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Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name
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O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka
OU = Innovation Centre
Nwamarah Uche
Faculty of Education
DEPARTMENT OF ARTS EDUCATION
EFFECTS OF INTEGRATIVE LANGUAGE
TEACHING APPROACH ON SECONDARY SCHOOL
STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT AND INTEREST IN
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
EGBE, CAJETAN IKECHUKWU
PG/Ph.D/11/59034
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EFFECTS OF INTEGRATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACH
ON SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT
AND INTEREST IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR
BY
EGBE, CAJETAN IKECHUKWU
PG/Ph.D/11/59034
DEPARTMENT OF ARTS EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
FEBRUARY 2015
TITLE PAGE
EFFECTS OF INTEGRATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACH ON SECONDARY
SCHOOL STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT AND INTEREST IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR
BY
EGBE, CAJETAN IKECHUWKWU
PG/Ph.D/11/59034
A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF
ARTS EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA IN
FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD
OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D)
IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION/ENGLISH
SUPERVISOR: PROF. GRACE C. OFFORMA
FEBRUARY 2015
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CERTIFICATION
Egbe, Cajetan Ikechukwu, a postgraduate student of the Department of Arts Education, with
registration number PG/Ph.D/11/59034 has satisfactorily completed the requirements for the degree
of Doctor of Philosophy in Language Education. The work embodied in this thesis is original and
has not been submitted in part or full for any other diploma or degree of this or any other university.
_____________________ ___________________
Egbe, Cajetan Ikechukwu Prof. Grace C. Offorma
PG/Ph.D/11/59034 Supervisor
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APPROVAL PAGE
This thesis has been approved for the Department of Arts Education, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka.
By
___________________ __________________
Prof. Grace C. Offorma Internal Examiner
Supervisor
_________________ _________________
External Examiner Dr. P.N. Uzoegwu
Head of Department
__________________
Prof. Uju C. Umo
Dean of Faculty
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DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my late father, Mr. Boniface N. Egbe and my mother, Nnemuroha
Veronica I. Egbe.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I continue to be indebted to the following people for their contribution to the success of this
study. First among them is my supervisor, Prof. Grace C. Offorma, who gave me all the required
assistance. She read my work expeditiously in spite of her work load and produced far-reaching
results in constructive criticisms and suggestions. I lack words to express my gratitude to her for
accommodating me in her professorial office and providing me with an array of opportunities for
academic and professional growth.
Special commendation also goes to Prof. F. A. Okwo, Prof. B. G. Nworgu, Dr. J. U.
Akabogu, Dr. D. U. Ngwoke, Dr. U. L. Igbokwe, Dr. P. N. Uzoegwu and Dr. J. J. U. Ezugwu for
validating my instruments. Dr. Akabogu, in addition, read through the introduction of this work and
made useful editorial comments, while Prof. Okwo was handy in giving professional advice on
some grey areas of methodology.
I appreciate in a special way the principals of schools that were used for the study for
permitting me to use their schools and especially the English language teachers that helped as
research assistants. The devotion of the teachers to the experiment contributed in no small measure
to the success of the study. Not to be forgotten are the following postgraduate and undergraduate
students who assisted me in sourcing for information or collating the data for analysis. These
include: Marvic Ike, Amarachi Uwalaka, Idowu Fabusuyi, Chibuzo Mba, Chioma Onwura,
Ifeyinwa Nziwu, Kenneth Eze, Assumpta Eluh, Bibian Okwor and Chimeucheya Amazu. Special
mention must also be made of Mr. Christian Ugwuanyi for handling the data analysis and turning
out the results in good time and with precision. I also appreciate Juliana Ukwuaba for carefully
typing and formatting the work.
My indebtedness also goes to my wife, Mrs. Gloria Obioma Egbe and my children – Amara,
Chika, Ugonna, Ifeanyi and Ebube for showing interest at every stage of the work. Their love and
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support gave me the psychological and emotional balance that helped me to complete this study.
Also, the sacrifices made by my late father, Mr. Boniface N. Egbe and my mother Nnemuroha
Veronica I. Egbe for my education are fondly remembered and appreciated. While I was carrying
out this research, the memories of those sacrifices motivated me to forge ahead even during difficult
moments. My brothers and sisters are also commended for their financial and moral support.
Finally, I am most grateful to the Almighty God for the life, health and inspiration he gave
me throughout the duration of this study. Without him, my strivings to bring this study to a
successful end would have been some toil in futility. May all glory and honour be unto his holy
name. May this loving and benevolent God also bless all of you who have helped me to attain this
glorious height.
Egbe, Cajetan, Ikechukwu
February 2015.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Title Page ...............................................................................................................................i
Certification ..........................................................................................................................iii
Approval Page ........................................................................................................................ii
Dedication .............................................................................................................................iv
Acknowledgments..................................................................................................................v
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................vii
List of Tables .........................................................................................................................x
List of Figures .......................................................................................................................xi
Abstract .................................................................................................................................xii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................1
Background of the Study .......................................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................17
Purpose of the Study ..............................................................................................................18
Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................19
Scope of the Study .................................................................................................................21
Research Questions ................................................................................................................22
Hypotheses .............................................................................................................................23
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ........................................24
Conceptual Framework .......................................................................................................24
Integrative Language Teaching Approach .......................................................................25
Grammar in English Language Learning .........................................................................33
Achievement in English Language ..................................................................................39
Interest and Students’ Achievement ................................................................................41
Schematic Representation of the Conceptual Framework ...............................................43
Theoretical Framework .......................................................................................................44
Monitor Theory ................................................................................................................44
Schematic Representation of the Theoretical Framework ...............................................50
Empirical Studies .................................................................................................................51
Studies on Integrative Language Teaching Approach .....................................................51
Studies on English Grammar ...........................................................................................55
Studies on Interest and Achievement ...............................................................................62
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Studies on Gender and Achievement ...............................................................................66
Studies on Location and Achievement ............................................................................70
Summary of Literature Review ..........................................................................................73
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD .................................................................75
Design of the Study ................................................................................................................75
Area of the Study ...................................................................................................................76
Population of the Study ..........................................................................................................76
Sample and Sampling Technique...........................................................................................77
Instruments for Data Collection .............................................................................................77
Validation of the Instrument ..................................................................................................79
Reliability of the Instrument ..................................................................................................81
Experimental Procedure .........................................................................................................82
Control of Extraneous Variables ............................................................................................86
Method of Data Analysis .......................................................................................................88
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS ..........................................................................................89
Research Questions ................................................................................................................89
Hypotheses ............................................................................................................................96
Summary of the Major Findings ............................................................................................101
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS,
IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND
SUMMARY .........................................................................................102
Discussion of Results .............................................................................................................102
Conclusions ...........................................................................................................................108
Educational Implications ......................................................................................................108
Recommendations ..................................................................................................................111
Limitations of the Study.........................................................................................................112
Suggestions for Further Research ..........................................................................................112
Summary of the Study ...........................................................................................................112
REFERENCES .....................................................................................................................116
APPENDICES
A. English Grammar Achievement Test (EGAT) .............................................................125
B. English Grammar Achievement Test Marking Scheme ...............................................131
C. English Grammar Interest Inventory (EGII) .................................................................132
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D. Scoring Guide for the English Grammar Interest Inventory .........................................133
E. Table of Specification/Test Blue Print for English Grammar Achievement Test ........134
F. Passages for Exploration by the Experimental Group ..................................................135
G. Lesson Plans for the Experimental Group ....................................................................139
H. Lesson Plans for the Control Group..............................................................................157
I. Request for Validation of English Grammar Achievement Test (EGAT) and
English Grammar Interest Inventory (EGII) .................................................................171
J. Comments by Experts on the Validity of the English Grammar Achievement
Test (EGAT) and the English Grammar Interest Inventory (EGII) ..............................175
K. Comments by Experts on the Validity of the Exploration
Passages and the Lesson Plans ......................................................................................181
L. Reliability of EGAT ......................................................................................................183
M. Reliability of EGII ........................................................................................................184
N. Population of SSS II Students in Nsukka Local Government Area in
2013/2014 Session ........................................................................................................185
O. Distribution of Sample ...................................................................................................186
P. Pre-test and Post-test Data from the English Grammar Achievement Test (EGAT) ......187
Q. Main Output ....................................................................................................................194
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Pre/Post-test Mean Achievement Scores of the Experimental and Control
Groups in English Grammar .....................................................................................89
2. Pre/Post-test Mean Interest Rating Scores of the Experimental and
Control Groups in English Grammar .........................................................................90
3. Pre/Post-test Mean Achievement Scores of Male and Female Students in
English Grammar .......................................................................................................90
4. Pre/Post-test Mean Interest Rating Scores of Male and Female Students in
English Grammar .......................................................................................................91
5. Pre/Post-test Mean Achievement Scores of Urban and Rural Students in
English Grammar .......................................................................................................92
6. Pre/Post-test Mean Interest Rating Scores of Urban and Rural Students in
English Grammar .......................................................................................................92
7. Interaction Effect of Instructional Approach and Gender on Students’
Mean Post Achievement Scores in English Grammar ..............................................93
8. Interaction Effect of Instructional Approach and Gender on Students’
Mean Post Interest Rating Scores in English Grammar.............................................94
9. Interaction Effect of Instructional Approach and Location on Students’
Mean Post Achievement Scores in English Grammar ...............................................95
10. Interaction Effect of Instructional Approach and Location on Students’
Mean Post Interest Rating Scores in English Grammar.............................................95
11. Summary of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of Students’ Post
Achievement Scores in English Grammar by Approach, Gender and Location ......96
12. Summary of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of Students’
Post Interest Scores in English Grammar by Approach, Gender and Location .........97
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Fig. 1: Schematic Diagram of the Conceptual Framework....................................................46
Fig. 2: Schematic Diagram of the Theoretical Framework....................................................52
Fig. 3: The Design of the Study .............................................................................................75
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ABSTRACT
The study was designed to empirically investigate the effect of Integrative Language Teaching
Approach (ILTA) on secondary school students’ achievement and interest in English grammar. It
also determined the influence of gender and location on students’ achievement and interest in
English grammar. The achievement and interest of students taught with ILTA were compared with
those of students taught with the Form Based Approach (FBA). Ten research questions and ten
hypotheses guided the study. A quasi-experimental design was used. Specifically, the non-
randomised control group design, involving eight intact classes was used. The sample for the study
consisted of 296 SSS II students from four co-educational secondary schools in Nsukka Local
Government Area, which was the area of the study. A multi-stage sampling technique was used,
first to draw the four co-educational schools and two intact classes from each school, and to assign
schools to experimental (ILTA) and control groups (FBA). Two instruments, namely the English
Grammar Achievement Test (EGAT) and the English Grammar Interest Inventory (EGII) were
developed and validated. The internal consistency of EGAT was computed and found to be 0.95
using Kuder Richardson’s formula (K – R 20), while that of EGII was 0.71 using Cronbach’s Alpha
Coefficient Method. Before treatment commenced, the EGAT and EGII were administered as pre-
test to the two groups in each of the sampled schools. The treatment lasted for one month. After the
treatment session, the same instrument, with numbers re-arranged, were administered to the subjects
to obtain the post-test scores. The data obtained were used in answering the research questions and
testing the hypotheses. The research questions were answered using mean scores, while the
hypotheses were tested using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of significance. The
results indicated that ILTA had significant effect on students’ achievement and interest in English
grammar, but gender did not significantly influence students’ achievement and interest in English
grammar. Location was a significant factor in students’ achievement and interest in English
grammar. The results also showed that there was no significant interaction effect of instructional
approach and gender on students’ achievement and interest in English grammar. However, while
there was significant interaction effect of instructional approach and location on students’
achievement in English grammar, there was no significant interaction effect of instructional
approach and location on students’ interest in English grammar. Based on the findings, it was
concluded that the study provided empirical evidence of the efficacy of ILTA in enhancing
students’ achievement and interest in English grammar. By implication, if teachers of the English
language adopt ILTA and practise it in their various schools, students’ achievement and interest in
English grammar may improve. It was, therefore, recommended among others that government and
other professional bodies should organize workshops, seminars and conferences to educate and
sensitize the serving teachers on the use of ILTA in teaching English grammar.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Language is a unique endowment of man. It is an instrument of interaction which all human
beings hold in common. Without language human societies may find it difficult to survive. This
arises from the fact that they are in constant interaction with one another and language is an
indispensable vehicle for such interaction (Anyanwu, 2002). Language helps man to communicate
at several planes and in several ways, for several different purposes and for as many different times
as he feels, needs, or is made to do so (Ajulo, 2002).
In Nigeria, the language that serves these communicative functions across diverse ethnic
groups is the English language. English had access into Nigeria’s linguistic history through trade
and colonization. Before its adoption as the nation’s second as well as official language, many
indigenous languages like Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo had been in use for the consummation of the
same human need of communication. However, none of these indigenous languages was spoken by
the majority of the people, thus making it possible for English to be used as the language for
maintaining effective interaction across the linguistically divergent ethnic groups. In line with this,
Ogbuehi (2001) aptly observes that the existence of many apparently unrelated languages made it
imperative for English to be adopted as the official language in Nigeria since the amalgamation of
the northern and southern protectorates in 1914.
From the foregoing, it is deducible that the English language serves to bridge the
communication divide which would have been occasioned by the multi-lingual nature of the
Nigerian society. Williams (2004) states that in Nigeria, English is used as a second language and a
medium of instruction. It is the language of education, administration, commerce, politics, law, etc.
Akabogu (2002) avers that in most nations, the dominant language is the language of government,
business, education, the legal system, the learned professions, trade and commerce, the arts, culture
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and mobility of all kinds. In Nigeria, the only language that fits into this picture is the English
language. Thus, Akabogu asserts that this enviable status of English places it ahead of other
languages in its importance for purposes of communication.
Painting a picture of the global status and importance of the English language, Onuigbo and
Eyisi (2009) state that in spite of the diversity found in the world of today, the English language
remains an important centripetal force that cuts through the global village and pulls the divergent
chords towards a central point. Onuigbo and Eyisi further point out that the computer “speaks”
other languages, but the English language accounts for about 80% of the messages in the
information superhighway. Therefore, as the language of the internet, more and more people are
compelled to learn English as the viable global language for effective global networking.
In the field of education, the role of the English language is important. The National Policy
on Education (FRN, 2004) stipulates that English should be progressively used as a medium of
instruction from the fourth year of primary school. It also makes English a core and compulsory
subject at the junior and senior secondary schools. One is required to pass it at credit level before
one can gain admission into any of the Nigerian universities (Nigerian Educational Research and
Development Council (NERDC), 2007; Adepoju, 2008; Torty, 2010). The English language is also
the index for measuring the quality of any senior school certificate examination result, as it is the
subject which candidates must pass if their overall success in the examination is to have any value
(Akabogu, 2002).
It follows, inexorably, that how well students progress in their academic pursuit is hinged to
a large extent on their level of proficiency in English. This agrees with the observation of Feast
(2002), that if students are deficient in the language of instruction (English), they will not perform
well in the various school subjects that are taught with the language. This may explain why the
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English language is regarded by NERDC (2007) as the primus interpares (first among equals)
among the core subjects in the secondary school curriculum.
The objective of teaching English as stated in the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004)
is to give the students permanent literacy and the ability to communicate effectively. Also, NERDC
(2007) states that the senior secondary English language curriculum is designed to equip the
students with an adequate range of words, sentences and sentence types to enable them
communicate effectively in school and outside it, listen effectively to any speech or lecture as well
as speak fluently and intelligibly. It is also designed to ensure that students can read materials of
varying lengths and difficulty effectively, and write logically with grammatically correct sentences.
Contrary to expectation, the objectives of teaching and learning English at the secondary
school level seem not to be achieved. Marja (2008) asserts that students from secondary schools
demonstrate narrow range of ability in the English language. Azikiwe (1998) also states that the
effective use of English is what many students lack, lamenting that the achievement of students in
the subject in the school certificate examination does not fall in line with the great importance
attached to it. Low achievement of students at the senior school certificate examinations has become
a recurring decimal as evidence from the results of the West African Senior School Certificate
Examinations (WASSCE) conducted by the West African Examinations Council (WAEC), and the
Senior School Certificate Examination (SSCE) conducted by the National Examinations Council
(NECO) attest. In elucidation, the NECO Chief Executive’s Report (2010) states that out of the
1,116,195 candidates that sat for the June/July 2010 examination, only 245,890 candidates,
representing 21% of the candidates, had credit passes and above in English. On the other hand,
Olatunji (2010) reports that the result of the May/June 2010 WASSCE was very poor as about 75%
of the candidates did not pass the English language at credit level. Out of the 1,351,557 candidates
who sat for the 2010 examination only 451,187 candidates obtained credit pass and above in the
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English language. Ozordi (2010) states that according to the Head of National Office of WAEC, Dr
Iyi Uwadiae, the figure represents 25% credit pass in English as against the 7.5% and 18.41% credit
passes obtained in 2009 and 2008 respectively. These indicate a high failure rate in English over the
years. The WAEC Head of National Office, cited in Ozordi (2010), attributed these failures and
general weaknesses of the candidates to insufficient qualified teachers and candidates’
unpreparedness for examinations. He also bemoaned the following factors as responsible for
candidates’ low achievement: failure to follow instruction, misunderstanding and misinterpretation
of questions, poor spelling, illegible handwriting, poor grammatical expressions and ignorance of
the rudiments of English.
Ignorance of the grammar of the English language is one of the main factors which the
WAEC Chief Examiners’ Reports (2007, 2008, 2009, 2011) pointed out contributed to candidates’
failure in the subject. Grammar, also called structure or grammatical structure (Opega, 2005) is the
set of patterns in which the words of a language are arranged in order to convey meanings. It is also
the proper arrangement of words in sentences (NERDC, 2006). For Baldeh (1990) grammar refers
to the patterns and forms of a language used and accepted by the native speakers of that language.
Lester (2001) sees it as the rules of the language that have been acquired and are used
unconsciously by a speaker. Thus, it can be inferred from the foregoing definitions that grammar is
the principles and rules that allow the organization of words and sentences into coherent,
meaningful language acceptable to the native speakers of the language.
Writing on the pivotal place of grammar in the English language, Ogenyi (2002) and
Akinbode (2008) agree that grammar is the spinal cord of any language and the user’s mastery of it
determines his competence and performance in the language. Also, Palmer, cited in Baldeh (1990)
asserts that the central part of a language is its grammar. Grammar is the “mechanics” and
“calculus” of language. It is grammar that makes language so essentially a human characteristic and
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man is not merely homo loquensi (language-speaking human being) but also homo grammaticus
(grammatical human being). Oji (2002) further maintains that a second language learner has to
command to a considerable degree the grammar of a language before he can make pretensions to
the mastery of it.
At the secondary school level in Nigeria grammar is broken down into topics in the junior
and senior secondary education curricula. These topics include those on nominal groups (nouns,
pronouns, noun phrases, nominalization), verbal groups (tense, aspect, sequence of tenses, phrasal
verbs), nominal group plus verbal group (concord, transitive and intransitive verbs),
adjectival/adverbial group (adjectives and adverbs), adjectival and adverbial phrases and clauses.
However, NERDC (2006) specifically enjoins English language teachers to pay particular attention
to concord (subject verb agreement) and tense (present and past) as they teach grammatical
elements. This may be because concord and tense run through all structures irrespective of the topic
to be taught. Concord and tense are therefore the aspects of grammar focused on in this study.
In the Senior School Certificate Examination grammar is integrated into papers 1 and 2 of
the English language examination. Paper 1 examines candidates on letter/essay writing,
comprehension and summary. In letter/essay writing, grammar is tested under expression and
mechanical accuracy, and it takes 30 out of the 50 marks allocated to that section (WAEC, 2012). In
comprehension and summary, every correct answer given is first checked to ascertain whether it is
grammatically flawless before it is awarded full marks; if not, half a mark is deducted for each
grammatical error committed for each answer (WAEC, 2012). Paper 2, on the other hand, is the
objective test. This part tests candidates’ knowledge of lexis and structure (grammar) with a ratio of
45: 55 in favour of structure (Osisanwo, 1990).
In teaching the grammar of the English language teachers adopt one approach or the other.
According to Richards and Rodgers (1995) an approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing
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with the nature of language teaching and language learning. For Anasiudu (2002) an approach is the
view or orientation one has about language, for instance, that language is a system of forms
(Structural or Form Based Approach) or as a means of communication (Meaning Based or
Communicative Approach). Dazie (1988) and Jibowo (2012) are of the view that most teachers in
Nigerian secondary schools usually use the Structural or Form Based Approach. This is the
conventional, non-integrative approach to English language teaching which focuses on definitions
and analysis of structures to the neglect of the actual uses of the language for social communication.
The Form Based Approach sees language as a code made up of elements (a system of forms). Thus,
grammar provides the required description of the code (Anasiudu, 2002). The approach is
characterized by grammatical explanation, memorization of rules and reliance on textbooks. It
involves the teaching of the English language as an academic subject.
The Form Based Approach lays much emphasis on prescriptive rules which have to be
memorized and applied in usage. It believes, according to Anasiudu (2002), that the normative rules
mastered by the learners enable them to attain correctness in the target language. The learner is
subjected to tedious memorization of model passages, grammatical rules and lengthy lists of
vocabulary that could supposedly equip him with the ability to produce standard expressions. The
learner is made to memorize the parts of speech, the cases as well as verb conjugations, noun
declension, parsing/sentence diagramming and clause analysis. Offorma (2002) points out that as
the learner makes desperate effort to recall what is committed to memory, he or she becomes
frustrated and demotivated as there is no fun or joy in the language class. Learners turn out to be
“grammarians” rather than “linguists”; they learn the language but cannot communicate in it. The
result is that this overt and conscious learning of language rules and structures does not translate
fully into actual communicative competence.
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In teaching a grammar topic like ‘countable nouns’, the Form Based Approach usually
adopts the following steps:
Definition : A countable noun is a noun that can be counted.
Example : man, goat, tree, stone, school, etc.
Rule Formation : The article ‘a’ or ‘an’ is used before singular countable nouns, but not used before
uncountable nouns.
Example : He is a man. This is an egg. These are eggs.
Rule Formation : Countable nouns take singular or plural forms.
Example : He is a man. They are men.
The process continues until all the rules and examples are exhausted and the lesson is
brought to an end. However, in using the above approach students master definitions and rules and
isolated examples of definitions of rules. But countable nouns do not always appear in isolated
cases in discourse. They may appear in conjugation with uncountable nouns, abstract nouns, proper
nouns, in active or passive structures. Thus, in the Form Based Approach grammatical structures are
not taught in an integrated form.
The problems associated with the Form Based Approach could underlie the fear of, and low
achievements and interest in grammar, especially in the areas of agreement and sequence of tenses
which are the focus of this study. As evidence, Donald and Modeline (1992) claim that more than
half of the errors made in English mostly occur because of confusion in the use of tenses. Bamgbose
(2003) also avers that several errors that occur in English language arise from the improper mastery
of concord (agreement) and tenses by students. Udosen (2005) and Olibe (2010) are in agreement
that the average Nigerian student manifests significant grammatical incompetence and that upon
leaving school he/she lacks the essential reading, writing and communication skills. Jibowo (2012),
on the other hand, contends that the learners of English as a Second Language (ESL) in Nigeria tend
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to manifest fear and anxiety in grammar classes. It follows, therefore, that the weaknesses, fear and
anxiety which students exhibit in English language grammar suggests that something may be wrong
with the approach that is used in teaching it in school. This could have prompted the suggestion in
the WAEC Chief Examiners’ Report (2008) that there is the need for alternative approaches,
methods and strategies that could relate academic contents to real life experiences to enhance high
academic achievement.
Commenting on the place of approach in teaching and learning, Igbokwe (2007) holds that
there is no best all round approach in teaching, but some approaches may be better than others in the
teaching of a particular skill or subject. Igbokwe also affirms that the success or failure of any
language outcome does not depend only on the ability of the learner but also on the teaching
approaches, methods and strategies used. This is why Richards (2012) opines that the demand for an
appropriate instructional approach is as strong as ever. The appropriate approach should not only be
able to help students speak and write accurate grammar, but also help them to speak fluent
unrehearsed English.
Indeed, grammar does not occur in isolation naturally. It is an integrated skill which should
call for an integrated approach. The knowledge of grammar is central to the understanding of the
four language skills as it is the hub on which the four language skills revolve (Opega, 2005). A
person who listens to a speech in the English language invariably listens to the grammar of the
language. In the same parlance, a person who speaks, reads or writes in English, is expected to
speak, read or write the correct grammar of the language. It is being felt that if grammar is taught as
an integrated skill using the Integrative (sometimes called Integrated) Language Teaching
Approach, students’ achievement and interest in English language grammar may improve.
The empirical basis of the Integrative Language Teaching Approach is traceable to the
pioneering work of Pavel Sysoyev of the Tambov State University, Russia. Sysoyev (1999) in his
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experiments, integrated the Form Based Approach and the Meaning Based Approach in teaching L2
grammar using the procedure of exploration, explanation and expression. The Integrative Language
Teaching Approach connotes the idea of bringing together, infusing elements from different
concepts into a whole (as in Integrated Science). According to Kenya Institute of Education (2002)
the Integrative Language Teaching Approach is “merging two autonomous but related activities in
order to strengthen and enrich both” p.3. It also means that no language skill should be taught in
isolation. Listening, speaking, reading and writing skills should complement each other. However, it
is basically a response to the drawbacks of a purely segregated approach as seen in the Form Based
and Meaning Based approaches.
In the Integrative Language Teaching Approach students learn explicit grammar rules not in
isolation, but in the context of communicative tasks. Students are given a chance to look at the
language at the sentence level to see how certain grammatical rules are applied. The Kenya Institute
of Education (2002) asserts that “it has been established that teaching linguistic structures in
isolation is not only boring, but it also tends to produce learners who lack communicative
competence” p.3. Thus, according to Oxford (2001) the integrative language teaching approach
exposes English language learners to authentic language and challenges them to interact naturally in
the language. The approach stresses that English is not just an object of academic interest, nor
merely a key to passing an examination; instead, English is a real means of interaction and sharing
among people.
The integrative language teaching approach involves various stages or levels of integration,
according to Ongong’a, Okwara and Nyangara (2010). The first level is the curriculum level. This
level involves the use of knowledge, ideas and concepts primarily from literature, which is closely
related to language, and from other school subjects to teach English. Williams (2004) is of the view
that the common ground between literature and language teaching has not been sufficiently
10
explored. Yet, the writer maintains that literature has a definite place in second language teaching.
For instance, the students’ use of grammar (syntactic structure) can be improved through exposure
to the best models of contemporary prose, fiction and non-fiction. Savvidou (2004) also affirms that
the integration of literature into the English language classroom can be a potentially pedagogic tool
as it can create opportunities for personal expression as well as reinforce learners’ knowledge of
lexical and grammatical structures. It is probably based on the advantages of integrating literature
into the teaching of language that the Ministry of Education in Kenya stipulates that the English
language must be taught using the Integrated Approach. As such, the subject is called Integrated
English, which involves teaching English language and Literature-in-English as one subject in the
school curriculum (Manyasi, 2014).
The second level of integration is the skills level. This entails the combination of listening,
reading and writing skills during English language teaching and learning. Agada (2008) points out
that an integrated language programme sees language as a combination of all the skills; thus a
reading passage can be used as an occasion to teach vocabulary and grammar, as well as
opportunity for speaking and expressing oneself in writing. Oxford (2001) is of the opinion that if
the teacher is creative, a course bearing a discrete-skill title might actually involve multiple
integrated skills.
The third level of integration is the resource level. This involves the combination of different
learning resources such as graphics and three dimensional materials. Learning resources provide
opportunities for discourse or interaction in the classroom. Students can comment on what they see,
hear or touch, thus promoting permanence and authenticity of learning.
The fourth level is the methodology level. This level is the main thrust of the Integrative
Language Teaching Approach according to Sysoyev (1999). It is also the focus of this study. This
level involves the combination of different language approaches such as the Structural or Form
11
Based Approach and the Functional or Meaning Based Approach. Spada and Lightbown (1993)
argue that form focused instruction (Form Based Approach) and corrective feedback provided
within the context of communicative interaction (Meaning Based Approach) can contribute
positively to second language development in both the short and long term. Musumeci (1997)
concurs that the integration of these two approaches enables students to learn explicit grammar rules
as well as have a chance to practise them in communication in authentic and simulation tasks.
Sysoyev (1999) experimented on this fourth level of integration. In his study, Sysoyev integrated
the Form Based and Meaning Based approaches in the teaching of grammar using the following
procedure – exploration, explanation and expression.
Exploration is characterized by “inductive learning” in which students are involved in
problem-solving behaviour. Here, students are given exploration passages illustrating a grammar
rule and are asked as a group to read the passage and find structures having the same pattern as the
one given by the teacher, for example ‘singular subject + singular verb in the present tense’ (John
sweeps the room). With the assistance of the teacher, they find common patterns and also formulate
the rule, for example, that singular subjects agree in number with singular verbs. The passages can
be constructed by the teacher or drawn from a literature book or from well-edited newspaper
articles. As the students battle to discover the common characteristics existing among the sentences,
they are encouraged to become active rather than passive learners. Sysoyev (1999) maintains that
students tend to prefer assignments that allow them to explore the language. The knowledge they
obtain is theirs and it is much easier to be remembered. Thus, exploration promotes the interest of
learners. In support of this procedure, Azar (2013) maintains that students learn from understanding
what is happening in examples of usage, not knowledge from rules. Dabaghi and Goharimehr
(2011) also state that in the Integrative Approach the rules are provided in a communicative context
to be then extracted and learned by the students.
12
The second step in the procedure is explanation. After the students have discovered common
patterns at the exploration stage and have attempted to state the rules guiding the patterns, the
teacher at this stage explicitly states those rules using sentences in the exploration passage as
examples. Sysoyev (1999) avers that this step is not compulsory and may be omitted. However, the
writer maintains that this stage may be necessary because students feel safer when they know the
rules and have some source to go back to in case of confusion or for future reference.
The third and the last step of the procedure is expression. Sysoyev (1999) explains that after
the students must have discovered certain grammatical patterns in the exploration stage and have
been intimated with the rules in the explanation stage, they start applying their acquired knowledge
in making grammatically correct sentences. Williams (2004) describes this stage of the procedure as
the language activity stage. It makes use of small group work involving questions and answers, and
dialogues of different forms. In each case, the students are made to imitate or substitute patterns
already learnt as in the following dialogue:
Student A: Is your friend fair in complexion?
Student B: Yes, he is.
Student A: Which food does he like most?
Student B: He likes rice most.
Student A: Who are his brothers?
Student B: His brothers are James and John.
In the expression stage, emphasis is placed on using the language for communication and
not on analysis of structures, like identification of parts of speech and their functions.
During the application of these major steps in the procedure, the teacher also uses the
traditional instructional procedure like set induction and test of entry behaviour at the beginning,
and evaluation at the end. These are common to both the Integrative Language Teaching Approach
13
and the Form Based or conventional approach. However, unlike the Integrative Language Teaching
Approach, the Form Based Approach emphasizes only explanation as its major instructional
procedure. In the procedure, the teacher gives a certain rule and illustrates with examples. The
students only listen to the rules, write them down and ask questions if they are in doubt. Little or no
room is given to discovery which the exploration stage allows, nor of expression which involves
interactive and communicative tasks. It is based on this distinction that Sysoyev (1999) avers that
the integrative language teaching approach is a child-centred approach because it creates optimal
conditions for learning for everyone in the classroom as it uses a variety of styles, methods and
techniques to ensure that children with different learning styles and needs are carried along.
The Integrative Language Teaching Approach draws theoretical inspiration from Stephen
Krashen’s Monitor Theory (Wallwork, 1985). Krashen (1982) postulated that adults approach
second language learning by either acquiring it or learning it. They can acquire a language by
engaging in meaningful interaction in just the same way as children acquire their mother tongue.
Learning, on the other hand, involves conscious study of the form of the language and the
grammatical rules guiding them as is typical in the Form Based Approach to language learning.
Krashen contends that the acquired system is responsible for fluency and intuitive judgment about
correctness, while the learned system acts as the monitor or editor, making minor changes and
polishing the output of the acquired system. In line with Krashen’s theory, the Integrative Language
Teaching Approach plays down on memorization of the rules of the language. Rather, it emphasizes
language activity which will lead students to the rules of the language. Thus, it provides
opportunities for the learners to communicate naturally and spontaneously in the language, yet be
able to know when their utterances have violated a certain rule, through their exposure to the
learned system.
14
Though the Integrative Language Teaching Approach potentially appears to be efficacious
as an approach that may improve students’ achievement and interest in English language grammar,
no study known to the researcher has been carried out in Nsukka Local Government Area to
ascertain its relative effectiveness compared to the Form Based Approach. Nevertheless, it is
believed that one good way of effecting a change of method or approach in teaching a particular
subject or skill is to demonstrate through experimentation and empirical evidence that such
approach or method can yield positive instructional outcomes. Without empirical evidence to
support its effectiveness in enhancing students’ achievement and interest in English grammar it may
be ignored as an approach that may promote students’ achievement and interest in English
grammar. It is based on this that this study intends to find out the effect of the Integrative Language
Teaching Approach on secondary school students’ achievement and interest in English grammar.
