history of modern greece

8/11/2019 History of Modern Greece

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History of modern Greece

History of Greece

Greece portal

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The history of modern Greececovers the history ofGreecefrom the recognition of itsautonomy from theOttoman Empireby the Great Powers (theUnited Kingdom,France,and

Russia)in 1828, after theGreek War of Independence,to its present day status as asovereign

country.

Contents
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1 Background

2 Administration of Ioannis Kapodistrias

3 Assassination and creation of the Kingdom of Greece

4 Reign of King Otto, 18331863

5 Reign of King George I, 18641913

6 Wars and crises, 19121922o 6.1 Balkan Wars

o 6.2 World War I

o 6.3 Greco-Turkish War (19191922) 7 Republic and Monarchy (19221940) 8 World War II

9 Civil War

10 Postwar Greece (19501973)o 10.1 Greek military junta of 19671974

11 Transition to democracy (19732009)

12 Economic crisis of 2009-2012

o

12.1 Coalition Government 13 See also

14 References

15 Further reading

Background

Main articles:Frankokratia,Ottoman GreeceandGreek War of Independence

TheByzantine Empirehad ruled most of the Greek-speaking world since late Antiquity, but wasfatally weakened since the sacking of Constantinopleby the Latin Crusaders in 1204. Theestablishment of CatholicLatin stateson Greek soil, and the struggles of the OrthodoxByzantine
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Greeksagainst them, led to the emergence of a distinct "Greek" national identity. The Byzantine

Empire was restored by thePalaiologosdynasty in 1261, but it was a shadow of its former self,

and constant civil wars and foreign attacks in the 14th century brought about its terminal decline.As a result, most of Greece gradually became part of theOttoman Empirein the late 14th and

early 15th century, culminating in theFall of Constantinoplein 1453, the conquest of theDuchy

of Athensin 1458, and of theDespotate of the Moreain 1460.

Ottoman control was largely absent in the mountainous interior of Greece, and many fled there,

often becoming brigands. Otherwise, only the islands of the Aegean and a few coastal fortresseson the mainland, underVenetianandGenoeserule, remained free from Ottoman rule, but by the

mid-16th century, the Ottomans had conquered most of them as well. Rhodes fell in 1522,

Cyprus in 1571, and the Venetians retained Crete until 1670. The Ionian Islands were only

briefly ruled by the Ottomans (Kefalonia from 1479 to 1481 and from 1485 to 1500), andremained primarily under the rule of Venice.

The first large-scale insurrection against Ottoman rule was theOrlov Revoltof the early 1770s,

but it was brutally repressed. The same time, however, also marks the start of theModern GreekEnlightenment,as Greeks who studied in Western Europe brought knowledge and ideas back to

their homeland, and as Greek merchants and shipowners increased their wealth. As a result,especially in the aftermath of theFrench Revolution,liberal and nationalist ideas began to spread

across the Greek lands.

In 1821, the Greeks rose up against the Ottoman Empire. Initial successes were followed by

infighting, which had almost seen the Greek struggle collapse; nevertheless, the prolongation of

the fight forced the Great Powers (Britain, Russia and France) to recognize the claims of the

Greek rebels to separate statehood (Treaty of London)and intervene against the Ottomans at theBattle of Navarino.Greece was initially to be anautonomousstate under Ottomansuzerainty,but

by 1832, in the Treaty of Constantinople,it was recognized as a fully independent kingdom. Inthe meantime, in 1827 the3rd National Assemblyof the Greek insurgents called upon IoannisKapodistrias,a former foreign minister of Russia, to take over the governance of the fledgling

state.

Administration of Ioannis Kapodistrias
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Ioannis Kapodistrias.

On his arrival, Kapodistrias launched a major reform and modernisation programme that covered

all areas. He re-established military unity, bringing an end to the second phase of the civil war;

re-organised the military, which was then able to reconquer territory lost to the Ottoman military

during the civil wars, and introduced the first modern quarantine system in Greece, whichbrought epidemics liketyphoid fever,choleraanddysenteryunder control for the first time since

the start of the War of Independence;

Kapodistrias negotiated with the Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire the borders and the

degree of independence of the Greek state and signed the peace treaty that ended the War of

Independence with the Ottomans; introduced the phoenix, the first modern Greek currency;organised local administration; and, in an effort to raise the living standards of the population,

introduced the cultivation of thepotatointo Greece.

