Food Science Text Series

Series EditorDennis R. Heldman, Professor, Department of Food, Agricultural, and Biological Engineering, The Ohio State University

Editorial BoardJohn Coupland, Professor of Food Science, Department of Food Science, Penn State University

Mario Ferruzzi, Professor of Food Science and Nutrition, Department of Food Bioprocessing and Nutrition, North Carolina State.

Richard W. Hartel, Professor of Food Engineering, Department of Food Science, University of Wisconsin

Rubén Morawicki, Assistant Professor of Food Science, Department of Food Science, Universisty of Arkansas

S. Suzanne Nielsen, Professor and Chair, Department of Food Science, Purdue University

Juan L. Silva, Professor, Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Health Promotion, Mississippi State University

The Food Science Text Series provides faculty with the leading teaching tools. The Editorial Board has outlined the most appropriate and complete content for each food science course in a typical food science program and has identified textbooks of the highest quality, written by the leading food science educators.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/5999

Norman G. Marriott • M. Wes Schilling Robert B. Gravani

Principles of Food Sanitation

Sixth Edition

ISSN 1572-0330 ISSN 2214-7799 (electronic)Food Science Text SeriesISBN 978-3-319-67164-2 ISBN 978-3-319-67166-6 (eBook)https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67166-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017954307

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 20182nd edition: © Chapman & Hall 19893rd edition: © Chapman & Hall 19944th edition: © Aspen 19995th edition: © Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2006This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer International Publishing AG part of Springer Nature.The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Norman G. MarriottVirginia Polytechnic InstituteState UniversityBlacksburg, Virginia, USA

Robert B. GravaniDepartment of Food ScienceCornell UniversityIthaca, New York, USA

M. Wes SchillingDepartment of Food ScienceMississippi State UniversityMississippi State, Mississippi, USA

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Effective sanitation is mandatory for the attainment of a safe food supply. The continued interest in and consumer demand for food safety and security and high-volume food processing and preparation operations have increased the need for improved sanitary practices from processing to consumption. This trend presents a challenge for the food processing and food preparation indus-try to adopt rigid sanitation practices.

Sanitation is an applied science that involves the attainment of hygienic conditions. Because of the emphasis on food safety, sanitation has increased in importance to the food industry. In the past, sanitation workers, including sanitation program managers, were inexperienced employees with limited skills who have received little or no training and have had only limited expo-sure to this important function. However, it is crucial that sanitation employ-ees have knowledge about the attainment of hygienic conditions. Technical information has been limited primarily to training manuals provided by regu-latory agencies, industry and association manuals, and recommendations from equipment and cleaning compound organizations. A large percentage of this material lacks specific information about the selection of appropriate cleaning methods, cleaning equipment, cleaning compounds, sanitizers, pest control, and waste disposal for maintaining hygienic conditions in food pro-cessing and preparation facilities.

The purpose of this book, as with previous editions, is to provide sanita-tion information needed to ensure hygienic practices and a safe food supply. Sanitation is a broad and somewhat complex subject; thus, this text addresses principles related to contamination, cleaning compounds, sanitizers, cleaning equipment, allergen control, and pest control, as well as specific directions for applying these concepts to attain hygienic conditions in food processing and food preparation operations.

The discussion of this treatise begins with the importance of sanitation with information about regulations, including the Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA). Increased concerns about biosecurity necessitated the need for an update and expansion of Chap. 2, which addresses this subject. To enable the reader to understand more fully the fundamentals of food sanitation, an updated Chap. 3 is devoted to microorganisms and their effects on food prod-ucts. This chapter contains additional information about pathogenic microor-ganisms and rapid microbial determination methods. The ubiquity of allergens and concern of those affected suggest the need to update and expand Chap. 4. A discussion of contamination sources and hygiene has been rewritten and

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updated (Chaps. 5 and 6), including how management can encourage improved sanitation. Chapter 7 provides an updated discussion on Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) including additional information about hazard analysis and electronic HACCP.