Apart from the teaching method, research has implicated the close connection between
interest and achievement (Torty, 2010). Achievement as seen by Encarta (2005) is synonymous
with success. The level of achievement or success is measured with an achievement test and the
scores obtained from it are then indices of the level of achievement. On the other hand, Chukwu
(2002) sees interest as emotionally oriented behavioural trait which determines a student’s urge and
vigour to tackle educational programmes and other activities. Musa (2006) defines interest as zeal
or willingness to participate in an activity from which one derives some pleasure. For Situ (1999)
interest is an expression of likes or dislikes which plays a significant role in learning all subjects or
courses. Situ further stresses that if a student is interested in any subject, such a student will spend
more time studying that subject. Such devotion of time to the learning of a subject may most likely
crystallize in greater achievement.
In separate studies, Situ (1999), Omeje (2008) and Torty (2010) found out that there is a
positive correlation between students’ interest and their achievement in a particular subject or skill.
15
Osuafor (2001) also found out that interest can be aroused and sustained in teaching and learning
through appropriate teaching method. Therefore, as a result of this close connection between
interest and achievement on one hand, and interest and methodology of instruction on the other, it
becomes important to teach the grammar of the English language in a manner that will arouse the
interest of the students in it through appropriate approaches and methods. Thus, this study is aimed
at finding out the effect of the Integrative Language Teaching Approach on students’ interest in
English grammar?
Apart from interest, gender is another variable that affects teaching and learning. The
methodology of instruction used may not be received in the same way by both genders. Keller
(1991) sees gender as a cultural construct developed by the society to distinguish the roles,
behaviour, mental and emotional characteristics between males and females. Offorma (2004) also
agrees that gender is learned, socially constructed condition ascribed to males and females.
Distinction is usually made between gender and sex. While sex is biological, gender is socio-
cultural. The roles ascribed to different sexes may agree in some societies, but may differ in others.
This may also affect learning outcomes.
Commenting on gender and language learning, Anderson, cited in Igbokwe (2007) asserts
that there is a difference in the thought process of males and females which has implications for
language learning. The writer is of the view that females are faster in the acquisition of language
and language expression than males. Among ESL (English As a Second Language) students,
females are more disposed to expressing themselves in the second language. This positive
disposition favours permanence of learning. In a similar vein, Ogo, cited in Igbokwe (2007) notes
that female secondary school students tend to be more relaxed in a language class than males. This
relaxation may influence learning positively.
In Nigeria there are conflicting reports on whether gender plays a significant role in
language achievement. Some researchers like Offorma (1990) and Umo (2001) claim that the
female gender performs better than the male in language. However, other researchers like
Otagburuagu (1996), Ngonebu (2000), Opara (2003), and Uzoegwu (2004) found out that the males
16
perform better than the females in language. Yet, other studies by Akabogu (2002), Oluikpe (2004),
Igbokwe (2007), Agada (2008), Omeje (2008) and Torty (2010) did not establish any significant
difference in the achievement of males and females in language. Based on this disparity of findings
on which gender performs better in language, it seems that the exact influence of gender on
language achievement is not clear, hence there is need for further studies on the nature of students’
achievement by gender, especially in Nigeria.
Another variable considered in this study is school location. Many researchers have also
been interested in whether school location has influence on the achievement of school children.
Location as used in this study refers to the place or environment where a school is sited, that is,
either in the urban or rural area. Uzoegwu (2004) is of the view that the location of a school
determines so many things that are important in learning such as learning facilities, infrastructure,
number of teachers and the class size, among others. The provision or absence of these facilities
may facilitate or hinder learning.
Studies carried out in Nigeria by Umo (2001), Ene (2002) and Torty (2010) showed that
location had a significant effect on students’ achievement, while others by Akabogu (2002), Ene
(2002) and Uzoegwu (2004) showed that location had no significant impact on students’
achievement. On the other hand, studies conducted in some Western countries by Evans, Kliewer
and Martin (1991) and Lackney (1994) indicated that students from schools located in the rural
areas achieved higher than those from schools located in the urban areas. From the findings of these
studies, it is not certain which school location favours better students’ achievement, thereby
justifying the inclusion of school location as a variable in this study.
Based on the foregoing expositions, therefore, there is the need to find out through empirical
evidence, the extent to which the Integrative Language Teaching Approach will affect students’
achievement and interest in English grammar, as well as the influence of gender and location on
students’ achievement and interest in English grammar.
17
Statement of the Problem
The English language is Nigeria’s second as well as official language. It is also the medium
of instruction in schools and the language with which Nigerians interact with the outside world. But
not minding this important place of English in Nigeria’s educational and social spheres, secondary
school students do not perform well in it. This poor performance is especially noticeable in their
inability to use the grammar of the English language correctly. Many students have problems
especially in applying the rules of agreement and sequence of tenses in their speech and writing.
Thus, their sentences are grammatically infelicitous and cannot help them engage in meaningful
discourse both within and outside the classroom and in passing their examinations.
The WAEC Chief Examiners’ Reports over the years have connected students’ poor
performance in English language to their inability to use the English grammar efficiently. As a
palliative measure, they have called for a change of approach to address this anomaly. Incidentally,
the Form Based Approach (the conventional, non-integrative approach to the teaching of grammar)
appears to be the predominant approach adopted by teachers in Nigerian secondary schools. This
approach focuses on definitions and analysis of grammatical structures and plays down on the use
of grammar for the purpose of communication at the discourse level. Teachers who adopt this
approach make grammar classes academic, technical, mechanical and overtly abstract, with the
result that they create boredom rather than interest in the students. Also, the use of the Form Based
Approach helps the students to produce discrete structures but they lack competence in producing
correct, spontaneous speech and flowing, grammatically flawless written expressions as expected of
them in examinations on composition, comprehension and summary.
It is felt that the Integrative Language Teaching Approach is an approach that may satisfy
the varied uses of grammar. However, while many researchers have called for the use of this
approach in teaching English language because of its potential benefits, the extent to which it can be
18
beneficial in enhancing students’ achievement and interest in English grammar, to the best of the
knowledge of the researcher, is not yet established in Nsukka Local Government Area. Therefore,
the problem of this study is to determine the effects of Integrative Language Teaching Approach on
students’ achievement and interest in English grammar.
Purpose of the Study
The general purpose of the study was to find out the effects of the integrative language
teaching approach on students’ achievement and interest in English grammar. Specifically, the
study was designed to determine the
1. effect of Integrative Language Teaching Approach (ILTA) on students’ achievement in English
grammar.
2. effect of ILTA on students’ interest in English grammar.
3. influence of gender on students’ achievement in English grammar.
4. influence of gender on students’ interest in English grammar.
5. influence of location on students’ achievement in English grammar.
6. influence of location on students’ interest in English grammar.
7. interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’ achievement in English
grammar.
8. interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’ interest in English grammar.
9. interaction effect of instructional approach and location on students’ achievement in English
grammar.
10. interaction effect of instructional approach and location on students’ interest in English
grammar.
19
Significance of the Study
This study has both theoretical and practical significance. Theoretically, this study is
anchored on the Monitor Theory of learning. This theory posits that adults have two distinct and
independent ways of developing competence in a second language. According to Krashen (1982),
the proponent of this theory, adult second language learners approach second language learning by
either acquiring it or learning it. Adults acquire the second language as they engage in meaningful
interaction in just the same way as children acquire their first language. In acquisition, speakers are
not concerned with the form of their utterance but with the message that is being conveyed. In
contrast, adults learn the second language through formal instruction which involves conscious
study of the form of the language and the grammatical rules guiding them.
The Integrative Language Teaching Approach takes from both opposite positions, that is,
from acquisition and from learning. It creates a variety of learning experiences for the learners to
explore the language and acquire it just as children do. However, it also provides the learners with
the rules which complement and polish what they have been exposed to through the acquired
system. This is in contrast with the Form Based Approach which focuses more on language learning
than acquisition. So, the outcome of this research will help to corroborate the Monitor Theory which
posits that adults can learn language either through acquisition or through learning and that
acquisition is superior to learning. Since Krashen (1982) states that these two methods of gaining
competence in a language complement each other for better performance, the Integrative Language
Teaching Approach, which adopts this posture, will show whether students exposed to these two
forms will achieve better and have more interest in grammar than those exposed only to the learned
system, thereby corroborating or disputing the tenets of the Monitor Theory.
Apart from its theoretical significance, this study also has some practical significance.
Practically, the findings of this study will hopefully be of immense benefit to students, teachers,
20
curriculum planners, textbook writers, education authorities and researchers. The outcome of this
research will be of immense significance to students. If the Integrative Language Teaching
Approach is found to be efficacious, the students will gain because their interest and achievement in
grammar and ultimately in the English language will improve. They will benefit from lessons that
are not abstract but relevant to their communicative needs, thereby reducing the fear and boredom
associated with the teaching of grammar as a segregated, abstract aspect of English. This, in turn,
will motivate the students intrinsically to learn the language, thereby predisposing them to better
achievement in English language examinations conducted by WAEC and NECO.
Also, the result of this study may create the need to organize workshops which will expose
language teachers to emerging approaches like the integrative language teaching approach. The
exposure of teachers to this approach may assist them to work out proper sequences of class
activities to which they may expose their students. These activities will not only assist their students
in learning the grammatical rules of English, but will also help them to communicate meaningfully
in real life situations. Teachers will also be provided with the information on whether the
Integrative Language Teaching Approach is suitable for both male and female students, and
students from urban and rural locations, or whether there should be bias in the use of the approach
across gender and location.
This study will also be significant to curriculum planners because they may see the need to
include the Integrative Language Teaching Approach as one of the innovative approaches in the
teaching of grammar in the next review of the secondary school curriculum. It will also help them to
incorporate this approach in the curriculum used for training English language teachers in tertiary
institutions in Nigeria in order to achieve positive cyclical effect, since the would-be English
language teachers on graduation may be better disposed to use the same approach in teaching their
students at the other levels of education.
21
The findings of this study will be of interest to textbook writers in English language. Most of
the current books in use in Nigerian secondary schools are non-integrative in their approach to
English language teaching. On the sections on comprehension, speech and writing, not much (if
any) is said on grammar. Discussions on grammar are only done on the section on grammatical
structure. The outcome of this study may help them to produce new textual materials in English
language that will be integrative in approach, such that units on comprehension can be a veritable
avenue to teach grammar, leading to a more holistic teaching and use of language.
Furthermore, the outcome of this study may enable education authorities to see the need to
organize seminars and workshops where they will enlighten the English language teachers on the
efficacy of the Integrative Language Teaching Approach and how it can be used in teaching
grammar in an English language classroom. This, in turn, will generate positive returns for teachers
and students.
Scope of the Study
The study was carried out in public senior secondary schools in Nsukka Local Government
Area of Enugu State, Nigeria. The study examined the effect of the integrative language teaching
approach on students’ achievement and interest in English language grammar, as well as the
influence of gender and school location on students’ achievement and interest in English grammar.
Also, the interaction effects of the instructional approach, gender and location on students’
achievement and interest in English grammar were examined. The study concentrated on the effects
of integration of form and meaning on students’ achievement and interest in English grammar.
The study also dwelt on the agreement of singular and plural subjects with singular and
plural verbs, as well as the sequence of tenses in the present and past tenses (singular and plural
forms). Agreement and sequence of tenses are aspects of English language grammar which pose the
greatest problems to students (Donald & Modeline, 1992; Bamgbose, 2003). They are also aspects
22
of English that NERDC (2006) specifically enjoined teachers to pay attention to in teaching
grammatical accuracy. Senior Secondary School Class Two (SSS II) students were used for the
study. At this level, verbs and sequence of tenses appear in their English Language National
Curriculum and Enugu State Unified Scheme of Work on English Language.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study:
1. What are the mean achievement scores of students taught English grammar using the
Integrative Language Teaching Approach (ILTA) and those taught using the Form Based
Approach (FBA)?
2. What are the mean interest rating scores of students taught English grammar using the ILTA
and those taught using the FBA?
3. What is the influence of gender on the mean achievement scores of students in English
grammar?
4. What is the influence of gender on the mean interest rating scores of students in English
grammar?
5. What is the influence of location on the mean achievement scores of students in English
grammar?
6. What is the influence of location on the mean interest rating scores of students in English
grammar?
7. What is the interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’ mean
achievement scores in English grammar?
8. What is the interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’ mean
interest rating scores in English grammar?
9. What is the interaction effect of instructional approach and location on students’ mean
achievement scores in English grammar?
23
10. What is the interaction effect of instructional approach and location on students’ mean interest
rating scores in English grammar?
Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study at p < 0.05.
HO1: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught English
grammar using the Integrative Language Teaching Approach (ILTA) and those taught with
the Form Based Approach (FBA).
HO2: There is no significant difference in the mean interest rating scores of students taught English
grammar using the ILTA and those thought with the FBA.
HO3: Gender has no significant effect on the mean achievement scores of students in English
grammar.
HO4: Gender has no significant effect on the mean interest rating scores of students in English
grammar.
HO5: School location has no significant effect on the mean achievement scores of students in
English grammar.
HO6: School location has no significant effect on the mean interest rating scores of students in
English grammar.
HO7: There is no significant interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’
mean achievement scores in English grammar.
HO8: There is no significant interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’
mean interest rating scores in English grammar.
HO9: The interaction effect of instructional approach and school location on students’ mean
achievement scores in English grammar is not statistically significant.
HO10: The interaction effect of instructional approach and school location on students’ mean
interest rating scores in English grammar is not statistically significant.
24
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents the review of related literature under the following headings and sub-
headings:
Conceptual Framework
� Integrative Language Teaching Approach
� Grammar in English Language Learning
� Achievement in English Language
� Interest and Students’ Achievement
� Schematic Representation of the Conceptual Framework
Theoretical Framework
� Monitor Theory
� Schematic Representation of the Theoretical Framework
Empirical Studies
� Studies on Integrative Language Teaching Approach
� Studies on English Grammar
� Studies on Interest and Achievement
� Studies on Gender and Achievement
� Studies on Location and Achievement
Summary of Literature Review
Conceptual Framework
Many concepts are reviewed under this sub-heading. They include the concepts of
Integrative Language Teaching Approach, grammar, achievement and interest.
24
25
Integrative Language Teaching Approach
Integrative Language Teaching Approach connotes bringing together, infusing elements
from different concepts into a whole. Williams (2004) opines that integration is a central concept in
any comprehensive approach to language teaching methodology, but unfortunately, it is an aspect of
teaching that has not been sufficiently explored. It is an approach that takes a little from the Form
Based or Traditional Approach and the Meaning Based or Communicative Approach, as well as
other methods and techniques and skills to attain a more holistic teaching and learning of language.
However, it is basically a response to the drawbacks of a purely segregated approach as seen in the
Form Based and Meaning Based approaches. Therefore, a clear understanding of the thrust of the
Integrative Language Teaching Approach will necessarily involve an explanation of these two
approaches and their shortcomings.
An approach to language teaching is concerned with the way of viewing the purpose of
language teaching. If the purpose of language teaching is for students to acquire communication
skills, then the approach will be different from that which believes that the purpose of language
teaching is to equip the students with the rules and structures of the language which will enable
them to use language effectively. According to Richards and Rodgers (1995) an approach is a set of
correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning. For Anasiudu
(2002) an approach is the view or orientation one has about language, for instance, that language is
a system of forms (Structural or Form Based Approach) or as a means of communication (Meaning
Based or Communicative Approach).
Thus, an approach guides and sustains language teaching. It synchronices objectives with
methods and provides the basis for choosing what should be included in the language lesson. It also
guides in the selection of tasks and instructional materials for a given lesson.
26
There are two broad approaches to grammar teaching, according to Sysoyev (1999). These
are the Form Based (also referred to as Traditional) Approach and the Meaning Based (also referred
to as the Communicative) Approach. The Form Based Approach (FBA) is also identified as the
Traditional Approach by Dakhmouche (2008). This is one of the approaches to the teaching of
English grammar. It focuses on definitions and analysis of structures. According to Anasiudu (2002)
this approach sees language as a code made up of elements (a system of forms). Thus, grammar
teaching focuses on the description of the code. Lowth, cited in Tomori (1999) captures vividly the
Form Based Approach to grammar teaching thus:
The principal design of a grammar of any language is to
teach us to express ourselves with propriety in that
language, and to enable us to judge of every phrase or
form of construction whether it be right or not. The plain
way of doing this is to lay down rules and to illustrate
them by examples (p. 6).
The form-based approach emphasizes the memorization of prescriptive rules with the belief
that the normative rules mastered by the learners enable them to attain correctness in the target
language. Richards and Rodgers (1995) and Thornbury (1999) state that this approach is
characterized by a thorough study of grammatical rules. It uses the deductive method in which
grammar rules are explicitly stated. Accuracy is most important in language learning and this is
strongly emphasized and considered as a prerequisite for success in examinations. However, this
conscious learning of language rules and structures does not translate fully into the acquisition of
communicative competence.
Another dimension of the problem associated with the Form Based Approach is the
challenge of producing spontaneous speech when the occasion demands. Some few intellectual
students who are able to memorize grammatical rules may be good at producing discrete structures
that are grammatically accurate. But according to Sysoyev (1999) this accuracy is observed in
prepared speech only. Where spontaneity comes into play, students encounter slips and may not be
27
able to produce flowing, grammatically correct speech. This arises from the fact that students had
been taught discrete structures that are not woven together into meaningful discourse.
The Form Based Approach with its shortcomings in teaching grammar is still the popular
approach used in schools today. In support of this, Ezeude (2007) laments that language teaching
has gone through phases of language teaching methods, from the Grammar Translation Method to
the present day Communicative Approach and computer programming, yet Nigeria makes use of
textbook method of grammar translation (which is a method used in implementing the form-based
approach). Igbokwe (2007) opines that since the Grammar Translation Method can be applied via
the lecture method, it is not so demanding. All that the learners require to do is to listen, copy notes
of rules and exceptions and take corrections from the chalkboard. Thus, the student is rendered
passive. Besides, the Form Based Approach encourages the teaching of English language as an
academic subject and grammar as one of the topics, as typical in other subjects like Economics. As
such, Doff (1988) laments that the language used in such lessons is often unnatural and artificial.
Baldeh (1990) points out that the Form Based Approach, with its related method of grammar
translation, succeeds in nurturing the students on a diet of artificial forms of the language. As a
result, students see grammar as a boring activity taught constantly in isolation from other language
skills and not relevant to their day-to-day communication needs.
The second segregative approach is the Meaning Based Approach, also referred to as the
Communicative Approach (Sysoyev, 1999). The Communicative Approach according to Igbokwe
(2007) is a generalized umbrella term used to describe the learning sequences which are aimed at
improving the students’ ability to communicate, in contrast with the traditional method which aims
at teaching bits of language that may not focus on achieving communication. For Harmer (2004),
the Communicative Approach is the name given to a set of beliefs which include the re-examination
of what aspects of language to teach and how to teach it. What aspects of language to be taught
should stress the significance of language functions rather than explicit teaching of grammar and
vocabulary. Wilkins, cited in Iloene (2007) maintains that in making utterances the learners are
28
engaged in socially oriented acts of doing and since the goal of learning is to enable the learner to
perform the social functions that these acts represent, things to be taught are language functions, not
structure. The communicative approach postulates that a lot of exposure of the learners to the use of
language, and a variety of opportunities to use it are very important for students’ development of
knowledge and skills.
The Communicative Approach, according to Schulz (2006), emphasizes actual use of the
language and not just structural analysis. Schulz further states that in this approach much time is
devoted to the acquisition of skills using activities performed in groups by learners such as role
play, simulation and imitation of real life language. The most important things that students should
do in this approach is for them to be communicating something. Interaction is emphasized as both
the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. So, the primary goal of the Communicative
Approach is for the learners to develop communicative competence. Thus, a learner is said to be
communicatively competent if the learner can produce spontaneously and fluently, sentences which
express desired meanings appropriate to the social purpose and context (Iloene, 2007). Accuracy of
the language use by learners is less important than the successful achievement of the
communicative tasks they are performing (Igbokwe, 2007). Offorma (2002) also states that success
in the use of language arises from the learner’s ability to take part in the process of communication
through language, rather than with their perfect mastery of individual structures.
The Communicative Approach deemphasizes explicit teaching of grammar (Odo, 2007). It
rather advocates the teaching of grammar in the same way that mother tongue is acquired. It
upholds grammar teaching in context. Grammar is taught implicitly, not explicitly. Widdowson
(1990) states that the Communicative Approach pays attention to doing rather than knowing,
stressing that knowing is inferred from doing. Accordingly, grammar is learnt accidentally as
communicative activities go on.
The Communicative Approach has some shortcomings that may impede its recommendation
as the sole approach for teaching grammar. According to Sugiharto (2005), a substantial body of
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empirical research has revealed that the application of a purely communicative approach in the EFL
setting is inadequate in helping learners attain high levels of grammatical competence. Schulz
(2006) reports that students who are taught using this approach can speak fluently, but have more
problems with the accurate use of the language. Another criticism against the communicative
approach according to Igbokwe (2007) is that it is prejudiced in favour of native-speaker teachers,
as it demands an uncontrolled range of language use on the part of the students, while expecting the
teacher to be able to respond to any and every language problem, which, of course, many language
teachers in the second language situation will not be able to do.
The Communicative Approach is also time consuming. Schulz (2006) avers that a vast
majority of learners in foreign language situation have neither sufficient time, sufficient appropriate
contexts, sufficient input and sufficient opportunities to interact with competent users of the target
language through classroom instruction. Torty (2010) also points out that this approach is very
demanding on the teacher for its preparation and execution because the teacher has to provide all
the materials needed to make the lesson situational.
The demands of the communicative approach as well as the shortcomings could be the
reason why it is not popularly used as an approach to grammar teaching in Nigeria. According to
Ezeude (2007) the communicative approach is yet to be put in place in Nigeria because of lack of
facilities. Ezeude maintains that the approach is only read in texts, to the extent that the average
Nigerian language teacher can hardly give satisfactory explanation of what Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT) is, let alone practise it.
It is based on the foregoing scenario that Burmfit, cited in Offorma (2002) advocates that
teachers should strike a balance between the meaning oriented ‘fluency’ work and form based
‘accuracy’ work. Also, other scholars like Sysoyev (1999), Oxford (2001) and Williams (2004)
have called for the integration of the two approaches for increased performance in English
grammar. Students need fluency to be able to interact freely within and outside the classroom. They
also need accuracy to be able to navigate examination questions successfully. Spada and Lightbown
30
(1993) argue that form focused instruction and corrective feedback provided within the context of
communicative interaction can contribute positively to second language development in both the
short and long term. As a result, scholars have advocated for the use of integrative language
teaching approach in order to take from the good aspects of the form based and communicative
approaches for a better and more holistic teaching and learning of language, and grammar in
particular.
The drawbacks of both the form based and the meaning based approaches have led scholars
to think of integrating or infusing into one the merits of either approaches for a better teaching and
learning of language. According to Rodriguez (2009) contemporary research on the merits of the
implicit (communicative) and the explicit (form based) approaches to grammar teaching has led to
the consensus that an exclusive emphasis on either extremes impedes adult learners’ acquisition of
English. Sysoyev (1999) avers that in learning an L2 grammar students face a dilemma. On the one
hand, they need to know the rules, as they are tested on that at schools. They also have need for
good communication in the second language. Strict adherence to the polar opposite positions leaves
no room for nuances. That is why the writer posits that there is need to look at the way of
combining form and meaning in teaching foreign languages.
Thus, as a possible solution, the Integrative Language Teaching Approach combines a form
based approach with a meaning based focus. Spada and Lightbown (1993) have also argued “that
form focused instruction and corrective feedback provided within the context of communicative
interaction can contribute positively to second language development in both the short and long
term” (p. 205).
The Integrative Language Teaching Approach involves, according to Williams (2004), the
integration of the older structural approach with the newer functional approach. In the traditional
approach language is taught mainly in terms of phonological, grammatical and lexical structures.
While concentrating on language form, the structural approach stops short at doing justice to the
functions of language for purposes of social interaction. On the other hand, in the functional or
31
communicative approach, communicative competence is aimed at being developed, which involves
the learner being able to use language for meaningful interaction at the discourse level. It involves
developing in the learner appropriateness of usage, conventional usage, transactional usage and
interactional usage.
Integration in language teaching, thus, embraces the following important areas (Williams,
2004).
1. Integration of the past and present practices; the traditional and the innovative.
2. Integration of skills and aspects of language: the spoken with the written, the receptive with
the productive.
3. Integration of literature teaching into language teaching.
1. Integration of the past and present practices
Over the years there have been changes in language teaching methods. At some time
emphasis was on teaching the rules of the language; at another time the emphasis shifted to practice
and repetition without teaching the rules. According to Williams (2004) it has been argued recently
that no one method of language teaching holds the answer for all purposes and situations. As a
result, in striving for the new, care must be taken to preserve what is worthwhile in the old, hence
the notion of integration.
2. Integration of skills and aspects of language
The integrative language teaching approach tracks students on multiple skills at the same
time. While focusing on a particular aspect of language, Williams (2004) points out that the teacher
can at the same time provide practice in other aspects. The practice of one skill is used to reinforce
other skills. For instance, lessons on reading comprehension can be devoted to reinforcing the skills
of listening, speaking, writing and particularly grammar.
3. Integration of literature teaching into language teaching
The common grounds between literature and language teaching has not been sufficiently
explored according to Williams (2004). Yet, the writer maintains that literature has a definite place
32
in second language teaching. For instance, the students’ use of grammar (syntactic structures) can
be improved through exposure to the best models of contemporary prose, fiction and non-fiction.
The aforementioned important areas of integration as outlined by Williams (2004) are
expanded by Ongonga, Okwara & Nyangara (2010) in their various levels or stages of integration.
The first level, according to the writers, is the curriculum level. This level involves the use of
knowledge, ideas and concepts primarily from literature, which is closely related to language, and
from other school subjects to teach English. Savvidou (2004) affirms that the integration of
literature into the English language classroom can be a potentially pedagogic tool as it can create
opportunities for personal expression as well as reinforce learner’s knowledge of lexical and
grammatical structures.
The second level of integration is the skills level. This entails the combination of listening,
reading and writing skills during English language teaching and learning. Agada (2008) points out
that an integrative language programme sees language as a combination of all the skills; thus a
reading passage can be used as an occasion to teach vocabulary and grammar, as well as
opportunity for speaking and expressing oneself in writing. Oxford (2001) is of the opinion that if
the teacher is creative, a course bearing a discrete-skill title might actually involve multiple
integrated skills.
The third level of integration is the resource level. This implies the combination of different
learning resources such as graphics and three dimensional materials. Learning resources provide
opportunities for discourse or interaction in the classroom. Students can comment on what they see,
hear or touch, thus promoting permanence of learning.
The fourth level is the methodology level. This level is the main thrust of the integrative
language teaching approach (Spada and Lightbown, 1993; Musumeci, 1997; Sysoyev, 1999). It
involves the combination of different language approaches such as the structural or form-based
approach and the functional or meaning-based or communicative approach, as well as the
combination of different methods such as the grammar translation method, the audio-lingual method
33
and the communicative method. Sysoyev (1999), Oxford (2001) and Williams (2004) call for the
integration of the Form Based Approach and the Meaning Based Approach for increased
performance in English grammar. Musumeci (1997) states that the integration of these two
approaches enables students to learn explicit grammar rules as well as have a chance to practise
them in communication in authentic and simulation tasks.
Grammar in English Language Learning
The term grammar has been given different definitions by people. Tomori (1999) has four
different interpretations of the concept. First, grammar is defined as the quality of the knowledge of
a language possessed by a speaker, as inferred from the nature of his utterances. In this sense, the
utterance of a speaker can be said to be an example of good or poor grammar.
Secondly, grammar can mean a book embodying the rules of morphology and syntax of a
particular language. While morphology is the study of the structure of words, syntax is the study of
the rules governing the formation of linguistic elements larger than the word, like phrase, clause and
sentences (Tomori, 1999). Thirdly, grammar also refers to the body of descriptive statements about
the morphological and syntactic structures of the language.
Fourthly, grammar denotes the body of prescriptive statements about usages that are
considered acceptable and those that are considered unacceptable in a particular language.
According to Tomori (1999) any statement that says that ‘I aint got nothing’ is ungrammatical, but
that ‘I haven’t got anything’ is grammatical is a prescriptive statement.
Other definitions of grammar are outlined by Lester (2001). According to the writer,
grammar refers to the internal, unconscious rule system, that is, the rules of the language that have
been acquired and are used unconsciously by a speaker. It also means the scientific analysis of
grammar, that is, the linguistic models of grammar like traditional grammar, structural grammar and
transformational generative grammar. Grammar further refers to usage, that is, what people mean
when they say that someone does not use very good grammar. In another sense, it refers to the
school room espousal of traditional grammar as contained in secondary school textbooks. Finally, it
34
can mean stylistic grammar, that is, the use of grammar for purposes of teaching style, including
sentence building.
The meanings of grammar as outlined by Lester (2001) agree in some places with those
outlined by Tomori (1999). Both writers agree that grammar refers to the knowledge of the rules of
usage which a speaker has of the language (linguistic competence). They also agree that it can refer
to a book which describes the rules of a language.
Like Tomori (1999) and Lester (2001), Eyisi (2006) also sees the meaning of grammar from
different perspectives:
1. As a book, for instance, English Grammar for Advanced Students by Dr. Nzebunachi Oji.
2. As a branch of study, that is, the body of descriptive statements concerning the systematic
interrelationship of structures within the English language.
3. As subject matter, for instance, one may say ‘English grammar is different from Igbo
grammar’.
4. As rules, that is, normative rules that determine correctness in the use of a language.
5. As statements, that is, a body of prescriptive statements about the usages that are considered
acceptable and those that are considered unacceptable in particular dialects of a language.
6. As intuitive knowledge, that is, the intuitive knowledge of the native speakers about their
language. This is also called linguistic competence.
The definitions given to grammar by Eyisi (2006) are restatements of the definitions of
Tomori (1999) and Lester (2001) using other words. The common thing among these definitions is
that grammar has to do with the rules of a language as embodied in a book or acquired by an
individual or studied as a branch of learning. Because grammar has to do with rules, Herztler, cited
in Ogbuehi (2001), defines it as “the traffic rules of language” (p.2). The analogy between traffic
rules and grammar points to the fact that if one does not obey traffic rules, one will definitely not be
able to use the highway. In the same way if one does not obey the rules of grammar, one will not be
able to use the English language without errors marring one’s efforts. In this study, therefore,
35
grammar refers to the tacit rules of language, which control the organization of words into coherent
and meaningful language that is acceptable to the native speakers of the language.
Grammar has two parts. These parts as pointed out by Tomori (1999) are morphology and
syntax. Morphology, according to the writer, is the study of the structure of words, that is, the study
of the rules governing the formation of words in a language. For Ogbuehi (2001) morphology is
concerned with the formation of words from the morpheme which is the smallest meaningful unit.
This procedure, according to the writer, helps in the understanding of words and their functions in a
linguistic system.
Syntax, on the other hand, is the study of the rules governing the formation of linguistic
units larger than the word, like phrase, clause and sentences. For instance, to say that the word
‘achievement’ is made up of two parts ‘achieve’ and ‘-ment’ is to make a morphological statement.
But to say that ‘a good man’ is made up of the words ‘a’, ‘good’ and ‘man’ and that the utterance is
fully grammatical is to make a syntactic statement. Ogenyi (2002) agrees that syntax refers to the
principles and methods by which words are arranged in a language to bring about meaning. For
Ogbuehi (2001) syntax literally means ‘taken together’. According to the writer it is an aspect of
grammar which makes each word take the position it has taken to perform a specific function in
order to provide the meaning.
A breach of morphological or syntactic rules results in ungrammatical coinages or
expressions. For instance, the word ‘convocation’ is a noun, but there is no verb ‘convocated’. The
word ‘singlehanded’ is an adverb but there is no other adverb ‘single-handedly’. In the same vein,
‘instalment’ is a noun, but there is no adverb ‘instalmentally’. The same is true of ‘fastly’ and
‘seldomly’ which are corrupt forms of ‘fast’ and ‘seldom’.
The foregoing errors are morphological errors when they are analyzed at the level of the
word. At the syntactical level, English has acceptable sentence structures like SVO (subject verb
object: The man ate beans); SV (subject verb: Ada wept); SVOA (subject, verb, object, adverbial:
She sews clothes carefully.), etc. However, there are no structures like SOV or VS or VOAS, etc.
36
So, when a structure like VOAS (verb, object, adverbial subject: Sews clothes carefully she) is used
by a speaker, then it said that syntactical rules have been breached.
Grammar is at the core of any language programme. Harping on the importance of grammar,
Murthy (2007) opines that “unless we have mastered grammar, we do not or cannot speak or write
English correctly” (p.3). In the same vein, Ogenyi (2002) highlights the importance of grammar
thus:
It is therefore apparent that the learning of English especially
by a second language user is impossible without considerable
reference to grammar, and indeed without a detailed
knowledge of grammatical processes. This is because the
patterns and forms of a language are what constitute grammar -
the common core of language (p.189).
