures on the African continent. The management of this form of heritage is most difficult as it requires the consideration of the lives and living conditions of local communities, an aspect most overlooked by legislations of African countries.

KEY TERMS

Culture an integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior that depends upon the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning’.

a set of shared attitudes, values, goals and practices that characterize an organization or group/community’ and existing at all levels of a society. i.e. in the home, village, regional, national level etc. This also explains why it is a variable factor

Cultural Heritage the legacy of physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group of society that inherited them from past generations, maintained them in the present and bestowed for the benefit of future generations.

Cultural Resources Management (CRM) is the vocation and practice of managing cultural resources, such as the arts and heritage. It incorporates Cultural Heritage Management which is concerned with traditional and historic culture. It also delves into the material culture of archaeology. Cultural resources management encompasses current culture, including progressive and innovative culture, such as urban culture, rather than simply preserving and presenting traditional forms of culture.

Heritage commonly used to refer to our cultural inheritance from past that this is the evidence of human activity.

Cultural Significance Means aesthetic, historic, scientific, social/spiritual value of past, present and future generations.

Cultural Landscape have been defined by the World Heritage Committee as distinct geographical areas or properties uniquely "..represent[ing] the combined work of nature and of man..". This concept has been adapted and developed within international heritage arenas (UNESCO) as part of an international effort to reconcile "..one of the most pervasive dualisms in Western thought - that of nature and culture."

The World Heritage Committee identified and adopted three categories of cultural landscape, ranging from:

(i) "a landscape designed and created intentionally by man";(ii) an "organically evolved landscape" which may be a "relict

(or fossil) landscape" or a "continuing landscape";

(iii) an "associative cultural landscape" which may be valued because of the "religious, artistic or cultural associations of the natural element"

Are natural environments that have been fashioned by man as a member of a cultural group. In this context, culture is the agent, the natural area is the medium and the cultural landscape is the result. For example, the Ziwa cultural landscape, good example of a community that harnessed a hostile environment and established a thriving community through terracing the highlands for agricultural practice. The same setting is still visible in rural areas of Nyanga such as the Nyakomba and Nyamaropa.

Artifact anything made and used by mankind which gives information about the culture that shaped it, its creator and its users.

Ecofacts natural materials that have been used by humans as part of their culture, for example the remains of plants and animals. Such materials are useful in the study of ancient environments and ecology. Examples include animal bones, seeds, fruits shells, pollen etc.

Manuports these are natural objects which have been removed from their original context by human agency but otherwise remain unmodified. Example; rounded stone or shells moved from coastal or riverine areas

Archaeology is the study of past human societies through systematic recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data which they left behind. This would include artifacts, architecture, Ecofacts, cultural landscapes

Rescue archaeology, sometimes called "preventive" or "salvage" archaeology, is archaeological survey and excavation carried out in areas threatened by, or revealed by, construction or other development. These conditions could include, but are not limited to, the building of dams where sites of interest might exist in the flood plain, highway projects, major construction, or even before the onset of war operations. Unlike traditional survey and excavation, rescue archaeology must be undertaken at speed. Rescue archaeology is included in the broader category of "Cultural resource management (CRM)".

Ethnography a research strategy employed for getting empirical information on human societies/cultures and often collected through participant observation, interviews and questionnaires.

Ethno archaeology is the archaeological study of living people in order to improve analogs which can be used to interpret archaeological findings.

Site a place in which evidence of past societal activity is preserved and represents part of the archaeological record

Monument refers to a physical site that has evidence of human habitation of use for its socio-economic or political benefit. It is not necessarily a built site but retains evidence through artifacts

Preservation maintaining a structure in its existing state and preventing further deterioration

Restoration refers to the returning of a structure to a known earlier state by repair of existing fabric without the introduction of new materials.

Reconstruction refers to the returning of a structure to a known earlier state by introduction on new material into any remaining fabric.

TaboosSacred rules (dos and don’ts) that control social behavior of members of the community in their interaction with important aspects of their culture. They are always followed by a predefined punishment from the gods if one breaks them.

Myths imaginary stories reinforced through acts such as stories, songs, and poems etc which are supposed to work hand in hand with taboos to control behavior of community members.

Relics deposit, object or material evidence of human past.

Antique any movable object (not including a monument or relic) of aesthetic, historical, archaeological or scientific value or interest, the whole or part or valuable portion of it which has been in Southern Africa for more than a century.

National Monument any natural or human modified area or land having a distinct or beautiful scenery or geological formation with rare or distinct flora and fauna or containing objects of archaeological, historic, sacred, aesthetic, religious or scientific value or interest eg buildings, avenue of trees, waterfall, grotto etc.

The development of Cultural Resource Management

Cultural resource management can trace its beginning to the environment/conservational movement in the 1960s and 1970s. During this time, there was growth in legislation concerning the protection of cultural resources. The Archaeological and Historic Preservation Act of 1974, commonly known as the Moss-Bennett Act, helped to fuel the creation of CRM, while creating “growth in archaeological jobs in the federal government, academia, and private sector.” Federal legislation had passed earlier in 1906 under the ,Antiquities Act but it was not until the 1970s when the term “cultural resources” was coined by the National Park Services. This term came into more popular usage after two meetings in 1974: the Cultural Resource Management conference and the Airlie House conference. Following these conferences, the National Park Service (NPS) defined cultural resources in the Cultural Resource Management Guidelines as being:

“Those tangible and intangible aspects of cultural systems, both living and dead, that are valued by or representative of a given culture or that contain information about a culture…[They] include but are not limited to sites, structures, districts, objects, and historic documents associated with or representative of peoples, cultures, and human activities and events, either in the present or in the past. Cultural resources also can include primary written and verbal data for interpretation and understanding of those tangible resources.”

Cultural resources management in the heritage context is mainly concerned with the investigation of sites with archaeological potential, the preservation and interpretation of historic sites and artifacts, and the culture of indigenous people. The subject developed from initiatives in rescue archaeology, sensitivities to the treatment of indigenous people, and subsequent legislation to protect cultural heritage.

In the 1970s, archaeologists created the term "cultural resource management" as a parallel to natural resource management to address the following resources:

Historic properties (as listed or eligible for the National Register of Historic Places) Older properties that may have cultural value, but may or may not be eligible for the

National Register Historic properties that have cultural value beyond their historicity Native American graves and cultural items Shipwrecks Museum collections Historical documents Religious sites Religious practices Cultural use of natural resources Folklife, tradition, and other social institutions Theater groups, orchestras, and other community cultural amenities

A significant proportion of the archaeological investigation in countries that have heritage management legislation including the USA and UK is conducted on sites under threat of development. In the US, such investigations are now done by private companies on a consulting basis, and a national organization exists to support the practice of CRM. Museums, besides being popular tourist attractions, often play roles in conservation of, and research on, threatened sites, including as repositories for collections from sites slated for destruction.

National Register eligibility

One common task in Cultural Resource Management is to determine whether specific properties are eligible for listing as a National Heritage Site on the National Register of Historic Places. Reasons for listing are often to enhance public awareness or for conservation.

In the US, in order to classify and protect something on the National Register as a cultural resource, there are many laws and regulators to look to:

Authorities for all types of cultural resources: The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)

Historic Preservation Authorities: The National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) Historic Sites Act (HAS)

Archaeological Authorities: The Antiquities Act of 1906 The Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA) The Archaeological Data Preservation Act of 1974 The Abandoned Shipwrecks Act (ASA)

Historical Documents Authorities The Federal Records Act

As a discipline with roots set in Rescue Archaeology and Urban Archaeology that began in United States of America in the years surrounding World War 2, salvage projects were attempts to identify and rescue archaeological remains before they were destroyed to make way for civil engineering projects hence an official recognition of the invaluable and non-renewable nature of cultural heritage.

In recent years, all countries have passed laws (based on the UNESCO conventions such as the 1972 World Heritage Convention, the Valletta Treaty (for protecting Europe’s archaeological heritage), and the 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage) that protect cultural heritage in varying degrees of success especially on public lands. In the US, such a specific law was passed by the Lyndon B Johnson administration (successor of the assassinated JFK) and it was called National Historic Preservation Act. Such a law made it illegal for any development to be done on public land before a cultural resource survey has had

been conducted. This paved way and/or established the practice of Archaeological Impact Assessments.

THE AMERICAN PERSPECTIVE ON DEVELOPING THE DISCIPLINE

1906

1935 The Historic Sites Act is passed into law. It gave the Secretary if Interior the right to proclaim important sites as National Historic Landmarks. This law was based in six criterion; nationally historic events, persons, ideas, architecture, culture or ways of life.

