Expressing adverbial relations in clause linkage with converbs:

definitional and typological considerations

Daniel Ross djross3@gmail.com University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Syntax of the World’s Languages 7, Mexico City August 20th, 2016

Workshop on Adverbial relations and clause linkages

Premise of this talk

•  Converbs are often defined as adverbial verb forms

•  They should be ideal for research on adverbial clauses

•  From the perspective of research on adverbial clauses, however, converbs may not play a major role •  Partly due to tendencies of limited semantic functions

•  Definitional and typological issues are also relevant

Converb example

•  Khalkha Mongolian (Haspelmath 1995:1)

Xot-od or-ž nom aw-aw town-DAT go-CONV book buy-PAST ‘Going to town I bought a book.’

Defining converbs

•  Non-finite verb forms •  usually suffixed •  usually missing other verbal inflection

•  Dependent on another verb •  often involved in clause-chaining •  often occurring before the finite verb

•  Definitions used by different researchers vary not only in details but also in core properties; strong disagreement

Defining converbs •  Terminology varies also

•  “Converbs” is used commonly, but often confused with similar terms: •  Gerunds •  Participles

•  Other terms sometimes overlap, depending on usage: •  “Serial verbs”; “Compound verbs” •  Medial verbs •  etc.

Defining converbs

•  Converbs can function in: •  Clause-chaining

•  Nearly independent clauses except for the verb form •  In some languages this strategy substitutes for finite verb

coordination with an AND conjunction •  Adverbial modifiers within a clause (e.g. circumstance) •  Complex predicates

•  Not unlike serial verbs, but with one marked dependent verb

•  At least if we do not adopt one of the stricter definitions •  But these vary, and would include different subsets above

Defining converbs

•  Introduced by Ramstedt (1902), writing in German about Mongolian, as Latin converbum: •  “Those [verbal forms] that occur only as modifiers of the

predicate, never as predicates of complete sentences” (p.3) •  “...verbal forms that do not function as predicates of an

independent clause ... semi-verbal, semi-nominal ... called by others gerunds, gerundives, supines...” (p.55)

•  Several types in the language

•  This represents primarily the clause-chaining type

Defining converbs

•  Nedyalkov & Nedyalkov (1987): •  “A non-combined or prototypical converb (=adverbial

participle) may be defined (a) positively – as a verb form related to another verb form, and (b) negatively – as a verb form which does not occur in the position (I) of the predicate of a simple sentence, (II) of the attribute to a noun, (III) of the predicate actant, (IV) of the subjective actant.”

•  Opposed to finite verbs, participles, infinitives and gerunds

Defining converbs

•  Haspelmath (1995): •  “A nonfinite verb form whose function is to mark adverbial

subordination” (p.3)

•  “According to my definition, [clause-chaining] is not a central, typical use of the converb because it is not really adverbial” (p.8)

Defining converbs

•  Rapold (2010): •  “The term ‘converb’ is used in a bewildering variety of

senses, all while the label itself remains little known in mainstream linguistics…”

•  “…generally taken to be dependent verb forms that are neither argumental nor adnominal, i.e. that are – roughly – neither used like a typical noun nor like an attributive adjective.”

•  Also provides a good overview of previous definitions

Defining converbs

•  Brown & Miller’s (2013) Linguistic Dictionary •  “A reduced form of verb, lacking tense and often person

too, associated with clause chaining.”

•  This definition, one of many examples, focuses on one specific use of converbs; not representative •  Or it may be choosing one popular definition and rejecting

the other usage as some linguists do •  Similar cases are found for other perspectives

Defining converbs

•  Role and Reference Grammar provides a useful distinction for juncture types with the features [±embedded] and [±dependent] (cf. Van Valin 1984)

•  Coordination is [-embedded] and [-dependent] •  Subordination is [+embedded] and [+dependent] •  Co-subordination is [-embedded] and [+dependent]

•  Converbs are [+dependent] but [±embedded], so they represent either subordination or co-subordination

English -ing

Laughing, he entered. He started laughing. The laughing man. Laughing is fun.