Stressing the value of grammar teaching, Mulroy (2003) contends that questioning the value
of grammar is like asking whether farmers should know the names of their crops and animals. On
this issue, Baldeh (1990) states that a child learning his native tongue acquires grammar effortlessly,
automatically, unconsciously and efficiently. But it is incorrect to think that the child in a second
language context learns language in the same way as the child in the native setting. Thus, the author
asserts that a command of the grammatical structure is quite essential to the mastery of the
language.
Stressing further on this, Ogenyi (2002) avers that for the second language learner to
develop a high level of competence in the English language and ensure a high level of performance,
the second language learner has to internalize the structures (grammar) of the language to the point
of automaticity. However, internalizing the structures does not mean dwelling on the rules as an
end. Sweet, cited in Baldeh (1990) rather maintains that the aim of grammatical study is not the
acquisition of rules but a practical command of the language itself, so that instead of the examples
being intended solely to illustrate the rules, the rules should rather be a stepping stone to the
understanding of the examples.
37
Despite the practical values of grammar to the mastery of the English language, Udosen
(2005) and Olibe (2010) agree that the average Nigerian student manifests significant grammatical
incompetence. Also, Jibowo (2012) asserts that the learners of English as a second language (ESL)
in Nigeria tend to manifest fear and anxiety in grammar classes. However, Palmer, cited in Baldeh
(1990) is of the opinion that grammar should be of vital interest to speakers or learners of the
language. If it has not been of such interest, then the fault must be in the way in which it has been
presented, or in the failure to recognize its importance within this essentially human activity called
language.
At the secondary school level, grammar is broken down into topics in the English language
curriculum. These topics are many and varied (NERDC, 2006, 2007). They include topics on
nominal groups (nouns, pronouns, noun phrases, nominalization), verbal groups (tense, aspect,
sequence of tenses, phrasal verbs), nominal group plus verbal group (subject verb agreement,
transitive and intransitive verbs), adjectival/adverbial group (adjectives and adverbs), adjectival and
adverbial phrases and clauses, etc. However, NERDC (2006) specifically enjoins English language
teachers to pay particular attention to concord (subject verb agreement), active and passive voice,
tense, substitution and punctuation as they teach the grammatical elements. This is probably
because concord and tense run through all structures irrespective of the topic to be taught. It may
also be because concord and tense present problems to students. For instance Donald and Modeline
(1992) claim that more than half of the errors made in English mostly occur because of the
confusion in the use of present tense, the past tense and the past participle. Bamgbose (2003) also
states that several errors that occur in English language arise from lack of mastery of concord and
tense.
Concord, according to Nzerem (2008) “is a term in grammar used to show cordial relationship in
gender, case, number or person between different words that share a reference” (p. 256). Used
interchangeably with agreement, concord describes the relationship between the inflectional forms
of the different elements within a sentence (Gbenedio and Anene-Boyle, 2004). It shows the
38
relationship between the subject and the verb on the one hand, and a pronoun and its antecedent, on
the other. For Oji (2002) concord means the matching of the verb with its subject, that is, the
agreement of the verb in number with its subject. If the subject is singular, the verb must be
singular; if the subject is plural, its verb must also be plural. Nzerem (2008), harping on the
importance of concord or agreement, points out that there must be agreement of words according to
their syntactic functions for there to be intelligibility in utterance. Violation of the rules of concord
leads to semantic noise.
On the other hand, tense is defined as the form that a verb takes to show the time of an action
(Oji, 2002). Based on this definition, Oji argues that there are only two tenses in English, present
tense and past tense, but no future tense. However, traditionally, other inflections corresponding to
time or degree of action are possible which allows for the inclusion of the present continuous,
present perfect, past continuous, past perfect, etc (Ike, 2000). This traditional classification of tense
to include both time and aspect is used in this study. The knowledge of the application of tenses is
so crucial to the second language learner that Baldeh (1997) asserts that a good pass in the subject
demands that the students know how to use the tense appropriately.
Tense and concord overlap, such that teaching one involves teaching the other to some degree as
shown in the following sentences:
1. John likes his English language teacher. (Use of simple present tense, with subject and verb
in agreement)
2. They were happy with us. (Use of simple past tense, with subject and verb in agreement)
3. The man and the woman have gone home. (Use of the present perfect tense, with the subject
and verb in agreement)
In conclusion, it has been gleaned from literature that grammar has to do with the rules of a
language and that for any speaker to claim mastery of the language he or she has to be at home with
it. It was also seen that concord and tense are aspects of grammar that constitute problems to
students. Thus, it is necessary to use appropriate methods to teach these aspects of grammar so that
39
students can perform better in them. The Integrative Language Teaching Approach is being tried to
see whether it can improve students’ achievement in English grammar.
Achievement in English Language
The term ‘achievement’ (in this context, academic achievement) refers to the scholastic
standing of a student at a given moment which portrays the individual’s intellectual abilities
(Adeyemi, 2008). Students’ academic achievement can be explained in form of grades obtained
from tests or examinations on subjects or courses taken. Achievement is usually assessed with
achievement tests. Schnitzer (2005) defines achievement tests as tests designed to assess current
performance in an academic area. Apart from being an indicator of previous learning, Schnitzer sees
achievement as a predictor of future academic success.
In Nigeria the level of students’ academic achievement in the senior secondary school is
determined at the terminal part of the programme through the West African Senior School
Certificate Examination (WASSCE), conducted by the West African Examinations’ Council
(WAEC) and the Senior School Certificate Examination (SSCE), conducted by the National
Examinations’ Council (NECO). Adeyemi (2008) reports that the pattern of grading candidates’
scores in the examination is such that the distinction grades are represented by A1, B2 and B3. The
credit grades are represented by C4, C5 and C6, while the ordinary pass grades are represented by P7
and P8. The failure grade is represented by F9.
Available evidence from WAEC and NECO shows that students’ achievement in English
language over the years has not been encouraging. For instance, the NECO Chief Executive’s
Report (2010) states that out of the 1,116,195 candidates that sat for the June/July 2010
examination, only 245, 890 candidates, representing 21% of the candidates, had credit passes and
above in English. On the other hand, Olatunji (2010) reports that the result of the May/June 2010
WASSCE was very poor as about 75% of the candidates did not pass English at credit level. The
report has it that out of 1,351,557 candidates who sat for the 2010 examination only 451, 187
candidates obtained credit pass and above in English. Ozordi (2010) reports that the figure
40
according to Dr. Iyi Uwadiae, Head of National Office of WAEC, represents 25% credit pass in
English as against the 7.5% and 18.41% credit passes obtained in 2009 and 2008 respectively.
The poor achievements of candidates in English language arise from many factors. These
factors according to Uwadiae (2008) include lack of adequate preparation of the students by the
teachers, shortage of qualified teachers, inadequate teaching materials, poor school environment,
inability to understand questions requiring high level thinking and shallow, poor answers to
questions due to poor command of the English language. However, a historical review of the
WAEC Chief Examiners’ Reports for the years 1998, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2007 and 2011 show that
candidates’ weakness in grammar is one of the major causes of students’ failure at the senior school
certificate examination on English language. For instance the Chief Examiners’ Report (1998)
stated that “many candidates are blissfully ignorant of the rules of concord and correct tense usage.
One could write a fat volume to illustrate candidates’ breach of these grammatical rules” (p.4).
In May/June 2000 WASSCE, the WAEC Chief Examiners’ Report (2000) revealed that
candidates exposed their ignorance of the rudiments of the English language. Most of the students,
according to the report, lost all the marks allotted to essay questions as a result of their breach of the
rules of spelling, punctuation, grammar and sequence of tenses. The errors of grammar committed
included errors of concord, wrong verb form, omission of the apostrophe and wrong use of the verb
after the infinitive. The report recommended the exposure of candidates to modern English texts as
a way of turning them around.
Furthermore, the WAEC Chief Examiners’ Report (2002) also noted that the performance of
the candidates was very poor. It stated that most compositions were marred by poor spelling, poor
punctuation and faulty grammar, especially in the areas of wrong concord, wrong use of tense,
indiscriminate use of the capital letters and arbitrary use and omission of the apostrophe.
In 2003, the Chief Examiners’ Report lamented that the weaknesses observed in the scripts
of the candidates were mainly as a result of inadequate exposure to the skill of writing, lack of
familiarity with the required formats, construction of loose sentences, transliteration from the
41
mother tongue and abuse of the basic rules of grammar. The rules of grammar abused are the rules
of concord and tense and the rules guiding constructions after the verbs make, allow, enable, etc.
Besides, the WAEC Chief Examiners’ Report (2007) noted that the major weakness of the
candidates in English language is still in the area of mechanical accuracy. The report recommends
that in order to solve the problem, basic rules and principles of grammar should be taught. This will
help the candidates to interpret the questions appropriately and also express themselves correctly in
their responses to the questions. The WAEC Chief Examiners’ Report for 2011 pointed out that
even though the questions were generally within the scope of the students, the performance of the
students belied the quality and simplicity of the questions. The students, the report noted, made no
conscious efforts at grammatical corrections.
Thus, it can be deduced from the foregoing that students’ achievements in English language
have not been encouraging. Many factors have been held as being responsible for this. But,
specifically, faulty grammar has been implicated as one of the factors. It is therefore necessary to
device measures of improving students’ achievement in grammar and ultimately in English
language. This study sets out, therefore, to find out the effect of the Integrative Language Teaching
Approach on students’ achievement in English grammar.
Interest and Students’ Achievement
Interest is believed to be a very fundamental factor in learning. This is as a result of the apparent
relationship between it and achievement of students. Wigfield (2010) identifies interest as one of the
predictors of achievement. Interest has been defined from many perspectives by writers and
researchers. According to Akaneme and Onyeabor (2011) interest is the feeling or emotion or
curiosity which causes attention to be focused on an abject or event or process. Chukwu (2002)
also defines interest as emotionally oriented behavioural trait which determines a student’s urge and
vigour to tackle educational programmes or other activities. On the other hand, Nworgu and
Okereke (2011) see interest as the feeling or energy which is channeled towards the achievement of
goals. In other words, if a child is eager to have knowledge in a subject, that child is said to be
42
interested in that subject. As long as the child finds something satisfying in the activity, that child
continues to be interested in it.
Interest determines how a student approaches a given activity with a certain amount of
devotion. According to Akaneme and Onyeabor (2001), the way each person learns depends on
interest, because it is interest that drives one to action, especially when such action is beneficial to
the person. This view is corroborated by Ezenwafor (2007) who opines that if a student is interested
in his programme of study, he goes to school regularly and punctually under rain and sun, stays and
pays attention to the teacher in the class, participates in class activities and takes examinations
seriously. However, those students who lack interest do the opposite.
Interest is a component of motivation. As such, Nnachi (2007) states that it plays some
prominent roles in learning and also in all dimensions of human development. The writer sees lack
of interest as a factor that can lead to poor academic achievement as well as dropping out of school.
Torty (2010) is also of the view that interest is useful in predicting the success and the satisfaction
which an individual is likely to obtain from engaging in certain activities now and in future.
Applied to this study, interest has to do with the expression of likes or dislikes which a
student shows for a given activity or subject like English language. It also involves the overt
activities he performs as he learns the subject which indicate that he is motivated or not motivated
to learn the subject. In research, these likes and dislikes, overt actions and activities are found out
using an interest inventory (Chukwu, 2002; Omeje, 2008; Torty, 2010).
As a result of the close connection between interest and achievement of students, it becomes
important, therefore, to teach the grammar of the English language in a manner that will arouse the
interest of the students in it through effective approaches and methods. Thus, it is imperative to find
out the effect of the Integrative Language Teaching Approach on students’ interest in English
grammar.
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Schematic Representation of the Conceptual Framework
The following figure shows the relationship existing among the concepts of integrative
language teaching approach, achievement and interest in English grammar.
The figure above schematically shows the interrelationship of Integrative Language
Teaching Approach, interest, gender, location and students’ achievement in English grammar. It
indicates that the teaching approach employed is very germane to the teaching of English as a
second language. Interest, gender and location are also other important factors, but they are lower in
importance than the approach used. The approach used in teaching can generate positive or negative
interest in the students. Negative or no interest does not contribute anything meaningful to students’
achievement in English language and grammar in particular.
Teaching and Learning of English as a Second Language
Interest
Positive
Interest
Negative
Interest
Approach
Meaning
Based
Approach
Integrative Language
Teaching Approach
Form
Based
Approach
Achievement in English Language
Achievement in English Grammar
© Egbe, Cajetan Ikechukwu (2015)
Fig 1: Schematic Diagram of the Conceptual Framework
Gender
Location
Male Female Urban Rural
44
The figure also shows that there are two major approaches used in teaching English
grammar. These are the Form Based Approach and the Meaning Based Approach. These
approaches are not integrative in nature. The former emphasizes the teaching of language forms as
key to language learning in a second language situation, while the latter stresses the value of
communicative tasks as crucial to communicative competence. The Integrative Language Teaching
Approach draws inspiration from both of them. It takes from what is good in the Form Based and
Meaning Based approaches to arrive at a more holistic approach to language teaching. It is expected
that with the use of this approach in teaching English grammar, positive interest will be generated
among the students. It is also expected that with the adoption of this approach in teaching English
grammar, male and female students as well as urban and rural students will benefit maximally from
instruction. The overall effect will be improved students’ achievement and interest in English
grammar and in English language generally for both male and female students and students in urban
and rural locations.
Theoretical Framework
This study draws inspiration from the Monitor Theory of language acquisition and learning.
The Monitor Theory
The Monitor Theory was propounded by Stephen Krashen, a famous professor of curriculum
and teaching at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, U.S.A. The Monitor Theory
by Stephen Krashen is according to Al.Musallam (2006) the most ambitious as well as the most
controversial theory which attempts to provide an overall account of second language acquisition.
According to Al.Musallam, the Monitor Theory has had a large impact on all areas of second
language research and teaching since the 1980s and has thus received extensive attention in the
professional literature.
45
Krashen’s Monitor Theory was actually not a theory when it was first proposed in 1971, but
merely a model. However, according to Al.Musallam (2006), it has undergone quite a few stages of
subsequent development, culminating in the full-grown theory of the 1980s. Ever since its
restatement in 1982, it has been called a theory (Wallwork, 1985, Al.Musallam, 2006; Schutz,
2007).
Krashen’s Monitor Theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses.
These include:
• The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
• The Monitor Hypothesis
• The Natural Order Hypothesis
• The Input Hypothesis, and
• The Affective Filter Hypothesis
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
This hypothesis seeks to show that adults have two distinct and independent ways of
developing competence in a second language. According to Krashen (1982, 1987) adult second
language learners approach second language learning by either acquiring it or learning it. The
hypothesis posits that people acquire the second language (L2) as they engage in meaningful
interactions in just the same way as children acquire their first language (L1). In acquisition,
speakers are not concerned with the form of their utterance but with the message that is being
conveyed. Contrastively, adults learn the L2 through formal instruction which involves conscious
study of the form of the language and the grammatical rules guiding them. With second language
learning, the analysis and correction of errors is formally and explicitly addressed.
However, acquisition and learning are not defined by ‘where’ a second language occurs.
Formal learning can occur in the street when a person asks questions about correct grammar,
46
mistakes and difficulties. In the same vein, language acquisition can occur in the classroom when
opportunities for authentic communication occur. Krashen (1982, 1987) argues that acquisition is
the most important process of learning a language because it is the acquired language that is readily
available for natural fluent communication and accounts for intuitive judgments of correctness or
otherwise of an utterance. For Krashen, learning, which is the conscious representation of
grammatical knowledge arising from instruction, cannot turn into acquisition as evident in the fact
that some speakers break the rules of the language in meaningful interaction even though they know
the rules. Thus, Krashen argues that acquisition is superior to learning. Acquisition is the basic
process involved in developing language proficiency. It is the acquired system that is called upon
for the creation of utterances during spontaneous language use.
Krashen’s Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis is in tandem with the integrative language
teaching approach (ILTA). This hypothesis recognizes the fact that students learning English as a
second language can either acquire or learn it. The form-based approach leans towards overt
learning of grammatical rules, while the meaning-based approach relies heavily on the acquisition
of language through authentic communication. The ILTA recognizes that these two approaches
complement each other for a more holistic learning of language. If students can use language
fluently in communication and can as well explain certain rules guiding their utterances, then they
would have gained mastery of the target language. Since grammar permeates the spoken and written
forms, its acquisition will help in fluency of speech, while its conscious learning will aid accuracy
of writing.
The Monitor Hypothesis
The Monitor Hypothesis shows the relationship between acquired system and the learned
system. Krashen asserts that the acquired system is responsible for fluency and intuitive judgments
about correctness. The learned system, on the other hand, acts as the monitor or editor of the
47
acquired system. Such editing may occur before the natural output of speech; it may also occur after
the output via a correcting device (that is correcting one’s mistake after the utterance had been
made). Krashen suggests that monitoring occurs when there is sufficient time; when there is
pressure to communicate correctly and not just to convey meaning, and when the appropriate rules
of speech are known, such as the rules of concord and tense. So, conscious learning of the grammar
of the language will help in polishing one’s speech or writing.
The Natural Order Hypothesis
This hypothesis posits that the acquisition of the grammatical structures of a language
follows a natural order which is predictable for both children and adults irrespective of the language
being learnt. Krashen (1987) states that some rules are acquired early while others are acquired late.
This natural order is independent of the order in which rules have been taught. The rules which are
easiest to learn are not necessarily the first to be acquired. This Natural Order Hypothesis may
explain why students face problems in concord and tense. For instance, the issue of singular and
plural is one grammatical item that is taught at an early stage, even in the primary schools. Pupils
are taught that the plural of ‘boy’ is ‘boys’, and that the plural of ‘is’ is ‘are’, yet the agreement of
singular subject with the singular verb is one area that is not actually acquired early by the students.
This is evident because even at the university level concord and tense still pose serious challenges
to many students. Thus, there is the need to find out whether the Integrative Language Teaching
Approach will assist the students to use grammatical concord well.
The Input Hypothesis
This hypothesis tries to explain how acquisition takes place. The Input Hypothesis is also
well known as the “i + I” hypothesis. According to this hypothesis (Krashen, 1985), ‘i’ represents’
students’ current level of L2 proficiency while ‘+ 1’ is the level of the linguistic form or function
beyond the present students’ level. For Krashen, if the input contains forms and structures just
48
beyond the learner’s current level of competence in the language, then both comprehension and
acquisition will occur. In other words, learners acquire language in only one way, and that is by
receiving comprehensible input (oral or written). This comprehensible input should be focused on
the meaning and not on the form.
The relevance of the Input Hypothesis to this study is that it shows how teachers can focus
on the actual level of the students, adjusting the complexity of the material they offer the learners
until they are able to reach what was initially beyond their level. Again, according to Al.Musallam
(2006) the Input Hypothesis points to the need for language proficiency on the part of the teacher,
who is frequently the only live source of input (other than that provided by other learners) available
to the students in the classroom. Also, the input factor points to the importance of instructional time
in a conventional L2 programme, suggesting that language institutions should increase programme
hours.
Besides, comprehensible input should not focus on complex analysis of structures to the
detriment of the use of language as it appears in the outside world. Classroom activities on grammar
should therefore focus on giving students input that is understandable, interesting and relevant to
their communicative needs. The integrative language teaching approach supports the use of
comprehensible input, the type that is rich in communicative tasks that will help students gain
mastery of the second language.
The Affective Filter Hypothesis
This hypothesis states that optimum learning occurs in an environment of high stimulus and
low anxiety. Krashen (1987) maintains that a number of ‘affective variables’ play a facilitative, but
non-causal role in second language acquisition. These variables include motivation, self-confidence
and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image
and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. On the
49
other hand, low motivation, low self-esteem and debilitating anxiety can combine to ‘raise’ the
affective filter and thus form a ‘mental block’ that prevents comprehensible input from being used
for acquisition. Therefore, a high affective filter inhibits acquisition, while a low affective filter
promotes it. Krashen states that this filter is present in adults but not in children.
The implication of this hypothesis to grammar teaching and learning is that students’
emotional state in terms of interest or hatred for lessons on grammar distorts their ability to learn.
Students must have a positive feeling towards the learning of the English language and grammar in
particular, for them to have an affective filter that is down and predisposed to input. So, teachers
who come into the classroom eager to begin an abstract lecture on grammatical names and
functions, as well as parsing of grammatical structures, sometimes succeed in enkindling the
elevation of the affective filter of the learners, making them ‘switch off’ until the lesson is over.
This hypothesis, thus underscores the need of making the atmosphere of the language
classroom congenial for acquisition. Language teachers can make a difference in students’
motivation, anxiety levels and self images by respecting their students, listening to them, and taking
note of what they say and do. This study seeks to find out to what extent the Integrative Language
Teaching Approach can promote students’ interest in English grammar which in turn will lead to the
lowering of their affective filter, predisposing them to learning.
50
Schematic Representation of the Theoretical Framework
The following figure shows the relationship between the theory and the approach used in this study.
© Egbe, Cajetan Ikechukwu (2015)
Fig 2: Schematic Diagram of the Theoretical Framework
The figure above shows that there are five hypotheses that make up the Monitor Theory –
the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis, the Monitor Hypothesis, the Natural Order Hypothesis, the
Input Hypothesis and the Affective Filter Hypothesis. The Integrative Language Teaching
Approach draws inspiration from all the hypotheses for the holistic teaching of grammar. It takes
into cognizance that there are two independent but interrelated ways through which adult second
language learners learn the language. They can either acquire the language or they can learn it.
Language learning is related to the Form Based approach which presents rules and gives examples
of rules, while the Meaning Based Approach is related to language acquisition in which rules are
not explicitly stated but are tacitly acquired through communication tasks. In a second language
The Monitor Theory
Integrative Language Teaching Approach
The Acquisition
Learning
Hypothesis
The Monitor
Hypothesis
The Natural
Order Hypothesis
The Input
Hypothesis
The Affective
Filter Hypothesis
English Grammar
51
situation, these two approaches complement each other, though acquisition is superior to learning.
That is why overt learning of grammatical rules is de-emphasized in the Integrative Language
Teaching Approach. It only provides rules as monitor to the tacitly acquired language structures.
Also, the Integrative Language Teaching Approach provides input that is comprehensible, not
abstract. This generates positive interest among the students, which in turn lowers their affective
filter (fear, anxiety, prejudice) thus predisposing them to the learning of English grammar.
Empirical Studies
The review of related empirical studies is done under the following sub-headings:
� Studies on Integrative Language Teaching Approach
� Studies on English grammar
� Studies on interest and achievement
� Studies on gender and achievement
� Studies on school location and achievement
Studies on Integrative Language Teaching Approach
Some studies have been carried out on the use of Integrative Language Teaching Approach
in teaching and learning of English and related subjects. For instance, Sysoyev (1999) carried out a
study on the use of Integrative Language Teaching Approach in teaching grammar to ESL students
in Russia, with focus on form and meaning. The subjects were 10 undergraduate international
students from Russia (n = 4), Ukraine (n = 2), Taiwan (n = 1), and China (n = 3), whose TOEFL
scores were lower than 500 points. All students were enrolled into the ESL programme and had
experienced grammar teaching in their home countries. The experiment consisted of three stages:
exploration, explanation and expression (EEE). At the exploration stage, learners looked at certain
sentences and discovered a grammatical pattern under the instructor’s supervision. In the
explanation stage, the teacher explained explicit rules, while in the expression stage the students
52
used new structures in interaction and in producing meaningful utterances. Finally, an evaluative
questionnaire was administered at the end of the lessons to determine the attitudes of the students
towards the new method of grammar teaching. The reliability of the instrument was estimated using
the Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 (t (10) = 26.28 at P < 0.001). Respondents were asked to
indicate, using a five-point scale (+2 to -2), their reaction to a series of statements by selecting one
of the possibilities. The scores of the questionnaire were adjusted in such a way that a positive
response meant a positive attitude towards integrative grammar teaching. The mean score was 1.33,
which signified that the students were positive towards the EEE method. The students preferred to
learn L2 grammar using the EEE method, as opposed to form based or meaning based only
approaches.
This study and the one under review are both interested in the use of Integrative Language
Teaching Approach in teaching English grammar. However, both studies are different in design.
While the present study is interested in finding out the achievement and interest of students through
a quasi experiment, the study by Sysoyev (1999) used an evaluative questionnaire to obtain its data.
Besides, the study by Sysoyev (1999) used only the experimental group, but this study will use both
experimental and control groups. Also, this study will use a larger sample from secondary school
students, while the study by Sysoyev used a restricted sample of ten undergraduate international
students from Asia.
In a related study, Dakhmouche (2008) investigated the use of integrative grammar in
teaching academic writing. The aim of the study was to demonstrate that grammar is one of the
necessary components for good writing and that it is possible to link grammar instruction to the
teaching of composition through integrative teaching. To guide the investigation, three research
questions were posed and one hypothesis was formulated. The sample for the study consisted of 90
students and 16 teachers in the Department of English, Mentouri University, Constantine, Algeria.
53
The data for the study was collected through teachers’ and students’ questionnaire. The teachers’
questionnaire was intended for the teachers of Written Expression and Grammar, while the
students’ questionnaire was intended for second year LMD (Lincence-Master-Doctorate) students.
The analysis of the collected data was aimed at determining the elements that would provide the
basis for the development of an integrative approach to grammar in the teaching of writing. The
analysis of the questionnaires revealed that both students and teachers considered grammar as an
important aspect to develop in learning to write and that relating grammar instruction to the
teaching of writing would be particularly helpful not only in achieving accuracy and clarity in
expressing an idea, but also in giving the learners access to different structural variants to formulate
this idea.
The study by Dakhmouche (2008) and the present study are both interested in the Integrative
Language Teaching Approach. However Dakhmouche’s study was a survey on ways of integrating
grammar in teaching academic writing, while the present study is a quasi-experiment on the effect
of the integrative language teaching approach on students’ achievement and interest in English
language grammar. Hence, both studies differ in specific purposes, design of the study and methods
of data collection and analysis.
In another study, Ongong’a, Okwara and Nyangara (2010) investigated the use of integrated
approach in teaching and learning at the secondary school level in Kenya. The specific objectives of
the study were to investigate the use of the integrated approach in English language lessons in
secondary schools in Kenya and to find out if teachers of other subjects correct language errors that
occur during their lessons. The study, which employed survey research design, was conducted in
Busia District, Kenya. The sample consisted of 90 teachers drawn through purposive sampling and
1609 students drawn through the systematic sampling technique. Forty-five teachers of other
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subjects were selected to be involved in the study. Ninety English language lessons were observed
in all the schools, while forty-five lessons of other subjects (twenty-three lessons from the
humanities and twenty-two from the sciences) were observed. Data was collected from English
lessons using the adapted Maseno University Faculty of Education Teaching Practice Assessment
Criteria and from other subjects using an observation schedule. Data from the students was got
using questionnaire. The result of the study revealed that the integrative approach was underutilized,
as there were minimal levels of integration in English lessons. Also, more than half of teachers of
other subjects did not bother to correct language errors that occurred during their lessons.
The study by Ongong’a, Okwara and Nyangara (2010) is relevant to this study because its
findings show that the Integrative Language Teaching Approach is yet to be fully implemented in
the classrooms. However, the study did not establish the effect of this approach on students’
achievement and interest, which this study intends to find out. Both studies also differ in their
methods of study.
Another study on the relationship between learning styles of field-dependence/independence
and integrative/discrete point methods of grammar teaching was carried out by Dabaghi and
Goharimehr (2011). The study examined the role of two grammar teaching methods in improving
students’ grammar proficiency and also the role of the two cognitive styles of field dependence
(FD) and field independence (FI) in relation to teaching methods. The participants were selected
from the students taking part in a language learning course which lasted for 25 days. After
administering a language proficiency test, 25 students were selected from two different classes to
take part in the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) to determine their level of field dependence.
Finally, ten FD and ten FI students were assigned to two groups in a way that each class contained
five FI and five FD. The classes met six days a week, 90 minutes each day. In group 1, the selected
55
topics were taught with the discrete-point method (out of context) and in group 2, the topics were
taught using the integrative method (contextualized). After the treatment which took the entire
course, an achievement test containing 50 items was administered. The data were analysed using t-
test. The results showed that the integrative method of grammar teaching led to better achievement
compared to the discrete-point method. Furthermore, FD learners took more advantage of an
integrative method, while the FI learners benefited more from the discrete point approach.
The study under review is related to the present study in purpose and design. Both are
interested in the effect of the integrative approach on students’ achievement in grammar. However,
this study is also interested on the effect of the approach on students’ interest, as well as on male
and female, rural and urban students’ achievement and interest in English grammar, which the study
by Dabaghi and Goharimehr (2011) did not explore. Both studies also differ in the population,
sample and method of data analysis.
Though the above reviewed studies underscore the importance of the Integrative Language
Teaching Approach, with some of them showing its efficacy over other methods or approaches, no
study known to the researcher has been carried out on the effect of the Integrative Language
Teaching Approach on students’ achievement and interest in English grammar in Nigeria, hence the
need for the study.
Studies on English Grammar
Many studies have been carried out on the value, problems and methods of teaching English
grammar. Borg (2001), for instance, studied the value of grammar in foreign language (FL) learning
in Columbia. The samples were language teachers and students learning foreign languages. The
teachers consisted of 122 FL instructors, while the students were 607 Colombian FL students. The
study employed a survey research design. A questionnaire was used for data collection. The results
56
showed that a large majority of Colombian students (82%) believed that the formal study of
grammar was essential for eventual mastery of foreign language. It was also found out that the
majority of Colombian teachers (64%) believed that explicit grammar study was essential to
eventual mastery of grammar. The study under review is similar to the present study in that both are
interested in English grammar. However, the study by Borg (2001) differs from the present one in
area of the study, design, method of data collection and method of data analysis.
Another study by Akande (2003) investigated the acquisition of the inflectional morphemes
by Nigerian learners of English language. The primary aim of the study was to examine the
acquisition of the eight inflectional morphemes which perform grammatical functions in English.
The subjects that participated in the research were sixty Yoruba-speaking, senior secondary school
class one (SSS I) learners of English language. They were drawn from four secondary schools,
consisting of two public and two private schools in Oke-Igbo, Ondo State, Nigeria. The instruments
for data collection were written English compositions and a grammar exercise. The written tasks of
the subjects were analysed for various occurrences and misuse of inflectional morphemes. The
study found out that there was a wide gap in the mastery of inflectional morphemes by the subjects.
The above study is related to the present one in that both are interested in English language
grammar. The study by Akande (2003) investigated the problems confronting the acquisition of
grammatical elements like the inflectional morphemes, but the present study is interested in how to
improve achievement in grammar using the Integrative Language Teaching Approach.
In a related study, Onuigbo and Eze (2006) carried out a research on verb-based
grammatical problems of secondary school students. The researchers studied the role of verbs in the
production of ungrammatical sentences. Five secondary schools were drawn from Nsukka
Education Zone, Enugu State, Nigeria through random sampling technique. Three hundred and
57
sixteen essay scripts of students’ mock examination were used. In the analysis of the data, four
hundred and fifty-seven (457) verb-based ungrammatical sentences were recorded and the problems
of the sentences included omission of verbs, redundant verbs, wrong words used as verbs, strange
words, transitive errors, concord errors, tense errors and errors of the infinitive. The findings also
revealed that tense and concord were the most problematic areas to students. The findings from the
above-reviewed study shows clearly that grammar, which is of interest to the present study, poses a
great challenge to students in their study of the English language. The study also gives backing to
the present study which is aimed at finding an effective approach that will improve students’
achievement in English grammar.
Besides, Agada (2008) investigated the effect of cloze procedure on secondary school
students’ achievement in English language grammar within Ankpa Education Zone of Kogi State,
Nigeria. Seven research questions and five hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The
study employed a quasi-experimental research design. The population of the study was 2,953 senior
secondary class two (SS II) students in the 21 co-educational senior secondary schools in Ankpa
Education Zone of Kogi State in the 2005/2006 academic session. The sample for the study
consisted of 200 SSII students. They were drawn through stratified random sampling technique.
Data were collected using a 40-item English Grammar Achievement Test (EGAT). The instrument
yielded a reliability index of .60 using Kuder-Richardson 20 formula. The instrument was for both
pretest and post-test of the study. Means, standard deviation, frequency counts and percentages
were used in answering the research questions, while the hypotheses were tested using analyses of
covariance (ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of significance. The results showed that secondary school
students committed errors of concord, tenses and spellings. However, more students in the
conventional group committed the errors than those in the experimental group. Also, significant
58
differences in the mean achievement scores stood in favour of the students taught English grammar
using cloze procedure as opposed to those taught with the conventional method.
The research by Agada (2008) is relevant to the present study. The findings of the study
show that grammar is a problematic area for secondary school students and that concord and tense
are some of the specific areas of grammar that pose challenges to students. This study is an attempt
to improve students’ performance in grammar with specific emphasis on concord and tense. Thus,
Agada’s study gives support to the problem of this study. Also, Agada’s study, like the present one,
is on grammar. Both studies, too, are similar in design but they differ in the method or approach
used. Agada’s study used the cloze procedure while the present study will employ the Integrative
Language Teaching Approach.