Face and Obverse of aPhoenixcoin.

Furthermore, as part of his programme he tried to undermine the authority of the traditional clans

or dynasties which he considered the useless legacy of a bygone and obsolete era.[2]

However, he

underestimated the political and military strength of the capetanei( commanders)who had led the revolt againstOttoman Empirein 1821, and who had expected a leadership role

in the post-revolution Government. When a dispute between the capetanei of Laconia and the

appointed governor of the province escalated into an armed conflict, he called in Russian troopsto restore order, because much of the army was controlled by capetaneiwho were part of the

rebellion.
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George Finlay's 1861 History of Greek Revolution records that by 1831 Kapodistrias's

government had become hated, chiefly by the independent Maniates, but also by theRoumeliotes

and the rich and influential merchant families of Hydra, Spetses and Psara. The Hydriots'customs dues were the chief source of the municipalities' revenue, so they refused to hand these

over to Kapodistrias. It appears that Kapodistrias had refused to convene the National Assembly

and was ruling as a despot, possibly influenced by his Russian experiences. The municipality ofHydra instructed AdmiralMiaoulisandMavrocordatosto go to Poros and to seize the HellenicNavy's fleet there. This Miaoulis did, the intention being to prevent a blockade of the islands, so

for a time it seemed as if the National Assembly would be called.

Kapodistrias called on the British and French residents to support him in putting down the

rebellion, but this they refused to do, but Admiral Richord (or Ricord) took his ships north to

Poros. Colonel (later General) Kallergis took a half-trained force of Greek Army regulars and aforce of irregulars in support. With less than 200 men, Miaoulis was unable to make much of a

fight; Fort Heidek on Bourtzi Island was overrun by the regulars and the brig Spetses (once

Laskarina Bouboulina's Agamemnon) sunk by Richord's force. Encircled by the Russians in the

harbor and Kallergis's force on land, Poros surrendered. Miaoulis was forced to set charges in theflagshipHellasand the corvette Hydra, blowing them up when he and his handful of followers

returned to Hydra. Kallergis's men were enraged by the loss of the ships and sacked Poros,carrying off plunder to Nauplion.

The loss of the best ships in the fleet crippled the Hellenic Navy for many years, but it also

weakened Kapodistrias's position. He did finally call the National Assembly but his other actionstriggered more opposition and that led to his downfall.
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Assassination and creation of the Kingdom of Greece

Further information:Kingdom of Greece

Assassination of Ioannis Kapodistriasby Dionysios Tsokos.

The Entry ofKing Ottoin AthensbyPeter von Hess.

In 1831, Kapodistrias ordered the imprisonment ofPetrobey Mavromichalis,theBeyof theManiPeninsula,one of the wildest and most rebellious parts of Greece. This was a mortal offence to

the Mavromichalis family, and on 9 October 1831 (27 September in the Julian Calendar)

Kapodistrias was assassinated by Petrobey's brotherKonstantisand sonGeorgioson the steps ofthe church ofSaint SpyridoninNafplio.

Kapodistrias woke up early in the morning and decided to go to church despite the urges of hisservants and bodyguards to stay at home. When he reached the church he saw his assassins

waiting for him. When he reached the church steps, Konstantis and Georgios came close as if to

greet him. Suddenly Konstantis drew his pistol and fired, missing, the bullet sticking in the

church wall where it is still visible today. He then drew his dagger and stabbed Kapodistrias inthe stomach while Georgios shot Kapodistrias in the head.

Konstantis was shot by General Fotomaras, who watched the murder scene from his own

window. Georgios managed to escape and hide in the French Embassy; after a few days he

surrendered to the Greek authorities. He was sentenced to death by a court-martial and was

executed by firing squad. His last wish was that the firing squad not shoot his face, and his lastwords were "Peace Brothers!"
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Ioannis Kapodistrias was succeeded as Governor by his younger brother, Augustinos

Kapodistrias.Augustinos ruled only for six months, during which the country was very much

plunged into chaos. Under the protocol signed on 7 May 1832 between Bavaria and theprotecting Powers, and basically dealing with the way in which the Regency was to be managed

until Otto reached his majority (while also concluding the second Greek loan, for a sum of

2,400,000 sterling), Greece was defined as an independent kingdom, with the Arta-Volos lineas its northern frontier.