English -ing

Laughing, he entered. He started laughing. Converb Infinitive

The laughing man. Laughing is fun.

Participle Gerund

Typology of non-finite verbs

•  Ylikoski (2003) provides a clear and coherent discussion of the differences in these similar verb forms •  There is often overlap in usage

•  Converbs are optional adverbial modifiers •  Infinitives are arguments of verbs •  Participles are deverbal adjectives (adnominals) •  Gerunds (or action nominals) are deverbal nouns

Form vs. function

•  There is not always (even rarely) a clear distinction between the different types of non-finite verbs in form •  Consider the extreme English example •  Or that English has two forms that function as infinitives:

start laughing start to laugh

•  Despite this, converbs are typically defined by their form (a verb inflected to indicate dependency)

•  We must be careful to distinguish form and function

Working definition •  A verb form that is not an argument

•  But not necessarily “adverbial” •  Found in at least one of:

•  Clause-chaining •  Adverbial clauses •  Complex predicates

•  Overlap with other functions is not excluded •  Dependency indicated morphologically

•  and by lack of full verbal inflection •  Productive verb form in the language (not fossilized) •  Typically can appear without an overt subject

Cross-linguistic survey

Based on Haspelmath (2005) and WALS recommended 100-language sample. Sample based on Ross et al. (2015).

Cross-linguistic survey

Red: converbs (111) Yellow: periphrastic converbs? (4) Blue: no converbs (210) 34% of the languages have converbs

Converbs cross-linguistically

•  The survey includes prototypical and less usual cases

•  Frequency of usage varies greatly •  English converb clauses are rare •  Very common in clause-chaining or medial-verb languages

•  The most common type is a “general converb” but some languages have many different types including semantically specific adverbial types (e.g. purpose)

Converbs cross-linguistically

•  Almost all converbs are suffixal •  There are several exceptions, but not typical converbs

•  Almost all languages with converbs are SOV •  SOV languages tend to have converbs

•  Converb clauses usually occur before independent clauses

Converbs cross-linguistically

•  Only three cases of prefixal converbs in the sample •  Coptic, Tagalog, Obolo (all marginal examples of converbs)

Tagalog (Austronesian: Himmelmann 2005:373): pag-datíng namin doón, in-iwan namin GER-arrive we there TNS-abandon we ‘when we arrived there, we abandoned…’

•  Overt subject and other properties make this atypical

Converbs cross-linguistically

•  While clause-chaining and adverbial cases are traditionally considered core functions, converbs are primarily used in complex predicates in some languages

Urarina (isolate, Peru: Aikhenvald 2011:21): katɕa rela-a amʉemʉe-kʉrʉ-a-lʉ man teach-“SVC” wander-PL-3-REM ‘They wandered around to teach people.’

•  This has led to calling these forms “serial verbs” •  for why this is a problem, cf. Ross et al. 2015

Problematic cases •  Some Ethiopian languages have apparent converbs but

with inflected verb stems (Amha & Dimmendaal 2006)

•  Although “converb” may be the most appropriate label for these forms, they differ in not being reduced to uninflected forms as in typical converbs

Converbs in African perspective 405

Table 3. Imperfect indefinite and converb form of the verb des- ‘study’

Main Verb

1SG des-e! ‘I study /shall study’

2SG des-te! ‘you study /shall’

3MSG des-e! ‘he studies /shall study’

3FSG des-te! ‘she studies /shall study’

1PL des-ne! ‘we study /shall study’

2PL des-ta!na~ ‘you study /shall study’

3PL des-a!na~ ‘they study /shall study’

Converb

1SG des-ata ‘I having studied’

2SG des-tata ‘you having studied’

3MSG des-ama! ‘he having studied’

3FSG des-tata ‘she having studied’

1PL des-nana ‘we having studied’

2PL des-t´⁄kama! ‘you having studied’

3PL des-kama! ‘they having studied’

As the paradigms in Table 4 taken from Sim (1989: 143 and 154) show,

there is no morphological reduction in the dependent converb verbs. Both

in the main verb (column 2) and converb forms (specifically converb 2

forms in column 3) the vocalic elements -oo-, -u- and -aa- indicate

imperfect, simple perfect and present perfect forms respectively, whereas

the consonants of the suffixes co-vary with person, number and gender of

the subject. The verb root presented in Table 4, is mass- ‘take’.