In a similar study, Ayogu and Nweze (2009) analysed the use of verbs and tenses by senior
secondary school students in Igbo-Etiti Local Government Area of Enugu State, Nigeria. The
purpose of the study was to find out the forms of errors encountered by senior secondary students in
the use of verbs. The design of the study was ex post facto research design. The sample of the study
was one hundred students and twenty teachers drawn through proportionate stratified random
sampling technique. The instrument used for data collection was a test. The findings identified the
forms of errors encountered by students to include errors of concord, unnecessary verb shift and
error of verb forms. The findings of the study by Ayogu and Nweze (2009) go to corroborate the
findings of Agada (2008) that concord and verb-related errors are committed by secondary school
students. The study by Ayogu and Nweze (2009) did not go ahead to experiment on ways of solving
the problem. This is the point of departure between it and the present study whose main objective is
to improve students’ achievement in grammar (concord and tense) using the Integrative Language
Teaching Approach.
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Apart from the study by Ayogu and Nweze (2009), another study was carried out by Mba
(2011) on the challenges and prospects of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Method as a
method of teaching grammar in senior secondary schools in Udi Local Government Area of Enugu
State, Nigeria. Specifically, the study was interested in finding out the challenges faced by English
language teachers in using the Communicative Language Teaching Method in teaching grammar. It
was also interested in the attitudes of students to the use of CLT method in teaching grammar. The
study employed a descriptive survey research design. The area of the study was Udi Local
Government Area of Enugu State. The sample for the study was 20 English language teachers
selected through simple random sampling technique from five schools in Udi Local Government
Area of Enugu State. The instrument for data collection was a questionnaire. The data collected
were analysed using means and standard deviation. The results showed that teachers contribute to
the challenges facing the use of Communicative Language Teaching Method in teaching grammar.
Though teachers have enough time to develop communicative tasks and materials on them, and
though they are competent in using them, they still make use of the traditional methods in teaching
grammar as a result of sheer negligence and lack of dedication to their duties. Also, students’
attitudes are a source of challenge to the use of CLT. The majority of the respondents attested that
students lack the motivation and interest in developing communicative competence. Rather, they
learn English only to pass their examinations. They shy away from communicative tasks thereby
adversely affecting the use of CLT in teaching grammar.
Though a descriptive survey, the study by Mba (2011) is relevant to the present study. Mba
found out some of the challenges of using the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in
teaching grammar. CLT, it must be pointed out, is one of the methods employed in the integrative
language teaching approach. So, the study provides the present one with information on how to
60
improve on the use of CLT in the integrative language approach. Teachers have to be encouraged to
develop communicative tasks that will help students achieve language proficiency and also change
their orientation from learning English just to pass their examinations to learning English to achieve
language proficiency.
Another empirical study on English grammar was undertaken by Okoli (2011) on the factors
that influence the teaching and learning of English language tenses in Orumba North Local
Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria. Three research questions guided the study. The
design of the study was survey research design. One hundred students and ten teachers of English
language constituted the sample for the study. They were drawn through the random sampling
technique. The instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire, while the data
collected were analysed using mean scores with a criterion mean of 2.50. The findings revealed that
mother tongue militates against the teaching and learning of English language tenses. Also,
learners’ socio-economic background affects the teaching and learning of English language tenses.
Furthermore, educated parents provide good English language models more than the uneducated
ones. It was also found out that there were inadequate instructional materials for the teaching and
learning of English language tenses.
The study by Okoli (2011) and the present study are interested in tenses as an aspect of
English language grammar. While Okoli looked at the problems militating against the teaching and
learning of English language tenses, the present study is interested in ways of improving students’
achievement in English grammar, with focus on concord and tenses. Okoli’s study has provided
some of the reasons confronting the teaching and learning of tenses. It is hoped that the Integrative
Language Teaching Approach may help to reduce the effect of these problems through
improvement in students’ achievement.
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In addition to the investigation by Okoli (2011), Jibowo (2012) also carried out a study on
the Nigerian ESL learners’ fear of grammar classes. The data for the study were obtained from 268
secondary school students and 17 English language teachers who responded to a questionnaire. The
responses which were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics showed that learners are
largely apprehensive of English grammar classes and the reasons for that included the inherent
difficulties associated with learning grammatical structures and also teacher and student-related
factors. These findings are relevant to this study because they show that grammar is a difficult
aspect of English language, especially to learners of English as a second language in Nigeria. The
findings also indicated that lack of interest on the part of the students and poor methodology on the
part of the teachers helped to heighten the problem. Incidentally, this study is aimed at addressing
these bottlenecks. It is hoped that the Integrative Language Teaching Approach will alleviate the
problem of method and also improve students’ interest in English grammar.
The review of empirical studies on the teaching and learning of English grammar indicates
that the studies are in agreement that grammar poses some difficulties to students. These difficulties
include lack of interest and fear on the part of the students, poor methodology, inadequate
instructional materials, mother tongue interference, among others. Concord and tense were also
found to be some of the specific aspects of English grammar that students find difficult to grapple
with. It was also discovered that some methods have been tried and have been found to be effective
in improving students’ achievement in English grammar. But none yet has been done on the effect
of the Integrative Language Teaching Approach on student’s achievement and interest in English
grammar, with specific interest on concord and tense. Hence, there is the need for the study.
62
Studies on Interest and Achievement
A number of studies have investigated the effect of different methods on students’ interest in
English and other school subjects. One of such studies was carried out by Umo (2001). The research
was a quasi-experimental study on the effect of games on the achievement and interest of junior
secondary school students in Igbo grammar. The population of the study was all the Junior
Secondary School class two (JSS II) students in Nsukka Education Zone from where 197 subjects
were drawn. Games were used to teach the experimental group while the control group was taught
with the conventional method. The results showed that the use of games in teaching some aspects of
Igbo grammar enhanced students’ interest in the subject. Gender and location also had significant
influence on students’ interest in Igbo grammar. While there was significant interaction effect of
method and school location on students’ achievement and interest in Igbo grammar, there was no
significant interaction effect of method and gender on students’ achievement and interest in Igbo
grammar. The researcher, therefore, advocated the use of games as a teaching strategy since it is
effective in bringing about active participation of the learners in the teaching and learning process.
The present study is similar to Umo’s (2001) study in design and the variable of interest
being explored. However, while Umo’s study was on the use of games in promoting students’
interest in Igbo grammar, the present study is on the use of Integrative Language Teaching
Approach in promoting students’ interest in English grammar.
A similar quasi-experimental study was carried out by Chukwu (2002) on promoting interest
in mathematics learning through local games. The specific design of the study was a pretest-post-
test, non-equivalent, control group design. The design was used to determine the effectiveness of
selected local games as a teaching strategy in promoting pupils’ interest in learning subtraction.
Multi-phase sampling technique was used to select 80 primary one pupils in Nsukka Local
63
Government Area of Enugu State, Nigeria, for the study. Two research questions and one
hypothesis guided the study. A 16-item mathematics interest scale with a reliability co-efficient of
0.71 was used as the pretest and post-test. The study found out that teaching subtraction operation
using selected local games enhanced pupil’s interest significantly in the content better than using
the conventional method. Males exhibited slightly higher level of interest in the subject than the
females exposed to the same research condition. The researcher interpreted the result to be the result
of pupil’s active participation in the instructional gaming process.
The study by Chukwu (2002) is of relevance to the present study because both studies are
interested in improving students’ interest. However, Chukwu’s study was on the effect of games on
students’ interest in grammar. Both studies also differ in the nature of the respondents studied.
Chukwu’s study used primary school pupils, while the present study used secondary school
students.
Another study on the effect of communicative method on students’ achievement and interest
in Igbo letter writing was carried out by Omeje (2008). The study was guided by six research
questions and ten hypotheses. The study was a quasi-experimental research. The specific design was
the non-equivalent, control group design. The sample was 174 SS II students in Nsukka Education
Zone of Enugu State, Nigeria. Two instruments were used for data collection. They were the Letter
Writing Achievement Test (LWAT) and Igbo Language Interest Inventory (ILII). The data got from
the study were analysed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The findings showed that the
communicative method improved students’ achievement in Igbo Letter writing, but it did not have
any significant effect on the interest of students in Igbo letter writing. Location had no significant
effect on the interest of students in Igbo letter writing. The findings of this study revealed that
method and gender had no significant effect on students’ interest in Igbo letter writing. There was
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also no interaction effect of method and gender, and method and location on students’ achievement
and interest in Igbo letter writing.
The study by Omeje (2008) is similar to this study in design and the variable of interest that
was investigated. The communicative method which was the instructional method used in teaching
the experimental group in Omeje’s study is a method of implementing the Meaning Based
Approach. In this study the Form Based Approach is being integrated with the Meaning Based
Approach in order to establish the effect of the integration on students’ achievement and interest in
English grammar.
Apart from the study carried out by Omeje (2008), Torty (2010) also investigated the effect
of the collaborative learning method on students’ achievement and interest in English language
tenses. Specifically, the study was interested in finding out the difference in the mean interest scores
of students taught English language tenses using the collaborative learning method and those taught
using the lecture method. The design of the study was the quasi-experimental research design. The
sample consisted of 217 senior secondary Two (SS II) students drawn from six intact classes in
public secondary schools in Enugu Education Zone through stratified random sampling technique.
The instruments used for data collection were the English Language Achievement Test (ELAT) and
the English Language Interest Inventory (ELII). Mean, standard deviation and analysis of
covariance (ANCOVA) were used to analyse the data collected. The result showed that interest was
a significant factor in students’ achievement in English language tenses. The students taught with
the collaborative learning method had higher post interest mean score than those taught with the
lecture method. There was also no significant interaction effect of method and gender on students’
achievement and interest in English language tenses. The study by Torty (2010) and the present
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study have interest and grammar (tense) as common variables. They are also related in design and
the category of students used. But they differ in the method employed.
Another empirical study was undertaken by Ogboji (2013) on the effect of local resources
on students’ achievement and interest in Cultural and Creative Arts (CCA). The study employed the
quasi-experimental design. Ten research questions and ten null hypotheses guided the study. A total
of 142 junior secondary school two (JSS II) students randomly drawn from four schools in Nsukka
Local Government Area of Enugu State, Nigeria served as the subjects for the study. The
instruments used for data collection were a Cultural and Creative Arts Achievement Test (CCAAT)
and a Cultural and Creative Arts Interest Inventory (CCAII). Analysis of data was done using mean
and standard deviation for the ten research questions, while two-way Analysis of Covariance
(ANCOVA) was used to test the hypotheses at p < 0.05. The results showed that students taught
CCA using local resources performed better than those taught using commercialized materials.
However, interest of students is higher when taught CCA using commercialized resources than
using local resources. The female students showed more interest in CCA than the male students
when they are taught using local resources. Also, the rural students put in more interest than their
urban counterparts when taught CCA using local resources. There was interaction of instructional
resources and gender, instructional resources and location on students’ achievement and interest in
CCA.
Finally on interest, Nworgu and Okereke (2011) carried out a study on the effect of
constructivist instructional model on students’ achievement and interest in Biology. Specifically, it
sought to compare the achievement and interest of Biology students taught with the constructivist
instructional model and those taught with the traditional model or lecture method. The study was
carried out in Orlu Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. The subjects for the study were
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senior secondary school class two (SSS II) Biology students in some randomly sampled public
secondary schools in the area. The two research questions were answered using mean and standard
deviation, while the two null hypotheses were tested using t-test analysis at p ≤ 0.05. The findings
indicated that the constructivist instructional model had a positive effect on the study of Biology
because the students exposed to this model had higher mean achievement scores and expressed
higher level of interest when compared with those taught with the traditional method.
The above study is related to this study because both have interest and achievement as
common variables. However, the above-reviewed study differs from the present study in a number
of ways. While Nworgu and Okereke (2011) tested the effect of constructivist instructional model,
this study tested the effect of the Integrative Language Teaching Approach. Again, while Nworgu
and Okereke were interested in students’ interest in Biology, the present study is on students’
interest in English grammar.
In the foregoing it was discovered from some of the studies reviewed that some methods
could improve students’ interest in some subjects. It was also shown that students’ interest is a
significant factor in students’ achievement. However, none of the studies reviewed or known to the
researcher investigated the effect of the Integrative Language Teaching Approach on students’
interest in English grammar, hence the need for the study.
Studies on Gender and Achievement
Gender is one of the variables that have engaged the attention of researchers, who have
carried out empirical studies to ascertain its influence on students’ achievement in various aspects
of the English language. For instance, the study carried out by Anizoba (2004) on the effects of the
writing process method on secondary school students’ performance in English composition in Awka
Education Zone of Anambra State, Nigeria, included gender as one of the variables of interest. The
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study sought to compare the achievements of male and female students in English composition as
well as the interaction effect of method and gender on students’ achievement in English
composition. The design of the study was a non-equivalent, control group, quasi-experimental
design. Purposive and stratified random sampling techniques were used to draw four schools used
for the study. Senior Secondary Two (SS II) students were used as subjects for the study. The
instrument for data collection consisted of two topics in essay writing. Data collected were analysed
using mean, standard deviation and analysis of covariance. The results revealed that gender was not
a significant factor in students’ achievement in English composition when the writing process
method is deployed. No significant interaction effect of method and gender was established.
Lending support to Anizoba’s (2004) findings, Oluikpe (2004) also investigated the effects
of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) method on the achievement of University of Nigeria
Faculty of Education students in expository writing. The design of the study was the non-
equivalent, pre test/post-test, control group design. The sample for the study comprised 110 first
year Education (Arts and Science) students. The data for the study were collected using the
Expository Essay Achievement Test (EEAT) while the data collected were analysed using analysis
of covariance (ANCOVA). The researcher found out that gender was not a significant factor in
students’ overall achievement in expository writing.
Worried by the claim that females perform better than males in language, Azikiwe (2005)
carried out a survey on gender influence on achievement in language. The researcher specifically
surveyed thirty-one empirical studies on language learning in Nigeria which had the gender variable
as one of the variables studied. Using a survey research design, the researcher examined the results
of these studies and came up with the following findings: out of the thirty-one empirical studies,
74% of them found out that gender had no influence on language learning. Also, 13% found out that
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females achieved higher than the males, while 13% showed that males achieved higher than the
females. Based on the findings, the researcher came to the conclusion that enough evidence had not
been established in Nigeria to support the claim that females achieve better than males in language
learning.
Still on gender, one of the studies that did not establish any significant difference between
the achievement of male and female students in language was carried out by Igbokwe (2007). The
researcher investigated the effects of the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach
(CALLA) on undergraduate students’ achievement in essay writing. The influence of gender on
students’ achievement was of interest to the researcher. The study employed the non-equivalent,
control group, quasi-experimental design. The sample for the study comprised six hundred and
forty-eight (648) undergraduate students of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka who were drawn
from four faculties in both the Nsukka and Enugu campuses of the university. Data on students’
achievement were collected using the English Language Essay Achievement Test (ELEAT). The
data were analysed using mean, standard deviation and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The
results revealed that the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach had no significant
differential effect on the mean achievement scores of males and females in essay writing. This study
is similar to the present study in design and the gender variable under investigation. But it differs in
the approach employed. Both studies also differ in the aspect of English being studied and the
nature of research subjects being used.
Finally on gender, Egbe (2011) investigated the combined effects of mnemonics and gender
on students’ achievement in English stress patterns. Three research questions and three null
hypotheses guided the study. The design used was the quasi-experimental research design. The
sample for the study was composed of 272 SSS II students drawn through multi-stage random
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sampling technique from four co-educational secondary schools in Nsukka Local Government Area
of Enugu State. The instrument for data collection was the researcher-constructed English Stress
Patterns Achievement Test (ESPAT). Means, standard deviation and analysis of covariance
(ANCOVA) were used to analyse the data. The results showed that students taught English stress
patterns using mnemonics achieved significantly higher than those taught with the lecture method.
Gender had no significant effect on students’ achievement in English stress patterns. There was no
significant interaction effect of method and gender on students’ mean achievement scores in English
stress patterns.
The study reviewed above is similar to the present study. Both are on English language, are
interested in the gender variable and have similar designs. However, they differ in the aspect of
English language being investigated and the method or approach adopted.
The studies cited above indicate that there is no unison as to which gender performs better
than the other in English language. The results show that performance could be dependent on the
method of language teaching adopted or on the aspect of language being investigated. The two
studies that were carried out overseas showed that females performed better than males, but most of
the studies carried out in Nigeria did not establish any differential effect of gender on language
performance. This research is also interested in the influence of gender on the achievement and
interest of students in English grammar when the Integrative Language Teaching Approach is
employed. The works reviewed in the foregoing did not investigate the influence of gender on
students’ achievement and interest in English grammar using the Integrative Language Teaching
Approach.
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Studies on School Location and Achievement
School location as used in this study has to do with the site of the school either in the rural
area or in the urban centre. A number of studies have investigated the influence of school location
on students’ academic achievement. For instance, Ene (2002) investigated the effect of cloze
instructional approach on senior secondary school students’ achievement in English reading
comprehension. The influence of location on students’ achievement was also explored. Also
investigated was the interaction effect of cloze approach and location on students’ achievement in
English reading comprehension. The study employed the non-equivalent, control group, quasi-
experimental design. The sample of the study was 168 students from Enugu Education Zone, drawn
through stratified random sampling technique. The instrument for data collection was the English
Language Reading Comprehension Achievement Test (ERCAT). The data obtained from both the
pretest and post-test scores were analysed using means and standard deviation. The results showed
that location was a significant factor in students’ achievement in English reading comprehension,
with students from the urban areas outperforming their counterparts from the rural schools. The
interaction effect of cloze approach and location on students’ achievement in English reading
comprehension was found to be statistically significant, but there was no significant interaction
effect of the approach and gender on students’ achievement in English reading comprehension.
The findings from the above reviewed study still support the earlier studies carried out in
Nigeria on the influence of location on students’ achievement in favour of students in urban
schools. The same findings were also reported by Umo (2004). Umo’s study was on the combined
effects of game strategy and location as factors of academic achievement in Igbo grammar. The
study used the quasi-experimental, non-equivalent control group design. One hundred and ninety-
seven (197) students were the subjects of the study. They were drawn from Junior Secondary Year
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Two (JSS II) students in Nsukka Education Zone. The researcher found out that students in urban
schools in both the experimental and control groups achieved higher than students in rural schools.
The study by Umo (2004) is relevant to this study. Both studies are interested in location as a factor
in students’ achievement. But the two studies differ in the method or approach used. While Umo
used the games technique, the present study employs the Integrative Language Teaching Approach.
Umo’s study was on Igbo grammar, but the present study is on English grammar.
A different result from the foregoing studies carried out in Nigeria was got by Uzoegwu
(2004). Uzoegwu studied the effect of co-operative learning method on students’ achievement in
English essay writing. The researcher investigated the influence of location on students’
achievement in English essay writing. The study used the quasi-experimental research design. The
subjects of the study were drawn through stratified random sampling technique. The sample was
299 students from intact SS II classes in Nsukka Education Zone. The instrument for data collection
was a narrative essay on the topic “Had I known, I wouldn’t have believed him”. The inter-rater
reliability was used to determine the reliability of the instrument. The scores obtained were
correlated using Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance (w). The reliability co-efficient stood at
0.93. The data collected from the pretest and post-test were analysed using analysis of covariance
(ANCOVA). The results showed that location was not a significant factor in students’ achievement
in essay writing. Students in urban and rural schools achieved high when the co-operative learning
method was used. The finding by Uzoegwu (2004) is a departure from the other findings reported in
Nigeria and overseas. Could students’ achievement in language be dependent on other factors
outside location? The present study is interested in finding out the answer to this question. Since
Uzoegwu’s study is related to this study in design and the variable of location, the outcome of the
present study will dispute or corroborate the findings by Uzoegwu and other researchers.
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Finally on the issue of location and students’ achievement, Omeje (2010) explored the
combined effects of communicative method and location as factors of academic achievement in
Igbo letter writing. Location was one of the variables investigated. One research question and two
hypotheses guided the study. The study used a quasi-experimental design. Specifically, it was a
non-equivalent, control group design. The study was carried out in Nsukka Education Zone of
Enugu State, Nigeria. The sample consisted of 174 SS II students drawn from four secondary
schools in the zone through stratified random sampling technique. The instrument for data
collection was the Letter Writing Achievement Test (LWAT). The research question was answered
using means and standard deviation, while the hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance,
using a two way 2 x 2 analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The result showed that location had a
significant effect on students’ achievement in Igbo letter writing. The result revealed that students
from the urban schools achieved higher than their rural counterparts. Also, there was no significant
interaction effect of teaching method and school location on both the achievement and interest of
students in Igbo letter writing. The findings from this study go to reconfirm the studies earlier
reviewed which showed that students in the urban schools in Nigeria outperform their counterparts
in rural schools in language.
The review of studies on location in the foregoing shows that the outcome of the studies in
Western countries differs from the results of the studies carried out in Nigeria. While the rural area
favoured higher achievement in Western countries in the works reviewed, it did not do so in
Nigeria. This could arise from the differences in the nature of the societies and the fact that in the
West, amenities are evenly provided in both the rural and urban locations, but with pollution and
noise being more prevalent in the cities. However, in Nigeria, the rural areas do not usually have
equal access to social and educational amenities as the urban centres. The rural areas are often
73
socially and educationally marginalized with regard to facilities. For instance, most qualified and
competent teachers usually prefer to stay in the urban centres where they have access to educational
and social facilities, thereby leaving the rural areas with less number of qualified teachers. The
cumulative effect of these differentials may be registered on students’ achievement. This study,
therefore, intends to explore further the effect of this variable on students’ achievement.
Summary of Literature Review
The review of related literature was organized under four sub-headings. These include
conceptual framework, theoretical framework, empirical studies and summary of literature review.
The conceptual framework explained the concepts of Integrative Language Teaching Approach,
grammar, achievement and interest. It pointed out that even though the knowledge of grammar is
crucial to the teaching and learning of English, yet students do not perform well in it, especially in
the aspects of concord and tense. The conceptual framework also indicated that the conventional
approach adopted by teachers in teaching English grammar is the Form Based Approach, with all its
deficiencies. Thus, advocacy for the use of the Integrative Language Teaching Approach (ILTA)
was made as it has the potential of helping the students learn grammatical rules in the context of
authentic communicative tasks.
The second aspect of the review was the theoretical framework. The monitor theory was
critically examined for its relevance to the study. The five hypotheses that make up the theory give
justification for the use of the approach in teaching English grammar. This arises from its potential
to encourage both the acquisition and learning of grammar in an environment with rich input and
low anxiety. The third sub-heading was the empirical studies. It was organized under five sections:
studies on integrative language teaching approach, English grammar, interest and achievement,
gender and achievement, location and achievement. It was established in some of the studies
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reviewed that ILTA has the capability of developing students’ linguistic and communicative
competence. The influence of gender on achievement was not conclusive. Location and interest
were also found to be significant factors in students’ achievement.
From the literature reviewed, it is evident that substantial work has been done on the effect
of different methods and approaches on students’ achievement and interest in English language and
other subject areas. However, none of the studies reviewed or known to the researcher has been
carried out in Nigeria on the effect of ILTA on students’ achievement and interest in English
grammar. This gap in literature, therefore, underscores the need for this study which seeks to
determine the effect of ILTA on students’ achievement and interest in English grammar.
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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOD
This chapter deals with the general method and procedure employed in the study.
Specifically, it explains the design of the study, area of the study, population of the study, sample
and sampling technique, instruments for data collection, validation and reliability of the
instruments, experimental procedure and methods of data collection and analysis.
Design of the Study
This study employed the quasi-experimental research design. Specifically, it is the non-
randomized, control group, pre-test, post-test design. This design was adopted because the students
that were used for the experiment were already in intact classes and randomization would disrupt
the existing structure in the school, thus posing some administrative problems. Olaitan and Nwoke
(1998) opine that a research carried out in a classroom setting where classes are intact might pose
problems of randomly selecting the subjects. Thus, Ali (2006) recommends the use of quasi-
experimental design where intact classes are used.
This design is represented in the following figure:
O1 x O2
……….
O1 – O2
Fig 3: The Design of the Study
The key to the above figure is as follows:
O1 = pre-test
O2 = post-test
X = Treatment (Integrative Language Teaching Approach for the experimental group)
– = Treatment (Form-Based Approach for the control group)
......... = Non-equivalence of the experimental conditions
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Area of the Study
This study was carried out in Nsukka Local Government Area of Enugu State, Nigeria.
Nsukka Local Government Area is one of the 17 local government areas in Enugu State. It has three
development councils: Nsukka East, Nsukka West and Nsukka Central. The local government area
has 30 public secondary schools, 23 of which are co-educational, while seven are single-sex
schools. The local government area also houses the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The inhabitants
of this area are mainly subsistence farmers, business men and women, public servants and students.
Nsukka Local Government Area was chosen for the study because evidence from literature
(Onuigbo & Eze, 2006; Emenike, 2013) shows that grammar poses a problem to students in the
area. Also, the local government area has both urban and rural settings, as well as many co-
educational schools. This is important because the variables of gender and location are of interest to
the study.
Population of the Study
The population of the study consisted of all the 3,424 Senior Secondary School class two
(SSS II) students in all the 30 public secondary schools in Nsukka Local Government Area in the
2013/2014 academic session. Out of this number, 1,572 students are males, while 1,852 of the
students are females. Also, 1,629 of them come from urban locations while 1,795 of them belong to
rural locations (Planning, Research and Statistics, Post Primary Schools’ Management Board,
Nsukka Zone. See Appendix N, Page 185 for details). SSS II students were used for the study
because agreement and sequence of tenses are in their curriculum and scheme of work. Also, they
had been taught English grammar in junior and part of senior secondary school and were expected
to use grammar very effectively in speech and writing. So, using SSS II students would give a true
picture of the state of the art with regard to students’ achievement in English grammar. Also, they
were not in the external examination class and therefore would be available for the experiment.
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Sample and Sampling Technique
The sample for the study consisted of all the 296 students in eight intact classes which were
drawn from four co-educational schools in Nsukka Local Government Area in the 2013/2014
session. Multi-stage sampling technique was used in drawing the respondents. The following are the
stages of the sampling. Firstly, the 30 public secondary schools in the local government area were
stratified into single sex and co-educational schools. Secondly, the co-educational schools were
purposively sampled because of the variable of gender in the study. Thirdly, the co-educational
schools were further stratified into urban and rural schools (the classification of the schools into
urban and rural schools had been done by the Post Primary Schools’ Management Board, Nsukka
Zone. See Appendix N, page 185). Fourthly, two schools each from the urban and rural locations
were drawn using simple random sampling technique. In each of the locations, one school was
assigned to the experimental group and the other to the control group through the tossing of coin.
Lastly, two intact classes were drawn from each of the schools that were used for the study through
balloting. (See Appendix O, page 186 for distribution and details of sample).
Instruments for Data Collection
Two instruments were used to collect data for the study. They were: English Grammar
Achievement Test (EGAT) and English Grammar Interest Inventory (EGII). The English Grammar
Achievement Test (EGAT) is a 50-item dichotomously scored instrument constructed by the
researcher, which tests students in various ways questions on agreement and sequence of tenses can
appear. The test has two parts. Part A provides for the bio-data of the research subjects, while Part B
is the actual test. The actual test has four sections and they are based on the Table of
Specification/Test Blue Print drawn for the purpose. The Table of Specification/Test Blue Print has
both the content dimension and the ability process dimension. The content dimension is made up of
four units to be taught during the quasi-experiment. They were drawn from the Senior Secondary
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Education Curriculum on English Language for SSS II and the Enugu State Uniform Scheme of
Work on English Language for SSS II. On the other hand, the ability process dimension is sub-
divided into knowledge and comprehension (lower order) and application (higher order) levels of
Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives.
The content areas did not receive equal weight because some are wider in scope than the
others. As a result, the first two content areas were assigned 15 questions each, while the last two
content areas were assigned 10 questions each to make a total of 50 questions for the test. Twenty
percent of the questions were from the knowledge level; 20% were from the comprehension level;
while 60% were from the application level. Application questions took the major chunk because
grammar is mostly tested in the applied form. (See Appendix E, Page 134 for details of the Table of
Specification/Test Blue Print).
The questions in the EGAT are distributed as follows in the four sections: Section A has 10
questions and it deals with the identification of singular or plural subjects that agree in number with
the underlined singular or plural verbs. Section B also has ten questions. It tests students’ ability to
correct a grammatically wrong sentence by choosing the correct number or tense form of the verb
that will make the sentence grammatically correct. Sections C and D have 30 questions. They take
the greatest number because they contain application questions. Section C has 20 questions and it
tests students’ ability to apply their knowledge of grammar in choosing the verb that is most
appropriate in number and tense to complete each of the sentences. Section D is also based on
application. It has 10 numbers. Students are to read a passage and in the course of doing so, fill the
numbered gaps in the passage with the most appropriate form of the verb from the options given.
(See Appendix A, Page 125 for details of EGAT).
On the other hand, the English Grammar Interest Inventory (EGII) is a 20-item instrument
developed by the researcher based on the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains as they
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pertain to expressions of interest. The cognitive component has seven statements of interest
(Numbers 1 – 7) and it deals with the interest of the subjects in knowing about grammar. The
affective component has to do with the attraction or valence of the subject in the presence of the
object of interest. It has six statements of interest (Numbers 8 – 13). The psychomotor component,
on the other hand, has seven statements of interest (Numbers 14 – 20) and it deals with the actions
towards the object of interest. In all, the EGII covers the general areas of students’ interest in
English grammar. It consists of 10 positive and 10 negative items. The instrument was constructed
on a four-point rating scale of strongly agree (SA), agree (A), disagree (D) and strongly disagree
(SD). The details of the EGII can be found in Appendix C, Page 132. .
Validation of the Instrument
The English Grammar Achievement Test (EGAT) and the English Grammar Interest
Inventory were both subjected to face validation. However, EGAT was further subjected to content
validation. The instruments were presented to five specialists. Two of them are in Language
Education; two in Educational Measurement and Evaluation and one from Educational Psychology.
All the specialists are lecturers in the Faculty of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
For the face validation of EGAT and EGII, the specialists were requested to examine the
clarity of the instructions given; check the framing of the questions and their suitability to SSS II
students; assess whether the statements of interest are typical ways of expressing likes or dislikes
for English grammar; determine whether the marking scheme is accurate; check the adequacy and
relevance of the purpose, research questions, hypotheses, exploration passages and lesson plans
with regard to the instruments; and suggest any modifications to improve the face validity of the
instrument. Request for validation of instrument can be found in Appendix I, Page 171.
For the content validation of the EGAT, the experts were requested to examine the test items
generated in relation to the Test Blue Print and Table of Specification and make recommendations.
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The Table of Specification/Test Blue Print contains columns for knowledge and comprehension
(lower order level) and application (higher order level). These are the levels of cognitive domain
contained in the achievement test.
After the face and content validation of the instruments, the following are the summary of
the comments and recommendations of the specialists. On the English Grammar Achievement Test
(EGAT), the specialists were in unison that the instrument was well constructed and that the
questions generated were apt and suitable to the level of the learners under study. However, one of
the specialists suggested the use of guiding examples for each section of the test while another
specialist also suggested that the instructions to the questions should be made clearer and more
straightforward. These suggestions led to the rewording of the instructions and the provision of
guiding examples for each section of the test. Besides, one of the experts changed the mark
allocation for EGAT from two marks for each question to one mark, to give a total of 50 marks
instead of 100 marks. Also, with regard to the Test Blue Print/Table of Specification, most of the
experts were of the opinion that it was properly done.
On the English Grammar Interest Inventory (EGII), three of the experts suggested that the
interest inventory should contain items on the complexity of English grammar and the existence of
exceptions to grammatical rules. In the same vein, another expert observed that none of the
statements of interest belonged to the cognitive domain. As a result, it was suggested that the
researcher should write items to cover the cognitive/knowledge of grammar component in order to
achieve construct validity. These suggestions led to the addition of seven statements of interest
under the cognitive/knowledge component. Besides, one of the experts pointed out that statements
number 7, 8, 12, 17, 19 and 20 in the English Grammar Interest Inventory submitted for validation
were attitude items, not interest items. So, the items were expunged from the final version of the
instrument. At the end, after the removal and addition of items, the EGII still retained 20 statements
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of interest covering the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains, with 10 positive and 10
negative statements.
On the lesson plans and exploration passages the majority of the specialists stated that they
were all inclusive and activity based; well structured and detailed. They pointed out that the
differences between the procedure for the experimental and control groups were clearly stated.
However, one specialist suggested that the researcher should be specific on whether the evaluation
exercises in each lesson plan would be in oral or written form. That was reflected in each of the
lesson plans.
Finally, with regard to the purpose, research questions and hypotheses, one of the specialists
suggested that the terms ‘relative mean’, ‘what extent or degree’, ‘what way’ used in the research
questions were not apt. Another specialist replaced these terms with ‘what’. On the hypotheses, one
of the experts recommended that the expression “they will be tested at the probability level of 0.05”
should be deleted. In its place “(P < 0.05)” should be indicated in each hypothesis. That correction
was taken note of and effected. In all, the researcher considered all the corrections, including a few
typographical errors pointed out by the specialists, in arriving at the final version of the EGAT,
EGII, lesson plans and exploration passages, as well as the specific purposes, research questions and
hypotheses. See Appendices J and K, Pages 175 to 182 for details.