The Ottoman Empire was indemnified in the sum of 40,000,000 piastres for the loss of theterritory. The borders of the Kingdom were reiterated in the London Protocol of 30 August 1832

signed by the Great Powers, which ratified the terms of the Constantinople Arrangement in

connection with the border between Greece and the Ottoman Empire and marked the end of the

Greek War of Independencecreating modern Greece as an independent state free of the OttomanEmpire.

Reign of King Otto, 18331863

Main article:Otto of Greece

Otto,the first King of modern Greece.

Otto's reign would prove troubled, but managed to last for 30 years before he and his wife,

Queen Amalia,left the way they came, aboard a British warship. During the early years of his

reign a group of BavarianRegents ruled in his name, and made themselves very unpopular by

trying to impose German ideas of rigid hierarchical government on the Greeks, while keeping

most significant state offices away from them. Nevertheless they laid the foundations of a Greekadministration, army, justice system and education system. Otto was sincere in his desire to give

Greece good government, but he suffered from two great handicaps, his Roman Catholicfaith,and the fact that his marriage toQueen Amaliaremained childless. This meant he could neither

be crowned as King of Greece under the Orthodox rite nor establish a dynasty.
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At the urging of Britain andKing George,Greece adopted a much more democraticconstitution

in 1864. The powers of the King were reduced and the Senate was abolished, and the franchise

was extended to all adult males. Nevertheless Greek politics remained heavily dynastic, as it hasalways been. Family names such as Zaimis, Rallis and Trikoupis occurred repeatedly as Prime

Ministers.

Although parties were centered around the individual leaders, often bearing their names, two

broad political tendencies existed: the liberals, led first by Charilaos Trikoupis and later by

Eleftherios Venizelos,and the conservatives, led initially byTheodoros Deligiannisand later byThrasivoulos Zaimis. Trikoupis and Deligiannis dominated Greek politics in the later 19th

century, alternating in office. Trikoupis favoured co-operation with Great Britain in foreign

affairs, the creation of infrastructure and an indigenous industry, raising protective tariffs and

progressive social legislation, while the more populist Deligiannis depended on the promotion ofGreek nationalism and theMegali Idea.

Greece remained a very poor country throughout the 19th century. The country lacked raw

materials, infrastructure and capital. Agriculture was mostly at the subsistence level, and the onlyimportant export commodities were currants, raisins and tobacco. Some Greeks grew rich as

merchants and shipowners, and Piraeusbecame a major port, but little of this wealth found itsway to the Greek peasantry. Greece remained hopelessly in debt to London finance houses.

By the 1890s Greece was virtually bankrupt, and public insolvency was declared in 1893.Poverty was rife in the rural areas and the islands, and was eased only by large-scale emigration

to the United States. There was little education in the rural areas. Nevertheless there was

progress in building communications and infrastructure, and fine public buildings were erected

in Athens. Despite the bad financial situation, Athens staged the revival of the Olympic Gamesin 1896, which proved a great success.

TheHellenic Parliamentin the 1880s, with PMCharilaos Trikoupisstanding at the podium.

The parliamentary process developed greatly in Greece during the reign of George I. Initially, theroyal prerogative in choosing his prime minister remained and contributed to governmental

instability, until the introduction of the dedilomeniprinciple ofparliamentary confidencein 1875by the reformist Charilaos Trikoupis. Clientelism and frequent electoral upheavals however

remained the norm in Greek politics, and frustrated the country's development.
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Corruption and Trikoupis' increased spending to create necessary infrastructure like the CorinthCanalovertaxed the weak Greek economy, forcing the declaration of public insolvencyin 1893

and to accept the imposition of an International Financial Control authority to pay off the

country's creditors.

Another political issue in 19th-century Greece was uniquely Greek: thelanguage question.The

Greek people spoke a form of Greek calledDemotic.Many of the educated elite saw this as apeasant dialect and were determined to restore the glories of Ancient Greek. Government

documents and newspapers were consequently published in Katharevousa (purified) Greek, a

form which few ordinary Greeks could read. Liberals favoured recognising Demotic as thenational language, but conservatives and the Orthodox Church resisted all such efforts, to the

extent that, when the New Testament was translated into Demotic in 1901, riots erupted in

Athens and the government fell (the Evangeliaka). This issue would continue to plague Greek

politics until the 1970s.

Map of theKingdom of Greece,theCretan Stateand thePrincipality of Samosin 1903, before

theBalkan Wars.