Chapter 8 is about quality assurance (QA) and sanitation. The updated information given here presents specific details on how to organize, imple-ment, and monitor an effective sanitation program.

Chapter 9 discusses cleaning compounds and contains updated informa-tion on this subject. It examines characteristics of soil deposits and identifies the appropriate generic cleaning compounds for the removal of various soils. Furthermore, it relates how cleaning compounds function, identifies their chemical and physical properties, and offers information on their appropriate handling. Because of the importance of sanitizing, Chap. 10 discusses updated information about sanitizers and their characteristics. This chapter discusses specific generic compounds for various equipment and areas, as well as updated information on such compounds.

Chapter 11 provides rewritten and updated information on cleaning and sanitizing equipment most effective for various applications in the food industry. It provides detailed descriptions, including new illustrations of most cleaning equipment found in food processing and food preparation facilities.

Chapter 12 discusses waste product handling, which remains a major chal-lenge for the food industry. This chapter contains updated information about the treatment and monitoring of liquid and solid wastes. Pest control is another problem for the food industry. Chapter 13 provides an updated dis-cussion about common pests found in the food industry; their prevention, including chemical poisoning; integrated pest management (IPM) and bio-logical control; and the potential advantages and limitations of each method. Chapter 14 contains a discussion of additional hygienic design and construc-tion information for food establishments.

Because sanitation is so important in dairy, meat and poultry, seafood, fruit and vegetable, and beverage plants, a chapter is devoted to each of these areas. Chapters 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20, which were rewritten, present updated information about plant construction, cleaning compounds, sanitiz-ers, and cleaning equipment that applies to those segments of the industry. These chapters provide the food industry with valuable guidelines for sanita-tion operations and specific cleaning procedures.

Chapter 21 addresses existing and updated sanitation information for the foodservice industry. It provides instructions on how to clean specific areas and major equipment found in a foodservice operation.

Effective management practices can promote improved sanitation, a topic addressed in Chap. 22. The intent is not to provide an extensive discussion of management principles but to suggest how effective management practices can improve sanitation.

This book provides an updated and concise discussion about sanitation for low-, intermediate-, and high-moisture foods. It offers value as a text for col-lege students and continuing education courses about sanitation. It will serve as a reference for food processing courses, industry-sponsored courses, and the food industry itself. The authors acknowledge and sincerely thank all of

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the companies, organizations, and agencies that have provided photos, illus-trations, and information that has been used in this book.

The authors wish to express their appreciation to those organizations that provided figures that gave further insight to the information discussed. Furthermore, we acknowledge the support and patience of our families dur-ing the preparation of this revised edition.

Blacksburg, Virginia, USA Norman G. Marriott Mississippi, MS, USA M. Wes Schilling Ithaca, NY, USA Robert B. Gravani

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1 Sanitation and the Food Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Production Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Food Processing and Manufacturing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Food Retailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Foodservice (Restaurants and Institutions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Consumers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3What Is Sanitation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Sanitation: An Applied Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Sanitary Design and Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Sanitation: A Foundation for Food Safety Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . 6Changes in Consumer Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Changes in Food Preferences and Eating Habits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Complexity of the Food System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Globalization of the Food Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Changes in Food Processing Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Diagnostic Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Changes in Foodborne Pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Sanitation Laws and Regulations and Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Food and Drug Administration Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Good Manufacturing Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11US Department of Agriculture Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Environmental Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Federal Water Pollution Control Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Clean Air Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act . . . . . . . . . 14Resource Conservation and Recovery Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) Concept . . . 14

Establishment of Sanitary Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2 The Relationship of Biosecurity to Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Potential Risks of Foodborne Bioterrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Bioterrorism Protection Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Radio-Frequency Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

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Traceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Biosecurity Through Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Biosecurity Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

The Food Safety Modernization Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Food Defense Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Food Defense Team. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Food Defense Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28The Role of Pest Management in Biosecurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Additional Bioterrorism Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Food Detention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Registration of Food and Animal Feed Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Establishment and Maintenance of Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30Prior Notice of Imported Food Shipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3 The Relationship of Microorganisms to Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . 33Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34How Microorganisms Relate to Food Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