Reliability of the Instruments
In order to determine the reliability of the instruments, the researcher administered the
EGAT and the EGII to 20 SSS II students from Community Secondary School, Isiugwu, Enugu-
Ezike, Igbo-Eze North Local Government Area, Enugu State. The testees are outside the area of the
study but within the same Nsukka cultural zone. They possess similar social and educational
characteristics as those that were used for the study.
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After administering the EGAT and the EGII the researcher determined the internal
consistency of the EGAT using Kuder-Richardson’s Formula (K – R 20). This formula is mostly
applicable to tests that are dichotomously scored (Ezeh, 2003). The EGAT instrument that was used
in this study has dichotomously scored items. Hence, Kuder-Richardson’s Formula was found
relevant. The instrument yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.95 indicating that it is reliable. Also,
the internal consistency of the EGII was estimated using Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient Method.
This method was considered appropriate because the items in the instrument are not dichotomously
scored. The instrument yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.71, also indicating that it is reliable. See
Appendices L and M, Pages 183 to 184 for details.
Experimental Procedure
The researcher used the following procedure to carry out the quasi-experiment. Before the
commencement of the experiment, the researcher sought the cooperation of the principals of the
schools involved to enable him build his research programme into the school programme without
disrupting the latter. The researcher did this by explaining the purpose and the significance of the
study to them. This assisted the researcher to obtain their cooperation throughout the study.
Thereafter, the researcher, through the assistance of the principals, got in contact with SSS II
teachers of English language (or teachers of English grammar where grammar was taught by a
different teacher) in the various schools that were used for the study. These teachers served as the
research assistants. The researcher took time to familiarize himself with them and discussed
extensively with them the skills involved in the use of the Integrative Language Teaching Approach
as well as the Form Based Approach in teaching English grammar. Since the researcher was not
directly involved in administering the treatment sessions, he trained the research assistants on how
to perform the experiment. The training session was conducted in each of the sampled schools
within the time convenient for the teacher. The training session lasted for four days; each day was
devoted to training the teacher in one of the four schools sampled for the study.
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During the training session the research assistants were given the lesson plans already
prepared for the study (See Appendices G and H, Pages 139 to 170). Those who handled the
experimental group were given, in addition to the lesson plans, four exploration passages (See
Appendix F, Pages 135 to 138). They were trained on how to use the four exploration passages and
the lesson plans developed by the researcher to teach. The approach adopted in the lesson plans and
the exploration passages was the Integrative Language Teaching Approach. The exploration
passages were designed to demonstrate in a communicative way the four topics carved out for the
study. The grammatical structures to be learnt were already integrated in the passages. The students
were asked to read and digest them and find the common patterns in them. Through them the
students were expected to state the rules guiding the agreement of subjects and verbs and sequence
of tenses and thereafter apply the knowledge in making grammatically correct sentences.
On the other hand, the lesson plans for the experimental group are integrative in nature. The
instructional procedure in the lesson plans has different segments. These include lesson movement,
teacher’s activities, students’ activities, mode, instructional materials and techniques. The teachers
were trained on what was expected of them at each segment of the lesson plans. They were also
instructed to follow strictly the content and procedure of the lessons. For the control group, the
research assistants were trained on how to use the Form Based Approach in teaching English
grammar. The four lesson plans for that purpose were given to them. They were also instructed to
follow strictly the procedure and content of the lessons.
After the training of the research assistants, they administered the English Grammar
Achievement Test (EGAT) and the English Grammar Interest Inventory (EGII) as pre-test on the
subjects in order to get the baseline data. On concluding the pre-test, the research assistants
collected the scripts, marked and recorded the scores before handing them over to the researcher for
further use during data analysis.
Thereafter, the experiment commenced. The experimental group was taught using the
Integrative Language Teaching Approach, while the control group was taught with the Form Based
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Approach. The period of teaching in each of the groups was four weeks. The topics and specific
objectives in each of the groups were also the same. The only difference was in the approach that
was adopted. The topics that were treated in the four weeks are as follows:
Week 1: Agreement of singular subjects and singular verbs in the present tense and sequence of
tenses in the present tense (singular);
Week 2: Agreement of plural subjects and plural verbs in the present tense and sequence of tenses
in the present tense (plural);
Week 3: Agreement of singular subjects and singular verbs in the past tense and sequence of tenses
in the past tense (singular);
Week 4: Agreement of plural subjects and plural verbs in the past tense and sequence of tenses in
the past tense (plural).
In teaching each of the topics mentioned in the foregoing using the Integrative Language
Teaching Approach, the teacher adopted the following instructional procedure:
1. Identification of previous knowledge: The teacher tests the entering behaviour of the
students on the basis of which he presents the lesson for the day.
2. Presentation: The teacher introduces the topic to the students and informs them that they are
going to explore various sentences that fit into the structure, for example: singular subject +
singular verb (in the present tense); My sister loves pets. The teacher shares out an
exploration passage.
3. Exploration: The teacher guides the students to read the exploration passage. The
exploration passages present in a communicative way the different ways subjects and verbs
agree in the present and past tenses and sequence of tenses in the present and past tenses.
The students, with the assistance of the teacher, find out these instances. The teacher first
guides the students to read the passage as a group and later individually. The students
explore various structures that fit into the structure given at the presentation stage. As the
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students read and digest the exploration passages, they learn, with the assistance of the
teacher, new grammatical structures in context.
4. Discussion: The teacher divides the students into groups. One group identifies a complete
sentence from the exploration passage, another identifies the subject (singular or plural) that
agrees with the subject, or the verbs that agree in sequence. After the identification, the
students are guided to formulate by themselves the rules guiding the agreement of singular
subjects and singular verbs, plural subjects and plural verbs and sequence of tenses in the
present and past tenses. The teacher can also assist the students in stating the rules.
5. Application: The students at this stage of the lesson movement apply the rules they have
learnt to generate new sentences that typify the agreement of subjects and verbs in the
present and past tenses and sequence of tenses in the present and past tenses.
6. Evaluation: The teacher evaluates the students’ grasp of the lesson by asking oral or written
questions based on the topic taught. The details of the lesson procedure using the Integrative
Language Teaching Approach can be found in Appendix G, Page 139.
On the other hand, the Form Based Approach was used in teaching the control group. The
lesson procedure consists of the following steps:
Step I: The teacher starts the lesson by writing down the topic on the board. He asks questions to
test the students’ entering behaviour.
Step II: The teacher defines a subject and a verb and writes out the rules guiding the agreement of
singular subjects and singular verbs in the present and past tenses. He also writes out the
rules guiding the agreement of plural subjects and plural verbs in the present and past tenses
as well as the sequence of tenses in the present and past tenses. The students copy the
examples. They also ask questions for clarification.
Step III: The teacher evaluates the students by asking them oral or written questions to test their
understanding of the topic taught. The details of the procedure are found in Appendix H,
Page 157.
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After the teaching which lasted for four weeks for both the experimental and control groups,
the research assistants administered the English Grammar Achievement Test (EGAT) and the
English Grammar Interest Inventory (EGII) as post-test. The post-test questions were the same as
the pre-test questions already answered by the students, except that the post-test questions were
reshuffled. At the end of the post-test, the students’ scripts were collected, marked and recorded by
the research assistants before they were handed over to the researcher for data analysis.
Control of Extraneous Variables
Extraneous variables are those variables that act as threats to the experiment. If they are not
checked, they pose problems to the validity of the study. In order to control the incidence of any
extraneous variable, the researcher adopted the following measures:
1. Experimenter’s Bias
To avoid experimenter’s bias, the researcher was not personally involved in administering
the research conditions; rather the students were taught by their regular teachers. These regular
teachers were individually trained by the researcher. The researcher gave them step-by-step training
on how to use the two groups of lesson plans designed for the experiment. The teachers who
handled the experimental group were trained on how to teach English grammar using the Integrative
Language Teaching Approach, while the other teachers who handled the control group were trained
on how to teach English grammar using the conventional Form Based Approach.
2. Contamination
In order to ensure that the subjects in the experimental and control groups did not mix, the
researcher did not select the experimental and control groups from the same school. Students and
even teachers did not have knowledge of other schools or students involved in the study. The
teachers were not told whether they were handling the experimental or control group.
3. Teacher Variable
Some errors might occur as a result of differences between or among teachers in terms of
knowledge of the content, methodology and qualification. To reduce the possibility of this threat
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occurring, the researcher trained the teachers that were involved in the experiment individually. The
aim of the training was to enable the teachers acquire the competence that would enable them to
teach the lessons using the lesson plans already prepared for them.
4. Initial Group Differences
Intact classes were used for the study which implies that initial equivalence between the
experimental and control groups might not have been achieved. In order to control this error, the
researcher used the Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) to test the hypotheses. The pre-test scores
were used as covariates to the post-test scores. According to Ali (1996), ANCOVA serves as a
procedure to partial out the initial differences in the groups by reducing the variations due to some
extraneous variables.
5. Hawthorne Effect
This is a situation in which students’ behaviour is affected not by the treatment alone, but by
their awareness that they are participating in an experiment (Doran, 1980). This leads to increased
interest and motivation as they react to the ‘newness’ effect. In order to control this, the regular
English language teachers in the sampled schools taught their students in their various schools. The
students themselves were not told that they were participating in an experiment. They were made to
believe that they were doing their normal lessons. Also, the pre-test and the post-test were
administered in all the classes, but the data used for the study were restricted to those got from the
intact classes sampled for the study. This was intended to control the Hawthorne Effect.
6. Pre-test – Post-test Effect
In order to control the pre-test – post-test effect, the post-test questions were the same as the
pre-test, but the question numbers were shuffled. Also, the testees were required to provide answers
to the pre-test and post-test questions in their question papers. In other words, the question papers
were also the answer sheets. They were collected from the students at the end of the tests. This
prevented them from anticipating or preparing for the same questions when the post-test was
administered. The teachers, on the other hand, did not have access to the test items after the pre-test
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so that they would not use them to teach the students. Thus, the period of four weeks interval
between the administration of the pre-test and post-test, the lack of access to the question papers and
the reshuffle of the question numbers helped to diminish any effect of the pre-test on the post-test.
Method of Data Analysis
In the analysis of data got from the EGAT and EGII, mean scores and standard deviation
were used to answer the research questions, while the Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used as
the statistical tool for testing the hypotheses because the design of the study satisfies its three
preliminary assumptions. According to Lund and Lund (2013) these assumptions include, first that
the dependent variable and covariate variable should be measured on a continuous scale, for
example students’ achievement, which is measured from 0 – 100. Secondly, the independent
variable should consist of two or more categorical, independent groups, for example gender (male
and female) and location (urban and rural). Thirdly, there must be independence of observations, for
example, there must be different participants in each group, with no participant being in more than
one group. According to Ali (1996) ANCOVA is also the appropriate statistical tool for analyzing
data based on the pre-test post-test, quasi-experimental design, as it helps to partial out the initial
differences of the research subjects because of the use of intact classes. The null hypotheses were
rejected if their level of significance was less than 0.05, otherwise the null hypotheses were not
rejected.
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
In this chapter, the results of the study are presented. The presentation is done according to
the research questions and hypotheses.
Research Question 1
What are the mean achievement scores of students taught English grammar using the
Integrative Language Teaching Approach (ILTA) and those taught using the Form Based Approach
(FBA)?
Table 1: Pre/Post-test Mean Achievement Scores of the Experimental and Control Groups in
English Grammar
Group N Pre-test SD Post-test SD Gain
Experimental (ILTA) 156 18.02 7.29 29.12 5.90 11.10
Control (FBA) 140 20.42 7.53 21.47 8.50 1.05
Table 1 shows that the experimental group (those taught with the Integrative Language
Teaching Approach) had a pre-test mean achievement score of 18.02 with Standard Deviation of
7.29 and a post-test mean achievement score of 29.12 with Standard Deviation of 5.90. On the other
hand, the pre-test mean achievement score of the control group (those taught with the Form Based
Approach) was 20.42 with Standard Deviation of 7.53, while their post-test mean achievement
score was 21.47 with Standard Deviation of 8.50. The experimental group had a mean gain score of
11.10 as against the mean gain score of 1.05 recorded by the control group. The result reveals that
the students taught with the ILTA achieved higher in English grammar than those taught with the
FBA.
Research Question 2
What are the mean interest rating scores of students taught English grammar using the ILTA
and those taught using the FBA?
89
90
Table 2: Pre/Post-test Mean Interest Scores of the Experimental and Control Groups in
English Grammar
Group N Pre-test SD Post-test SD Gain
Experimental (ILTA) 156 60.04 9.77 64.84 8.99 4.80
Control (FBA) 140 60.34 8.45 62.13 9.14 1.79
It can be observed from Table 2 that the experimental group had a pre-test mean interest
score of 60.04 with Standard Deviation of 9.77 and a post-test mean interest score of 64.84 with
Standard Deviation of 8.99. The control group had a pre-test mean interest score of 60.34 with 8.45
as the Standard Deviation. The post-test mean interest score of the control group was 62.13 with
Standard Deviation of 9.14. The experimental group had a mean gain score of 4.80, while the
control group had a mean gain score of 1.79. These indicate that the experimental group showed
greater interest in English grammar than the control group.
Research Question 3
What is the influence of gender on the mean achievement scores of students in English
grammar?
Table 3: Pre/Post-test Mean Achievement Rating Scores of Male and Female Students in
English Grammar
Group N Pre-test SD Post-test SD Gain
Male 147 19.18 7.69 26.14 7.84 6.96
Female 149 19.13 7.31 24.86 8.49 5.73
Table 3 indicates that the male students had a pre-test mean achievement score of 19.18 with
7.69 as the Standard Deviation. They also obtained a post-test mean achievement score of 26.14
with 7.84 as the Standard Deviation. However, the female students had a mean achievement score
of 19.13 with 7.31 as the Standard Deviation and a post-test mean achievement score of 24.86 with
8.49 as the Standard Deviation. The table also shows that the male and female students had mean
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gain scores of 6.96 and 5.37 respectively. Thus, males achieved higher than the females in English
grammar.
Research Question 4
What is the influence of gender on the mean interest rating scores of students in English
grammar?
Table 4: Pre/Post-test Mean Interest Rating Scores of Male and Female Students in English
Grammar
Group N Pre-test SD Post-test SD Gain
Male 147 61.04 8.76 65.82 9.54 4.78
Female 149 59.34 9.49 63.30 8.81 3.96
From Table 4 it can be seen that the male students had superior pre/post-test mean interest
rating scores in relation to the female students. The males had a pre-test mean interest rating score
of 61.04 with Standard Deviation of 8.76, while the female students had a pre-test mean interest
rating score of 59.34 with 9.49 as the Standard Deviation. The post-test mean interest score of the
males was 65.82, with Standard Deviation of 9.54, while that of the females was 63.30 with
Standard Deviation of 8.81. The table also reveals that the males had a mean gain score of 4.78
while the females obtained a mean gain score of 3.96. This means that the male students showed
greater interest in English grammar than their female counterparts as indicated by their superior
gain score.
Research Question 5
What is the influence of location on the mean achievement scores of students in English
grammar?
92
Table 5: Pre/Post-test Mean Achievement Scores of Urban and Rural Students in English
Grammar
Group N Pre-test SD Post-test SD Gain
Urban 145 21.56 6.51 28.59 6.93 7.03
Rural 151 15.89 6.91 22.54 8.23 6.65
In Table 5, it is observed that the urban students recorded superior pre-test and post-test
mean achievement scores in relation to the rural students. The urban students had pre-test mean
achievement score of 21.56 with Standard Deviation of 6.51 and a post-test mean achievement
score of 28.59 with Standard Deviation of 6.93. On the other hand, the rural students obtained a pre-
test mean achievement score of 15.89 with Standard Deviation of 6.91 and a post-test mean
achievement score of 22.54 with 8.23 as the Standard Deviation. The table also shows that the
urban students had a mean gain score of 7.03 while the rural students obtained a mean gain score of
6.65. This indicates that the urban students achieved higher than the rural students in English
grammar.
Research Question 6
What is the influence of location on the mean interest rating scores of students in English
grammar?
Table 6: Pre/Post-test Mean Interest Rating Scores of Urban and Rural Students in English
Grammar
Group N Pre-test SD Post-test SD Gain
Urban 145 62.57 8.06 67.02 7.83 4.45
Rural 151 57.88 9.58 60.23 9.12 2.35
It can be observed from Table 6 that the urban students had pre-test mean interest rating
score of 62.57 with Standard Deviation of 7.83 and a post-test mean interest rating score of 67.02
with Standard Deviation of 7.83. In contrast, the rural students obtained a pre-test mean interest
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rating score of 57.88 with Standard Deviation of 9.58 and a post-test mean interest rating score of
60.23 with Standard Deviation of 9.12. The urban students also recorded mean gain score of 4.45 as
against the mean gain score of 2.35 got by the rural students. This result shows that the urban
students showed greater interest in English grammar than their rural counterparts.
Research Question 7
What is the interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’ mean
achievement scores in English grammar?
Table 7: Interaction Effect of Instructional Approach and Gender on Students’ Mean Post
Achievement Scores in English Grammar
Group Gender N Mean SD
Experimental
Control
Male
Male
83
64
29.39
21.93
5.91
8.07
Experimental
Control
Female
Female
73
76
28.81
21.07
5.94
8.89
Table 7 presents the data on the interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on
students’ mean achievement scores in English grammar. The Table indicates that the males in the
experimental group had a mean score of 29.39 as against the mean score of 21.93 recorded by their
counterparts in the control group. The females in the experimental group had a mean score of 28.81
ahead of their counterparts in the control group, who had 21.07. The results reveal that the males in
the experimental group achieved higher than the males in the control group, while the females in the
experimental group achieved higher than the females in the control group. The superiority of the
scores of the males and females in the experimental group over those of the males and females in
the control group could be attributed to the effect of treatment alone and not from the interaction
effect of instructional approach and gender.
94
Research Question 8
What is the interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’ mean
interest rating scores in English grammar?
Table 8: Interaction Effect of Instructional Approach and Gender on Students’ Mean Post
Interest Rating Scores in English Grammar
Group Gender N Mean SD
Experimental
Control
Male
Male
83
64
65.10
62.15
9.19
9.73
Experimental
Control
Female
Female
73
76
64.54
62.10
8.82
8.68
Table 8 shows that the males in the experimental group obtained a mean interest rating score
of 65.10, higher than that of the males in the control group who got 62.15. The females in the
experimental group got a mean interest rating score of 64.54, ahead of their female counterparts in
the control group who got 62.10. The results indicate that the males in the experimental group had
better mean interest rating score than the males in the control group. The females in the
experimental group also had better mean interest rating score than the females in the control group.
The consistency of the mean interest rating scores across genders in the two groups could be
attributed to the effect of treatment alone and not from the interaction effect of instructional
approach and gender
Research Question 9
What is the interaction effect of instructional approach and location on students’ mean
achievement scores in English grammar?
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Table 9: Interaction Effect of Instructional Approach and Location on Students’ Mean Post
Achievement Scores in English Grammar
Group Location N Mean SD
Experimental
Control
Urban
Urban
73
73
31.57
25.56
4.51
7.63
Experimental
Control
Rural
Rural
83
67
26.96
17.13
6.16
7.15
The data on Table 9 show that the mean post achievement score of the urban students in the
experimental group is 31.57 as opposed to 25.56 for the urban students in the control group. The
mean post achievement scores of the rural students in the experimental group is 26.96 as against
17.13 for the rural students in the control group. The results reveal that the urban students in the
experimental group achieved higher than the urban students in the control group, while the rural
students in the experimental group achieved higher than the rural students in the control group. The
superiority of the scores of the urban and rural students in the experimental group over the urban
and rural students in the control group could be attributed to the effect of treatment alone and not
from the interaction effect of instructional approach and location.
Research Question 10
What is the interaction effect of instructional approach and location on students’ mean
interest rating scores in English Grammar?
Table 10: Interaction Effect of Instructional Approach and Location on Students’ Mean Post
Interest Rating Scores in English Grammar
Group Location N Mean SD
Experimental
Control
Urban
Urban
73
73
68.38
65.63
8.02
7.43
Experimental
Control
Rural
Rural
83
67
61.73
58.41
8.69
9.36
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It can be seen from Table 10 that urban students in the experimental group obtained a mean
interest rating score of 68.38 higher than the urban students in the control group who got 65.63.
Besides, the rural students in the experimental group got a mean interest rating score of 61.73,
ahead of their rural counterparts in the control group who got 58.41. The results show that the urban
students in the experimental group had better mean interest rating score than the urban students in
the control group, while the rural students in the experimental group had better mean interest rating
score than the rural students in the control group. The consistency of the mean post interest rating
scores of the experimental group across locations could be attributed to the effect of treatment alone
and not from the interaction effect of instructional approach and location.
Hypothesis 1
Ho1: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught English
grammar using the Integrative Language Teaching Approach (ILTA) and those taught with
the Form Based Approach (FBA).
Table 11: Summary of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of Students’ Post Achievement
Scores in English Grammar by Approach, Gender and Location
Source Type III Sum
of Squares
df Mean
Square
F Sig Decision
Corrected model 14120.138a 8 1765.017 89.311 .000
Intercept 4591.981 1 4591.981 232.357 .000
Pre-test scores 5845.022 1 5845.022 295.762 .000
Group 6061.988 1 6061.988 306.741 .000 S
Gender 18.931 1 18.931 .958 .329 NS
Location 206.004 1 206.004 10.424 .001 S
Group * Gender .569 1 .569 .029 .865 NS
Group * Location 76.367 1 76.367 3.864 .040 S
Error 5671.858 287 19.763
Total 212317.000 296
Corrected Total 19791.997 295
a R squared = .713 (Adjusted R Squared = .705)
S = Significant at 0.05 level
NS = Not significant at 0.05 level
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Results shown on Table II indicate that treatment as a main factor has a significant effect on
students’ achievement in English grammar. This is because the F value of 306.74 in respect of
treatment is shown to be significant at 0.00 level. This means that at 0.05 level, the F value of
306.74 is significant. The result shows that the Integrative Language Teaching Approach
significantly improved students’ achievement in English grammar more than the form-based
approach. Thus, the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the mean achievement
scores of students taught English grammar using the Integrative Language Approach (ILTA) and
those taught with the Form Based Approach (FBA) is rejected.
Hypothesis 2
There is no significant difference in the mean interest rating scores of students taught
English grammar using the ILTA and those taught with the FBA.
Table 12: Summary of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of Students’ Post Interest Rating
Scores in English Grammar by Approach, Gender and Location
Source Type III Sum
of Squares
df Mean
Square
F Sig Decision
Corrected Model 5194.949a 8 649.369 9.542 .000
Intercept 16082.608 1 16082.608 238.316 .000
Pre-test scores 920.881 1 920.881 13.531 .000
Group 657.280 1 657.280 9.658 .002 S
Gender 2.485 1 2.485 .037 .849 NS
Location 2365.702 1 2365.702 34.761 .000 S
Group * Gender 29.001 1 29.001 .426 .514 NS
Group * Location 8.556 1 8.554 .126 .723 NS
Error 19531.957 287 68.056
Total 1220560.000 296
Corrected Total 24726.905 295
a R Squared = .210 (Adjusted R Squared = .188)
S = Significant at 0.05 level
NS = Not significant at 0.05 level
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Results presented in Table 12 show that treatment has a significant effect on students’
interest in English grammar. This is because the F value of 9.65 in respect of treatment is shown to
be significant at 0.00 level. This means that at 0.05 level, the F value of 9.65 is significant. The
results indicate that the Integrative Language Teaching Approach significantly improved students’
interest in English grammar more than the Form Based Approach. Thus, the null hypothesis that
there is no significant difference in the mean interest rating scores of students taught English
grammar using the ILTA and those taught with the FBA is rejected.
Hypothesis 3
Ho3: Gender has no significant effect on the mean achievement scores of students in English
grammar.
The result presented in Table 11 shows that the calculated F value of 0.95 with respect to
gender is significant at 0.32. This indicates that at 0.05 level, the F value of 0.95 is not significant.
This means that the difference in the mean achievement scores of males and females in English
grammar is not statistically significant. Thus, the null hypothesis that gender has no significant
effect on the mean achievement scores of students taught English grammar is upheld.
Hypothesis 4
Ho4: Gender has no significant effect on the mean interest rating scores of students in English
grammar.
Data presented in Table 12 show that the F value of 0.03 in respect of main effect of gender
is significant at 0.84 and, therefore, not significant at 0.05 level. This means that the difference in
the mean interest rating scores of male and female students in English grammar is not statistically
significant. Thus, the null hypothesis that gender has no significant effect on the mean interest
rating scores of students taught English grammar is upheld.
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Hypothesis 5
Ho5: School location has no significant effect on the mean achievement scores of students in
English grammar.
The data in Table 11 show that location is a significant factor in students’ achievement in
English grammar. This is because the F value of 10.42 in respect of location as a factor is shown to
be significant at 0.00 level. This means that at 0.05 level the F value of 10.42 is significant. This
shows that students in the urban schools significantly achieved higher than their counterparts in the
rural schools. Therefore, the null hypothesis that school location has no significant effect on the
mean achievement scores of students in English grammar is rejected.
Hypothesis 6
Ho6: School location has no significant effect on the mean interest rating scores of students in
English grammar.
Results shown in Table 12 indicate that school location is a significant factor in students’
mean interest rating scores in English grammar. The calculated F value of 34.71 in respect of
location as a main factor is significant at 0.00 level and, therefore, also significant at 0.05 level.
This means that the difference in the mean interest rating scores of urban and rural students in
English grammar is statistically significant in favour of the urban students. As a result the null
hypothesis that school location has no significant effect on the mean interest rating scores of
students in English grammar is rejected.
Hypothesis 7
Ho7: There is no significant interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’
mean achievement scores in English grammar.
The interaction effect of instructional approach and gender as shown in Table 11 is not
significant. This is because the F value of 0.02 in respect of interaction between instructional
approach and gender is shown to be significant at 0.86 level but not significant at 0.05 level.
Therefore, the null hypothesis that there is no significant interaction effect of instructional approach
and gender on students’ mean achievement scores in English grammar is upheld.
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Hypothesis 8
Ho8: There is no significant interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’
mean interest rating scores in English grammar.
Table 11 shows that the calculated F value with respect to the interaction effect of
instructional approach and gender on students’ mean interest rating scores in English grammar is
0.42 at 0.51 level of significance. This value is not significant at 0.05 level set for the study.
Consequently, the null hypothesis is not rejected, indicating that there is no significant interaction
effect of instructional approach and gender on students’ mean interest rating scores in English
grammar.
Hypothesis 9
Ho9: The interaction effect of instructional approach and school location on students’ mean
achievement scores in English grammar is not statistically significant.
Data presented in Table 11 show that the calculated F value with regard to the interaction
effect of instructional approach and school location on students’ mean achievement scores in
English grammar is 3.86 at 0.04 level of significance. This is less than 0.05 level of significance set
for the study. The null hypothesis is therefore rejected. Hence the interaction effect of instructional
approach and school location on students’ mean achievement scores in English grammar is
statistically significant.
Hypothesis 10
Ho10: The interaction effect of instructional approach and school location on students’ mean interest
rating scores in English grammar is not statistically significant.
Table 12 shows that the calculated value of F with reference to the interaction effect of
instructional approach and school location on students’ mean interest rating scores in English
grammar is 0.12 and this is significant at 0.72 level. This value is not significant at 0.05 level set for
the study. Therefore, the null hypothesis is not rejected, indicating that the interaction effect of
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instructional approach and location on students’ mean interest rating scores in English grammar is
not statistically significant.
Summary of the Major Findings
Results presented in this chapter reveal the following as the major findings of the study:
1. The Integrative Language Teaching Approach (ILTA) has significant effect on students’
achievement in English grammar. The group taught with ILTA achieved significantly higher
than the group taught with the Form Based Approach (FBA).
2. The Integrative Language Teaching Approach has significant effect on students’ interest in
English grammar. The group taught with ILTA showed significantly higher interest in
English grammar than the group taught with the FBA.
3. Gender has no significant influence on students’ achievement in English grammar.
4. Gender has no significant influence on students’ interest in English grammar.
5. School location has a significant influence on students’ achievement in English grammar,
with the urban students achieving significantly higher than the rural students.
6. School location has a significant influence on students’ interest in English grammar. Urban
students had significantly higher mean interest rating scores than the rural students.
7. There is no significant interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’
mean achievement scores in English grammar.
8. There is no significant interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’
mean interest rating scores in English grammar.
9. There is significant interaction effect of instructional approach and school location on
students’ mean achievement scores in English grammar.
10. There is no significant interaction effect of instructional approach and school location on
students’ mean interest rating scores in English grammar.
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CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS,
RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY
This chapter focuses on the discussion of results, conclusions, educational implications of
the findings, recommendations, limitations of the study, suggestions for further research and
summary of the study.
Discussion of Results
The discussion of the results of the study is presented under the following sub-headings:
� Effect of Integrative Language Teaching Approach on students’ achievement and interest in
English grammar
� Gender and students’ achievement and interest in English grammar
� Location and students’ achievement and interest in English grammar
� Interaction effect of instructional approach, gender and location on students’ achievement
and interest in English grammar
Effect of Integrative Language Teaching Approach on Students’ Achievement and Interest in
English Grammar
Evidence from this study shows that students in the experimental group who were taught
English grammar using the Integrative Language Teaching Approach (ILTA) obtained a higher
post-test mean achievement score than those in the control group who were taught the same English
grammar using the Form Based Approach (FBA). The findings presented in Table 1 indicate that
those taught with ILTA had a post-test mean score of 29.12, while those taught with the FBA had
21.47. Similarly, those taught with ILTA had a mean gain score of 11.10, while those taught with
the FBA had a mean gain score of 1.04. The difference between those mean scores was statistically
significant as shown by the result presented in Table 11.
102
103
The result of this study is in tandem with the findings of Sysoyev (1999), Dakhmouche
(2008), Ongong’a, Okwara and Nyangara (2010) and Dabaghi and Goharimehr (2011) on the
effectiveness of the ILTA in teaching English grammar and other areas of the English language. For
instance, Dabaghi and Goharimehr (2011) carried out a research on the relationship between
learning styles of field-dependence/independence and integrative/discrete point methods of
grammar teaching. The study examined the role of two grammar teaching approaches in improving
students’ grammar proficiency. The result showed that the integrative approach to grammar
teaching led to better achievement compared to the discrete-point approach like the Form Based
Approach.
The efficacy of the ILTA over the FBA is not surprising because the ILTA does not
encourage abstract statement and memorization of grammatical rules. Rather, students are presented
with familiar exploration passages where structures illustrating grammatical rules are integrated and
demonstrated. Students in the course of reading those passages explore in detail the grammatical
structures. They see them in context and have the chance of acquiring them. Thus, they
unconsciously acquire the grammatical rules as well as the syntax of the language in authentic
discourse.
The result of this study also goes to corroborate the Monitor Theory as propounded by
Krashen (1982) which states that adult second language learners approach second language learning
by either acquiring it or learning it, but that acquisition is superior to learning. The ILTA creates a
variety of learning experiences for the learners to explore the language and acquire it just as
children do. However, it also provides the learners with the rules which complement and polish
what they had been exposed to through the acquired system. But learning of rules is never given
first priority. This approach has been found to be superior to the FBA which focuses chiefly on rote
memorization of rules that are easily forgotten, with less emphasis on language in context.
104
The result of this study also reveals that even though students find grammar a difficult
aspect of English as shown by the works of Udosen (2005), Agada (2008) and Olibe (2010), much
can be achieved in it with the right approach. Evidence from the results of this study shows that on
the average all the students taught English grammar with ILTA comfortably passed the post
achievement test, having got a mean score of 29.12 marks over 50 marks, while those taught with
the FBA narrowly passed the test having scored 21.47 marks over 50 marks. Turned into
percentage, students taught with ILTA got 58%, while those taught with FBA got 42%. It is
probably because of the fact that the Form Based Approach, which is the popular approach used by
English language teachers in teaching grammar, could not produce outstanding results among
students that the Chief Examiners’ Report (2008) saw the need for a change of approach to address
the anomaly. The results of this study confirm the need for this change.
Furthermore, the results in Table 2 show that the students in the experimental group had
greater post-test mean interest score than their counterparts in the control group. This result revealed
that the ILTA had a significant effect on students’ interest more than the FBA. This is in agreement
with the findings of Sysoyev (1999) that students preferred to learn L2 grammar using the ILTA as
opposed to either the Form Based or Meaning Based Approach only. It also agrees with Osuafor
(2001), Chukwu (2002), Omeje (2008) and Torty (2010) whose findings reveal that suitable
teaching approaches/methods increase students’ interest and that there is a strong relationship
between students’ interest and achievement. The ILTA was able to stimulate higher interests in the
students because it is activity-based. In the course of exploring passages where grammatical
structures are integrated, the students learn inductively. This also discourages passive learning and
encourages active learning. Sysoyev (1999) maintains that students tend to prefer assignments that
allow them to explore the language. The knowledge they obtain is theirs and it is much easier to be
remembered. This confirms Azar (2013) that students learn from understanding what is happening
in examples of usage, not knowledge from rules. The FBA in its abstract handling of grammatical
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rules may have been responsible for the fear and anxiety manifested in grammar classes by students
(Jibowo, 2012). This could also have been the reason why it was not able to generate as much
interest in the students as the ILTA.