1966 The government also passed the National Register of Historic Places. It was for the listing of important historic places onto a national register

STAGES TOWARDS REALISATION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE AS AN INVALUABLE RESOURCE

The realization that cultural property, was an invaluable resource at a national level may be claimed to have begun in 1666, with the promulgation of a Royal Proclamation in Sweden. There has been a steady build-up of legislation and the concomitant administrative mechanisms since that time (Cleere 1989; Prott & O’Keefe 1984; 1989) It was, however, not until the 1920s that concern began to be expressed regarding the protection of the cultural heritage of the entire world, as distinct from that of individual states, as part of the work of the League of Nations. Much discussion followed but virtually no action: the only positive result was the work on the convention on the protection of the cultural heritage in time of war (the Hague Convention 1954). With the establishment of the United Nations, this work fell into programme of UNESCO. However, there was no strong impetus to draft the Convention until the 1960s, when international awareness of threats to the natural heritage developed, starting in the USA, and work began on drafting an international convention. Some of the ground breaking ‘laws’ included;

1462 Pope Pius ii passed a law that protected all Papal buildings. Back in the history of the Roman Empire, the church (Catholic) held a firm grip on the politics of the empire and as such, protecting these buildings was a way of instilling the factor of a status quo.

1471 Pope Sixtus iv forbids the exportation of stone work from the roman empire as the Papacy rebuilt the ruined Rome. The Roman Empire and Rome itself had been destroyed as a result of an economic decline which had also seen the relocation of the church to Avignon. With its return in 1420, the Papacy then under Pope Martin v, it had the aim of

rebuilding the once international centre of commerce. Pope Sixtus iv’s achievements included the establishment of the Sistine Chapel (the official residence of the Pope in the Vatican where great artists such as Michelangelo and Botticelli worked on) and the Vatican Archives (containing works of influential people from across the globe)

1666 The Swedish Royal family announces a proclamation to protect all monuments and objects of antiquity which are and automatically declared as state property. In addition, the Absala University is established as a research centre into the Swedish past.

1734 The Society of Dilettanti (amateurs) of London is formed. It was also known as the Society of Gentlemen, composed of men whose common interest were objects of antiquity and associated Greek and Roman art. They had all met once in Rome on their individuals quests in 1732 and the club’s nominal qualification was ‘...having been to Italy…’. The society thus began studying and documenting European history, later on the Egyptian history and the Middle East civilizations.

1798 The plundering of the Egyptian Pyramids by Napoleon Bonaparte’s armies. They pilfered materials were all destined for European museums until Napoleon proclaimed himself as the Monuments Conservator of all Egypt. This was a lesson for all as this led to misuse of cultural property for personal gain. He acquired cultural materials for French museums at the expense of the Egyptians themselves.

1800s The rise of nationalism in Europe in the 1800s for example Greece getting independence from Turkey in 1827. The newly independent states used cultural property to set their identities. Athens was just a village then but it had the Parthenon and the associations with the glories of Greek’s past including legends such as King Zeus, Hercules etc hence it was chosen as the site for the capital of the new Greece.

Initial separation from Sweden of Norway in 1814 set it on a quest of creating an individual identity separate from its former colonizer’s. It centred on cultural property as a point of departures. This yearning also even concerned the use of a new currency by Norway. For example, two young Norwegians published folk stories they had picked up in the countryside as they moved around and this created a consciousness in Oslo. The stories revealed a character of Norwegians of originality, fantasy and beauty hence identifying the Norwegians as a proud nation.

The National Archaeological Museum in Greece was established in 1844 and concepts of cultural heritage management were central. It set out to establish systematic archaeological research into Greek history as well as history of the area.

19th Century End of this century saw John Ruskin (1819-1900), an English art critic and social thinker, develops the philosophy of heritage stewardship/custodianship. Such a philosophy advocated for heritage as assets for future generations. He argued that in that respect, there was supposed to be no intervention at respective sites. As such, he was arguing that the best form to pass on heritage into the future was in its most original form. He argued that ‘…Age of a building was its greatest glory…’

His views concerning the two practices; Conservation and Restoration of historic buildings are summarized in his the article; THE SEVEN LAMPS OF ARCHITECTURE where he writes;

‘Neither by the public, nor by those who have the care of public monuments, is the true meaning of the word restoration understood. It means the most total destruction which a building can suffer; a destruction out of which no remnants can be gathered, destruction accompanied with false description of the thing destroyed. Do not let ourselves be deceived in this important matter; it is impossible, as impossible as to raise the dead, to restore anything that has ever been great or beautiful in architecture.’

This detestation to restoration is in marked contrast to Viollet –le-Duc, who wrote that restoration is a ‘means to reestablish (a building) to a finished state, which may in fact never have actually existed at any given time’

Eugene Viollet-le-Duc (1814-1879), a French architect, was famous for his restoration of buildings such as the Notre Dame de Paris. His architectural theory was largely based on finding the ideal forms for specific materials and using these to create buildings. He argued that these materials should be used ‘honestly’. The term ‘honestly’ can be taken to mean the use the most suitable materials where they are needed. The prominent building material of his time was stone hence he advocated that where stone was the ideal material to obtain the realistic shape, then metal could not be used then in that instance.

Though Viollet le-Duc appreciated art, he differed from John Ruskin in the fact that, in his ‘restorations’ he also combined historical fact (such as using the original buildings material) with ‘creative modifications such as use of contemporary building materials such as cast iron where fit’ hence, his final products had distortions of originality. In response to le-Duc’ theory and practice on historic preservation, Ruskin retorted that ‘it is a destruction out of which no remnants can be gathered; a destruction accompanied with false description of the thing destroyed’.

The debate between the perspectives of the two theorists is still being debated today. With Ruskin, he argued for faithfulness in pursuing a status quo (originality). The argument now is, the past can never be faithfully recreated and leaving a building to deteriorate so that we are faithful (as advocated by Ruskin) is not fair to the history itself. In removing layers of history from a building, information and age value are also removed which can never be recovered but on the other hand, adding layers of history (as advocated for by Viollet le-Duc) allows current viewers to share a greater experience of the history of the building.

1926 The League of Nations sets up the International Museums Office to deal with cultural property

1931 A congress in Athens is held which focused on restoration of cultural property. The resolutions were based on the Charter of Athens although the congress mostly composed of specialists

United Nations comes into existence replacing the League of Nations and subsequently, UNESCO was launched to spearhead the protection of cultural property on the global scale and for member countries.

Catastrophe of the World Wars 1 and 2 also changed the perspectives of heritage value. A lot of cultural property was targeted and destroyed during these wars resulting in UN establishing the Blue Flag concept to protect cultural property in cases of armed conflict.

The center of focus concerning Zimbabwean archaeology was mostly on the Great Zimbabwe and Rock art and more specifically on the Rock Art of the Matopos. This has resulted in a lot of publications concerning the subjects though at the expense of minority cultural groups. Even the institutions such as museums

have shown the discrepancy and colonial bias towards the Shona culture and little on the other groups such as the Ndebele, the BaTonga amongst others.

1960s-70 UNESCO and Cultural Heritage Management

1980s Until this time, archaeologists in South Africa had been keener on the long history of modern human development and pre-colonial periods.

WORLD HERITAGE CONVENTION

Pre-convention

In 1954, the government of Egypt decided to build the Aswan Dam (Aswan High Dam), an event that would flood a valley containing treasures of ancient Egypt such as the Abu Simbel temples. UNESCO then launched a worldwide safeguarding campaign. The Abu Simbel and Philae temples were taken apart, moved to a higher location, and put back together piece by piece.[6] That is a classic case of Rescue Archaeology.

The cost of the project, US$ 80 million, about $ 40 million was collected from 50 countries. The project was regarded as a success, and led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, a draft convention to protect the common cultural heritage of humanity later giving birth to the World Heritage List.

THE CONVENTION

The United States government initiated the idea of combining cultural conservation with nature conservation through a White House conference in 1965 which called for a ‘World Heritage Trust’ to preserve "the world's superb natural and scenic areas and historic sites for the present and the future of the entire world citizenry." The International Union for Conservation of Nature  developed similar proposals in 1968 and the programme founded the Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The programme was presented in 1972 in a General Conference of UNESCO United Nations conference on Human Environment in Stockholm. [3]which adopted it on November 16, 1972.

Nominations are evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and the World Conservation Union which then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. 

A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a place (such as a forest,mountain, lake, desert, monument, building, complex, or city) that is listed

by UNESCO as of special cultural or physical significance. The list is maintained by the international World Heritage Programme administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, composed of 21 state parties [1]  which are elected by their General Assembly for a four-year term.[2]

The program catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of humanity. Under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund.

CULTURAL HERITAGE AND SOUTHERN AFRICAThe archaeological research characteristic to Southern Africa has been more focused on human origins, hunter-gatherer communities, the Bantu migration and more recently social complexity. This has however been different if analysed on a national level. Archaeology of South Africa has been more inclined on human origins and rock art whilst the Zimbabwean situation has more of rock art of the Matopos and social complexity evolving from Great Zimbabwe. The Zambian situation has focus on the Rock art of the Farming communities as well as human origins. Evidence of which has come from sites as Kabwe where the Homo Sapien Neanderthal was discovered from the Kalambo Falls.