All Greeks were united, however, in their determination to liberate the Greek-speaking provincesof the Ottoman Empire. Especially in Crete, a prolonged revolt in 18661869 had raisednationalist fervour. When war broke out between Russia and the Ottomans in 1877, Greek

popular sentiment rallied to Russia's side, but Greece was too poor, and too concerned of British

intervention, to officially enter the war. Nevertheless, in 1881,Thessalyand small parts ofEpiruswere ceded to Greece as part of theTreaty of Berlin,while frustrating Greek hopes of receiving

Crete.

Greeks in Crete continued to stage regular revolts, and in 1897, the Greek government under

Theodoros Deligiannis, bowing to popular pressure, declared war on the Ottomans. In theensuingGreco-Turkish War of 1897the badly trained and equipped Greek army was defeated by

the Ottomans. Through the intervention of the Great Powers however, Greece lost only a littleterritory along the border to Turkey, while Crete was established as anautonomous stateunder

Prince George of Greece.
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Popular lithograph celebrating the success of theGoudi pronunciamientoof 1909 as a national

rebirth.

Nationalist sentiment among Greeks in the Ottoman Empire continued to grow, and by the 1890s

there were constant disturbances in Macedonia.Here the Greeks were in competition not only

with the Ottomans but also with the Bulgarians, engaged in an armed propaganda struggle for thehearts and minds of the ethnically mixed local population, the so-called "Macedonian Struggle".

In July 1908, theYoung Turk Revolutionbroke out in theOttoman Empire.

Taking advantage of the Ottoman internal turmoil, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and

Herzegovina,andBulgariadeclared its independence from the Ottoman Empire. On Crete, thelocal population, led by a young politician namedEleftherios Venizelos,declaredEnosis,Union

with Greece, provoking another crisis. The fact that the Greek government, led by Dimitrios

Rallis,proved unable to likewise take advantage of the situation and bring Crete into the fold,

rankled with many Greeks, especially with young officers. These formed a secret society, the"Military League", with the purpose of emulating their Ottoman colleagues and seek reforms.

The resultingGoudi coupon 15 August 1909 marked a watershed in modern Greek history: as

the military conspirators were inexperienced in politics, they asked Venizelos, who had

impeccable liberal credentials, to come to Greece as their political adviser. Venizelos quickly

established himself as a powerful political figure, and his allies won the August 1910 elections.Venizelos became Prime Minister in October 1910, ushering a period of 25 years where his

personality would dominate Greek politics.
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Wars and crises, 19121922

Main articles:Balkan Wars,Greece during World War I,National Schism,Greek genocideand

Asia Minor Campaign

The two protagonists of the fateful decade 19121922: KingConstantine Iand PM EleftheriosVenizelosin the days of their close cooperation during theSecond Balkan War,before the deep

political and personal rift between the two materialized and led to theNational Schism.

Venizelos initiated a major reform program, including a new and more liberal constitutionand

reforms in the spheres of public administration, education and economy. French and British

military missions were invited for the army and navy respectively, and arms purchases weremade. In the meantime, the Ottoman Empire's weaknesses were revealed by the ongoing Italo-

Turkish Warin Libya.

Balkan Wars

Through spring 1912, a series of bilateral agreements between the Christian Balkan states

(Greece,Bulgaria,MontenegroandSerbia)formed theBalkan League,which in October 1912declared war on the Ottoman Empire. In theFirst Balkan War,the Ottomans were defeated on all

fronts, and the four allies rushed to grab as much territory as they could. The Greeks occupied

Thessalonikijust ahead of the Bulgarians, and also took much ofEpiruswithIoannina,as well as

Creteand theAegean Islands.

TheTreaty of Londonended the war, but no one was left satisfied, and soon, the four allies fell

out over the partition of Macedonia. In June 1913, Bulgaria attacked Greece and Serbia,beginning the Second Balkan War, but was beaten back. The Treaty of Bucharest, which

concluded the war, left Greece with southern Epirus, thesouthern halfof Macedonia, Crete andthe Aegean islands, except for theDodecanese,which had been occupied byItalyin 1911. Thesegains nearly doubled Greece's area and population.
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In March 1913, an anarchist,Alexandros Schinas,assassinated King George in Thessaloniki, andhis son came to the throne as Constantine I. Constantine was the first Greek king born in Greece

and the first to be Greek Orthodox. His very name had been chosen in the spirit of romantic

Greek nationalism (theMegali Idea), evoking the Byzantine emperors of that name. In addition,as the Commander-in-chief of the Greek Army during the Balkan Wars, his popularity was

enormous, rivalled only by that of Venizelos, his Prime Minister.