What Are Microorganisms? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34Microorganisms Common to Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34Molds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34Yeasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35Viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36Microbial Growth Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36Lag Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36Logarithmic Growth Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38Stationary Growth Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38Accelerated Death Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38Reduced Death Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

What Causes Microorganisms to Grow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38Extrinsic Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38Intrinsic Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39Interaction Between Growth Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40Role of Biofilms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41Microbial Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Effects of Microorganisms on Spoilage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42Physical Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42Chemical Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Effects of Microorganisms on Foodborne Illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43Foodborne Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Foodborne Illnesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43Aeromonas hydrophila Foodborne Illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44Bacillus cereus Foodborne Illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44Botulism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44Campylobacteriosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Clostridium perfringens Foodborne Illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

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Escherichia coli O157:H7 Foodborne Illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Listeriosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50Salmonellosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52Shigellosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52Staphylococcal Foodborne Illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53Trichinosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53Yersiniosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53Foodborne Illness from Arcobacter butzleri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54Cryptosporidiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54Foodborne Illness from Helicobacter pylori . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54Legionellosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54Vibrio spp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55Mycotoxins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55Other Bacterial Infections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Microbial Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Electronic Pasteurization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58Pulsed Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Microbial Growth Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59Dehydration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59Fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59Biopreservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Microbial Load Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Aerobic Plate Count Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Surface Contact Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Indicator and Dye Reduction Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Direct Microscopic Count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Most Probable Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62Petrifilm Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62Cell Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62Turbidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62Radiometric Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62Impedance Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62Endotoxin Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62Bioluminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Catalase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64Spiral Assay System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64Direct Epifluorescence Filter Technique (DEFT) . . . . . . . . . . . . 65Remote Inspection Biological Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65Microcalorimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65Radiometry and Infrared Spectrophotometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65Hydrophobic Grid Membrane Filter System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66Other Screening Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Diagnostic Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

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Enzyme-Linked Immunoassay Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66RAPID ONE System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67Crystal™ Identification Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67Salmonella 1–2 Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68DNA-Based Microarray Assays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68IDEXX Bind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68Immunomagnetic Separation and Flow Cytometry . . . . . . . . . . 68Diagnostic Identification Kits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68CAMP Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69Fraser Enrichment Broth/Modified Oxford Agar . . . . . . . . . . . . 69Crystal Violet Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69Methyl Umbelliferyl Glucuronide Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69Assay for E. coli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69Micro ID and Minitek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70DNA Hybridization and Colorimetric Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . 70Polymerase Chain Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71Ribotyping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71Biosensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71Rapid Method Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Microbial Surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71PulseNet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4 The Relationship of Allergens to Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73What Are Allergens? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74Allergenic Reaction(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Causes of Allergen Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75Allergen Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Food Allergen Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78Allergen Labeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80Allergen Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

5 Food Contamination Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83Transfer of Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

The Chain of Infection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84Contamination of Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Dairy Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87Red Meat Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87Poultry Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88Seafood Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88Ingredients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

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Other Contamination Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88Employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88Air and Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89Sewage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89Insects and Rodents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Protection Against Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89The Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90Litter and Garbage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90Toxic Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

6 Personal Hygiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93Personal Hygiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Skin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94Fingers and Hands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96Fingernails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96Jewelry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96Hair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97Eyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97Mouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97Nose, Nasopharynx, and Respiratory Tract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97Excretory Organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98Personal Contamination of Food Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99Handwashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100Foodborne Outbreaks Caused by Poor Personal Hygiene . . . . . 104Methods of Disease Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105Requirements for Hygienic Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Sanitary Food Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106Role of Employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106Required Personal Hygiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107Employee Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107Employee Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

7 The Role of HACCP in Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110What Is HACCP? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110HACCP Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111HACCP Program Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

HACCP Team Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114Food Description and Distribution Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114Intended Use and Anticipated Consumers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114Flow Diagram Development Describing the Process . . . . . . . . . 114

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Flow Diagram Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114CGMPs: The Building Blocks for HACCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures: The Cornerstones of HACCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