STONE AGE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric period during which humans widely used stone for tool-making. Visit website; http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/07/090728223022.htm

Early and Middle Stone Age of Africa was subject of archaeological research in South Africa where evidence of the Australopithecus was found as been discovered in the limestone caves; Sterkfontein, Kroomdraai and Swartkrans. This evidence corroborated the material evidence of hominid origins and evolution discovered from the Olduvai Gorge. The last phase of the era marks entry of agro pastoralists in southern Africa who replaced the San and Khoisan communities. These hunter gatherer communities made use of caves where the bulk of the evidence attesting to them, rock art, fruit shell, eggshells amongst others is found. The prominent site from the Stone Age is Apollo 2 Cave in Namibia which has been dated to more than 27500 years. Other equally important sites include;

SITE NAME COUNTRYTsodilo Hills BotswanaNswatugi ZimbabweBambata ZimbabweSilozwane Zimbabwe

Pomongwe ZimbabweWhite Rhino’s Cave Zimbabwe

IRON AGE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

The use of iron revolutionized the Bantu-speaking farming communities who adopted it, driving out and absorbing the stone tool using hunter-gatherer societies they encountered as they expanded to farm wider areas of the savannah. During the Iron Age there was an abrupt socio-economic organizational transition from a tribal and clan-based society common with the late stone age communities into a sovereign state form of government where rights of individuals were replaced by sovereignty to the state.

Researchers such as Huffman have thus presented the continuity and change in Iron Age tradition tracing it from around AD 900 to present day. The Iron age sites have been associated with materials and evidence of iron and copper tools, preferential burials practices, settled agriculture, religion, stone walled sites, Daga structures, ceramics, trade goods etc. Apart from monuments and cultural landscapes, these communities also observed ritual respect for natural landscapes which were seen as shrines. Evidence of such sites includes Great Zimbabwe, Victoria Falls, Ziwa National Monument, Mapungubwe, Khami, and Norumedzo Forest etc.

The period from 1890s saw the onset of colonization of Africa. This period saw the introduction of different socio-economic, religious, technological and political factors as we know them today. This includes, towns, money based economy, oppression of the African race, forced shifts in religion, etc. As such, this factor also brought in different culture hence new cultural material.

CATEGORIES OF HERITAGE

Heritage in Southern Africa and most of the world falls into three categories and different legislations have treated these terms slightly different. The categories are namely;

1) National Monuments2) Relics3) Antique

FORMS OF CULTURAL HERITAGE IN ZIMBABWE AND SOUTHERN AFRICAThe bulk of the cultural heritage found in this part of the continent take a number of forms which include movable and immovable. This list includes monuments, sites, landscapes and remains of archaeological, historical, religious, cultural, scientific and aesthetic significance. Some of the most prominent include;

1) ROCK ART SITES

2) DRY STONE WALLED SITES and associated structures (Daga structures)

3) SACRED FORESTS AND SHRINES

4) HISTORIC BUILDINGS

5) THEME PARKS

ROCK ART SITES

Rock art refers to expressive art presented on rock surfaces and attributed in large part to hunter-gatherer communities and in some cases, early farming communities. In terms of density of distribution, the greatest concentrations of this rock art within Zimbabwe is in the Matopo Cultural Landscape whilst Mutoko is second. The largest displays are evident in caves such as Nswatugi, Bambata, Silozwane and White Rhino’s Cave. Pomongwe used to have large displays but due to tourism, the art was lost.

Rock art placement was determined by the availability of suitable granitic rock surface and the trend observed is; where a suitable rock surface is shaded such as under an overhanging rock or a cave, we find rock paintings whilst rock engravings are found on ‘open-to-the-sky’ surfaces. This can allude to the possibility that the executors of the art wanted it to survive. A red substance was used for the rock paintings and research, though it has not been able to pin point the exact materials, it has been argued that this pigment comprised of animal oils, root juices, egg extracts amongst other materials. When the settlers first saw the art, they concluded that it had been executed as a past time hence Art for Arts’ Sake. This conclusion was however changed through results of ethnographic research by researchers such Lewis-Williams on the San of the Kalahari desert.

Rock paintings This is an art created through applying paint to a surface using mediums such as feathers, sticks or even fingers. This type of art is not long-lasting hence the executors placed it where it was least affected by agents of denudation such as light and rain. Of the art in Zimbabwe, almost all of it is rock paintings.

Rock Engravings This is an art created through repeated scratching of a rock surface with another piece of rock to trace out an outline of the image. Because of the

limited effects of factors such as rain and light on this art, this art is noted to be on exposed rock surfaces. Such art is however found in the Drakensburg Mountains of South Africa.

It is also important to acknowledge that not all rock is attributed to the hunter-gather communities. Zambia presents a different scenario to Zimbabwe. Some of the art has been attributed to the agro-pastoralists (Bantu). The rock art of Zambia is mostly executed in a white pigment contrary to the red ochre common to Zimbabwe. Some rock art sites in Zambia are still actively used for the Chinamwali rituals of initiation of both girls and boys into adulthood. A curious factor attesting to two groups having executed the art is most notable where the two (very different art types) are found within the same geographic contexts. As such, this has led archaeologists into arguing the group succeeded one another and left behind their art.

CASE STUDY

Nswatugi Cave

This cave is located near the summit of Nswatugi hill in the Matopos. Its significance to Zimbabwean archaeology is two fold. The name implies or translates to ‘the place of jumping’. It refers to the local legend that a deity, Mlimo, hoped across the Matopos to Njelele, his most important shrine to date. There is a shallow depression about 25cm long which resembles a footprint, hence the basis for the name. The locals say this is Mlimo’s footprint that was left as he leapt across the Matopos but there are no traditions relating to it e.g. considering it as a sacred site or a place for rituals.

On the other hand, Nswatugi is better known as a result of archaeological research carried out by Neville Jones in 1993. This cave was selected mostly because of its accessibility, the mixed layer between middle and late Stone Age hence was an aggregation phase settlement marking the transition between the two eras. According to Nick Walker (1995), the remains of a woman (dated to more than 9500 years before present) and burnt fragment remains of a child (dated to about 8000 years before present) suggest that other forms of funerary rites were practiced in the Matopos hence the archaeological interest in the cave. This scenario can also be used to explain values attached to cultural heritage sites in Zimbabwe.

DRY STONE WALLED SITES

These are evidence of the pinnacle of development of the Iron Age period and the most famous site being Great Zimbabwe. Social complexity was traced to the Shashe Limpopo valley where a

combination of natural and human-based factors resulted in the shift of the trade center from Mapungubwe to Great Zimbabwe.

SOCIAL COMPLEXITY

As space for agriculture grew scacier and populations increased in the central Africa, populations embarked on widespread movements downwards. These were the Bantu communities whose way of life revolved around plant and crop production. This group displaced the nomadic community that had long occupied Southern Africa. This was the San hunter-gatherers.

Because of the character of Great Zimbabwe, archaeologists sought to explain its origins and research in the Shashe –Limpopo valley yielded information that bridged and explained that transition. The earliest evidence of complexity was noted and dated to around AD900 with sites of the Schroda ommunity. This community had evidence of both and hunting. Geographic evidence points to hunting as the most dominant activity because during that time, the valley had dry and hot seasons which would not have sustained productive plant crops. Around AD 1000, pottery related to such sites disappeared from the archaeological record and instead, was replaced by that from Bambanjanalo/K2. This appeared to be a new community that had moved into the valley. Unlike the Schroda community, it had the Central Cattle Pattern System. Explanations for the rapid disappearance of the Scroda pottery argued that either the Schroda community had been absorbed into K2 or had been forced to move away into Zimbabwe or Botswana. Later years saw pottery liken to the Schroda community being visible amidst the K2 pottery, a factor that was said to reflect a possibility that the Scroda had assumed a pivotal role in the politics of K2.

The K2 community, because of the shift in base of economic activity from cattle to trade, moved to a new settlement, Mapungubwe. It is at this site that the earliest evidence of separate and isolated residency of the king becomes noticed. The king lived on the hilltop, a feature that was

Dry stone walled sites were usually the residency of the elite, a concept that had been first seen at Mapungubwe, a feature that was to be synonymous with all later IRON AGE sites.

Significance of Dry Stone walled sites

Explanation of trade practices, power and politics of trade and its influence on state politics

Distribution and control of wealth in complex states

Specialization and reflections on gender

The sites were termed dry-stone walled on the basis that stones were arranged one on top of the next in the form of the wall without the use of a reinforcing agent such as mortar. Several designs are evident on most walled sites which include; herringbone, checkered, iron band and chevron.

In terms of styles of construction, three categories have been deciphered. These are;

Q (Quality) style with this style, the blocks are of almost the same size, well cut and arranged in organized courses. This is considered as the reflecting the last phases of the construction of Great Zimbabwe.

P (Poor) style with this style, the stone blocks used are not of a refined shape and often, the courses are not pronounced. It has been argued as a sign of hurriedly done work.

PQ (combination of poor and quality) style this is a combination of both quality and poor workmanship. Some blocks are of regular size and well course whilst other sections do not display the same system

Apart from the walls, these sites also contained other material culture such as Daga structures, iron and copper tools, ceramics which through associations and scientific research has led archaeologists into making academic conclusions on the type of life during this period. These sites were also religious centers as was the case of Great Zimbabwe.