Gender and Students’ Achievement and Interest in English Grammar
The findings of this study regarding the differences in achievement of male and female
students taught English grammar using ILTA and FBA show in Table 3 that the post-test mean
achievement score of 26.14 was recorded by the males, while 24.86 was recorded by the females.
This shows that the males achieved slightly higher than the females, but this was not found to be
statistically significant in the test of hypothesis. In other words, both males and females were almost
at par in their achievement in English grammar. This finding disagrees with Umo (2001) and
Uzoegwu (2004) who found out in their studies that gender was a significant factor in students’
achievement in language. Umo (2001) found out that the female students significantly performed
better than the male students in Igbo grammar, while Uzoegwu (2004) came to the conclusion that
the male students achieved higher than their female counterparts in essay writing in the English
language.
However, the result of this study agrees with the findings of Anizoba (2004), Oluikpe
(2004), Igbokwe (2007) and Egbe (2011). These researchers did not establish any significant
difference in the achievement of male and female students taught the English language using
different methods and techniques. The lack of significant difference in the achievements of males
and females in English grammar may be because ILTA is not gender biased. It indicates that with
the effective application of the approach good results can be achieved by both the males and the
females.
The result in Table 12 of this study also shows that there was no significant difference in the
mean interest rating scores of male and female students in English grammar. This means that ILTA
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had the same positive effect on male and female students. This is as a result of active participation
of both the males and females in the lessons. The result is in line with the findings of Umo (2001),
Chukwu (2002), Omeje (2008) and Torty (2010) that there was no significant difference in the
interest of male and female students taught using different methods and approaches.
Location and Students’ Achievement and Interest in English Grammar
The evidence obtained in Table 5 with regard to location and students’ achievement in
English grammar shows that the students in the urban area had a mean score of 28.59 in the post-
test, but those in the rural area had a mean score of 22.54. This shows that the students in the urban
area outscored the students in the rural area. In the test of hypothesis this was found to be
statistically significant. It was also found out that students in the urban area had higher post-test
mean interest rating score than the students in the rural area. In the test of hypothesis, this was also
found to be statistically significant. In other words, location is a significant factor not only in
students’ achievement but also in students’ interest in English grammar in favour of those in the
urban schools.
This result is in line with Ene (2002), Umo (2004) and Omeje (2010) who found out that
location was a significant factor in students’ achievement. However, it disagrees with Uzoegwu
(2004). Uzoegwu found out that location did not significantly influence students’ achievement. The
result of this study on interest is not in consonance with Torty (2010) who did not establish any
significant difference in the mean interest rating scores of students in urban and rural schools in
English language tenses. However, it agrees with Umo (2001) who found out that school location
had a significant influence on the interest of students in Igbo language. Students from urban schools
showed higher interest in Igbo language than their counterparts from rural schools. The higher
achievement and interest scores recorded by students in the urban area could have arisen from the
fact that schools in the urban areas have qualified and dedicated teachers in greater supply. They
107
also have more learning facilities and greater number of students from diverse socio-economic
environments who bring different ideas to bear in the classroom.
Interaction Effect of Instructional Approach, Gender and Location on Students’ Achievement
and Interest in English Grammar
This study established that there was no significant interaction effect of instructional
approach and gender on students’ achievement and interest in English grammar. In other words, the
superior scores in students’ achievement and interest by the experimental group is attributable to the
effect of treatment alone and not as a result of any interaction effect of treatment and gender. This
finding corroborates the findings of Ene (2002), Uzoegwu (2004), Anizoba (2004) and Torty (2010)
that there were no significant interaction effects of their methods and gender on students’
achievement in English language. The findings also agree with those of Omeje (2008) that there
was no significant interaction effect of method and gender on students’ achievement and interest in
Igbo letter writing. However, this finding does not agree with those of Umo (2001) and Ogboji
(2013) that there were significant interaction effects of method and gender on students’ achievement
in Igbo grammar and cultural and creative arts, respectively.
Furthermore, this study established a significant interaction effect of instructional approach
and location on students’ achievement in English grammar, though no significant interaction effect
of instructional approach and location on students’ interest in English grammar was noted. This
indicates that location could have contributed to students’ achievement in English grammar in
addition to the treatment used. This finding is in keeping with Umo (2001), Ene (2002) and Anizoba
(2004) who concluded that there was significant interaction effect of method and school location on
students’ achievement in the different aspects of language that they studied. But it departed from the
findings of Omeje (2008) that there was no significant interaction effect of method and gender on
students’ achievement and interest in Igbo letter writing.
108
Conclusions
On the strength of the findings of this study, the following conclusions are hereby drawn.
The ILTA has facilitative effects on secondary school students’ achievement and interest in English
grammar. Students taught English grammar using the ILTA achieved significantly higher than those
taught with the Form Based Approach (FBA). This means that the ILTA proved superior to the
FBA in promoting students’ achievement and interest in English grammar. Gender had no
significant influence on students’ achievement and interest in English grammar. The male and
female students maintained almost the same level of interest in English grammar. However, school
location had significant influence on students’ achievement and interest in English grammar. Urban
students had higher achievement and interest in English grammar than the rural students. The
interaction effects of instructional approach and gender on students’ achievement and interest were
not statistically significant. Though there was significant interaction effect of instructional approach
and location on students’ achievement, there was no significant interaction effect of instructional
approach and location on students’ interest in English grammar.
Educational Implications
Based on the conclusions drawn from the findings, the following educational implications of
the findings are outlined as they relate to the teacher, students, education authorities, curriculum
developers, English language textbook writers and language education.
The findings of this study have provided empirical evidence on the effectiveness of the
Integrative Language Teaching Approach (ILTA) in enhancing students’ achievement and interest
in English grammar more than the Form Based Approach (FBA). The implication of this finding to
the teacher is that the approach he or she adopts in teaching a subject or a language skill goes a long
way in determining the extent of students’ achievement and interest in it. It also implies that the
ILTA is a more effective approach for the teaching and learning of English grammar than the FBA.
109
Insistence on teaching English grammar with the FBA may not yield optimum results as that may
only succeed in worsening students’ achievement and interest in English grammar. Also, since
students’ achievement and interest are connected with the approach used by the teacher in the
classroom, it implies that there is the necessity on the part of the teachers of the English language to
improve themselves through conferences, seminars and workshops so as to be able to adopt the
ILTA and practise same in their various classes for optimum students’ achievement and interest in
English grammar.
For the students, it implies that there is hope of increased achievement and interest in
English grammar if the teacher uses the ILTA in teaching. With increased achievement and interest,
their dread for English grammar will be kept at bay while the general poor achievement in external
examinations conducted by WAEC and NECO will improve. With improved achievement, students
will not be denied admissions into higher institutions of learning, neither will they lose intelligibility
in their interactions with people as a result of their poor grasp of English grammar.
The findings of this study also have implications for education authorities. Since the ILTA is
very effective in teaching English grammar, education authorities have the responsibility to impress
on the teachers to use the approach in their various schools in order to help improve their students’
achievement in English grammar. The onus lies on them to explore all avenues like organization of
conferences and workshops to ensure that the approach and its accompanying procedure are not
only mastered by the teachers but are also effectively implemented in the classroom by the teachers.
For the curriculum developers, both at secondary and tertiary institutions of learning, the
findings of this study imply that there is need to incorporate the ILTA as one of the innovative
approaches to the teaching of grammar in the next review of the curriculum. It also implies that
ILTA has the potentialities of being effective in teaching other areas of the English language apart
110
from grammar. Thus, curriculum developers may have to explore these areas and incorporate them
in the next review of the curriculum.
On the part of the English language textbook writers, it implies that the textbooks that draw
heavily from the Form Based Approach may not be helpful to the teacher and the students in
attaining high achievement and interest in English grammar. This means that there is the need to
review textual materials using the ILTA. The continued use of the conventional textbooks in
schools without infusing the ILTA into them may only succeed in maintaining the same low level of
achievements and interest in English grammar.
Finally, the findings of this study have implications for language education especially with
regard to the influence of gender and location on students’ language attainments. The finding that
gender was not a significant factor in students’ achievement and interest in English grammar
implies that it would not be necessary to provide different curriculum materials and teaching
approaches for males and females in schools. It also implies that there should be no segregation or
assertion of superiority or inferiority of one gender over the other. Rather, both males and females
should consider themselves as equally endowed to achieve highly if they pay keen interest in the
lessons and engage in all class activities. Also, the findings that school location was a significant
factor in students’ achievement and interest in English grammar implies that there may be
dichotomous achievements in public examinations between students in the rural and urban schools
if nothing is done to reduce the gap that brought about such differentials. As a result, students in the
rural schools may suffer some setback in their achievement in school subjects. Also, the non-
interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’ achievement and interest in
English grammar, which this study established, implies that the ILTA alone rather than any other
factor, resulted in the difference, thus fortifying the efficacy of the ILTA as an instructional
approach in the teaching and learning of English grammar.
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Recommendations
The following recommendations are hereby made in line with the findings and implications
of the study:
1. The results of the study have shown that the integrative language teaching approach (ILTA)
has significantly positive effect on secondary school students’ achievement and interest in
English grammar. Thus, English language teachers should adopt the approach as an
alternative to the form-based approach (FBA) in teaching English grammar.
2. Workshops, seminars and conferences should be regularly organized for English language
teachers by education authorities such as Universities, Colleges of Education, Ministries of
Education Post Primary Schools’ Management Board and the Universal Basic Education
Commission (UBEC) on the use of ILTA in teaching English grammar.
3. English teacher preparation programmes in Colleges of Education and Universities should
include in their relevant courses on methodology (like Special Method) the use of ILTA in
teaching English grammar so that pre-service teachers will be trained on how to use this
approach in teaching English grammar on employment.
4. Curriculum developers for secondary schools such as the Nigerian Educational Research and
Development Council (NERDC) should incorporate the ILTA as an effective approach in
teaching English grammar in the next review of the curriculum as well as carry out further
research on other areas of the English language where the ILTA could be applied.
5. Government should ensure equal provision of qualified teachers and instructional materials
to urban and rural schools so that no school will be disadvantaged as a result of location.
6. Textbook writers especially in English grammar should develop new textual materials that
are ILTA compliant. Such texts should have copious exploration passages on each unit of
grammar where grammatical structures demonstrating the rules of grammar are integrated.
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Limitations of the Study
The generalizations drawn from this study are subject to the following limitations.
1. The content scope was limited to agreement and sequence of tenses. These units do not
exhaust the content of a grammar syllabus for SSS II students. So, the conclusions drawn
from only these two areas may constitute a limitation to the generalization of the findings to
all aspects of grammar.
2. The ILTA has many levels of integration, but only the integration of form and meaning was
mainly explored in this study. This constitutes a limiting factor to the generalization of the
effectiveness of other levels of ILTA on students’ achievement and interest in English
grammar.
Suggestions for Further Research
Based on the findings of the study and subsequent limitations, the following suggestions for
further research are made.
1. A similar study could be carried out to cover more topics in grammar.
2. A similar study could be carried out to cover other levels of integration.
3. Another study could be carried out using other class levels in junior or senior secondary
schools.
4. A similar study could be carried out to ascertain the effect of integrative language teaching
approach on students’ achievement and interest in other areas of the English language like
essays and reading comprehension.
Summary of the Study
Students’ achievement and interest in English grammar have not been encouraging over the
years. A number of reasons have been given for this. One of them is the use of the Form Based
Approach, which is not result-oriented. It was felt, therefore, that a shift in the approach used in
113
teaching English grammar could produce better results. It was based on that backdrop that the study
was designed to empirically investigate the effect of the Integrative Language Teaching Approach
on secondary school students’ achievement and interest in English grammar. The study also
determined the influence of gender as well as location on students’ achievement and interest in
English grammar. The achievement and interest of students taught with ILTA were compared with
those taught with the FBA. Ten research questions were posed and ten hypotheses formulated to
guide the study.
The review of related literature was done under four sections. They were the conceptual
framework, theoretical framework, empirical studies and summary of literature review. The
conceptual framework indicated that the conventional approach adopted by teachers in teaching
English grammar was the Form Based Approach with all its deficiencies. Thus, advocacy was made
for the use of ILTA in teaching English grammar as it had the potential of helping the students learn
grammatical rules in the context of authentic communicative tasks. The theoretical framework
critically examined the relevance of the Monitor Theory to the study. The five hypotheses that make
up the theory gave justification for the use of ILTA in teaching English grammar. The empirical
studies revealed that ILTA had the capability of developing students’ linguistic and communicative
competence. The influence of gender on students’ achievement was not conclusive. Location and
interest were found to be significant factors in students’ achievement. However, after the review of
related literature, it was discovered that no study known to the researcher had been carried out
within the area of the study on the effect of ILTA on students’ achievement and interest in English
grammar, hence the gap that gave additional impetus to the study.
In order to carry out the research, the researcher adopted a quasi-experimental design.
Specifically, the non-randomised control group design was used. The area of the study was Nsukka
Local Government Area, while the population of the study was 3,424 SSS II students in the 30
114
public secondary schools in the local government area in the 2013/2014 session. The sample for the
study consisted of 296 SSS II students from four co-educational schools within the area of the
study. A multi-stage random sampling technique was used, first to draw the four co-educational
schools and two intact classes from each school, and to assign schools to experimental (ILTA) and
control groups (FBA). Two instruments were used for data collection. They were the English
Grammar Achievement Test (EGAT) and the English Grammar Interest Inventory (EGII). The
instruments were face validated, but EGAT was further subjected to content validation.
Subsequently, the instruments were trial tested using 20 students from Community Secondary
School, Isiugwu, Enugu-Ezike in Igbo-Eze North Local Government Area of Enugu State. This was
for the purpose of determining their reliability. The internal consistency of EGAT was computed
and found to be 0.95 using Kuder Richardson’s formula (K – R 20) while that of EGII was 0.71
using Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient Method.
Before treatment commenced, the EGAT and EGII were administered as pre-test to the two
groups in each of the sampled schools. The treatment lasted for one month. After the treatment
session, the same instrument, with numbers re-arranged, were administered to the subjects to obtain
the post-test scores. The data obtained were used in answering the research questions and testing the
hypotheses. The research questions were answered using mean scores, while the hypotheses were
tested using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of significance.
The results indicated that ILTA had significant effect on students’ achievement and interest
in English grammar, but gender did not significantly influence students’ achievement and interest in
English grammar. Location was a significant factor in students’ achievement and interest in English
grammar. The results also showed that there was no significant interaction effect of instructional
approach and gender on students’ achievement and interest in English grammar. However, while
there was significant interaction effect of instructional approach and location on students’
115
achievement in English grammar, there was no significant interaction effect of instructional
approach and location on students’ interest in English grammar.
Following the discussion of the results, conclusions were drawn and educational
implications of the findings were highlighted. It was recommended, among others, that English
language teachers should adopt the ILTA as an alternative to the Form Based Approach in teaching
English grammar. Also, workshops, conferences and seminars should be organized for English
language teachers by education authorities on the use of ILTA in teaching English grammar.
116
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APPENDIX A
ENGLISH GRAMMAR ACHIEVEMENT TEST (EGAT)
Time Allowed: 40 Minutes
Name of Student ....................................................................................................................
Sex: (Please tick √ in the appropriate box) Male , Female
Name of School......................................................................................................................
Class: SSS II ..........................................................................................................................
Instruction: Answer all the questions. All questions carry equal marks. For each of the options
lettered a – d, choose the correct option by encircling the letter that bears the correct answer.
Example: The capital of Enugu State is _______ .
a. Lagos b. Abuja Enugu d. Awka
The letter ‘C’ is encircled because Enugu is the correct answer.
SECTION A
For questions 1 – 10, choose from the options lettered a – d the subject that agrees with the
underlined verb. Eg. He knows the answer to the question.
a. answer b. question c. he d. to. The answer is because ‘knows’ agrees with the subject ‘he’.
1. The senior prefect, as I was reliably informed, read the farewell speech.
a. I b. senior prefect c. speech d. informed
2. They always do their assignments at home even when they are tired.
a. They b. their c. assignments d. home
3. Honesty, they say, is the best policy.
a. policy b. they c. say d. honesty
4. These are men of substance in the society.
a. men b. substance c. these d. society
c
c
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5. The police are investigating the matter and are concluding their report.
a. matter b. report c. police d. investigating
6. The chief as well as his wife was at the ceremony.
a. ceremony b. wife c. his d. chief
7. The men, though motivated, searched for Mary and the other ladies living in the hostel without
success.
a. men b. Mary c. ladies d. hostel
8. One of the boys that stay in this room is a Chinese.
a. boys b. room c. one d. Chinese
9. He wanted to know whether everybody was present at the meeting.
a. he b. everybody c. meeting d. know
10. They sang the hymn and prayed to God for forgiveness.
a. they b. hymn c. God d. forgiveness.
SECTION B
In each of the following sentences from 11 – 20, one of the words makes the sentence
grammatically wrong. Choose from the options lettered a – d, the correct number (singular or
plural) or tense (present or past) of the word that will make the sentence grammatically correct.
Eg. The boy have done the assignment
a. do b. has c. assignments d. girl
The sentence is wrong because the word have does not agree in number with the subject ‘boy’. The
correct answer is therefore ‘has’ (a singular verb) which agrees with the singular subject ‘boy’.
11. Have the man said anything yet concerning the matter?
a. say b. has c. matters d. something
12. The police has discovered the hideout of the criminals.
b
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a. polices b. discover c. have d. hideouts
13. I know that Mary usually work hard.
a. knows b. usual c. worked d. works
14. One of the boys have left the village for the city.
a. boy b. has c. leave d. villages
15. It is you that has a case to answer.
a. are b. have c. answers d. cases
16. Rice and stew was served at the party that Ada organize.
a. serve b. were c. are d. organized
17. The search for the boys take several days before they were found.
a. took b. searching c. takes d. are
18. The binders have binded the boy’s books that were torn.
a. has b. bind c. bound d. thorn
19. Neither my mother nor my brothers knows where I have been for days.
a. know b. has c. being d. had
20. Where on earth was the students when the principal came into the class?
a. are b. is c. were d. come
SECTION C
From the options lettered a – d choose the form of the verb that best completes each of the
following sentences both in number and tense (Numbers 21 – 40).
Eg. He doesn’t know the truth but his wife ________.
a. knew b. know c. knowing d. does
The correct answer is ‘does’, because ‘does’ agrees in number with the subject ‘wife’ and is
also in the present tense as the other verb in the sentence.
d
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21. Where _________ your brother’s shirts?
a. are b. do c. is d. was
22. My friends ________ go to school by bus when their parents are on leave.
a. doesn’t b. don’t c. aren’t d. weren’t
23. There ________ rats in the kitchen the time I entered to put the water in the fridge.
a. wasn’t any b. isn’t any c. is no any d. weren’t
24. _________ flowers in the living room.
a. There is any b. There are some c. There is no d. Is there some
25. Where ________ you yesterday evening when I visited?
a. was b. are c. were d. is
26. _________ he ever involved in the planning of your last year’s birthday party?
a. Was b. Were c. Had d. Have
27. People usually ________ in the kitchen.
a. cooks b. cooking c. cooked d. cook
28. I met a friend as I _______ home last night.
a. am walking b. have been walking c. worked d. was walking
29. How many miles ______ John _____?
a. has/ran b. has/run c. have/ran d. have/run
30. The houses ______ by Mr. Okoro.
a. were painted b. was painted c. were paint d. was being painted
31. ________ your bag stolen on the train when you travelled?
a. Were b. Has c. Is d. Was
32. We are tired because we ________ since 6 am.
a. are travelling b. have been travelling c. travelling d. has been travelling
129
33. She ________ TV in the evenings.
a. watch b. watching c. watches d. usually watch
34. ________ Amaka get up from bed if she goes to bed late?
a. Have b. Has c. When do d. When does
35. My father’s friend who is a soldier_______ in the city.
a. lives b. live c. living d. are living
36. ________ the girls _______ in your house?
a. Does/live b. Does/lives c. Do/live d. Do/lives
37. The police ________ invited to intervene in the matter.
a. were b. was c. is d. have
38. Neither the woman nor the boy _______ responsible for what happened.
a. are being b. were c. is being d. was
39. The principal and chairman of the occasion _______ yet to arrive.
a. are b. is c. were d. have
40. The number of girls in the class _______ that of the boys.
a. outweigh b. weigh higher than c. outweighs d. are bigger than
SECTION D
In the following passage, the numbered gaps indicate missing verbs. Against each number in
the list below the passage, four options are offered in columns lettered a – d. Fill each numbered
gap with the most appropriate verb.
Eg. The teachers 1 that Mary is intelligent. It is expected that she will take the first position in her
class.
A b c d
1 know knows knew no
130
The answer is ‘a’ because it is a plural verb which agrees in number with the subject
‘teachers’.
Football is one of the games that 41 young people. Over 70% of the youths 42 one club or
the other they support. Some youths even cut their hair in the fashion of their most liked footballers,
for instance, Messi and Drogba, who 43 made waves in international football. In any game played
everyone who is not in the stadium 44 his/her eyes on the television, which has become the stadium
in each person’s home. The centre referee, the most important among the officials, 45 the whistle,
while the linesmen 46 infringements from the wings.
The other day, my friend as well as his father 47 at the stadium to watch the match between
Nigeria and Ghana. One of the players on the Nigerian side 48 Victor Moses. Determination and
hope 49 written on his face. All, including my friend, 50 convinced at the end of the match that he
played well. Football is really interesting.
A b c d
41 interesting interested interest interests
42 Have has had has had
43 Has are being have is being
44 Looks glues look glue
45 Blew blows blow blast
46 Shows detects flags detect
47 Was were sit sits
48 Were is was are
49 Are were was has been
50 Was are is were
know
131
APPENDIX B
ENGLISH GRAMMAR ACHIEVEMENT TEST (EGAT)
MARKING SCHEME
Mark Allocation : 1 mark each
Total : 50 marks.
1 b 18 c 35 a
2 a 19 a 36 c
3 d 20 c 37 a
4 c 21 a 38 d
5 c 22 b 39 b
6 d 23 d 40 c
7 a 24 b 41 c
8 c 25 c 42 a
9 b 26 a 43 c
10 a 27 d 44 b
11 b 28 d 45 b
12 c 29 b 46 d
13 d 30 a 47 a
14 b 31 d 48 c
15 b 32 b 49 b
16 d 33 c 50 d
17 a 34 d
Distribution of Answers :
Number of Answers bearing letter a = 12
Number of Answer bearing letter b = 13
Number of Answer bearing letter c = 13
Number of Answer bearing letter d = 12
Total = 50
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APPENDIX C
ENGLISH GRAMMAR INTEREST INVENTORY (EGII)
Name ......................................................................................................................................
Sex: (Please tick √ in the appropriate box) Male , Female
Name of School .....................................................................................................................
Class: SSS II ..........................................................................................................................
This English Grammar Interest Inventory (EGII) is designed to find out the extent of your
interest in English grammar. Read each statement carefully and simply indicate the extent to which
you agree with each of the following statements numbered 1 – 20, by ticking (√) against the option
that appeals to you most. These options are: Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D),
Strongly Disagree (SD). Please be very honest in filling this. There is no right or wrong answer.
S/N STATEMENT SA A D SD
1 Grammar is an interesting aspect of the English language.
2 Knowledge of English grammar is essential for my progress in education.
3 I am not interested in understanding the rules guiding the agreement of subjects and
verbs.
4 I am not enthusiastic in learning the rules guiding the agreement of verbs in
sequence of tenses.
5 I am interested in learning English language tenses.
6 The complexity of English grammar is disgusting to me.
7 I dislike the existence of many exceptions to the rules in learning English grammar.
8 I like to study English grammar both at school and at home.
9 I prefer studying English grammar to any other aspect of English language.
10 I like staying in class during English grammar periods.
11 I do not like having discussions on English grammar.
12 I do not do exercises involving English grammar.
13 I do not feel excited talking about English grammar.
14 I always pay attention when English grammar is taught in class.
15 I revise English grammar before taking any examination in English language.
16 I usually correct the exercises I fail in English grammar.
17 I participate actively in English grammar classes.
18 I do not buy books which contain drills on English grammar.
19 I do not do assignments on English grammar.
20 I do not copy notes on English grammar.
133
APPENDIX D
SCORING GUIDE FOR THE ENGLISH GRAMMAR INTEREST INVENTORY
SCORES FOR ITEMS
RATING SCALE
SA A D SD
Scores for Positive Items 4 3 2 1
Scores for Negative Items 1 2 3 4
Key: SA – Strongly Agree
A – Agree
D – Disagree
SD – Strongly Disagree
134
APPENDIX E
TABLE OF SPECIFICATION/TEST BLUE PRINT FOR
ENGLISH GRAMMAR ACHIEVEMENT TEST
LOWER ORDER HIGHER
ORDER
CONTENT DURATION IN
WEEKS
KNOWLEDGE COMPREHENSION APPLICATION TOTAL
Agreement of singular
subjects and singular
verbs in the present tense
and sequence of tenses in
the present tense
(singular)
Week 1 WEIGHTS 20% 20% 60% 100%
30%
(15 questions )
3
(1, 3, 8)
3
(11, 13, 14)
9
(29, 33, 34,
35, 39, 40, 43,
44, 45)
15
Agreement of plural
subjects and plural verbs
in the present tense and
sequence of tenses in the
present tense (plural)
Week 2 30%
(15 Questions)
3
(2, 4, 5)
3
(12, 15, 19)
9
(21, 22, 24,
27, 32, 36, 41,
42, 46)
15
Agreement of singular
subjects and singular
verbs in the past tense and
sequence of tenses in the
past tense (singular)
Week 3 20%
(10 Questions)
2
(6, 9)
2
(16, 17)
6
(26, 28, 31,
38, 47, 48)
10
Agreement of plural
subjects and plural verbs
in the past tense and
sequence of tenses in the
past tense (plural)
Week 4 20%
(10 Questions)
2
(7, 10)
2
(18, 20)
6
(23, 25, 30,
37, 49, 50)
10
TOTAL 4 Weeks 100% 10 10 30 50
135
APPENDIX F
PASSAGES FOR EXPLORATION BY THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
(TO BE USED ALONG WITH THE LESSON PLANS)
PASSAGE A
AGREEMENT OF SINGULAR SUBJECTS AND SINGULAR VERBS IN THE PRESENT
TENSE AND SEQUENCE OF TENSES IN THE PRESENT TENSE (SINGULAR)
My mother sells bean cakes everyday. When she wakes up in the morning, she usually lights
the fire, mixes the flour, salt and pepper, and fries the cakes. Once the cakes are fried, she puts them
carefully into a basket and then walks to the factory that makes vegetable oil. Outside the factory
there is a big mango tree. My mother sits under it.
The foreman and organizer of activities in the factory is usually the first to patronize her. He
pays twenty naira for each cake he buys. Any man or woman who is first to buy the cakes is usually
rewarded with an extra cake which is worth twenty naira. Twenty naira is no small money. So,
everybody rushes to be the first to buy the cakes. However, no man struggles or fights for my
mother’s cake. It always goes round. No policeman either is called to settle scores among the
customers. Everybody is usually happy after eating my mother’s cakes. Everyone of them goes
away satisfied. Many a man has always owed her. The number grows each day. But each of them
pays back within the week. Does she really worry about repayment? No! She doesn’t. This is
because neither the poor man nor the rich man has ever failed her. My mother’s humility guarantees
repayment. Every person knows that my mother is humble and kind. She does not harass anybody
that patronizes her.
When school is about to begin, my mother buys some books with the little money she has
saved. The other term she bought physics and mathematics textbooks for me. Mathematics is an
interesting subject; physics is interesting too. My pair of trousers is getting old. I am optimistic that
my mother will buy another for me. I love my mum. She lives in the centre of my heart. I hope to
repay her someday for her pains and sacrifices. This has always been my prayer and I am confident
that it will be answered.
136
PASSAGE B
AGREEMENT OF PLURAL SUBJECTS AND PLURAL VERBS IN THE PRESENT
TENSE AND SEQUENCE OF TENSES IN THE PRESENT TENSE (PLURAL)
My two sisters, Ada and Mma, sell bean cakes everyday. When they get up early in the
morning, they usually light the fire, mix the flour, salt and pepper, and fry the cakes. Once the cakes
are fried, they put them carefully into two baskets and then walk to the factory where spoons are
made. Outside the factory there are big mango trees that provide sheds. My sisters sit under one of
them.
The foreman and the organizer of activities are the first to patronize them. They pay twenty
naira for each cake they buy. Twenty cakes sold fetch a good sum of money. My sisters and I value
the cakes. Though cakes are not our favourite food, we take them as important snacks. The man and
the woman who are first to buy the cakes are rewarded with an extra cake each. However, neither
men nor women struggle for my sisters’ cakes. The cakes always go round. The police are not
called to settle scores among the customers. All the people are happy after eating my sisters’ cakes.
All of them go home satisfied. Many men have owed them. A number of them have always bought
on credit. But they all pay back the following day. Do my sisters really worry about repayment? No!
They don’t. Neither the poor nor the rich have ever failed them. My sisters’ humility and honesty
guarantee repayment. The customers know that my sisters are humble and honest. They do not
harass those that patronize them.
When schools reopen, my sisters buy some books with the money they have saved. They
purchase books in science subjects. Physics and mathematics are their favourite subjects. My
trousers are getting old. Hopefully, my sisters will buy another pair for me. I love my sisters; they
love me too.
137
PASSAGE C
AGREEMENT OF SINGULAR SUBJECTS AND SINGULAR VERBS IN THE PAST
TENSE AND SEQUENCE OF TENSES IN THE PAST TENSE (SINGULAR)
There was a young boy who lived in our village. He was twelve years old. His father was a
teacher while his mother was a nurse. Where they lived, water was difficult to come by unless one
trekked to the stream. The only borehole in the village had gone out of use and was being inhabited
by rats and lizards. The boy’s name was Udoka. He was not handsome but he was strong, clever and
intelligent. His ambition was to become a medical doctor. His father as well as other members of his
family was proud of him.
There was a day that Udoka ran into trouble. That day was an Eke market day. He was going
to the stream to fetch water. Neither his sisters nor his mother was accompanying him. He was
going alone to the stream. On his way home he ran into a group of boys. One of them, their leader,
was about 23 years old. He was fierce-looking and dangerous. He was a village bully. He
immediately caught Udoka by the ear and gave him a hard knock on the head. Udoka slumped to
the ground and fainted. The bully and assailant took to his heels and was nowhere to be found. The
rest of the boys disappeared with him.
After a while, a man who was also going to the stream saw Udoka lying on the ground,
motionless. He was alarmed. But he was courageous enough to lift him to his shoulders and take
him back to his father’s house. When Udoka came to, he was asked to narrate what happened.
Everybody around was summoned to hear him. His story was pathetic. He implicated the bully and
his gang. A policeman was immediately called and the bully, together with the members of his
gang, was arrested. The bully confessed that he was envious of Udoka’s progress. His confession
was annoying to every person who listened to him. The offence of the gang was criminal, so it was
taken to the magistrate court for trial. The gang would not escape from being jailed for assault and
battery.
138
PASSAGE D
AGREEMENT OF PLURAL SUBJECTS AND PLURAL VERBS IN THE PAST TENSE
AND SEQUENCE OF TENSES IN THE PAST TENSE (PLURAL)
There were two young boys who lived in our village. They were twelve years old and were
twins. Their father and their mother were farmers. Where they lived water and other social
amenities were difficult to come by. The two boreholes in the village had gone out of use and were
being inhabited by rats and lizards. Electricity and hospital were unheard of. The boys’ names were
Udoka, the elder, and Emeka, the younger one. They were not handsome but they were strong,
clever and intelligent. Their ambitions were to become medical doctors someday. Their father and
other members of their family were proud of them.
Udoka and Emeka ran into trouble one Eke market day. Both of them were going to the
village stream to fetch water. Neither their mother nor their sisters were accompanying them. Only
the two of them were going to the stream. On their way home they ran into two other boys. They
were about 23 years old. They were fierce-looking and dangerous. They were village bullies. They
immediately caught Udoka and Emeka by the ears and hit them badly on the head. The twins fell to
the ground and fainted. The bullies took to their heels. They were nowhere to be found.
After a while, two men who were going to the stream saw the twins lying motionless on the
ground. They were alarmed. But they were courageous enough to lift them to their shoulders and
together they took them back to their father’s house. When the twins came to, they were asked to
narrate what happened. All the people around were summoned to hear them. Their stories were
pathetic but were not contradictory. They were intelligent enough to mention the names of the two
bullies. The police were immediately called and the bullies were arrested. The bullies confessed to
the police that they were envious of the progress of the twins. Their confessions were annoying to
every person who listened to them. They were billed to be tried in a magistrate court for a criminal
offence. Surely, the bullies cannot escape a three-month jail term each for assault and battery.
139
APPENDIX G
LESSON PLAN FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
(BASED ON THE INTEGRATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACH)
LESSON PLAN I
Subject: English Language
Class: SSS II
Age: 15 years +
Topic: Agreement of singular subjects and singular verbs in the present tense and sequence
of tenses in the present tense (singular)
Duration: 80 minutes (Double Period)
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to do the following
with at least 70% accuracy:
1. identify singular subjects in a sentence;
2. point out singular verbs in the present tense;
3. recognize appropriate sequence of tenses in the present tense (singular) within the same
sentence;
4. make sentences to illustrate the different instances of agreement of singular subjects and
singular verbs in present tense and sequence of tenses in the present tense (singular) within
the same sentence.