HACCP Interface with GMPs and SSOPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116HACCP Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Hazard Analysis and Assignment of Risk Categories . . . . . . . . . 116HACCP Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120Management and Maintenance of HACCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121HACCP Auditing and Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122Electronic HACCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

HACCP Vulnerability Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123Hazard Analysis and Risk-Based Preventive Controls (HARPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

8 Quality Assurance for Sanitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125The Role of Total Quality Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127Quality Assurance for Effective Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Major Components of Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128The Major Functions of Quality Assurance and Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Organization for Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129Major Responsibilities of a Sanitation Quality Assurance Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129The Role of ISO Accreditation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130The Role of Management in Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130Quality Assurance and Job Enrichment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131Quality Assurance Program Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Establishment of a Quality Assurance Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133Elements of a Total Quality Assurance System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133New Employee Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133Program Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134Assay Procedures for Evaluation of Sanitation Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134Interpretation of Data from QA Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135Importance of a Monitoring Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135Auditing Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136Preparation for an Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137Recall of Unsatisfactory Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137Sampling for a Quality Assurance Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138Sampling Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138Basic QA Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139Role of Statistical Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

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Central Tendency Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140Displaying Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140Control Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141Sample Size and Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146Sample Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146Explanation and Definition of Statistical Quality Control Program Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147Cumulative Sum (CUSUM) Control Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148Standard Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

9 Cleaning Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151Soil Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Chemical Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152Physical Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152Chemical Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Effects of Surface Characteristics on Soil Deposition . . . . . . . . . . 153Soil Attachment Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

The Role of Cleaning Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155Cleaning Compound Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

How Cleaning Compounds Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156Factors Affecting Cleaning Compound Performance and Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156Cleaning Compound Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Classification of Cleaning Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158Alkaline Cleaning Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158Chlorinated Alkaline Cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159Acid Cleaning Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159Cleaners with Active Chlorine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161Synthetic Detergents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161Alkaline Soaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162Enzyme-Based Cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162Phosphate Substitutes for Laundry Detergents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162Solvent Cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163Detergent Auxiliaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163Protection Auxiliaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Cleaning Auxiliaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164Sequestrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164Surfactants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Scouring Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166Slightly Alkaline Scouring Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166Neutral Scouring Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166Chemical-Free (Green) Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166Ultrasonic Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166Water Quality Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

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Cleaning Compound Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167Soil Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167Temperature and Concentration of Cleaning Compound Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169Cleaning Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169Mechanical Force Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Handling Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169Alkali Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170Acid Cleaner Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170Soaps and Synthetic Detergents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171Protective Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171Mixing and Using . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171Storage and Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172First Aid for Chemical Burns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172Dermatitis Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

10 Sanitizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176Sanitizing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

Thermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178Vacuum/Steam-Vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178Chemical Sanitizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178Peroxy Acid Sanitizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188Mixed Peroxy Acid/Organic Acid Sanitizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188Sanitizing Applications for Pathogen Reduction of Beef Carcasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192Potential Microbial Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196Sanitizer Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196Tests for Sanitizer Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

11 Sanitation Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200Sanitation Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200Equipment Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

Sanitation Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201Sanitation Equipment Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202The HACCP Approach to Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202Sanitation Hazard Analysis Work Point (SHAWP) . . . . . . . . . . . 202

Cleaning Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203Mechanical Abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203Water Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203Brushes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203Scrapers, Sponges, and Squeegees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203High-Pressure Water Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

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Low-Pressure, High-Temperature Spray Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204High-Pressure Hot Water Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204Steam Guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204High-Pressure Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205Hot Water Wash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205Portable High-Pressure, Low-Volume Cleaning Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205Centralized High-Pressure, Low- Volume Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 206Factors Determining Selection of Centralized High-Pressure Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207Portable Foam Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208Centralized Foam Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208Portable Gel Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209Centralized or Portable Slurry Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210Combination Centralized High- Pressure and Foam Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210Cleaning-in-Place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210Cleaning-Out-of-Place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

Sanitizing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218Sanitation Application Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Lubrication Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

12 Waste Product Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224Strategy for Waste Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

Planning the Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224Conducting the Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

Solid Waste Disposal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228Liquid Waste Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

Pretreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230Primary Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231Secondary Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233Tertiary Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239Disinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240Odor Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

13 Pest Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243Insect Infestation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244Cockroaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245Other Insects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Insect Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249Trap Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255Monitoring of Infestations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