SACRED FORESTS AND SHRINES

Traditional African religion and general way of life is guided by strong associations and respect of the link between man and nature. As such, this has resulted in some natural landscapes of particular features gaining more respect as they are associated with supernatural beings. Such is the scenario that defines sacred forests and landscapes in Zimbabwe. The same traditional therefore have upheld a number of myths and taboos that ensure the reverence or positions of such features within the societies.

Norumedzo Forest

A forest in Bikita with sacred valued. The forest has trees which are favored by the Stinkbug ‘Harurwa’, a delicacy enjoyed by the community whilst also being a source of revenue. On the

other hand, the same forest has a mythical story attached to it. It is said that Nemeso (a four-eyed) man was killed in the forest. He had been considered as a ‘freak’ on the basis that not only was he a twin but he had a disability, the eyes. As such, this forest has been argued to be the home of his angry spirit such that nobody is allowed to enter the forest, to source firewood without consent of traditional leaders. This forest is thus in stark contrast to its surrounding area where there is evidence of deforestation. Prior to harvesting the ‘harurwa’, ritual ceremonies of appeasing the spirit of Nemeso are conducted. To protect the forest, surrounding villages have teams of men who protect the forest at intervals. They bar unauthorized entry and collection of firewood from the forest. In that regard, they community safeguards the forest whilst also benefiting from it. that is sustainable management.

Other sacred sites include;

Njelele/Matonjeni

This is situated in the Matopos cultural landscape but was traditional viewed as the most sacred shrine in African traditionalism. It was the centre for rain rainmaking ceremonies of the country and was the residency of the High priest. It is from this place that decisions were made. Mkwati’s move to rile up Africans to revolt against settler occupation is believed to have come from this shrine.

Rambakurimwa (Domboshava)

This is a natural stand/groove of the ‘Muzhanje’ trees found in Domboshava under Chief Chinamora. Today, the forest stands in stark contrast to its surrounding area a it is still heavily wooded. This is because of the myths and taboos associated with the site. Taboos say that nobody is allowed to comment on the taste of the fruit as such an act would lead one getting disoriented that it becomes difficult for them to find their way out. Apart from that, it is believed that if one was to cut down a tree from this forest, it would grow back. As such trees are not cut from the forest hence the name. This forest is also found juxtaposition to the sacred cave on top of the granitic outcrop. This cave was a site for rain making ceremonies that involved lighting fires in the cave and observing how the smoke ‘behaved’. For this, the local community used a geological tunnel that starts from the cave and exits at the top of the rock about 30-50 metres above it. Because the cave is considered sacred, people are allowed to take photographs within the cave and to reinforce that, a legend of a white tourist lady who defied the notice not to take photos and mysteriously became bald is retold.

Manyanga/Ntabazikamabo

This site has strong associations with the Mwali Religion although it was a lesser site as compared to Njelele. It still played a pivotal role even in the political context of the country then. As the name implies, this was a site for the burial of Rozvi Kings and following traditional religion, such places were out of bounds for the general public. The first had been Changamire Dombo. This is also the place at the centre of the story presented in the Shona novel; Nhume Yamambo.

The last king at the site was Chirisamhuru who is believed to have been killed by the Nguni warrior; Nyamazana. Historians have gathered that even Mzilikazi, as established his capital near Inyati, he showed respect for the site through constant consultation, a factor that even Lobengula maintained. The spirit medium; Mkwati resided at the site where he led rituals for rain making and ancestral appeasement but he was only a messenger of the high priest of Njelele. Mkwati even managed to rile up spirits of the Africans on a need to remove the settlers (a message that had come from Njelele), a move that led to the 1896 war that resulted in the capture and murder of Mkwati whilst his wife was placed in the Inyati reserve but even then, she continued leading rituals at the shrine. From 1896 the shrine did not have a resident priest hence the last priest of the shrine had been Mkwati. Historians however argue that she (Tenkele) was even more important than Mkwati, her husband, because unlike him who was only a messenger to Njelele, she was actually from Njelele.

For some time starting 1930s there were no rituals held at Manyanga as the settler government had placed the site within the farm issued to Thomas Meikles in the 1930s as a result of the Land Tenure Act provisions which has been in constant occupation ever since. The Act also relocated the local communTity under Chief Magola who went with Barumbi Shoko, a rain goddess born at Njelele and argued to have been the daughter of Mkwati and Tenkele but she came back in 1943 and resumed ritual practice at the shrine. In 1991, a Mr Moyo led the ritual ‘Amadlozi Amakhulu’ to reopen the shrine before resuscitation of ritual practices.

Nyanga Forest

Ziwa Forest

Mijikenda Kaya Forests (Tanzania)

HISTORIC BUILDINGS

This form of heritage is a legacy of the colonial rule in Zimbabwe. As the Pioneer column marched into Zimbabwe, they established a series of forts (Tuli, Victoria, Charter and Salisbury). Of these forts and colonial settlements grew major cities that contain historic buildings. Of the most notable include;

Mai Musodzi Hall Located in Mbare. This simple hall gained prominence during the colonial era whereby it was the venue for ceremonies such as weddings, meetings, drama groups and film viewing. It had been constructed by the settler government as a way of giving the Africans their own resources for entertainment, hence they would not venture into the Whites areas.

Stodart Hall

Stanley Hall Located in Bulawayo’s high density area of Makokoba. This was a centre for various black activities such as rallies.

Market Hall (Harare), Paper house (Kwekwe), Stock Exchange Building (Gweru), Old Magistrate Court (Gweru)

THEME PARKS

Zimbabwe does not boast of many Theme parks but prides itself in the two that exist. Initially, the Shona village at Great Zimbabwe was earmarked to be a theme park where there would be a revival and showcase of typical Shona culture within the cultural landscape of Great Zimbabwe. The same was the initial plan for the last known capital (kraal) of King of the Ndebele; Lobengula which he burnt as a traditional symbol as he prepared to flee the settler forces.

Overview of Old Bulawayo as a Theme Park

this was the kraal/capital of King Lobengula containing a number of infrastructures typical of traditional Nguni style of setup. It comprised a number of beehive shaped huts made of grass thatch and poles for the king, his sisters and wives. In addition to the huts, the palace also had Lobengula’s cattle kraal and a modern building believed to have been built for him by Jesuit missionaries in exchange for permission to set residency approximately 100 meters from his own residence. In the vicinity is the Indaba tree under which he sat in council and when he signed the infamous treaties that included the Moffat Treaty and the Rudd Concession. The king’s kraal was defined by a perimeter fence of poles, and all these features are typical of traditional Nguni culture notable in South Africa.

Liberation War Heritage

The rise of Nationalism in Zimbabwe can be traced back to the 1950s where several nationalist parties were formed. Although the settler government tried by all means to quash this through imprisonment of political activists, the most prominent became ZANU and PF ZAPU. Several prisons were constructed primarily for these activists.

Gonakudzingwa

This was the remotest prison built primarily for the PF ZAPU activists. It was located in the now, Gonarezhou National Park. The nearest habited place was 60 km away. The prisoners were not primarily guarded as the case with modern prisons but were kept in by the fact that they were in a wild jungle with all sorts of carnivorous animals. Today only decayed posts mark the foundations of the tin huts which were the homes for the prisoners.

Sikombela

This was a prison built primarily for the ZANU political Activists. It was located approximately 5 km after the turnoff to Gokwe along the Gweru-Harare highway. Unlike Gonakudzingwa, the prisoners at Sikombela had interactions with nearby villagers but still, they were isolated from active politics. Today, only evidence of hut foundations mark positions of huts that once resembled the most terrifying prisons in colonial Zimbabwe.

Chimoio and Nyadzonya

Political activities outside the borders of Zimbabwe were concentrated in Mozambique and Zambia. This was mostly because the politics of these two nations advocated for socialism rather than capitalism. The most famous camps used for the training of guerillas were Chimoio and Nyadzonya, later bombed consecutively resulting in massive causalities. Because of circumstances, state of the deceased and resource constraints the deceased were buried in mass graves. These sites therefore represent the saddest time of the liberation war and are accordingly recognized as National Monuments of Zimbabwe although falling outside Zimbabwe.

Chinhoyi Battle site

This site, located approximately a kilometer west of Chinhoyi Provincial Heroes Acre was the site for the first battle marking the beginning of the Second Chimurenga. The battle that ensured there was not supposed to have taken place since this group of seven guerillas (the first to be

deployed back into Zimbabwe), were ambushed as they made their way past present day Chinhoyi. This battle bring a lot of emotion to locals of the area hence is also a best kept secret. Nobody is willing to disclose exactly why it all happened. These men fought bravely but because they were outnumbered and out-resourced, they all perished. The custodian of the Heroes Acre recounts the bravery of this group which enabled the to wade off an attack that lasted several hours. The European army lost a helicopter, whose remains are in the Heroes Acre’s Site museum

National and Provincial Heroes Acres

These sites are designated burial places for those individuals argued by the government task unit to have contributed immensely to the liberation and independence of Zimbabwe. The deliberations by the responsible authority accords the National Hero/Heroine or Provincial Hero/Heroine Status which leads to one being interred at the National Heroes Acre or the Provincial Heroes Acres respectively. These sites fall under the jurisdiction of NMMZ. The first hero at Heroes Acre was Cde J.M. Tongogara (reburied there on August 11) hence the reason why Heroes Day on August 11.