140
Instructional Procedure Lesson
Movement
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Resources Technique
Identification
of Previous
Knowledge.
The teacher asks the students to
identify the nouns and verbs in the
following sentence: The principal
of the school in our village loves
children who read their books.
They listen to the
teacher and answer
the questions.
Individual Chalkboard Question and
answer
Presentation The teacher introduces the topic to
the students “Agreement of
singular subjects and singular
verbs in the present tense and
sequence of tenses in the present
tense (singular). He informs them
that a subject is a word or group
of words that performs the action
in the sentence or controls the
verb. A subject can be a noun,
pronoun, phrase or clause.
Eg. Noun: John plays football.
Pronoun: He plays football.l
Phrase: The young boy plays
football.
Clause: The boy that is young
plays football.
He also informs them that tense is
the form which the verb takes to
show the time of an action which
can be present or past. The teacher
gives examples of sentences that
have verbs in the present tense.
(a) My father eats rice. (b)
Ada loves music. (c) The
boy is kind.
He also informs them that singular
subjects usually refer to one
person or thing.
Eg. (a) He is the principal. (b) Mr
Okafor is the principal. (c) This is
a man.
Singular verbs also refer to one
The students listen to
the teacher and take
note of the structure.
.
Group
Chalkboard
Explanation,
Illustration,
Use of
Examples
141
person or thing. They usually end
with ‘s’.
Eg. (a) Ebere wants to take a
leave.
(b) This soldier is sad.
(c) The kind old man does
not drink alcohol.
He informs the students that they
are going to explore various
sentences that fit into the
structures: (1) Singular subject +
singular verb (in the present
tense). E.g. My sister loves pets.
(2) Sequence of tenses in the
present tense (singular).
Eg. Obi says he is the best goal
keeper. The teacher presents
exploration passage A for the
students to study.
They receive the
exploration passages.
Group
Exploration
passages
Integration of
the structures
into an
exploration
passage
Exploration The teacher guides the students to
read the passage as a group and
later individually.
He guides them to explore various
structures that fit into the
structures presented at the
presentation stage.
The students read the
passage, taking note
of structures that fit
into the one given to
them at the
presentation stage.
Individual
/group
Exploration
passage
Integration
Discussion
The teacher divides the students
into two groups and guides one
group to identify a sentence that
fits into the structures given, while
the other supplies the singular
subject and the singular verb that
agrees with it or the tenses that are
in sequence. He provides clues.
After the students have identified
all the structures, the teacher
assists the students to state the
rules that guide the agreement of
singular subject with singular verb
and sequence of tenses in the
present tense (singular).
Examples are drawn from
The students divide
into groups, one
identifies a sentence
that has agreement of
singular subject and
singular verb, while
the other group states
the subject and the
verb that agrees with
it. They interact, find
information and ask
questions as they
state the rules.
Students find
Small
group
Group
Exploration
passage
Exploration
passage
Integration
Integration
142
exploration passage A
(1) Singular subjects (whether
nouns or pronouns) take singular
verbs, except the pronouns ‘I’ and
‘you’ which take plural.
E.g. (a) My mother sells bean
cakes everyday.
(b) She usually lights the fire.
(2) When two singular subjects
joined by the conjunction ‘and’
refer to one and the same thing or
person, a singular verb is used.
E.g. The foreman and organizer of
activities in the factory is usually
the first to patronize her.
(3) The following indefinite
pronouns take singular verbs:
anybody, anyone, anything, each,
either, somebody, something, etc.
E.g. (a) Everybody rushes to be
the first to buy the cakes.
(b) Everyone of them goes
away satisfied.
(4) The expressions ‘the number’,
‘one of the’, ‘a pair of’ take
singular verbs.
E.g. (a) The number grows
everyday.
(b) My pair of trousers is
getting old.
(5) Some nouns that are plural in
appearance but singular in usage
take singular verbs. These nouns
include: news, physics,
mathematics, politics, measles,
etc.
E.g. (a) Mathematics is an
interesting subject.
(b) Physics is interesting too.
(6) If two subjects are joined with
a correlative conjunction like
‘either … or’, or ‘neither … nor’,
the verb is singular if the subject
nearer to it is singular.
E.g. Neither the poor man nor the
rich man has ever failed her.
(7) In sequence of tenses, if the
finite verb in a sentence is present,
those in other parts of the sentence
should also be in the present.
E.g. (a) When she wakes up in the
morning, she usually lights the
fire, mixes the flour, salt and
pepper, and fries the cakes.
(b) Every person knows that my
mother is humble and kind.
examples of the rules
from the exploration
passage and also give
their own examples.
143
Application
The teacher guides them to apply
the structures they have learnt at
the exploration and discussion
stage into producing other
sentences that typify the
agreement of singular subject and
singular verb and sequence of
tenses in the present tense. The
teacher can suggest to the students
to describe their present action or
any habitual action, using present
tenses. Dialogues can also be used
at this state.
Eg. John: The boy is handsome.
Ada: The subject is boy.
James: The verb is ‘is’ and it
agrees in number with the subject.
The students apply
the knowledge they
have learnt in
producing new
grammatically correct
sentences. They pair
for dialogues using
present tenses. They
transfer what they
have explored into
authentic discussion.
Individual
Pair
Exploration
passage.
Students
who stand
out for
dialogues
Integration
Evaluation The teacher asks the students to
answer the following questions
orally. (1) Identify the singular
subjects in the following
sentences. The students are to
answer them orally (a) Does he
know the answer? (b) The patient
dog eats the fattest bone. (2)
Identify which of these verbs are
singular and in the present tense:
walks, dance, laughed, does,
arrive, brings. (3) Make sentences
to illustrate instances of agreement
of singular subjects and singular
verbs in the present tense. (4)
Make sentences to illustrate the
sequence of tenses in the present
tense (singular) within the same
sentence. The teacher corrects
them and encourages them.
The students answer
the questions.
They take corrections
and ask questions.
Individual Chalkboard Integration
144
LESSON PLAN FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
(BASED ON THE INTEGRATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACH)
LESSON PLAN II
Subject: English Language
Class: SSS II
Age: 15 years +
Topic: Agreement of plural subjects and plural verbs in the present tense and
sequence of tenses in the present tense (plural)
Duration: 80 minutes (Double Period)
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to do the following
with at least 70% accuracy.
1. identify plural subjects in a sentence;
2. point out plural verbs in the present tense;
3. recognize appropriate sequence tenses in the present tense (plural) within the same sentence;
4. make sentences to illustrate the different instances of agreement of singular subjects and
singular verbs in the present tense and sequence of tenses in the present tense (plural) within
the same sentence.
145
Instructional Procedure Lesson
Movement
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Resources Technique
Identification
of Previous
Knowledge
The teacher asks the students to
identify the singular subjects and
verbs in the following sentences.
1. He plays guitar efficiently.
2. Ebere wants to take a leave.
3. Does James know your name?
They listen to the teacher
and answer the questions.
Individual Chalkboard Question
and answer
Presentation The teacher introduces the topic to
the students. He informs the
students that plural subjects refer
to two people or things or ideas.
Eg. (a) Mr Okeke and Mrs Okafor
are human beings.
(b) They like beautiful cars.
(c) These are students.
(d) My feeding and education
are in your care.
He also informs them that plural
verbs in the present tense do not
usually end with ‘s’. Eg. are, have
do, love, want, take, etc.
Eg. (a) They want to take a leave.
(b) The soldiers are sad.
(c) Many old men do not drink
alcohol.
(d) The boy and the girl know
the answer.
He informs them that they are
going to explore various sentences
that fit into the structures:
(1) Plural subject + plural verb (in
the present tense). E.g: The boys
know the answer. (2) sequence of
tenses in the present tense (plural).
E.g. They say that they belong to
the best team. The teacher
presents exploration passage B to
the students.
They listen to the teacher
and take note of the
structure.
They receive the
exploration passage.
Group
Individual
Chalkboard
Exploration
passage
Integration
of the
structures
into an
exploration
passage
Exploration The teacher guides the students to
read the passage as a group and
later individually. He guides them
to explore various structures that
fit into the structure presented at
the presentation stage.
The students read the
passage, taking note of
structures that fit into the
one given to them at the
presentation stage.
Individual/
group
Exploration
passage
Integration
Discussion
The teacher divides the students
into three groups and guides one
group to identify a complete
sentence; another identifies the
plural subject in it, while the other
identifies the plural verb that
agrees in number with the subject
or the tenses that are in sequence.
The teacher facilitates this process
by providing clues.
After the students have identified
the sentences in the passage that
exemplify the structures, the
teacher aids the students to state
The students divide into
groups as directed by the
teacher. They interact,
find information, ask
questions.The students
with the teacher’s
guidance formulate the
rules. They brainstorm,
ask questions, co-operate
and undertake tasks.
Small group
Exploration
passage
Integration
146
the rules guiding the agreement of
plural subject with plural verb and
sequence of tenses in the present
tense (plural).
Examples are drawn from
exploration passage B
(1) Plural subjects (whether
nouns or pronouns) take plural
verbs.
E.g. (a) My two sisters, Ada and
Mma, sell bean cakes
everyday.
(b) They put them carefully
into two baskets.
(2) Two singular subjects joined
by the conjunction ‘and’ take the
plural verb if they refer to
different things or persons.
E.g. (a) The foreman and the
organizer of
activities are the first
to patronize them.
(b) My sisters and I
value the cakes.
(3)The following indefinite
pronouns take plural verbs: both,
few, several, others, many,
majority.
E.g. Many men have owed them.
(4) The expressions ‘a number
of’, ‘the poor’, ‘the rich’, ‘the
needy’ take a plural verb.
E.g. (a) A number of them have
always bought on credit.
(5) If two subjects are joined
with a correlative conjunction
like ‘either … or’, or ‘neither …
nor’, the verb is plural if the
subject nearer to it is plural.
E.g. (a) Neither men nor women
struggle for my sisters’
cakes.
(b) Neither the poor nor
the rich have ever
failed them.
(6) The word ‘police’ is singular
in form but takes a plural verb if
it is not qualified with ‘man’,
‘woman’, ‘force’, etc.
E.g. The police are not called to
settle scores among customers.
(7) In sequence of tenses if the
finite verb in a sentence is
present, those in other parts of
the sentence should also be in
the present.
E.g. Once the cakes are fried,
they put them carefully into two
Students find examples of
the rules from the
exploration passage and
also give their own
examples.
Group
Exploration
passage
Integration
147
baskets and then walk to the
factory.
Application The teacher guides the students to
apply the rules they have
formulated and the structures they
have learnt to produce entirely
new sentences that typify that
agreement of plural subjects and
plural verbs and sequence of
tenses in the present tense (plural).
The students are aided to describe
a habitual action using plural
subjects and verbs in the present
tense. The teacher divides them
into smaller groups for dialogues.
Eg. Obi: My brothers say that they
are interested in watching the ball.
Emeka: Are they really interested?
Okoro: Yes, because they have
been worrying me about it.
The students apply the
knowledge they have
learnt into producing new
grammatically correct
sentences.
The students as directed
describe a picture, map,
etc. They pair for
dialogues using plural
subjects and verbs in the
present tense. They
transfer what they have
learnt into authentic
discussions.
Individual/
pair
Pair group
Exploration
passage
Students
who stand
out for
dialogues
Integration
Integration
Evaluation The teacher asks the students to
answer the following questions
orally.
1. Identify the plural subjects in
the following sentences. The
students are to answer them orally.
(a) Do the teachers teach well?
(b) My parents are educated
people.
(c) These belong to my friends,
Ada and Amaka.
(2) Identify which of these verbs
are plural and are in the present
tense: is, was, were, are, sees, cry,
walk, dance, agrees, bring, chose,
fought.
(3) Make sentences to illustrate
instances of agreement of plural
subjects with plural verbs in the
present tenses.
(4) Make sentences to illustrate
the sequence of tenses in the
present tense (plural) within the
same sentence.
The teacher finally corrects them
and encourages them.
The students answer the
questions.
They take corrections and
ask questions
Individual
Group
Chalkboard Integration
148
LESSON PLAN FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
(BASED ON THE INTEGRATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACH)
LESSON PLAN III
Subject: English Language
Class: SSS II
Age: 15 years +
Topic: Agreement of singular subjects and singular verbs in the past tense and
sequence of tenses in the past tense (singular)
Duration: 80 minutes (Double Period)
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to do the following
with at least 70% accuracy:
1. identify singular verbs in the past tense and the subjects they agree with;
2. recognize appropriate sequence of tenses in the past tense (singular) within the same
sentence;
3. make sentences to illustrate the different instances of agreement of singular subjects and
singular verbs in the past tense and sequence of tenses in the past tense (singular) within the
same sentence.
149
Instructional Procedure Lesson
Movement
Teacher’s Activities Students’
Activities
Mode Resources Technique
Identification of
Previous
Knowledge
The teacher asks the following
questions to test the students’
entering behaviour: Identify the verbs
that agree in number with the
underlined subjects in each of the
following sentences.
1. Goodluck Jonathan, I am aware, is
the president of Nigeria.
2. He always obeys his seniors.
3. Do you know that Brendan, the
carpenter, has three wives?
The students listen
to the teacher and
answer the
questions.
Individual Chalkboard Question
and answer
Presentation
The teacher introduces the topic to
the students. He informs the students
that the basic singular verb in the
past tense is the verb ‘was’. Other
verbs retain the same morphological
shape, whether the subjects are
singular or plural.
Eg. (a) John was afraid of the lion.
(b) The lion was scared of the
hunter .
He informs them that they are going
to explore various sentences that fit
into the structures: (1) Singular
subject + singular verb (in the past
tense). E.g. Ada was the winner of
the prize.(2) Sequence of tenses in
the past tense (singular).
Eg. He confided in me that he was
the leader of the gang.
The teacher presents exploration
passage C to the students.
They listen to the
teacher and take
note of the
structure.
They receive the
exploration
passage.
Group
Individual
Chalkboard
Exploration
passage
Integration
Integration
of the
structures
into an
exploration
passage
150
Exploration The teacher guides the students to
read the passage as a group and later
individually. He guides them to
explore various structures that fit into
the already given structures.
The students read
the passage. They
battle to find the
common pattern
that exists among
several sentences
that share a
common structure.
Individual
/ group
Exploration
passage
Integration
Discussion The teacher divides the students into
three groups to perform different
tasks which will help to illuminate
the subject, the verb and the
agreement between the two or the
sequence of tenses in the sentence.
One group identifies a complete
sentence; another states the singular
subject in it, while the other
identifies the singular verb that
agrees in number with the subject or
the verbs that agree in sequence in
the sentence. The teacher facilitates
this process by providing clues.
After the students have identified the
sentences in the passage that
exemplify the structures given, the
teacher aids the students to state the
rules guiding the agreement of
singular subjects with singular verb
in the past tense and sequence of
tenses in the past tense (singular).
Examples are drawn from
exploration passage C
(1) Singular subjects (whether nouns,
pronouns, phrases or clauses) take
the singular verb ‘was’ when they are
referring to a past event (when the
choice of a ‘be’ verb like ‘is’, ‘am’,
‘was’, ‘were’, ‘are’ is to be made).
E.g. (a) He was twelve years old.
(b) His confession was annoying
to every person.
(c) The offence of the gang was
criminal.
The students divide
into groups as
directed by the
teacher. They
interact, find
information, ask
questions.
The students with
the teacher’s
guidance formulate
the rules. They
brainstorm, ask
questions, co-
operate and
undertake tasks.
Students find
examples of the
rules from the
exploration passage
and also give their
own examples.
Small
group
Small
group
Group
Exploration
passage
Exploration
passage /
chalkboard
Exploration
passage
Integration /
game
Integration
Integration
151
(2) When two separate subjects are
joined by a parenthetical expression,
the verb is singular if the first subject
is singular.
E.g. (a) His father as well as other
members of his family was proud of
him.
(b) The bully together with the
members of his gang was arrested.
(3) The following indefinite
pronouns take the singular verb in the
past tense: anybody, anyone,
anything, everybody, everything.
E.g. Everybody around was
summoned to hear him.
(4) When two singular subjects
joined by the conjunction ‘and’ refer
to one and the same thing or person,
a singular verb is used.
E.g. The bully and assailant took to
his heels and was nowhere to be
found.
(5) If two subjects are joined with a
correlative conjunction like ‘either …
or’, ‘neither … nor’, the verb is
singular if the subject nearer to it is
singular.
E.g. Neither his sisters nor his mother
was accompanying him.
(6) In sequence of tenses if the finite
verb in a sentence is in the past tense,
those in other parts of the sentence
should also be in the past tense.
E.g. (a) There was a young boy who
lived in our village.
(b) He was not handsome but he
was strong.
Application The teacher guides the students to
apply the rules they have formulated
and the structures they have learnt to
produce novel sentences that typify
the agreement of singular subjects
and singular verbs in the past tense
and sequence of tenses in the past
tense (singular).
The students apply
the knowledge they
have learnt into
producing new
grammatically
correct sentences.
Individual
/pair
Exploration
passage
Integration
152
The students are aided to describe a
past action or to narrate a story. The
teacher also pairs them for dialogues.
Eg. Amaka: Our teacher said he was
travelling to Benin last week.
Chidi: He travelled as he said.
They pair for
dialogues using
singular subjects
and verbs in the
past tense and
sequence of tenses
in the past tense
(singular). They
transfer what they
have learnt into
authentic
discussions.
Pair group
Students
who pair for
dialogues
Integration
Evaluation The teacher asks the students to
answer the following questions in
their exercise books.
(a) Choose from the options below
the most appropriate to fill the
numbered gaps:
The man 1 picked up by the police
last week. The 2 from the story I
heard 3 praised for giving the police
a tip off. 4 the man responsible for
what happened? The police 5 to
confirm that.
A B C
1. was is were
2. principals principal students
3. are is was
4. Does Was Are
5. was were is
(b) Make three sentences to illustrate
some of the rules of agreement of
singular subjects and singular verbs
in the past tense.
(c) Make two sentences to illustrate
the sequence of tenses in the past
tense (singular) within the same
sentence.
The teacher finally corrects them and
encourages them.
The students
answer the
questions in their
exercise books..
They take
corrections and ask
questions.
Individual
Group
Chalkboard Integration
153
LESSON PLAN FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
(BASED ON THE INTEGRATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACH)
LESSON PLAN IV
Subject: English Language
Class: SSS II
Age: 15 years +
Topic: Agreement of plural subjects and plural verbs in the past tense and sequence
of tenses in the past tense (plural)
Duration: 80 minutes (Double Period)
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to do the following
with at least 70% accuracy:
1. identify plural verbs in past the tense and the subjects they agree with;
2. recognize appropriate sequence of tenses in the past tense (plural) within the same sentence;
3. make sentences to illustrate the different instances of agreement of singular subjects and
singular verbs in the past tense and sequence of tenses in the past tense (plural) within the
same sentence.
154
Instructional Procedure Lesson
movement
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Resources Technique
Identification
of Previous
Knowledge.
The teacher asks the following
questions to test the students’ entering
behaviour: Choose the correct form of
the verb in each of the following
sentences:
1. Singing and dancing (is /are) my
favourite hobbies.
2. One of the boys that (plays/play)
tennis is my cousin.
3. Let me know if you (has/have)
problems operating the computer.
The students listen to the
teacher and answer the
questions.
Individual Chalkboard Question
and answer
Presentation The teacher introduces the topic to
the students and informs them that
the basic plural verb in the past tense
is the verb ‘were’. Other verbs retain
the same morphological shape,
whether their subjects are singular or
plural.
Eg. (a) Cakes were served at the
party.
(b) Poachers were warned against
hunting down elephants at the park.
He informs them that they are going
to explore various sentences that fit
into the structures: (1) Plural subject
+ plural verb (in the past tense). E.g.
The boys were told the answer.
(2) Sequence of tenses in the past
tense (plural).
Eg. His parents said they bought a
pair of shoes for him.
The teacher presents an exploration
passage D to the students.
They listen to the teacher
and take note of the
structure.
They receive the exploration
passage.
Group
Individual
Chalkboard
Exploration
passage
Integration
of the
structures
into an
exploration
passage
Exploration The teacher guides the students to
read the passage as a group and later
individually. He guides them to
explore various structures given to
them at the presentation stage.
The students read the
passage, taking note of
structures that fit into the one
given to them at the
presentation stage.
Individual/
group
Exploration
passage
Integration
Discussion The teacher divides the students into
three groups and guides them to
perform different tasks. One group
identifies a complete sentence;
another states the plural subject in it,
The students divide into
groups as directed. They
interact, find information,
ask questions, solve
problems, etc.
Small group
Exploration
passage
Integration
155
while the other identifies the plural
verb that agrees in number with the
subject or the sequence of verbs in
the sentence. The teacher facilitates
this game by providing clues.
After the students have identified the
sentences in the passage that
exemplify the structures given, the
teacher assists the students to state
the rules guiding the agreement of
plural subjects and plural verbs in the
past tense and sequence of tenses in
the past tense (plural).
Examples are drawn from
exploration passage D.
(1) Plural subjects (whether nouns or
pronouns) take the plural verb ‘were’
when they are referring to a past
event (when the choice of a ‘be’ verb
like ‘is’, ‘am’, ‘was’ ‘were’, ‘are’ is
to be made).
E.g. (a) Their ambitions were to
become medical doctors
someday.
(b) The boys’ names were Udoka,
the elder, and Emeka, the
younger one.
(2) Two singular subjects joined by
the conjunction ‘and’ take a plural
verb if they refer to different things
or persons.
E.g. Electricity and hospital were
unheard of.
(3) The following indefinite
pronouns take plural verbs: both,
few, several, others, many, majority.
E.g. Both of them were going to the
stream to fetch water.
(4) The word ‘police’ takes the plural
verb.
E.g. The police were immediately
called and the bullies were arrested.
(5) In sequence of tenses if the finite
verb in a sentence is in the past, those
in other parts of the sentence should
be in the past.
E.g. (a) After a while, two men who
The students with the
teacher’s guidance formulate
the rules. They brainstorm,
ask questions, co-operate and
collaborate and undertake
tasks.
Students find examples of
the rules from the
exploration passage and also
give their own examples.
Group
Exploration
passage
Integration
156
were going to the stream saw
the twins lying motionless on
the ground.
(b) They were not handsome but
they were strong.
Application The teacher guides the students to
apply the rules they have formulated
and the structures they have learnt to
produce novel sentences that typify
the agreement of plural subjects and
plural verbs in the past tenses and
sequence of tenses in the past tense
(plural).
The students are aided to describe a
past action or to narrate a story.
The teacher also pairs them for
dialogues involving the use of
structures learnt.
Eg. Uche: The two boys were chosen
because they played better than
others.
Nkem: Their coaches said that they
had extraordinary talents.
The students apply the
knowledge they have learnt
into producing new
grammatically correct
sentences.
The students as directed
describe a past action or
narrate a story.
They pair for dialogues using
the structures learnt. They
transfer what they have
learnt into authentic
discussions.
Individual/
pair
Pair group
Exploration
passage
Student who
pair for
dialogues
Integration
Integration
Evaluation The teacher asks the students to
answer the following questions in
their exercise books.
1. Choose the correct option from the
bracket:
(a) All the boys (was/were/is) asked
to come to school in their correct
school uniform.
(b) Several opinions (were/was/are)
given during yesterday’s meeting.
(2) Make three sentences to illustrate
some of the rules of agreement of
plural subjects and plural verbs in the
past tense.
(3) Make two sentences to illustrate
the sequence of tenses in the past
tense (plural) within the same
sentence.
The teacher finally corrects them and
encourages them.
The students answer the
questions in their exercise
books.
They take corrections and
ask questions.
Individual
Group
Chalkboard Integration
157
APPENDIX H
LESSON PLANS FOR THE CONTROL GROUP
(BASED ON THE FORM-BASED APPROACH)
LESSON PLAN I
Subject: English Language
Class: SSS III
Age: 15 years +
Topic: Agreement of singular subjects and singular verbs in the present tense and
sequence of tenses in the present tense (singular)
Duration: 80 minutes (Double Period)
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of the lesson the students should be able to do the following
with at least 70% accuracy:
1. identify singular subjects in a sentence;
2. point out singular verbs in the present tense;
3. recognize appropriate sequence of tenses in the present tense (singular) within the same
sentence;
4. make sentences to illustrate the different instances of agreement of singular subjects and
singular verbs in the present tense and sequence of tenses in the present tense (singular)
within the same sentence.
Entering Behaviour
It is expected that the SSS II students of the chosen schools for the study can identify nouns
and verbs in sentences.
Test of Entering Behaviour
The teacher writes the following sentence on the board and asks the students to identify the
nouns and verbs in them.
The principal of the school in our village loves children who read their books.
158
Lesson Procedure Content
Development
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Strategies
Introduction /
Definition of
subject
The teacher writes the topic on the board:
“Agreement of singular subjects and singular verbs
in the present tense and sequence of tenses in the
present tense (singular form)”. He defines a subject
as a word or a group of words that performs the
action in the sentence or controls the verb. A subject
can be a noun, pronoun, phrase or clause. He gives
examples:
Noun: John plays football.
Pronoun: He plays football.
Phrase: The young boy plays football.
Clause: The boy that is young plays football.
The students listen to the
teacher’s definitions and
examples. They copy them
into their notebooks.
Definition,
Explanation, Use
of Examples.
Definition of
Tense
The teacher also defines tense as the form which the
verb takes to show the time of an action, which can
be present or past. The teacher gives examples of
sentences that have verbs in the present tense:
1. My father eats rice.
2. Ada loves music.
3. The boy is kind.
The students listen to the
teacher’s definition and
examples. They copy them
into their notebooks.
Definition,
Explanation, Use
of Examples.
Identification
of singular
subjects.
The teacher informs the students that singular
subjects refer to only one person or thing or idea. He
gives examples to illustrate this:
1. Mr. Okafor is the principal.
2. He is the principal.
3. This is a man.
4. The dog has eaten the bone.
5. The chairman of the committee wants it to be
done.
The students listen and
write down the examples.
Use of examples
and illustration.
Identification
of singular
verbs in
present
tenses.
Singular verbs usually end with ‘s’. Example: is,
has, does, loves, wants, takes, etc.
a. Ebere wants to take a leave.
b. This soldier is sad.
c. The kind old man does not drink alcohol.
The students listen and
write down the examples.
Use of examples
and illustration.
159
Agreement of
singular
subjects and
singular
verbs in the
present
tenses.
(1) Singular subjects (whether nouns or pronouns)
take singular verbs, except the pronouns ‘I’ and
‘you’ which take the plural.
E.g. (a) Mary cooks very well.
(b) An American engineer comes here everyday.
(c) He plays guitar efficiently.
(d) The boy is stubborn.
(2) When two singular subjects joined by the
conjunction ‘and’ refer to one and the same thing or
person, a singular verb is used.
E.g. (a) My Lord and personal saviour is Jesus.
(b) The president and commander in Chief wants to
see you.
(c) Rice and stew tastes delicious.
(3) The following indefinite pronouns take singular
verbs: anybody, anyone, anything, each, either,
everybody, everyone, much, nobody, no one, one,
somebody, something etc.
E.g. (a) Everybody knows the truth of the matter.
(b) Nobody likes him.
(c) Much of the argument is on who is better
between James and John.
(4) When two separate subjects are joined by a
parenthetical expression, the verb is singular if the
first subject is singular.
E.g. (a) The man, together with his son, has arrived
for the ceremony.
(b) The man, as well as his two sons, has arrived
for the ceremony.
(5) The expressions ‘the number’; ‘one of the’ ‘a
pair of’ take singular verbs.
E.g. (a) One of the boys is a member of the boy
scouts.
(b) The number of men in the bus is greater than
that of the women.
(c) The pair of glasses belongs to me.
(6) Some nouns that are plural in appearance but
singular in usage take singular verbs. These nouns
include news, physics, mathematics, politics,
The students pay attention
and copy the examples into
their notebooks.
Use of examples
and illustration
160
measles, etc.
E.g. (a) Measles is much less common in Britain
than in Nigeria.
(b) The news is irritating.
(c) Mathematics has always been difficult to
students.
(7) If two subjects are joined with a correlative
conjunction like ‘either…or’, or ‘neither… nor’,
the verb is singular if the subject nearer to it is
singular.
E.g. (a) Either the students or the teacher knows the
answer.
(b) Neither the men nor the woman is aware of
what happened.
Sequence of
tenses in the
present tense
(singular)
The teacher informs the students that there is a
convention about how tenses in verbs should
appear in sequence in the same sentence. If the
finite verb in a sentence is present, those in other
parts of the sentence should also be in the present.
He gives examples using sequence of singular
verbs in the present tense.
Eg. (a) Obi says that he is the captain of the team.
(b) The woman loves the boy because he is
honest.
The students pay attention
and copy the examples into
their notebooks.
Use of examples
and illustration.
Evaluation
(1) Identify the singular subjects in the following
sentences. The students are to answer them orally.
(a) Does he know the answer?
(b) The patient dog eats the fattest bone.
(2) Identify which of these verbs are singular and
are in the present tense: walks, dance, laughed,
does, arrive, brings.
(3) Make sentences to illustrate some of the rules of
agreement of singular subjects and singular verbs in
present tenses.
(4) Make sentences to illustrate the sequence of
tenses in the present tense (singular) within the same
sentence.
The students answer the
questions as directed by the
teacher.
Questioning
Evaluation
Conclusion The teacher invites questions from the students and
answers them.
The students ask questions
if they have.
Questioning
conclusion
161
LESSON PLAN FOR THE CONTROL GROUP
(BASED ON THE FORM-BASED APPROACH)
LESSON PLAN II
Subject: English Language
Class: SSS II
Age: 15 years +
Topic: Agreement of plural subjects and plural verbs in the present tense and
sequence of tenses in the present tense (plural)
Duration: 80 minutes (Double Period)
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to do the following
with at least 70% accuracy:
1. identify plural subjects in a sentence;
2. point out plural verbs in the present tense;
3. recognize appropriate sequence of tenses in the present tense (plural) within the same
sentence;
4. make sentences to illustrate the different instances of agreement of singular subjects and
singular verbs in the present tense and sequence of tenses (plural) within the same sentence.
Entering Behaviour
It is expected that the students can identify singular subjects and singular verbs in sentences.
Test of Entering Bebaviour
The teacher writes the following sentences on the board and asks the students to identify the
singular subjects and verbs in them.
1. He plays guitar efficiently.
2. Ebere wants to take a leave.
3. Does James know your name?
162
Lesson Procedure Content
Development
Teacher’s Activities Students’
Activities
Strategies
Identification
of plural
subjects
The teacher informs the students that plural subjects refer
to two people or things or ideas. He gives examples to
illustrate this:
1. Mr. Okeke and Mrs. Okafor are human beings.
2. They like beautiful cars.
3. These are students.
4. My feeding and education are in your care.
The students listen
and write down the
examples.
Use of examples
and illustration.
Identification
of plural
verbs in the
present tense
Plural verbs in the present tense do not usually end with ‘s’
Example: are, have, do, love, want, take, etc.
E.g. a. They want to take a leave.
b. The solders are sad.
c. Many old men do not drink alcohol.
d. The boy and the girl know the answer.
The students listen
and write down the
example.
Use of examples
and illustration.
Agreement of
plural
subjects and
plural verbs
in the present
tense
(1) Plural subjects (whether nouns or pronouns) take plural
verbs.
E.g (a) Goats are herbivores.
(b) Lectures are university graduates.
(c) They play guitar regularly.
(d) Engineers visit the site everyday.
(2) Two singular subjects joined by the conjunction ‘and’
take the plural verb if they refer to different things or
persons.
E.g. (a) The man and the woman have gone home.
(b) The principal and the chairman of the occasion
are worried.
(c) Landlords and tenants do not usually agree on
matters of house rent.
(3) The following indefinite pronouns take plural verbs:
both, few, several, others, many, majority.
(i) Many succeed in business.
(ii) A few join the military.
(iii) The majority are unemployed.
(iv) Others go to school.
(4) When two separate subjects are joined by a
parenthetical expression, the verb is plural if the first
subject is plural.
The students pay
attention and copy
the examples into
their notebooks.
Use of examples
and illustration.
163
E.g. (a) The men, together with the car, have arrived at the
port.
(b) The men, together with their sons, have arrived for
the ceremony.
(5) The expressions ‘a number of’, ‘ the poor’, ‘the rich’,
‘the needy’ take a plural verb.
E.g. (a) A number of men have advocated for a change of
baton in government.
(b) A number of women are of the opinion that there
should be equity in education.
(c) The poor need our assistance.
(d) The rich look down on the poor.
(6) If two subjects are joined with a correlative conjunction
like ‘either … or’, or ‘neither … nor’, the verb is plural if
the subject nearer to it is plural.
E.g. (a) Either the teacher or the students know the answer.
(b) Neither the man nor the women are aware of the
truth.
(c) Either the students or the teacher knows the
answer.
(7) The word ‘police’ is singular in form but takes a plural
verb if it is not qualified with ‘man’, ‘woman’, ‘force’, etc.