World War I

When World War Ibroke out in 1914, despite Greece's treaty of alliance with Serbia, both

leaders preferred to maintain a neutral stance. But when, in early 1915, the Allies asked forGreek help in the Dardanelles campaign, offering Cyprus in exchange, their diverging views

became apparent: Constantine had been educated inGermany,was married toSophia of Prussia,

sister ofKaiser Wilhelm,and was convinced of the Central Powers'victory. Venizelos on the

other hand was an ardentanglophile,and believed in an Allied victory.

Since Greece, a maritime country, could not oppose the mighty British navy, and citing the needfor a respite after two wars, King Constantine favored continued neutrality, while Venizelos

actively sought Greek entry in the war on the Allied side. Venizelos resigned, but won the next

elections,and again formed the government. WhenBulgariaentered the war as a German ally inOctober 1915, Venizelos invited Ententeforces into Greece (the Salonika Front), for which he

was again dismissed by Constantine.

Venizelos reviews a section of the Greek army on theMacedonian frontduring theFirst WorldWar, 1917. He is accompanied by Admiral Pavlos Koundouriotis (left) and General Maurice

Sarrail(right).
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In August 1916, after several incidents where both combatants encroached upon the still

theoretically neutral Greek territory, Venizelist officers rose up in Allied-controlled

Thessaloniki, and Venizelos established a separate government there. Constantine was nowruling only in what was Greece before the Balkan Wars ("Old Greece"), and his government was

subject to repeated humiliations from the Allies. In November 1916 the French occupiedPiraeus,

bombarded Athens and forced the Greek fleet to surrender. The royalist troops fired at them,leading to a battle between French and Greek royalist troops. There were also riots againstsupporters of Venizelos in Athens (theNoemvriana).

Following theFebruary RevolutioninRussia,the Tsar's support for his cousin was removed, and

Constantine was forced to leave the country, without actually abdicating, in June 1917. His

second son Alexanderbecame King, while the remaining royal family and the most prominent

royalists followed into exile. Venizelos now led a superficially united Greece into the war on theAllied side, but underneath the surface, the division of Greek society into Venizelistsand anti-

Venizelists, the so-calledNational Schism,became more entrenched.
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Two failed Venizelist military coups followed in an effort to preserve the Republic in 1933 and

1935, but they had the opposite effect. On 10 October 1935, a few months after he suppressed

thesecond attemptin March 1935,Georgios Kondylis,the former Venizelist stalwart, abolishedthe Republic in another coup, and declared the monarchy restored. A riggedplebisciteconfirmed

the regime change (with an unsurprising 97.88% of votes), and King George II returned.

The conservative regime ofIoannis Metaxas(4th of August Regime)adopted many of the ideas

and symbolism of Italian Fascism. Here members of theNational Organisation of Youthgive the

Roman saluteto Metaxas.

King George II immediately dismissed Kondylis and appointed Professor KonstantinosDemertzisas interim Prime Minister. Venizelos meanwhile, in exile, urged an end to the conflict

over the monarchy in view of the threat to Greece from the rise ofFascist Italy.His successors as

Liberal leader,Themistoklis SophoulisandGeorgios Papandreou,agreed, and the restoration ofthe monarchy was accepted. The 1936 elections resulted in a hung parliament, with the

Communistsholding the balance. As no government could be formed, Demertzis continued on.

At the same time, a series of deaths left the Greek political scene in disarray: Kondylis died in

February, Venizelos in March, Demertzis in April and Tsaldaris in May. The road was now clearfor Ioannis Metaxas, who had succeeded Demertzis as interim Prime Minister.

Metaxas, a retired royalist general, believed that an authoritarian government was necessary toprevent social conflict and, especially, quell the rising power of the Communists. On 4 August

1936, with the King's support, he suspended parliament and established the 4th of August

Regime. The Communists were suppressed and the Liberal leaders went into internal exile.Patterning itself after Benito Mussolini's Fascist Italy,

[citation needed] Metaxas' regime promoted

various concepts such as the "Third Hellenic Civilization", theRoman salute,anational youth

organization, and introduced measures to gain popular support, such as the Greek SocialInsurance Institute(IKA), still the biggest social security institution in Greece.