Cultural Landscapes

Ziwa/Nyanga Terraces

The Nyanga area, making part of the Eastern Highlands, is geographically a difficult place to establish settlement based on agriculture. This obstacle was however overcome by the Ziwa community which terraced the landscape for settlement and agriculture. Numerous reasons for them favoring this difficult terrain have been propounded but the most prevalent was that, they were escaping persecution hence chose the area for its defensive advantages. To date, this community is ranked as one of the most impressive. Evidence of the terraces is still there and this culture of terracing is still evident of remote rural areas of Nyanga such as Nyakomba, communities along the Gairezi River and in Nyamaropa.

VALUES ATTACHED TO HERITAGE FORMS (Zimbabwean Context)

In all instances involving cultural property, it must be acknowledged that there existed an intrinsic relationship between man and nature, an attribute sanctioned by tradition. As such, all sites had different values then and now. Values, in relation to cultural heritage, refer to a stake, interest or concern that is placed upon a site and these differ depending on the person, group or organization. As such, a site could have many values and stakeholders at the same time whilst

another may only have two stakeholders. The stakeholders however can also be distinguished basing on the nature of stake (historical, economic, political etc), level of participation (active or passive), and influence at the site (legal or traditional).

Stakeholders to cultural heritage in Zimbabwe;

Primary stakeholders

1) National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe (NMMZ)

This organization is the legal custodian to all cultural heritage of Zimbabwe as sanctioned through the NMMZ Act Chapter 25/11.

2) Local Communities

Most of the cultural sites known today are located in rural areas and in most cases, there remain communities around these sites or who are related to the ancestors that resided at these sites. As such, they have a long association with the site hence are considered a stakeholders of the sites. This is the case with sites such as Great Zimbabwe whose Nemamwa and Mugabe Clans claim ancestral ownership of the site. The Nyanga sacred forest is also linked in tradition to the Saunyama people of the area. Domboshava also has Chief Chinamora and his people as its local community whilst the stakeholders of Manyanga/Ntabazikamambo are not more varied. Upon removal of the Rozvi from Manyanga in the 1930s and their relocation 100 km away, another group was later introduced into the vicinity. These are equally the site’s local community despite the obvious limited relationship with the history of the site.

Secondary stakeholders

Amongst such stakeholders include;

Rural District Council/Local Government

Their interest is on the basis that these sites fall within their areas of jurisdiction hence have a marginal role in the management of the sites.

National Parks and Wildlife Authority

In some cases, cultural heritage sites are located within areas designated as national parks. This is the case with cultural heritage sites such as most of the Rock arts sites in the Matopos

excluding Silozwane, also the same with the site of Cecil John Rhodes’ grave. In that case, any visitor to these places has to enter the national park hence their interest. Matopo cultural landscape is considered a sanctuary as it contains hundreds of species of both flora and fauna thereby underlining its status as a World’s view.

Victoria Falls, though mostly presented and known as a natural wonder is in fact, a cultural landscape associated with the Tonga community. They used to conduct ritual practices at the site but this all stopped when the site was placed under National Parks because of the Equatorial type climate and forest along the falls themselves.

Private Corporations/Persons

Sites such as Manyanga are located within privately held properties. The farm used to be owned by Thomas Meikles and as such, he also has a stake regarding what happens at the site because it is on his land. We also have Tour Operators as stakeholders to some sites in the case that they are tourist attractions. Examples are Great Zimbabwe, Khami, Victoria Falls, Ziwa National monuments amongst others.

VALUES AT CULTURAL HERITAGE SITES

Because of the diversity of stakeholders, several values are noticeable at different sites and these include;

1) Scientific Value

2) Economic Value

3) Sacred Value

4) Political/National Value

5) Educational Value

6) Religious Value

7) Aesthetic Value

Scientific Value

This value is upheld by persons, mostly professionals, who regard cultural heritage sites as places of scientific research. These professionals are not only limited to archaeologists but can include biologists, engineers, botanists, geologists, architects, Zooarchaeologists etc. Archaeologists have yielded evidence that support that Great Zimbabwe has an African origin and once was engaged in international trade with the Far East countries. This evidence came through archaeological excavations that yielded Persian ceramics, Chinese porcelains found amid the ceramics of indigenous Africans. Apart from that, Mapungubwe is now attributed as the earliest socially complex society because its dates are older than Great Zimbabwe’s whilst its economic life has been argued to have included hunting and or trade in ivory, a factor that was helped by the environmental conditions of the time. Archaeologists also document, record sites, list and declare sites as important evidence of past cultures. Climatologists have also added that it declined as influenced partly by the little Ice Age that changed the climatic temperatures of the Shashe Limpopo Valley. Anthropologists have yielded and supported the Cradle of Humanity theory through hominid fossils discovered through archaeological research in South Africa and Tanzania.

Economic Value

The contemporary economic trend witnessed across the globe involves Cultural tourism. This is also the same with Zimbabwe where several sites are tourist destinations. The most prominent sites are Great Zimbabwe, Khami Victoria Falls. All these sites have one thing in common, they are marketable. This may be influenced by a number of factors such as aesthetic beauty, environmental factors, historical associations, and or religious connotations. As such, business operators such as tour operators ascribe an economic value to the sites based on the site’s ability to turn into a cash cow. This value goes hand in hand with the Aesthetic value attached to cultural heritage sites.

Based on a combination of rarity and unique nature of construction that did not involve use of mortar, Great Zimbabwe has an aesthetic value hence an economic value. Such values has seen the construction of the Great Zimbabwe hotel, the Great Zimbabwe Museums, an A1 highway to the site, , a golf course, numerous chalets (self catering lodges), as well as other supportive tourism infrastructure at Nemamwa Business centre and at Lake Kyle.

The same trend is also noticeable at Victoria Falls which has resulted in the site been promoted more as a Wonder of the World, tourist destination rather than also as a cultural landscape. To promote tourism, a number of hotels and tourism facilities have been established such as the Kingdom Hotel, Elephant Hills Hotel, Shearwater Hotel, Tatenda Safaris and Crocodile farm.

Tourism activities common include Bunji Jumping, Sunset boat cruises, helicopter flights, fly fishing and the famous white water rafting.

Mabura caves in the Zhombe area are believed to have been inhabited and have myths and taboos associated with them. These caves cover a stretch of over 20km are home to thousands of bats. Bat droppings guano, is a fertilizer which has been attracting even the Zibagwe Rural District Council and other mining companies. Source: (Sunday News: Monday 26, 2010.)

Sacred /Religious Value

Traditionally, the residencies of the elite rulers have been regarded as sacred places. This stems from the association that these rulers were chosen by ancestors and had the power to mediate between them and the ancestors thereby outlining the traditional religion practices of the same communities. As such, the sacred value is upheld by local communities who see sites, not primarily as tourist destinations but as an important part of culture in terms of social identity and sustenance. The Nemamwa and Mugabe clans view Great Zimbabwe as a sacred site where their ancestors have always conducted rituals. This is therefore the reason why they were not initially for the idea of restoration of the walls when they collapsed as well as use of the site for tourism. The same scenario prevails at Manyanga, Domboshava and Nyanga mountains. With sites such as Domboshava, although the cave has rock paintings, what matters most is not the art but the associated use of the cave which defines the sacredness of the site.

Political/National Value

Some sites such as Great Zimbabwe have tended to have a political hence national value associated with them. This can be traced to the 1950s when resistance to colonialism in Zimbabwe was growing. Political activists at the time used common heritage as a binding factor thereby putting aside ethnical differences. This is the reason why the two prominent political groups to emerge from that era had their names bearing relation to Great Zimbabwe. These were the ZANU and P.F.ZAPU. As such, the uniting factor of common cultural heritage has resulted in the country being the only one in the world to be named after a cultural heritage site. Apart from that, Zimbabwe formally adapted its name from the site, had the image of the site on its currency (the $1 coin) and has the image of the conical tower on the coat of arms and government badge. As such, the national value is recognized by all citizens of the country.

Educational Value

The educational value pertains to the amount and quality of information that can be imparted upon the citizens of Zimbabwe through understanding their cultural heritage. A number of school children have organized school trips to some cultural heritage sites such as Great Zimbabwe where they can learn about the cultural background to the Zimbabwe the now know. As such, the educational value goes hand in hand with the scientific value and is ascribe to the sites by stakeholders such as the educational sector and NMMZ.