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Rodents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256Rats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256Mice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256Determination of Infestation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257Prevention of Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257Elimination of Rodent Shelters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258Elimination of Rodent Food Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258Eradication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260Use of Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261Integrated Pest Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263Housekeeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263Physical and Mechanical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264Chemical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264Insect-Resistant Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

14 Sanitary Design and Construction for Food Processing . . . . . . 267Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267Site Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268Site Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268Building Construction Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269Loading Dock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270Roof Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270Doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270Ceilings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271Floors and Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

Processing and Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272Design Practices to Prevent Pest Infestation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273Equipment Design for Ready-to-Eat Processing Operations . . . 274Renovation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

Construction Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

15 Low-Moisture Food Manufacturing and Storage Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280Sanitary Construction Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

Site Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280Exterior Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280Interior Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280Ventilation and Dust Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282Equipment Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

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Sanitary Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

Receipt and Storage of Raw Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284Sampling for Acceptability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284Transport Vehicle Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284Product Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284Product Storage and Stock Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285Pest Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286Structure-Infesting Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288Insect-Resistant Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288Product Storage Housekeeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288Inspection of Raw Materials and Product Storage Area . . . . . . . 289

Cleaning of Low-Moisture Food Manufacturing Plants . . . . . . . . . 290Shipping Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292Other Checkpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

16 Dairy Processing Plant Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296Role of Pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

Listeria monocytogenes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297Escherichia coli O157:H7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298Salmonella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

Sanitary Construction Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298Floor Plan and Type of Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299Construction Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

Soil Characteristics in Dairy Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299Biofilm Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

Sanitation Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300Role of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301Role of Cleaning Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301Role of Sanitizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301Cleaning Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303Other Cleaning Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

Cleaning Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304CIP and Recirculating Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304COP Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306Cleaning of Storage Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306Cheese Making Area and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307Rapid Assessment of Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308Recent Technological Advances and Green Technology . . . . . . 308

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

17 Meat and Poultry Plant Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311Role of Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

Effect on Product Discoloration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

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Meat and Poultry Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313Pathogen Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314Biofilm Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

Sanitation Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321Hot Water Wash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321High-Pressure, Low-Volume Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321Foam Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322Gel Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322Combination Centralized High- Pressure, Low-Volume, and Foam Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322Cleaning-in-Place (CIP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322Cleaning-out-of-Place (COP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

Cleaning Compounds for Meat and Poultry Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322Acid Cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323Strongly Alkaline Cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323Heavy-Duty Alkaline Cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323Mild Alkaline Cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323Neutral Cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

Sanitizers for Meat and Poultry Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323Chemical Sanitizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323Carcass and Product Decontamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

Sanitation Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326General Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326Recommended Sanitary Work Habits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

HACCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327Livestock and Poultry Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327Lairage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327Hide, Pelt, Hair, or Feather Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327Evisceration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328Chilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328Further Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328

Sanitation Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328Livestock and Poultry Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328Livestock Pens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329Slaughter Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329Poultry Mechanical Eviscerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330Poultry Pickers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330Receiving and Shipping Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330Processed Products, Offal, and Storage Cooler . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330Fabricating or Further Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331Processed Product Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331Fresh Product Processing Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332Processed Product Packaging Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332Brine Curing and Packaging Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

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Dry Curing Areas (Curing, Equalization, and Aging) . . . . . . . . . 333Smokehouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333Spiral Freezer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335Wash Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335Packaged Meat Storage Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335Low-Temperature Rendering (Edible) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336Wire Pallets and Metal Containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336Trolley Wash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337Offices, Locker Rooms, and Rest Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337Garments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

Troubleshooting Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337Preoperation Flood Sanitizing Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

18 Seafood and Aquaculture Plant Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341Sanitary Construction Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342

Site Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342Construction Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

Contamination Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344Biofilm Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

Sanitation Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345Sanitation Inspection Critical Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345Manufacturing Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346Personnel Allocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346Cleaning Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346High Hydrostatic Pressure Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348Ozone Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348

Recovery of By-Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349Biodefense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349Traceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

19 Fruit and Vegetable Processing Plant Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . 351Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

Soil Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353Air Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353Pest Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353Harvesting Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354Processing Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