Despite these efforts the regime lacked a broad popular base or a mass movement supporting it.

The Greek people were generally apathetic, without actively opposing Metaxas. Metaxas alsoimproved the country's defenses in preparation for the forthcoming European war, constructing,

among other defensive measures, the "Metaxas Line". Despite his aping of Fascism, and the

strong economic ties with resurgent Nazi Germany, Metaxas followed a policy of neutrality,given Greece's traditionally strong ties to Britain, reinforced by King George II's personal

anglophilia. In April 1939, the Italian threat suddenly loomed closer, as Italy annexedAlbania,

whereupon Britain publicly guaranteed Greece's borders. Thus, whenWorld War IIbroke out inSeptember 1939, Greece remained neutral.
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The three occupation zones. Blue indicates the Italian, red the German and green the territory

annexed by Bulgaria. The Italian zone was taken over by the Germans in September 1943.

The occupied country was divided in three zones (German, Italian and Bulgarian) and in Athens,

a puppet regime was established. The members were either conservatives or nationalists with

fascist leanings. The threequislingprime ministers wereGeorgios Tsolakoglou,the general whohad signed the armistice with the Wehrmacht,Konstantinos Logothetopoulos,andIoannis Rallis,

who took office when the German defeat was inevitable, and aimed primarily at combating the

left-wing Resistance movement. To this end, he created thecollaborationistSecurity Battalions.

Greece suffered terrible privations duringWorld War II,as the Germans appropriated most of

the country's agricultural production and prevented its fishing fleets from operating. As a result,and because a British blockade initially hindered foreign relief efforts, a wide-scale famine

resulted, when hundreds of thousands perished, especially in the winter of 19411942. In themountains of the Greek mainland, in the meantime, severalresistance movementssprang up, andby mid-1943, the Axis forces controlled only the main towns and the connecting roads, while a

"Free Greece" was set up in the mountains.

The largest resistance group, the National Liberation Front (EAM), was controlled by the

Communists,as was (Elas) led by Aris Velouchiotis and a civil war soon broke out between it

and non-Communist groups such as the National Republican Greek League (EDES) in thoseareas liberated from the Germans. The exiled government in Cairo was only intermittently in

touch with the resistance movement, and exercised virtually no influence in the occupied

country. Part of this was due to the unpopularity of the King George II in Greece itself, but

despite efforts by Greek politicians, British support ensured his retention at the head of the Cairogovernment.

As the German defeat drew nearer, the various Greek political factions convened in Lebanon inMay 1944, under British auspices, and formed a government of national unity, under George

Papandreou,in which EAM was represented by six ministers.
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Civil War

Main article:Greek civil war

German forces withdrew on 12 October 1944, and the government in exile returned to Athens.

After the German withdrawal, the EAM-ELAS guerrilla army effectively controlled most ofGreece, but its leaders were reluctant to take control of the country, as they knew that Soviet

premierJoseph Stalinhadagreedthat Greece would be in the British sphere of influence after the

war. Tensions between the British-backed Papandreou and EAM, especially over the issue of

disarmament of the various armed groups, led to the resignation of the latter's ministers from thegovernment.

A few days later, on 3 December 1944, a large-scale pro-EAM demonstration in Athens ended inviolence and ushered an intense, house-to-house struggle with British and monarchist forces (the

Dekemvriana). After three weeks, the Communists were defeated: theVarkiza agreementended

the conflict and disarmed ELAS, and an unstable coalition government was formed. The anti-

EAM backlash grew into a full-scale "White Terror", which exacerbated tensions.

Organization and military bases of the "Demogratic Army", as well as entry routes to Greece.

The Communists boycotted the March 1946 elections,and on the same day, fighting broke outagain. By the end of 1946, the CommunistDemocratic Army of Greecehad been formed, pitted

against the governmental National Army, which was backed first by Britain and after 1947 by

theUnited States.