Aesthetic Value

This relates more to the appearance of the site. In cases of built monuments, the architectural designs, their rarity, size, associations and local environments help define their beauty. This value is not primarily ascribed by one group by is a general feeling upheld by a number of stakeholders. This value is however more synonymous with the economic value as it is the one that results in the ascribing of an economic value at a site. This value is also ascribed to historic buildings but is more determined by their architectural designs and rarity of similar designed infrastructure.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

It should however be understood that in as much as cultural heritage is as old as humanity, it is not static. Culture is always changing but what remains are the most prominent components of the culture. The same can be said on the values attached to these sites. This change can be brought about by factors such as globalization and its associated aspects such as modern educational systems, legal systems of management, and change in religion amongst others. For example, a lot of debates have raged and are still raging concerning the Ngoma Lungundu. Questions posed include; How come the Lemba/Vamwenyi people, including the Chief who is over 80 years have no recollection of the supposed important ark? How and why would they give away an important part of their social identity artifact to a stranger if they had been using it? what did they use for the ritual that had involved the use of the ark if the ark had played an important role in the cultural life? These questions could possibly be answered with a simple hypothesis. The role of the Ngoma Lungundu either had been replaced by another cultural practice or it simply fell into disuse over time to an extent that they no longer had intricate associations with it.

THE RELATIONSHIP OF CULTURAL HERITAGE STAKEHOLDERS AND THE VALUES THEY ASCRIBE TO IT.

The coming of colonialism brought into Zimbabwe a new dimension of appreciation and management of our cultural heritage. The traditional system was replaced in most cases with the legal system, a factor that has resulted in cultural heritage being contested monuments.

In as much as some values do not conflict or compliment on others, some have disastrous relations and implications. For example, the scientific value categorizes cultural heritage sites as places of academic research for the understanding of the past. For archaeologists, research ultimately results in excavations, a destructive method of digging around at the sites and recovering material evidence which would be taken to museums for further analysis. In as much as the archaeologists try to only excavate systematically, in some cases, they do so on sacred grounds. This becomes a bone of contention with local communities who regard the excavations as desecration of the sites. As such, in most cases, the scientific value goes against the Sacred/Religious value. Of late, archaeologists have been associated with grave robbers. This is partly true and partly a misconstruction of the intentions of the researcher.

The traditional system has taboos and myths that guide the behavior of its society members when it comes to their interaction with important aspects of their identity. As such, it is realized that if a place is considered sacred, all society members are bound by some unwritten code of practice that has stipulated punishments and subsequent ancestral appeasement as apology. This ‘rule’ however does not particularly apply or applicable in situations where members of a different social and cultural background are at one site. This has been the result of tourism hence conflict of interest between the economic and sacred/religious values at one site. For example, the opening of Great Zimbabwe to tourism has been considered as desecration of the site by the local community. The economic value subsequently resulted in the disassociation of the site from them as their ritual practices were subsequently considered as illegal. As such, only the interests of tourists are catered for by the economic value. It must however be realized that it’s not to imply that the local communities do not realize the economic value of Great Zimbabwe. Some members of the local community are employed as tour guides whilst others used the influx of tourists as a platform for revenue generation through selling of curios. The bone of contention lies with the permission to conduct rituals as had been in their culture.

FACTORS INFLUENCING CULTURAL HERITAGE MANAGEMENT

1) The impact of international, national or local strategies and/proposed development/infrastructure programmes. Examples include mining, explorations for natural gas or oil, intensification of agricultural activities, road construction or other major construction schemes and how they support or conflict with the management principles of traditional and legal custodians. NMMZ Act is ambiguous about Impact Assessments as compared to NHRA, Botswana and Namibia Acts.

2) Issues arising from stakeholder participation/ lack of it in heritage management, eg Non participation of private sector, community empowerment, customary laws and practices in heritage management, resuscitation of Chiefs powers through the Traditional Leaders’ Act.

3) Relationship between resources at the heritage site and the needs of those who rely on them for their well being/livelihoods. Sustainable practices and poverty reduction

4) Promotion and marketing of heritage property

5) Disaster risk reduction planning ( part of the management plan)

6) Invasive species

7) Climate changes

8) Legislations eg NMMZ Act Chapter 25/11 (1997), Zimbabwe Mines and Minerals Act (1961), Environmental Management Agency

9) Inventories of cultural heritage (as part of documentation, storage and retrieval)

10) Conflicts and war

11) Exceptional Circumstances.

CASE 1:

NMMZ won its case against the National Parks and Wildlife Authority for management responsibility for Victoria Falls before an Arbitration Committee comprising the Government’s Chief lawyer; the Attorney General. It won the case that the area proclaimed as a national monument, as outlined by its Act, was in fact separate from the national park which NPWLA

manages. NPWLA claims that it has been managing the place ever since hence a status quo should be accepted as fait accompli (meaning an accomplished fact. It is commonly used to describe an action which is accomplished before those affected by it are in a position to query or reverse it. Its English equivalent would be ‘done deal’ NMMZ has not been demanding exclusive rights over the place but only an opportunity to implement its obligations in terms of its Act. NPWLA has not been cooperative in that regard.

CASE 2:

Sometimes the government finds it difficult to implement laws as they are deemed as restrictive to socio-economic development. A case of Nyanga clearly puts this out through the observation of Cran Cooke (1963), who said “…the position at Inyanga is that the whole area of 2000 square miles is dotted with ruins and pits, whilst every hillside is terraced… Our problem is that every landowner who digs a foundation or ploughs a land is virtually destroying some relic or monument of the past. Therefore if the letter of the law is to be enforced it appears that no new town can be developed in the area…”

Case Three

Mabura caves

SYSTEMS OF HERITAGE MANAGEMENT

Informal System

In the Zimbabwean scenario, there exist several Forests and shrines which are protected through the informal management system just as the Mijikenda Kaya forests. Norumedzo forest in Bikita is still managed through an informal system that has little to no interference from NMMZ. The community upholds several taboos and myths that define the behavior of community members thereby safeguarding the forest. For one, the forest is believed to be inhabited by the angry spirit of Nemeso. On the basis that the forest is also the breeding ground for the stink-bug (harurwa), the social fabric/construct does not allowed unauthorized entrance into the forest which nobody questions. As such, the harvesting of the harurwa is done only after a ritual of appeasing Nemeso had been done. Trees are not cut from the forest, hence defining an excellent case of sustainable management of natural resources. On one side, the community protects that forest and benefits

from it. The surrounding villages take turns posting sentries who make sure that nobody gains entrance without permission.

Great Zimbabwe: A Case study on Informal Management

Prior to the formal heritage management system, respect was expressed through sets of rules on what could be done and what could not be done at sacred sites such as Great Zimbabwe. These rules were taboos and they were the equivalent of modern day legal instruments. Taboos at GZ included;

1) Strangers were required to seek prior permission to enter the site.

2) People were not allowed to take things from the site or alter the site. Early Europeans such as Carl Mauch (who reported sighting a site with overgrown vegetation) mistook its condition for abandonment and neglect.

3) Children were not allowed into Great Zimbabwe in pre-colonial times.

4) Visitors were forbidden to speak ill of the site eg making a passing remark about fruits therein. Instead they could only take what was enough for immediate consumption and never for future consumption.

5) Those who were visiting for particular purpose had to use designated entrances called ‘Mijejeje’. These points were ritually opened and closed upon entry and opened and closed upon exit. (Summers 1971)

Case of the Mijikenda Kaya: Kenyan Experiences

The case of the Mijikenda Kaya Forest presents an ideal illustration of how an informal system of management of cultural property really operates. ‘Kaya’ is a Bantu word meaning ‘home’ and as such, these forests in Kenya were home to the Mijikenda communities because they provided good protection from enemies which have for long persecuted them. As such, an informal system of management of the non renewable resources that now defined their very existence gradually developed. This system was based on oaths, taboos, myths and curses.

Oaths a solemn promise/pact which involves the invoking of supernatural powers usually administered by traditionalists.

Rules relating to Site Maintenance

1) Tree-cutting

This was strictly forbidden. No green trees could be cut for firewood for the Kaya. The fine for breaking the rule was a goat offering. Women could collect only dead wood from the forest but never from the central clearing space which was the most sacred area of the entire Kaya. This central clearing contained the graves of ancestors and was also the site for rituals.

2) Grazing

The grazing of cattle in the Kaya was forbidden. The cattle of the Mijikenda were kept in special corrals separate from the settlement and could only be grazed outside the kaya.

Rules relating to behavior within the Kaya

Several rules were in place to prevent the desecration of the site. In the case of an infringement of the rule, fines were imposed and cleansing ceremonies conducted. As such, this forest was better preserved because of the spiritual dimension rather than physical dimension of the forest.

1) Sorcery

Sorcery/witchcraft was not allowed within the Kaya. This had more to do with its destructive and antisocial nature because it was harmful to the social cohesion of the group.

2) Bloodletting

The shedding of blood within most Kayas was considered as desecration of the Kaya. As such there was need to cleanse the site through rituals of appeasement. As such, some Kayas even banned the free movement of women within the Kaya especially during their menstrual periods.

3) Handling of the Dead.