Sanitary Construction Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354Principles of Hygienic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

Cleaning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356Housekeeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356Waste Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357Role of HACCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

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Fresh-Cut Produce Washing and Sanitizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357Biofilm Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

Cleaning of Processing Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358Hot Water Wash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359High-Pressure, Low-Volume Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359Foam Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359Gel Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359Slurry Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359Combination Centralized High- Pressure and Foam Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359Cleaning-in-Place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

Sanitizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360Halogen Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360Chlorine Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360Quaternary Ammonium Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360Acid Sanitizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360Ozone Sanitizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361Phenolic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361Ultraviolet (UV) Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

Cleaning Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361Facilitating Effective Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361Preparation Steps for Effective Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362Processing Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362Packaged Storage Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

Evaluation of Sanitation Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363Sanitation Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363Laboratory Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

20 Beverage Plant Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368Mycology of Beverage Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368Sanitation Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

Employee Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368Cleaning Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369Hygienic Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369Inspection of Ingredients and Raw Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

Bottled Water Establishment Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370Nonalcoholic Beverage Plant Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

Automated Cleaning Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372Tire Track Soil Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372Conveyor Track Soil Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372Film Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372Biofilms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372Hot Sanitizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373Membrane Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373Container Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373Bottle Filler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

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Brewery Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374Construction Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374Control of Microbial Infection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374Cleaning Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376Sanitizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376Heat Pasteurization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376Aseptic Filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376Hygiene Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377Sanitation in Storage Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378Brewing Area Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378

Winery Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379Basic Sanitation Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380Cleaning Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380Cleaning Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380Cleaning Floors and Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381Equipment Cleaning and Sanitizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381Bottling Area Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382Pomace Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382Cleaning of Used Cooperage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382Removal of Tartrate Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383Storing Empty Containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383Other Cleaning and Sanitary Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383Sterile Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384Reinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384Corks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384Bottles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384Barrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385Pest Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385Sanitation Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

Distillery Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385Reduction of Physical Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385Reduction of Microbial Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386Equipment Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

21 Foodservice Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389Sanitary Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

Cleanability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390Design Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390Equipment Arrangement and Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391Handwashing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391Welfare Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391Waste Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392

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Contamination Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392Preparation Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392Utensils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393Reheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393Holding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394Serving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394Use of Gloves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

Sanitary Procedures for Food Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394Sanitation Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

Cleaning Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395Sanitary Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395Cleaning Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396Stationary Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396Floor Drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397Light Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397Cleaning Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397Mechanized Cleaning and Sanitizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397Cleaning-in-Place (CIP) Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

Foodservice Sanitation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406Employee Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406Employee Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

22 Management’s Role in Food Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409Management Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

Management Philosophy and Commitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410Sanitation Preventive Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411Management Knowledge of Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411Program Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412Program Follow-Through . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

Employee Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414Employee Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414Other Sources for Sanitation Education and Training . . . . . . . . 418

Management of a Sanitation Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418Management and Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419Total Systems Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420Effective Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420Cooperation with Other Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421Job Incentive (Enrichment) Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421Self-inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421Contract Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

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Fig. 3.1 A typical growth curve for bacteria ...................................... 37Fig. 3.2 Effect of initial contamination and lag phase on the

growth curve of microorganisms: (a) high initial contamination and poor temperature control (short lag phase), (b) low initial contamination and ineffective temperature control (short lag phase), (c), low initial contamination and rigid temperature control (long lag phase), and (d) typical growth curve ............................... 37

Fig. 3.3 Swab for a rapid hygiene test (Courtesy of Ecolab Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota) .............................................................. 63

Fig. 3.4 Device for the rapid determination of hygienic conditions (Courtesy of Ecolab Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota) ..................... 63

Fig. 5.1 The epidemiologic triangle (CDC 2011) .............................. 84Fig. 5.2 The chain of infection ........................................................... 85Fig. 5.3 Hygienic zoning in food processing facilities

for environmental monitoring sampling and sanitation (Courtesy of the Food Safety Preventive Controls Alliance (FSPCA 2015)) ....................................................... 86

Fig. 5.4 Potential contamination of food by humans ......................... 87

Fig. 6.1 High-speed photograph of a human sneeze (Courtesy of the CDC Public Health Image Library 2017) ........................................................................ 97