E.g. (a) The police are aware of the crime.
(b) The police have been invited.
(c) The police sometimes violate people’s rights.
Note, however:
The policeman is aware of the crime.
(8) The expressions: ‘half of’ ‘plenty of’ ‘ten percent of ‘
‘two thirds of’ etc take plural verbs if they refer to
countable plural nouns, but take singular verbs if they refer
to uncountable nouns.
E.g. (a) Five percent of the girls have gone home.
(b) Five percent of the water has been used.
(c) Half of the students support the principal’s action.
(d) Half of the kerosene is gone.
164
Sequence
of tenses in
the present
tense
(plural)
The teacher re-states the rule about sequence of tenses in the
present tense. If the finite verb in a sentence is in the present,
those in other parts of the sentence should also be in the
present. He gives examples using sequence of plural verbs in
the present tense.
Eg. (a) The students complain that they do not have a good
library.
(b) They know that that they are the cause of the
problem.
The students pay
attention and copy
the examples into
their notebooks.
Use of examples
and illustrations
Evaluation
(1) Identify the plural subjects in the following sentences.
The students are to answer them orally.
(a) Do the teachers teach well?
(b) My parents are educated people.
(c) These belong to my friends, Ada and Amaka.
(2) Identify which of these verbs are plural and are in the
present tense:
is, was, were, are, sees cry, walk, dance, agrees, bring, chose,
fought.
(3) Make sentence to illustrate some of the rules of agreement
of plural subjects and plural verbs in the present tense.
(4) Make sentences to illustrate the sequence of tenses in the
present tense (plural) within the same sentence.
The students
answer the
questions as
directed by the
teacher.
Questioning
Evaluation
Conclusion
The teacher invites questions from the students and answer
them.
The students ask
questions if they
have.
Questioning
Conclusion
165
LESSON PLAN FOR THE CONTROL GROUP
(BASED ON THE FORM-BASED APPROACH)
LESSON PLAN III
Subject: English Language
Class: SSS II
Age: 15 years +
Topic: Agreement of singular subjects and singular verbs in the past tense and
sequence of tenses in the past tense (singular)
Duration: 80 minutes (Double Period)
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to do the following
with at least 70% accuracy:
1. identify singular verbs in the past tense and the subjects they agree with;
2. recognize appropriate sequence of tenses in the past tense (singular) within the same
sentence;
3. make sentences to illustrate the different instances of agreement of singular subjects and
singular verbs in the past tense and sequence of tenses in the past tense (singular) within the
same sentence.
Entering Behaviour
It is expected that the students can identify singular subjects and singular verbs in the
present tense and have studied the agreement of singular subjects and singular verbs in the present
tenses.
Test of Entering Behaviour
The teacher asks the following questions to test students’ entering behaviour. Identify the
verbs that agree in number with the underlined subjects in each of the following sentences.
1. Goodluck Jonathan, I am aware, is the president of Nigeria.
2. He always obeys his seniors.
3. Do you know that Brendan, the carpenter, has three wives.
166
Lesson Procedure Content
Development
Teacher’s Activities Students’
Activities
Strategies
Identification of
singular verbs in
the past tense
The basic singular verb in the past tense is the verb ‘was’.
Other verbs retain the same morphological shape, whether
their subjects are singular or plural.
E.g. (a) John was afraid of the lion.
(b) The lion was scared of the hunter.
The students listen
to the teacher and
write down the
examples
Use of examples
and illustration.
Agreement of
singular subjects
and singular
verbs in the past
tense
(1) Singular subjects (whether nouns, pronouns, phrases or
clauses) take the singular verb ‘was’ when they are
referring to a past event (when the choice of a ‘be’ verb like
‘is’, ‘am’, ‘was’, ‘were’, ‘are’ is to be made).
E.g. (a) John was running round the field.
(b) He was advised to shun violence.
(c) The bully was fond of beating the boys until he
was cautioned.
(2) When two singular subjects joined by the conjunction
‘and’ refer to one and the same thing or person, a singular
verb is used. Eg:
(a) The President and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed
Forces of Nigeria was at the ceremony to inspect the
parade.
(b) Rice and stew was served to the guests.
(3) The following indefinite pronouns take the singular verb
in the past tense: anybody, anyone, anything, everybody,
etc
E.g. (a) Everybody was going to the hall to listen to the new
teacher.
(b) Much of the argument was baseless.
(4) When two separate subjects are joined by a
parenthetical expression, the verb is singular if the first
subject is singular.
E.g. (a) The man, together with his son, was present at the
event.
(b) The woman, as well as her daughter, was not in the
house when the fire broke out.
(5) The expressions: ‘the number’, ‘one of the’, ‘a pair of’
take the singular verb in the past tense.
E.g. (a) One of the boys was asked to recite the national
anthem.
(b) A pair of trousers was picked by Mr. Obi
yesterday.
The students pay
attention and copy
the examples into
their notebooks.
Use of examples
and illustration.
167
(6) Some nouns that are plural in appearance, but singular
in usage take the singular verb in the past tense. These
nouns include: news, physics, mathematics, politics,
measles, etc.
E.g. (a) The news was irritating to her.
(b) Mathematics was seen by him as a difficult
subject.
(7) If two subjects are joined with a correlative conjunction
like ‘either… or’, ‘neither… nor’, the verb is singular if the
subject nearer to it is singular.
E.g. (a) Either the students or the teacher was around to
explain.
(b) Neither the men nor the woman was hurt during the
raid.
Sequence of
tenses in the past
tense (singular)
The teacher informs the students that if the finite verb in a
sentence is in the past, those in other parts of the sentence
should also be in the past. He gives examples using
sequence of singular verbs in the past tense.
Eg. (a) Obi said that he wanted to be the goal keeper.
(b) He was happy because he passed the test.
The students pay
attention and copy
the examples into
their notebooks.
Use of examples
and illustrations
Evaluation
(a) Choose from the options below the most appropriate to
fill the numbered gaps. The students are to write the
answers in their exercise books.
The man 1 picked up by the police last week. The 2 from
the story I heard 3_ praised for giving the police a tip
off. 4 the man responsible for what happened? The police
5 to confirm that.
A B C
1 was is were
2 principals principal students
3 are is was
4. Does Was Are
5. was were is
(b) Make three sentences to illustrate some of the rules of
agreement of singular subjects and singular verbs in the
past tense.
(c) Make two sentences to illustrate the sequence of tenses
in the past tense (singular) within the same sentence.
The students
answer the
questions in their
exercise books.
Question and
answer
Evaluation
Conclusion The teacher invites questions from the students and answers
any questions they ask.
The students ask
questions if they
have any.
Questioning
Conclusion
168
LESSON PLAN FOR THE CONTROL GROUP
(BASED ON THE FORM-BASED APPROACH)
LESSON PLAN IV
Subject: English Language
Class: SSS II
Age: 15 years +
Topic: Agreement of plural subjects and plural verbs in the past tense and sequence
of tenses in the past tense (plural)
Duration: 80 minutes (Double Period)
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to do the following
with at least 70% accuracy:
1. identify plural verbs in the past tense and the subjects they agree with;
2. recognize appropriate sequence of tenses in the past tense (plural) within the same sentence;
3. make sentences to illustrate the agreement of plural subjects and plural verbs in the past
tense and sequence of tenses in the past tense (plural) within the same sentence.
Entering Behaviour
It is expected that the students can identify plural subjects and plural verbs in the present
tenses and have studied the agreement of plural subjects and plural verbs in the present tense.
Test of Entering Behaviour
The teacher asks the following questions to test students’ entering behaviour:
Choose the correct form of the verb in each of the following sentences.
1. Singing and dancing (is/are/was) my favourite hobbies.
2. One of the boys that (plays/play) tennis is my cousin.
3. Let me know if you (has/have) problems operating the computer.
169
Lesson Procedure Content
Development
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Strategies
Identification of
plural verbs in
the past tense
The basic plural verb in the past tense is the verb ‘were’.
Other verbs retain the same morphological shape,
whether their subjects are singular or plural.
E.g. (a) Cakes were served at the party.
(b) Poachers were warned against hunting down
elephants at the park.
The students listen to
the teacher and write
down the examples.
Use of examples
and illustration
Agreement of
plural subjects
and plural verbs
in the past tense
(1) Plural subjects (whether nouns or pronouns) take the
plural verb ‘were’ when they are referring to a past event
(when the choice of a ‘be’ verb like ‘is’, ‘am’ ‘was’,
‘were’, ‘are’ is to be made).
E.g. (a) The athletes were running round the field.
(b) They were advised to embrace peace.
(c) The bullies were fond of beating the innocent
boys.
(2) Two singular subjects joined by the conjunction ‘and’
take the plural verb if they refer to different things or
persons.
E.g. (a) The principal and the chairman of the occasion
were worried.
(b) The man and the woman were encouraged to be
peace loving.
(3) The following indefinite pronouns take plural verbs:
both, few, several, others, many, majority.
(a) Many were on the streets to protest against the policy.
(b) Others were at home complaining about the same
policy.
(4) When two separate subjects are joined by a
parenthetical expression like ‘together with’, ‘as well as’,
‘in addition to’ etc, the verb is plural if the first subject is
plural.
(a) The men, together with the judge, were at the airport.
(b) The judges, along with the accused, were at the court.
(5) The expressions ‘a number of’, ‘the poor’, ‘the rich’,
‘the needy’ take a plural verb. E.g.
(a) A number of men were at the scene of the accident.
(b) The rich were enjoined to look after the poor.
The students pay
attention and copy the
examples into their
notebooks.
Use of examples
and illustrations
170
(6) If two subjects are joined with a correlative
conjunction like ‘either … or’, or ‘neither … nor’ the
verb is plural if the subject nearer to it is plural.
E.g. (a) Either the teacher or the students were in the
classroom when the principal entered.
(b) Neither my mother nor my brothers were told
about my new job.
(7) The word ‘police’ takes the plural verb.
(a) The police were invited to investigate the matter.
(b) The police were sometimes accused of violating
people’s rights.
(8) The expressions ‘half of the’, ‘plenty of’, ‘two percent
of’, ‘three-quarters of’ etc take plural verbs if they refer
to countable plural nouns, but take singular verbs if they
refer to uncountable nouns.
E.g. (a) Ten percent of the girls were turned down.
(b) Three-quarters of the students were praised for
their excellent performance.
(c) Half of the oil was consumed.
Sequence of
tenses in the past
tense (plural)
The teacher re-states the rule guiding the sequence of
tenses in the past tense. If the finite verb in a sentence is
in the past, those in other parts of the sentence should be
in the past. He gives examples using sequence of plural
verbs in the past tense.
Eg. (a) The teachers said that they had not been paid.
(b) The students left the hostel because they were not
safe.
The students pay
attention and copy the
examples into their
notebooks.
Use of examples
and illustrations
Evaluation
(1) Choose the correct option from the bracket. The
students are to write the answers in their exercise books.
(a) All the boys (was/were/is) asked to come to school in
their correct school uniform.
(b) Several opinions (were/was/are) given during
yesterday’s meeting.
(2) Make three sentences to illustrate some of the rules of
agreement of plural subjects and plural verbs in the past
tense.
(3) Make two sentences to illustrate the sequence of
tenses in the past tense (plural) within the same sentence.
The students answer the
questions in their
exercise books.
Question and
answer
Evaluation
Conclusion The teacher calls for questions from the students and
answers them.
The students ask
questions if they have.
Questioning
Conclusion
171
APPENDIX I
Department of Arts Education,
University of Nigeria,
Nsukka.
20th September, 2013.
Dear Sir/Madam,
REQUEST FOR VALIDATION OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR
ACHIEVEMENT TEST (EGAT) AND ENGLISH
GRAMMAR INTEREST INVENTORY (EGII)
I am a Ph.D student of the Department of Arts Education (Language Education), University
of Nigeria, Nsukka. I am currently carrying out a research on the effect of the integrative language
teaching approach on secondary school students’ achievement and interest in English grammar.
Purpose of the Study
The general purpose of the study is to find out the effect of integrative language teaching
approach on students’ achievement and interest in English language grammar.
Specifically, the study is designed to:
11. Find out the effect of integrative language teaching approach (ILTA) on students’ achievement
in English language grammar.
12. Ascertain the effect of ILTA on students’ interest in English language grammar.
13. Determine the influence of gender on students’ achievement in English language grammar.
14. Find out the influence of gender on students’ interest in English language grammar.
15. Identify the influence of location on students’ achievement in English language grammar.
16. Determine the influence of location on students’ interest in English language grammar.
17. Find out the interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’ achievement in
English language grammar.
18. Find out the interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’ interest in
English language grammar.
19. Determine the interaction effect of instructional approach and location on students’ achievement
in English language grammar.
172
20. Determine the interaction effect of instructional approach and location on students’ interest in
English language grammar.
Research Questions
The following research questions will guide the study:
11. What are the relative mean achievement scores of students taught English language grammar
using the integrative language teaching approach (ILTA) and those taught using the form-
based approach (FBA)?
12. What are the relative mean interest rating scores of students taught English language
grammar using the ILTA and those taught using the FBA?
13. To what extent does gender influence the mean achievement scores of students taught
English language grammar?
14. To what extent does gender influence the mean interest rating scores of students taught
English language grammar?
15. In what way does location influence the mean achievement scores of students taught
English language grammar?
16. To what degree does location influence the mean interest rating scores of students taught
English language grammar?
17. What is the interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’
mean achievement scores in English language grammar?
18. What is the interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’ mean
interest rating scores in English language grammar?
19. What is the interaction effect of instructional approach and location on students’ mean
achievement scores in English language grammar?
20. What is the interaction effect of instructional approach and location on students mean interest
rating scores in English language grammar?
Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses are formulated to guide the study. They will be tested at the
probability level of .05.
HO1: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught English
language grammar using the integrative language teaching approach (ILTA) and those
taught with the form based approach (FBA).
173
HO2: There is no significant difference in the mean interest rating scores of students taught English
language grammar using the ILTA and those thought with the FBA.
HO3: Gender has no significant effect on the mean achievement scores of students taught English
language grammar.
HO4: Gender has no significant effect on the mean interest rating scores of students taught English
language grammar.
HO5: School location has no significant effect on the mean achievement scores of students taught
English language grammar.
HO6: School location has no significant effect on the mean interest rating scores of students in
English language grammar.
HO7: There is no significant interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’
mean achievement scores in English language grammar.
HO8: There is no significant interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students’
mean interest rating scores in English language grammar.
HO9: The interaction effect of instructional approach and school location on students’ mean
achievement scores in English language grammar is not statistically significant.
HO10: The interaction effect of instructional approach and school location on students’ mean
interest rating scores in English language grammar is not statistically significant.
For the English Grammar Achievement Test (EGAT), you are humbly requested to effect
face and content validation of the instrument by
1. examining the clarity of the instructions.
2. checking the farming of the questions and their suitability to SSS II students.
3. removing any ambiguous or redundant statements.
4. checking the adequacy of the time for the test.
5. adding any other item which is suitable, but which has not been included in the instrument.
6. determining whether the marking scheme is accurate.
7. checking the adequacy and relevance of the purpose, research questions and hypotheses.
8. making any suggestions that may further improve the face and content validity of the
instrument in the blank space provided.
The attached marking scheme and test blue print/table of specification will assist you further
in validating the English Grammar Achievement Test (EGAT).
174
For the English Grammar Interest Inventory (EGII) you are humbly requested to do the
following:
1. examine the clarity of the instructions.
2. check the framing of the statements of interest and their suitability to students in SSS II.
3. remove any ambiguous or redundant statements.
4. assess whether the statements of interest are typical ways of expressing likes or dislikes for
English grammar.
5. add any other item which is suitable, but which has not been included in the instrument.
6. check the adequacy and relevance of the purpose, research questions and hypotheses.
7. assess the accuracy of the scoring guide.
8. making any suggestions that may further improve the validity of the instrument in the blank
space provided.
The attached scoring guide will assist you further in validating the English Grammar Interest
Inventory.
Thank you.
Yours sincerely,
Egbe, Cajetan I.
PG/Ph.D/11/59034
175
APPENDIX J
176
177
178
179
180
181
APPENDIX K
182
183
APPENDIX L
RELIABILITY OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR ACHIEVEMENT TEST (EGAT)
184
APPENDIX M
185
APPENDIX N
186
APPENDIX O
DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE
A. Distribution of Sample by School
School Location Group Male Female Total
Model Secondary School,
Nsukka
Urban Experimental 39 34 73
Opi High School, Opi Rural Experimental 44 39 83
Community Sec. Sch. Nru,
Nsukka
Urban Control 36 37 73
Community Sec. Sch.
Lejja
Rural Control 28 39 67
Total 147 149 296
B. Distribution of Sample by Gender and Location
Group Gender Location
Male Female Total Urban Rural Total
Experimental 83 73 156 73 83 156
Control 64 76 140 73 67 140
Total 147 149 296 146 150 296
Details of Sample
� Total number of all subjects = 296
� Total number of subjects in the experimental group = 156
� Total number of subjects in the control group = 140
� Total number of males = 147
� Total number of females = 149
� Total number of males in the experimental group = 83
� Total number of females in the experimental group = 73
� Total number of males in the control group = 64
� Total number of females in the control group = 76
� Total number of subjects in urban schools = 146
� Total number of subjects in rural schools = 150
187
APPENDIX P
PRE-TEST AND POST-TEST DATA FROM THE ENGLISH GRAMMAR
ACHIEVEMENT TEST (EGAT)
A. EXPERIMENTAL GROUP (EXP): n = 156
Model Secondary School, Nsukka (Urban)
S/N GROUP GENDER LOCATION PRE-TEST
SCORE
POST-TEST
SCORE
1 EXP Male Urban 16 34
2 EXP Male Urban 25 29
3 EXP Male Urban 15 33
4 EXP Male Urban 22 25
5 EXP Male Urban 29 35
6 EXP Male Urban 26 35
7 EXP Male Urban 20 33
8 EXP Male Urban 37 45
9 EXP Male Urban 29 36
10 EXP Male Urban 19 25
11 EXP Male Urban 17 29
12 EXP Male Urban 17 22
13 EXP Male Urban 15 33
14 EXP Male Urban 32 39
15 EXP Male Urban 25 33
16 EXP Male Urban 19 29
17 EXP Male Urban 12 30
18 EXP Male Urban 24 32
19 EXP Male Urban 16 27
20 EXP Male Urban 19 28
21 EXP Male Urban 18 24
22 EXP Male Urban 11 27
23 EXP Male Urban 28 35
24 EXP Male Urban 18 31
25 EXP Male Urban 11 32
26 EXP Male Urban 19 29
27 EXP Male Urban 23 33
28 EXP Male Urban 19 31
29 EXP Male Urban 14 28
30 EXP Male Urban 19 30
31 EXP Male Urban 23 36
32 EXP Male Urban 12 28
33 EXP Male Urban 23 35
34 EXP Male Urban 21 33
35 EXP Male Urban 14 23
36 EXP Male Urban 24 35
37 EXP Male Urban 13 32
38 EXP Male Urban 20 29
39 EXP Male Urban 22 31
40 EXP Female Urban 25 29
41 EXP Female Urban 22 29
188
42 EXP Female Urban 33 35
43 EXP Female Urban 21 39
44 EXP Female Urban 28 35
45 EXP Female Urban 23 31
46 EXP Female Urban 28 35
47 EXP Female Urban 18 29
48 EXP Female Urban 28 32
49 EXP Female Urban 26 33
50 EXP Female Urban 19 29
51 EXP Female Urban 16 34
52 EXP Female Urban 15 21
53 EXP Female Urban 14 29
54 EXP Female Urban 20 29
55 EXP Female Urban 19 36
56 EXP Female Urban 18 30
57 EXP Female Urban 28 39
58 EXP Female Urban 29 38
59 EXP Female Urban 15 26
60 EXP Female Urban 22 33
61 EXP Female Urban 19 23
62 EXP Female Urban 15 27
63 EXP Female Urban 19 29
64 EXP Female Urban 20 38
65 EXP Female Urban 21 30
66 EXP Female Urban 25 31
67 EXP Female Urban 21 34
68 EXP Female Urban 25 32
69 EXP Female Urban 20 28
70 EXP Female Urban 15 37
71 EXP Female Urban 14 33
72 EXP Female Urban 18 32
73 EXP Female Urban 37 42
Opi High School, Opi (Rural)
74 EXP Male Rural 15 25
75 EXP Male Rural 35 46
76 EXP Male Rural 10 25
77 EXP Male Rural 10 31
78 EXP Male Rural 12 25
79 EXP Male Rural 24 37
80 EXP Male Rural 29 34
81 EXP Male Rural 13 19
82 EXP Male Rural 23 31
83 EXP Male Rural 15 35
84 EXP Male Rural 31 34
85 EXP Male Rural 16 23
86 EXP Male Rural 24 27
87 EXP Male Rural 12 16
88 EXP Male Rural 12 30
89 EXP Male Rural 12 25
189
90 EXP Male Rural 20 27
91 EXP Male Rural 37 37
92 EXP Male Rural 16 27
93 EXP Male Rural 4 29
94 EXP Male Rural 16 26
95 EXP Male Rural 11 22
96 EXP Male Rural 15 27
97 EXP Male Rural 13 34
98 EXP Male Rural 12 21
99 EXP Male Rural 7 20
100 EXP Male Rural 46 42
101 EXP Male Rural 14 28
102 EXP Male Rural 13 24
103 EXP Male Rural 11 24
104 EXP Male Rural 10 23
105 EXP Male Rural 5 24
106 EXP Male Rural 11 33
107 EXP Male Rural 14 27
108 EXP Male Rural 9 17
109 EXP Male Rural 17 23
110 EXP Male Rural 18 19
111 EXP Male Rural 18 36
112 EXP Male Rural 8 35
113 EXP Male Rural 17 35
114 EXP Male Rural 17 27
115 EXP Male Rural 15 26
116 EXP Male Rural 16 40
117 EXP Male Rural 12 22
118 EXP Female Rural 8 27
119 EXP Female Rural 14 23
120 EXP Female Rural 13 25
121 EXP Female Rural 9 24
122 EXP Female Rural 13 26
123 EXP Female Rural 11 21
124 EXP Female Rural 15 28
125 EXP Female Rural 12 34
126 EXP Female Rural 9 21
127 EXP Female Rural 18 31
128 EXP Female Rural 15 27
129 EXP Female Rural 33 39
130 EXP Female Rural 6 19
131 EXP Female Rural 12 17
132 EXP Female Rural 10 25
133 EXP Female Rural 31 36
134 EXP Female Rural 8 22
135 EXP Female Rural 22 34
136 EXP Female Rural 22 28
137 EXP Female Rural 14 27
138 EXP Female Rural 9 18
139 EXP Female Rural 19 26
190
140 EXP Female Rural 17 33
141 EXP Female Rural 23 26
142 EXP Female Rural 13 23
143 EXP Female Rural 10 19
144 EXP Female Rural 15 29
145 EXP Female Rural 11 21
146 EXP Female Rural 21 24
147 EXP Female Rural 19 32
148 EXP Female Rural 22 38
149 EXP Female Rural 12 22
150 EXP Female Rural 9 27
151 EXP Female Rural 20 33
152 EXP Female Rural 7 14
153 EXP Female Rural 15 25
154 EXP Female Rural 14 25
155 EXP Female Rural 8 27
156 EXP Female Rural 13 27
B. CONTROL GROUP : n = 140
Community Secondary School, Nru Nsukka (Urban)
S/N GROUP GENDER LOCATION PRE-TEST
SCORE
POST-TEST
SCORE
1 Control Male Urban 31 26
2 Control Male Urban 16 18
3 Control Male Urban 17 20
4 Control Male Urban 24 22
5 Control Male Urban 16 17
6 Control Male Urban 29 24
7 Control Male Urban 40 36
8 Control Male Urban 24 23
9 Control Male Urban 31 27
10 Control Male Urban 24 25
11 Control Male Urban 23 23
12 Control Male Urban 26 25
13 Control Male Urban 22 28
14 Control Male Urban 25 25
15 Control Male Urban 11 20
16 Control Male Urban 27 28
17 Control Male Urban 32 25
18 Control Male Urban 17 16
19 Control Male Urban 27 35
20 Control Male Urban 23 22
21 Control Male Urban 33 36
22 Control Male Urban 21 22
23 Control Male Urban 32 34
24 Control Male Urban 16 16
25 Control Male Urban 13 08
26 Control Male Urban 22 16
191
27 Control Male Urban 28 30
28 Control Male Urban 26 28
29 Control Male Urban 23 21
30 Control Male Urban 24 20
31 Control Male Urban 24 12
32 Control Male Urban 10 16
33 Control Male Urban 22 24
34 Control Male Urban 27 30
35 Control Male Urban 26 29
36 Control Male Urban 25 22
37 Control Female Urban 22 25
38 Control Female Urban 12 18
39 Control Female Urban 26 21
40 Control Female Urban 22 24
41 Control Female Urban 38 40
42 Control Female Urban 24 22
43 Control Female Urban 29 30
44 Control Female Urban 33 38
45 Control Female Urban 24 32
46 Control Female Urban 29 35
47 Control Female Urban 19 20
48 Control Female Urban 20 27
49 Control Female Urban 34 40
50 Control Female Urban 37 39
51 Control Female Urban 26 28
52 Control Female Urban 20 30
53 Control Female Urban 22 25
54 Control Female Urban 43 46
55 Control Female Urban 14 12
56 Control Female Urban 23 23
57 Control Female Urban 16 15
58 Control Female Urban 31 40
59 Control Female Urban 26 22
60 Control Female Urban 30 31
61 Control Female Urban 14 19
62 Control Female Urban 18 19
63 Control Female Urban 21 24
64 Control Female Urban 24 27
65 Control Female Urban 28 25
66 Control Female Urban 25 31
67 Control Female Urban 19 25
68 Control Female Urban 20 15
69 Control Female Urban 32 36
70 Control Female Urban 26 25
71 Control Female Urban 23 27
72 Control Female Urban 25 30
73 Control Female Urban 26 30
192
Community Secondary School, Lejja (Rural)
74 Control Male Rural 15 18
75 Control Male Rural 20 18
76 Control Male Rural 8 10
77 Control Male Rural 24 30
78 Control Male Rural 33 36
79 Control Male Rural 18 22
80 Control Male Rural 21 14
81 Control Male Rural 11 22
82 Control Male Rural 11 13
83 Control Male Rural 14 18
84 Control Male Rural 8 10
85 Control Male Rural 15 12
86 Control Male Rural 17 13
87 Control Male Rural 16 18
88 Control Male Rural 16 10
89 Control Male Rural 15 13
90 Control Male Rural 31 36
91 Control Male Rural 12 15
92 Control Male Rural 14 12
93 Control Male Rural 35 42
94 Control Male Rural 12 15
95 Control Male Rural 20 22
96 Control Male Rural 12 24
97 Control Male Rural 13 15
98 Control Male Rural 10 10
99 Control Male Rural 13 15
100 Control Male Rural 20 29
101 Control Male Rural 12 13
102 Control Female Rural 13 14
103 Control Female Rural 17 20
104 Control Female Rural 9 14
105 Control Female Rural 13 14
106 Control Female Rural 18 19
107 Control Female Rural 18 16
108 Control Female Rural 15 9
109 Control Female Rural 10 15
110 Control Female Rural 13 12
111 Control Female Rural 15 17
112 Control Female Rural 8 14
113 Control Female Rural 16 17
114 Control Female Rural 12 20
115 Control Female Rural 15 18
116 Control Female Rural 14 15
117 Control Female Rural 24 29
118 Control Female Rural 12 11
119 Control Female Rural 17 16
120 Control Female Rural 30 26
121 Control Female Rural 13 16
193
122 Control Female Rural 8 8
123 Control Female Rural 12 12
124 Control Female Rural 15 16
125 Control Female Rural 22 9
126 Control Female Rural 13 15
127 Control Female Rural 16 12
128 Control Female Rural 10 8
129 Control Female Rural 22 11
130 Control Female Rural 8 10
131 Control Female Rural 22 18
132 Control Female Rural 12 16
133 Control Female Rural 17 19
134 Control Female Rural 23 14
135 Control Female Rural 19 16
136 Control Female Rural 13 14
137 Control Female Rural 14 13
138 Control Female Rural 21 27
139 Control Female Rural 22 12
140 Control Female Rural 15 11
194
APPENDIX Q
MAIN OUTPUT
Descriptive Statistics
Dependent Variable: Pre-test scores
Group Gender Mean Std. Deviation N
Experimental
Male 18.00 7.64 83
Female 18.04 6.93 73
Total 18.02 7.29 156
Control
Male 20.72 7.55 64
Female 20.18 7.56 76
Total 20.42 7.53 140
Total
Male 19.18 7.69 147
Female 19.13 7.31 149
Total 19.15 7.49 296
Descriptive Statistics
Dependent Variable: Post-test scores
Group Gender Mean Std. Deviation N
Experimental
Male 29.39 5.91 83
Female 28.81 5.94 73
Total 29.12 5.90 156
Control
Male 21.93 8.07 64
Female 21.07 8.89 76
Total 21.47 8.50 140
Total
Male 26.14 7.84 147
Female 24.86 8.49 149
Total 25.50 8.19 296
195
Descriptive Statistics
Dependent Variable: Pre-test scores
Group Location Mean Std. Deviation N
Experimental
Urban 20.97 5.81 73
Rural 15.42 7.49 83
Total 18.01 7.29 156
Control
Urban 24.18 6.80 73
Rural 16.45 6.11 67
Total 20.42 7.53 140
Total
Urban 21.56 6.51 145
Rural 15.89 6.91 151
Total 19.15 7.49 296
Descriptive Statistics
Dependent Variable: Pre-test interest
Group Gender Mean Std. Deviation N
Experimental
Male 60.39 9.08 83
Female 59.64 10.55 73
Total 60.04 9.77 156
Control
Male 61.87 8.31 64
Female 59.05 8.40 76
Total 60.34 8.45 140
Total
Male 61.04 8.76 147
Female 59.34 9.49 149
Total 60.18 9.16 296
Descriptive Statistics
Dependent Variable: Post-test interest
Group Gender Mean Std. Deviation N
Experimental
Male 65.10 9.19 83
Female 64.54 8.82 73
Total 64.84 8.99 156
Control
Male 62.15 9.73 64
Female 62.10 8.68 76
Total 62.12 9.14 140
Total
Male 65.82 9.54 147
Female 63.30 8.81 149
Total 63.56 9.15 296
196
Descriptive Statistics
Dependent Variable: Post-test scores
Group Location Mean Std. Deviation N
Experimental
Urban 31.57 4.51 73
Rural 26.96 6.16 83
Total 29.12 5.90 156
Control
Urban 25.56 7.63 73
Rural 17.13 7.15 67
Total 21.47 8.50 140
Total
Urban 28.59 6.93 145
Rural 22.54 8.23 151
Total 25.50 8.19 296
Descriptive Statistics
Dependent Variable: Pre-test interest
Group Location Mean Std. Deviation N
Experimental
Urban 62.78 6.83 73
Rural 57.63 11.27 83
Total 60.04 9.77 156
Control
Urban 62.37 9.18 73
Rural 58.19 7.05 67
Total 60.34 8.45 140
Total
Urban 62.57 8.06 145
Rural 57.88 9.58 151
Total 60.18 9.16 296
197
Descriptive Statistics
Dependent Variable: Post-test interest
Group Location Mean Std. Deviation N
Experimental
Urban 68.38 8.02 73
Rural 61.73 8.69 83
Total 64.84 8.99 156
Control
Urban 65.63 7.43 73
Rural 58.41 9.36 67
Total 62.12 9.14 140
Total
Urban 67.02 7.83 145
Rural 60.23 9.12 151
Total 63.56 9.15 296
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable: Post-test scores
Source Type III Sum of
Squares
df Mean Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 14120.138a 8 1765.017 89.311 .000
Intercept 4591.981 1 4591.981 232.357 .000
Pre-test scores 5845.022 1 5845.022 295.762 .000
Group 6061.988 1 6061.988 306.741 .000
Gender 18.931 1 18.931 .958 .329
Location 206.004 1 206.004 10.424 .001
Group * Gender .569 1 .569 .029 .865
Group * Location 76.367 1 76.367 3.864 .040
Gender * Location 186.230 1 186.230 9.423 .002
Group * Gender * Location 134.078 1 134.078 6.784 .010
Error 5671.858 287 19.763
Total 212317.000 296
Corrected Total 19791.997 295
a. R Squared = .713 (Adjusted R Squared = .705)
198
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable: Post- test interest
Source Type III Sum of
Squares
df Mean Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 5194.949a 8 649.369 9.542 .000
Intercept 16082.608 1 16082.608 236.316 .000
Pre-test interest 920.881 1 920.881 13.531 .000
Group 657.280 1 657.280 9.658 .002
Gender 2.485 1 2.485 .037 .849
Location 2365.702 1 2365.702 34.761 .000
Group * Gender 29.001 1 29.001 .426 .514
Group * Location 8.554 1 8.554 .126 .723
Gender * Location 31.921 1 31.921 .469 .494
Group * Gender * Location 186.344 1 186.344 2.738 .099
Error 19531.957 287 68.056
Total 1220560.000 296
Corrected Total 24726.905 295
a. R Squared = .210 (Adjusted R Squared = .188)