No human remains were allowed into the central clearing unless it was of a dead elder. The central clearing was reserved for the burial of the important elders of the community only. There we designated burial places for different society members through the forest and only those who died of natural causes could be buried within the Kaya. Suicide and murder victims were buried outside the Kaya.

4) Attire

Some Kaya communities placed restrictions on the type of attire/clothing that could be worn on a visit to the central clearing. In the most sacred sites, only traditional garments could be worn. This concept could equally have been a way of identifying non-community members hence potential enemies.

5) Site access restrictions

In the Kayas of the Kalifi district, non-members of the community are not allowed into the central clearing. To add, the structure of the Kayas also posed restrictions of access. They were organized in such a way that they had four entrance points with a series of gates were sentries stood guard. The central cleaning therefore could only be accessed through these gates thereby ensuring limited to no chances of an enemy surprise attack.

COLONIALISM AND THE INFORMAL SYSTEM OF HERITAGE MANAGEMENT IN ZIMBABWE (1890-1980).

The philosophy of colonization led to serious erosion of the value of the traditional system of managing cultural sites. This was achieved through;

1) Legislation pertaining to ownership

The legislations such as the Land Apportionment Act (1931) and then the Land Tenure Act (1959) resulted in the loss of land by Africans as reserves where created for them instead. These acts also saw several sacred sites falling under privately held land such as Nharira Hills near Norton, Tsindi Ruins and Mhakwe Cave. The same situation was also witnessed with Manyanga whereby the descendants of the Rozvi clan were relocated to the Nkayi area which falls over 100 kilometers away. As such, the local communities lost the daily conduct with the sites thereby disassociated them.

2) Appointment of Chiefs

Since time immemorial, the selection of chiefs has always been considered as a role of the ancestors. The coming of colonialism also brought in, a change in the way chiefs were selected. Instead, the settler government picked/nominated those members of the community whom they could influence thereby undermining the role of tradition in selection of chiefs.

3) Formalized management of cultural heritage

The instigation of the Historic Monuments Act of 1937 and later the National Museums and Monuments Act of 1972 recognized cultural places only as state property thereby disregarding the intricate relationship between these sites and local communities.

4) Christianity

This new religion further drove the wedge between communities and their heritage based on its teachings. Christianity advocated for repentance from ‘pagan’ practices of appeasing the ancestors. This resulted in a gradual disassociation between the local communities and their cultural heritage.

5) The educational system

The formal system of gathering intellectual knowledge introduced as part of the colonial system also played its role in separating Africans from their heritage. With the coming of schools and their curriculum which focus more of the European perspective of the world, has thereby reduced the interactions of minds between the young generations and the older generations. Throughout tradition, grandmothers and grandfathers, uncles, aunts played pivotal roles in reiterating the important principles of their cultures, a platform that ensured the survival of myths and taboos. With the formal educational system, there remain limited chances of that schooling to take place.

6) Language Policies

The adoption of a foreign language, English in the case of Zimbabwe, into another community also leads it to adoption the new language’s associated components such as self value. English as language is not bad but what matters is the fact that with it came a change in appreciation of ethnic ways of life. This is also associated to globalization where people interact on a global scale and share cultures and experiences. Schools in Zimbabwe are predominantly English based and only one subject of at least ten is taught in the native tongue. This has seriously implicated the passing on and appreciation of traditional constructs as they can not be explained and accepted when viewed and presented in a foreign tongue.

THE FORMAL SYSTEM

NATIONAL MUSEUMS AND MONUMENTS OF ZIMBABWE (NMMZ)

This is the legal custodian of all cultural heritages in Zimbabwe, as outlined through its Act,

The NMMZ Act Chapter 25/11. It divides the country into five administrative regions as shown in the picture below;

Head Office

Is situated along Rotten Row Road, in-between the intersections Rotten Row and Robert Mugabe and Rotten Row and Nelson Mandela. This is the centre for administration of all regions of Zimbabwe.

Northern Region

Its regional museum in Harare and is called Museum of Human Sciences. As the name tries to depict, the museum has collections relating to human sciences. Amongst its permanent exhibition of material culture, in an anti-clockwise direction, we find material culture describing human evolution, rock art of the Matopos, Iron Age of Zimbabwe (centred on Great Zimbabwe), the Shona Village, Bird Collection, Natural Habitat Collection, Butterfly Collection, Evolution of Biological Life on Earth and lastly pre-human evolution period in Southern Africa. It is also responsible for all cultural heritage from its jurisdiction. Of note are sites such as Domboshava monument, National Heroes Acre, Chiremba/Epworth Balancing Rocks, Mutoko Ruins amongst others. Its museum also contains all research material concerning all archaeological carried out in Zimbabwe ie the Archaeological Survey Unit.

Eastern Region.

The region’s museum is in Mutare and is called Mutare Museum of Antiquities. This region is responsible for cultural heritage such as the Utopia House (the residency of the man who surveyed the location of the present day Mutare, Ziwa National Monument (Nyanga), Diana’s Vow amongst other sites.

Southern Region

Its museum is at Great Zimbabwe and its focus is on material culture from the site which depicts the Iron Age of Zimbabwe. This is the home for the Famous Zimbabwe Soapstone birds commonly known as the Zimbabwe birds. This region also sees to the documentation and restoration of dry stone walled sites dotted across the country.

Central Region

This is the fourth region of NMMZ and its head office and museum is in Gweru. It is called Military History Museum. This museum also has another wing, called the Aviation History museum. It is located in the Trim Park. Gweru and the central region was chosen to house this museum mostly because of the history of this part of the country in terms of military history. The nearby school; Guinea Fowl High school was the first school for pilots and later converted into a high school. As such, the museum has a Guinea Fowl Memorial which helps celebrate that history. The central region has a number of sites such as Danamombe (the third largest Zimbabwe type-site on the plateau. It was the second capital for the Rozvi after they abandoned Khami which had been burnt), Naletale, Regina, Imbali Iron Smelting sites, Insukhamini Ruins amongst others.

Western Region

This region is primarily responsible for the management of heritage in the Matebeland north and south. Its main museum is located in Bulawayo and is called Natural History Museum. It has diversified category of collections which includes, natural sciences as well as material culture attesting to the coming of the European settlers when they colonized the country. Under this region are sites such as Matopos Cultural landscape, Victoria Falls Cultural Landscape, Khami World Heritage Site, Nswatugi, Bambata, Pomongwe, and Silozwane amongst others.

HERITAGE AND THE LAW:

KEY ORGANISATIONS FOR HERITAGE MANAGEMENT (roles)

1) UNESCO (UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANISATION)

2) ICOMOS (INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON MONUMENTS AND SITES)

3) AFRICOM (AFRICAN CHAPTER OF ICOM)

4) ICRROM ( INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR

5) ICOM (INTERANTIONAL COUNCIL OF MUSEUMS)

6) CIDOC (INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR DOCUMENTATION)

CHARTERS AND CONVENTIONS DEALING WITH HERITAGE MANAGEMENT

The distinctive feature of all law-making treaties is that they are intended to have an international rather than a local applicability. As such, a sine qua non for the success of any convention that addresses issues to do with cultural heritage has to start from a point of acceptance that in African societies, there is a thin line between nature and derivatives such as culture. That is to say, in Africa, culture is enshrined in both the physical and supernatural aspects associated with the physical materials. This is evident in the traditional religious systems.

Charters are codes of ethics stipulating the standards of a profession of ‘the best practices’. They consist of moral codes hence consist of do’s and don’ts.

1) Venice Charter or (International Charter for Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites led to the creation of ICOMOS. Established in 1964, it superseded the Athens Charter which had been put in place in 1931 as the first attempt to promote professional ethics in conservation (restoration) of heritage. It was a congress of Architects and Specialists of Historic Buildings. It came after the creation of the League of Nations.

2) Burra and the Chinese Charters are homegrown charters that address peculiarities of their countries. The Burra charter has contributed towards conservation ethics and discipline. It recommended comprehensive project plans prior to any project and is used by the Australian government when awarding grants for work on historic buildings.

RELATIONS BETWEEN FORMAL AND INFORMAL SYSTEMS

In relation to the situations/characteristics outlined above, it can be realized that the two systems are different. As such, this has resulted in a number of conflicts which can only be resolved through co-management. One way is through drafting of management plans.

Management Plans for Cultural Heritage;

A management plan can be thought of as public contract between the management organization and the stakeholders of cultural property. It is also a tool for improving communication and monitoring and evaluating management activities. In the best cases, a management plan helps reduce and even overcome conflict by enabling local people to understand and become involved in the management of cultural property.

Beneficiaries of Management Plans

Since management plans provide the focus for creation and strengthening of partnerships needed to safeguard values and integrity of cultural property, they are therefore of interest not only to the legal custodian of the heritage but also;

1) National Government departments and Politicians with influence or interest in heritage conservation (these are the ones who allocate resources and staff for heritage management)

2) Local government administration

3) Non governmental organizations

4) Those who live in and use the heritage property (local community and interest groups)

5) Those who are responsible for monitoring and reporting on environmental changes at cultural heritage properties (including specialist or technical interest groups)

6) The private sector including business and commercial interests

How do we benefit from Management Plans

1) It focuses management thinking and effort on delivering the requirements of the Local heritage legislation or even the World Heritage Convention.