Fig. 6.2 Bacteria on the body and the effects of handwashing (Source: Reprinted with permission from Gravani (1995)) ..................................................................... 101

Fig. 6.3 Recommended handwashing procedure (Courtesy of Ecolab, Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota) .................... 103

Fig. 6.4 Automated handwashing system (Courtesy of Meritech Handwashing Systems, Golden, Colorado) .......................... 103

Fig. 6.5 Illustration of a wall-mounted hand sanitizer to reduce microbial contamination of workers (Courtesy of Ecolab, Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota) ...................................................... 104

Fig. 7.1 CCP decision tree (Source: Pierson and Corlett 1992) ......... 118

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xxvi

Fig. 8.1 Organizational structure for specific QA tasks ..................... 131Fig. 8.2 Chart reflecting status of a plant sanitarian in a large

organization ........................................................................... 132Fig. 8.3 Chart reflecting status of a plant sanitarian in a small

organization ........................................................................... 132Fig. 8.4 Histogram of microbial load (CFUs/g) ................................. 141Fig. 8.5 Normal curve ........................................................................ 141Fig. 8.6 Typical control chart ............................................................. 142Fig. 8.7 X chart for pH measurements ................................................ 144Fig. 8.8 R chart for pH measurements ................................................ 144

Fig. 9.1 Anionic surfactant molecule ................................................. 156Fig. 9.2 Soil particle suspended by micelle formation ....................... 157

Fig. 10.1 Irradiation equipment for palletized foods ............................ 177

Fig. 11.1 A portable high-pressure, low-volume unit that is used where a centralized system does not exist. This unit is equipped with racks for hoses, foamer, and cleaning compound storage and provides two rinse stations and a sanitizer unit. Two workers can simultaneously prerinse, clean, postrinse, and sanitize. This equipment can also apply foam if the spray wand is replaced with a foam wand accessory (Courtesy of Ecolab, Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota) .................................... 205

Fig. 11.2 A centralized medium-pressure (boosted pressure) system for a large cleaning operation (Courtesy of Ecolab, Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota) ......................................... 207

Fig. 11.3 Portable air-operated foam units that apply the cleaning compound as a blanket of foam (Courtesy of Ecolab, Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota) .................... 208

Fig. 11.4 (a and b) Scheme of a wall-mounted foam and rinse station that can provide foam application at convenient locations in a food plant through automatic metering and mixing of the cleaning compound (Courtesy of Ecolab, Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota) .................................... 209

Fig. 11.5 A triple drop wall sanitize (S)/rinse (R)/foam (F) station that can be used to provide a quick connection for foam detergent, rinse, and sanitizer applications (Courtesy of Ecolab, Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota) .................................... 209

Fig. 11.6 Flow arrangement of a COP (Source: From Jowitt (1980)) .............................................................. 211

Fig. 11.7 (a and b) A CIP (a) single-use solution unit and (b) a reuse unit that are parts of systems containing a water supply tank and CIP circulating unit (Courtesy of Ecolab, Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota) .................... 213

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Fig. 11.8 In this single-use CIP system with limited recovery, an additional tank with a high-level probe is mounted so that the wash and rinse water can be collected for the next prewash cycle (Source: From Jowitt (1980)) ...................................... 214

Fig. 11.9 (a) Typical multiuse CIP system, simplified. 1 CIP feed, 2 CIP return, 3 water inlet, 4 drain, 5 puma pump, 6 injection sleeve, 7 recirculating loop, 8 detergent tank, 9 water recovery, 10 sample cock, 11 overflow, 12 filter, 13 steam in, 14 “paraflow” heat exchanger, 15 temperature probe, 16 soluvisor, 17 conductivity probe, 18 condensate, 19 no-flow probe, 20 butterfly valve. (b) Typical diagram of a commercial multiuse CIP system ............................................................. 215

Fig. 11.10 (a and b) Instrumentation that regulates and documents a CIP cycle (Courtesy of Ecolab, Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota) .............................................................. 216