Communist successes in 19471948 enabled them to move freely over much of mainlandGreece, but with extensive reorganization, the deportation of rural populations and American

material support, the National Army was slowly able to regain control over most of thecountryside. In 1949, the insurgents suffered a major blow, as Yugoslavia closed its borders

following the splitbetween MarshalJosip Broz Titowith theSoviet Union.Finally, in August1949, the National Army under Marshal Alexander Papagos launched an offensive that forcedthe remaining insurgents to surrender or flee across the northern border into the territory of

Greece's northern Communist neighbors.
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The civil war resulted in 100,000 killed and caused catastrophic economic disruption. In

addition, at least 25,000 Greeks and an unspecified number of Macedonian Slavs were either

voluntarily or forcibly evacuated to Eastern bloc countries, while 700,000 became displacedpersons inside the country. Many more emigrated toAustraliaand other countries.

The postwar settlement ended Greece's territorial expansion, which had begun in 1832. The 1947Treaty of Parisrequired Italy to hand over theDodecaneseislands to Greece. These were the last

majority-Greek-speaking areas to be united with the Greek state, apart from Cyprus which was a

British possession until it became independent in 1960. Greece's ethnic homogeneity wasincreased by the postwar expulsion of 25,000 Albanians from Epirus (seeCham Albanians). The

only significant remaining minorities are theMuslims in Western Thrace(about 100,000) and a

small Slavic-speaking minority in the north. Greek nationalists continued to claim southern

Albania(which they calledNorthern Epirus), home of a significant Greek population (about 3%-12% in the whole of Albania), and the Turkish-held islands ofImvrosandTenedos,where there

were smaller Greek minorities.

Postwar Greece (19501973)

After the civil war, Greece sought to join the Western democracies and became a member of the

North Atlantic Treaty Organizationin 1952.

Since the Civil war (194649) but even more after that, the parties in the parliament weredivided in three political concentrations. The political formation Right-Centre-Left, given theexacerbation of political animosity that had preceded dividing the country in the 40s, tended to

turn the concurrence of parties into ideological positions.

Workmen grade the street in front of new housing constructed with the help of Marshall Plan

funds in Greece.

In the beginning of the 1950s, the forces of the Centre (EPEK) succeeded in gaining the powerand under the leadership of the aged general N. Plastiras they governed for about half a four-year

term. These were a series of governments having limited manoeuvre ability and inadequateinfluence in the political arena. This government, as well as those that followed, was constantly

under the American auspices. The defeat of EPEK in the elections of 1952, apart from increasing

the repressive measures that concerned the defeated of the Civil war, also marked the end of thegeneral political position that it represented, namely political consensus and social reconciliation.

The Left, which had been ostracized from the political life of the country, found a way of

expression through the constitution of EDA (United Democratic Left) in 1951, which turned outto be a significant pole, yet steadily excluded from the decision making centres. After the

disbandment of the Centre as an autonomous political institution, EDA practically expanded its

electoral influence to a significant part of the EAM-based Centre-Left.
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The 1960s are part of the period 1953-72, during which Greek economy developed rapidly and

was structured within the scope of European and worldwide economic developments. One of the

main characteristics of that period was the major political event - as we have come to accept it -of the countrys accession in the EEC, in an attempt to create a common market. The relevant

treaty was contracted in 1962.

The developmental strategy adopted by the country was embodied in centrally organized five-

year plans; yet their orientation was indistinct. The average annual emigration, which absorbed

the excess workforce and contributed to extremely high growth rates, exceeded the annualnatural increase in population. The influx of large amounts of foreign private capital was being

facilitated and consumption was expanded. These, associated with the rise of tourism, the

expansion of shipping activity and with the migrant remittances, had a positive effect on the

balance of payments.

The peak of development was registered principally in manufacture, mainly in the textile and

chemical industry and in the sector of metallurgy, the growth rate of which tended to reach 11%

during 1965-70. The other large branch where obvious economic and social consequences werebrought about, was that of construction. Consideration, a Greek invention, favoured the creation

of a class of small-medium contractors on one hand and settled the housing system and propertystatus on the other.

During that decade, youth came forth in society as a distinct social power with autonomouspresence (creation of a new culture in music, fashion etc.) and displaying dynamism in the

assertion of their social rights. The independence granted to Cyprus, which was mined from the

very beginning, constituted the main focus of young activist mobilizations, along with struggles

aiming at reforms in education, which were provisionally realized to a certain extent through theeducational reform of 1964. The country reckoned on and was influenced by Europe - usually

behind time - and by the current trends like never before. Thus, in a sense, the imposition of themilitary junta conflicted with the social and cultural occurrences.

Greek military junta of 19671974

Main article:Greek military junta of 19671974

A Greek army tank on the streets of Athens on 21 April 1967.
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