2) Provides us with a clear and concise statement of how and why the values and integrity of a heritage property will be safeguarded, managed or improved.

3) Sets a framework for all activities within the property for a stipulated period and within a context of a vision for the next 20 years.

4) Explains the ambition and objectives for the property through the eyes of those responsible for maintaining its local, national or global importance and status.

5) Provides consistency and continuity for the managing organization, direction and focus for management effort, the use of resources and staff.

6) Encourage cooperative decision making and enables everybody to understand the reasons for the work they are doing.

7) Provides the means, through the process of its preparation, a means of engaging with stakeholders and securing their support and involvement where appropriate in the management and use of this property.

8) Enable us to focus attention on the information needed to judge the management process as well as its evaluation through monitoring.

9) It increases accountability and establishes a means of assessing management effectiveness.

Other important issues a management plan should address;

1) Financial and Business planning

2) Planning for visitors

3) Disaster Risk Reduction Planning.

Engaging Stakeholders (Who and When?)

Stakeholder participation throughout the preparation of any management plan is recognized as fundamental if effective management and long term support for the protection and conservation of cultural heritage is to be achieved. Understanding why and deciding when to engage with partners and stakeholders is critical and how this is achieved depends on local circumstances and arrangements. The stages of the plan will have to tolerate that;

1) It should make identification of key stakeholders carefully in relation to the key dynamics of the heritage. NB cultural property is different and its composed of different values, etc( that is the dynamics)

2) It should explain in a clear way, the limits within which issues can be discussed and negotiated.

3) Recognizing that other issues besides natural conservation will be discussed.

4) Engaging people’s fears and hopes. (Locals may not want any outsiders to play a role in decision making so this issue has to be decided upon).

5) Retain flexibility.

STAGES OF A MANAGEMENT PLAN

1) STAGE 1: GETTING STARTED AND PLANNIG FOR THE WORK

Fail to prepare; then prepare to fail. A management plan is just as important as its components. This would involve deciding on how it will be done, who will be responsible (team), who will lead the team which should be multidisciplinary in nature who should

a) Have a detailed local knowledge of the property and its natural and cultural values.

b) A scientific understanding of the ecosystem in the area

c) Understanding of the social and economic issues which affect the property, its landscape, and benefits to the local community.

d) Abilities in business planning ie costing, budgeting etc.

e) Skills is communications

f) Good in advocacy and negotiation

g) Political sensitivities and ability to build rapport and credibility with others

h) Project management skills

i) Vision and realism

j) Good facilitators

2) STAGE 2: Understanding the heritage’s characteristics and natural values

3) STAGE 3: Deciding on who should be involved and when

4) STAGE 4: Agreeing on a vision and setting management objectives

5) STAGE 5: Examining management options

6) STAGE 6: Agreeing on management policies

7) STAGE 7; Agreeing on management actions

8) STAGE 8: Consulting on and approving the plan

9) STAGE 9: Monitoring the plan.

10) STAGE 10: Reviewing the plan

As such, when drafting a management plan, the ‘SMART’ concept should be followed. This is an acronym for

S: Specific

M: Measurable

A: Attainable or Achievable

R: Relevant

T: Trackable or Time-bound

Legislations of African countries

Zimbabwe: National Museums and Monuments Act Chapter 25/11 of 1997.

South Africa: National Heritage Resources Act (NHRA) of 1999.

Botswana: Monuments and Relics Act of 2001.

Zambia; National Heritage Conservation Commission Act No 23 of 1989.

Nigeria: National Commission for Museums and Monuments Decree No. 77 of 1979.

Kenya: National Museums and Heritage Act of 2006.

Gambia: The Monuments and Relics Act of 1974

Malawi; Monuments Act of 1965

Uganda; Historical Monuments Act of 1967

Lesotho: The Historical Monuments, Relics, Fauna and Flora Act of 1967

Sudan: Antiquities Ordinance of 1952 (one of the earliest in Africa)

Namibia: National Heritage Act of 2004.

What makes a good legislation?

A good legislation must consider;

1) Use of simple language. The use of technical and legal jargon where simple expressions are possible only makes the legislation ineffective. NMMZ Act Chapter 25/11 is presented in relatively simple language such that most people can understand it. This is not to say that it is the most comprehensive legislation. Simplicity does not mean comprehensiveness.

2) Recognize intangible heritage. The Japanese legislation makes reference to intangible heritage as a component of culture. The same can be said of the South Africa’s National Heritage Resources Act (NHRA). With recognition of intangible aspects of culture as important as the tangible, the legislation becomes a tool for development and not oppression.

3) Recognition of local communities. Local communities in this case refer to those cultural groups whose history is intertwined with the history of the sites or artifacts. Once the legislation recognizes intangible heritage, it automatically recognizes the local communities, hence the people who uphold the intangible values.

4) Accessibility. A good legislation is not drafted for archiving. Instead, it should be a tool of instruction. As such, a good legislation ahs to be available in a variety of media or distribution centres. That way, a broad community is reached. A lot of problems with heritage management can be solved only if the legislation was publicized in Zimbabwe. In South Africa, the SAHRA is printed in a variety of languages to cater for the different languages that make up the Official languages of South Africa.

5) Definition of key terms. Any legislation should have a comprehensive definition of terms. This is to ensure that everybody has an idea of what is cultural heritage and what is contemporary art.

6) Recognize and identify international organization of heritage management such as ICOM, CIDOC, ICCROM, WHC, Venice and Burra Charters. It must simply be realized that just because a charter is there does not mean it has to be followed. Charters are result of experiences of others. The Burra Charter is an Australian experience with intangible heritage.

7) Recognize and identify local organizations that it relates with. For example, the management of cultural property in Zimbabwe has considerations of Acts and organizations such as the Regional Town and Country planning Act, Chiefs Council, Environmental Management Agency (EMA), Mines and Minerals Act etc. Such recognition would help identify the stakeholders to Zimbabwean Heritage.

8) Have review timeframes. There is virtual nothing that remains the same forever when it comes to management strategies for cultural heritage. As such, a good legislation should have a hint on an agreed timeframe for its review. This has been the problem with the NMMZ Act which to date still excludes local communities although on the ground they are recognized.

9) Stiff penalties. Any good legislation should have enforced and deterrent measures in case of violation. Without it, cultural heritage stands at greater risk. This would be the advantage of a review date. For example, the period from 1998 till 2009 marked drastic economic slump for the country which resulted in the worst inflation ever recorded which ran into quadrillions. (32 zeros). Simply put, it means the local currency was worthless. Without review dates for the legislation, it means that crimes of today have a fine placed more than ten years ago, which ultimately means that it’s not deterrent at all. Now that Zimbabwe has the Multi currency system in place, there is need to review the fines so that they mean something. Without changing the fines into U.S Dollars or the equivalent in SA Rands, all those who break the law should pay in Zimbabwean Dollars.

This is also the advantage of ranking sites.

10) Incentives. South Africa is the only country in Sub Saharan Africa that offers incentives for heritage conservation. This is outlined in section 1 subsection 43.

11) Register or Inventory of heritage sites. Almost all African legislation provide for that duty.

12) By-laws, Rules and Regulations. This allows rules and laws to be made which could not have been put in the principal legislation. NMMZ Act has that provision in section 42 subsections 1 and 2.

13) Traditional Culture/Religion recognition. Most African countries still have their legislation reflecting the western colonial perspectives on cultural heritage. NMMZ is no exception except NHRA section 36 which protects burial grounds and graves older than 60 years. It also consults them on how to do it. This also includes intangible aspects.

14) Impact assessments provision. Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwean legislations are implicit in about it, whilst the South African, Namibian and Botswana Acts are explicit.

15) Ownership of heritage. The Kenyan legislation allows for both public and private ownership of cultural property in sections 46 and 47 respectively. NMMZ and Botswana Act (section 22) do not allow for private ownership unlike the South African legislation.

16) Protection of landscapes not as scenic areas but as part of an active cultural heritage of identity creation. Usually, landscapes are a lumped version of both cultural and natural factors.

17) Power to carry out traditional rites, rituals and sanctions. Most legislation allows for the conduction of traditional ritual practices by local communities eg Seychelles, South Africa and Ghana. NMMZ does not allow it though on the ground, it consents to it. President has the right to acquire any property on which a national monument is situated.

18) Obligation to report heritage finds

19) Obligation to protect heritage. Could be through granting of powers of entry and arrest. How many police officers know anything about Zimbabwean heritage enough to make an arrest in the case that somebody wants to engage in illicit trade of material culture

20) Restrictions on disposal/destruction of property without consent from authorities.

21) Right of use and control of use.

22) Obligation for public participation

23) Presentation and information on heritage. Eg through the gvt gazette, publications etc.