Fig. 11.11 Use of a microprocessor for programmed distribution of sanitation compounds (Courtesy of Ecolab, Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota) .............................................................. 217

Fig. 11.12 Flood sanitizing unit (Courtesy of Ecolab, Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota) ............................................................................ 219

Fig. 11.13 (a, b, c, and d) Lubrication equipment for high-speed conveyors, drives, and shackle chains (Courtesy of Ecolab, Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota) .................................... 220

Fig. 12.1 Rotating biological contactors used to remove ammonia from water of an aquaculture production operation .............. 238

Fig. 13.1 An insect light trap that attracts flies to the light source, subsequently electrocuting them (Courtesy Gilbert Industries, Inc. Jonesboro, Arkansas) ................................... 254

Fig. 15.1 Mechanical mezzanine separates ductwork and utility support equipment from the bakery mixing room. This arrangement reduces the need for overhead cleaning, improves access for equipment maintenance, and enhances product safety ........................................................................ 281

Fig. 17.1 Relationship of partial oxygen pressure to myoglobin chemical state ........................................................................ 313

Fig. 17.2 Foaming for cleaning compound and/ or sanitizer application (Courtesy of JohnsonDiversey, Inc., Detroit, Michigan) .............................................................................. 318

Fig. 17.3 A portable air operated foaming unit for the application of a cleaning compound as blanket of foam. Courtesy of Ecolab, Inc., St. Paul Minnesota ....................... 334

List of Figures

xxviii

Fig. 20.1 Red wine fermentation tanks (Courtesy of Bruce Zoecklein, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, Blacksburg, Virginia) .......................................... 383

Fig. 22.1 An annotated five-step model for structuring an effective employee training program (Stolovitch et al. 2011) (Courtesy of the American Society of Training and Development) .............................................. 417

List of Figures

xxix

Table 1.1 Major food safety incidents ........................................... 6

Table 3.1 Type of botulinum toxin ................................................. 45Table 3.2 Characteristics of the more common foodborne

illnesses .......................................................................... 46Table 3.3 Temperatures and times required to destroy

completely Clostridium botulinum spores ..................... 48Table 3.4 Mycotoxins of significance to the food industry ............ 55

Table 8.1 Central tendency values ................................................. 140Table 8.2 Frequency table for microbial load (CFUs/g) ................ 141Table 8.3 X and R values for pH measurements ............................ 143

Table 9.1 Solubility characteristics of various soils....................... 153Table 9.2 Classification of soil deposits......................................... 153Table 9.3 Types of cleaning compounds for soil deposits ............. 153Table 9.4 Characteristics of various surfaces of food

processing plants ............................................................ 154Table 9.5 Characteristics of commonly used alkaline

cleaning compounds ....................................................... 159Table 9.6 US Geological Survey definitions for water

hardness .......................................................................... 167Table 9.7 Examples of common detergent properties .................... 168

Table 10.1 Inactivation of bacterial spores by iodophors ................ 185Table 10.2 Characteristics of commonly used sanitizers ................. 193Table 10.3 Specific areas or conditions for specific sanitizers ........ 194Table 10.4 Chemical sanitizer applications ..................................... 195

Table 11.1 Typical cycle for CIP system ......................................... 212Table 11.2 Operation of an ideal CIP reuse system ......................... 214

Table 12.1 Typical composition of wastes from food and related industries ..................................................... 226

Table 12.2 Microbial characteristics of domestic wastewater ......... 240

Table 16.1 Optimal cleaning guides for dairy processing equipment ....................................................................... 302

List of Tables

xxx

Table 16.2 Special considerations for hand cleaning dairy plant equipment .............................................................. 304

Table 16.3 Typical concentrations for various cleaning applications .................................................................... 307

Table 18.1 Recommended sanitizing concentrations for various applications .................................................. 347

Table 21.1 Dishwashing difficulties and solutions .......................... 398Table 21.2 Sample cleaning schedule (partial), food

preparation area .............................................................. 405

List of Tables