Converbs in African perspective 405

Table 3. Imperfect indefinite and converb form of the verb des- ‘study’

Main Verb

1SG des-e! ‘I study /shall study’

2SG des-te! ‘you study /shall’

3MSG des-e! ‘he studies /shall study’

3FSG des-te! ‘she studies /shall study’

1PL des-ne! ‘we study /shall study’

2PL des-ta!na~ ‘you study /shall study’

3PL des-a!na~ ‘they study /shall study’

Converb

1SG des-ata ‘I having studied’

2SG des-tata ‘you having studied’

3MSG des-ama! ‘he having studied’

3FSG des-tata ‘she having studied’

1PL des-nana ‘we having studied’

2PL des-t´⁄kama! ‘you having studied’

3PL des-kama! ‘they having studied’

As the paradigms in Table 4 taken from Sim (1989: 143 and 154) show,

there is no morphological reduction in the dependent converb verbs. Both

in the main verb (column 2) and converb forms (specifically converb 2

forms in column 3) the vocalic elements -oo-, -u- and -aa- indicate

imperfect, simple perfect and present perfect forms respectively, whereas

the consonants of the suffixes co-vary with person, number and gender of

the subject. The verb root presented in Table 4, is mass- ‘take’.

Hadiyya (Cushitic)

Problematic cases •  4 languages in the survey have what seem like

periphrastic converbs, with a separate word (such as ‘with’) rather than an affix marking the form

•  Ainu wa (<‘and’) has calqued many functions of Japanese -te converbs (Ross 2016:226):

ku-ku wa okere 1SG-drink and? finish ‘I finished drinking.’ (Perfective reading.)

Problematic cases

•  Narrative/Consecutive/Sequential “tenses” •  Usually prefixal, widespread in Bantu •  Similar to converbs?

Swahili narrative ka (Mohammed 2001:160)

Wa-li-ondoka wa-ka-ona moto mbele 3PL-PST-leave 3PL-NAR-see fire ahead ‘They left and saw a fire ahead.’

Adverbial functions of converbs

•  While general converbs in clause-chaining may not appear adverbial, when sequential and simultaneous clauses are contrasted, adverbial interpretations are highlighted:

•  Yimas and Quechua are examples of this type.

•  SEQ: “After Ving, …” •  SIM: “While Ving, ...”

Adverbial functions of converbs

•  Djabugay (Australia: Patz 1991) has no general converb

•  But it has (only) a purposive converb: ngawu gulu minya giba-l-ala wayi-lum I this fish scale-PRES-now cook-PURP ‘I scale this fish now in order to cook (it).’

Adverbial functions of converbs

•  Uradhi (Crowley 1983:378-380) has different subordinate forms built with case markers:

•  These are nominalizations, but they appear to function as converbs; similar patterns found in other languages, with or without nominalizing morphology

Case Subordinate adverbial meaning Absolutive Simultaneous temporal clause Ablative Result clause Genitive Purpose/use of object clause Dative Purposive clause

Conclusions •  New terminology suggestion:

•  Use converb, infinitive, participle, and gerund for the functions that verb forms are used in

•  Regarding the form, call “converbs” dependent verbs or more precisely verbs inflected for dependency

•  Within the functions, we should also distinguish between the different types of usage rather than inconsistently using the single label “converbs” •  Co-subordinate form in clause-chaining •  Adverbial subordinate verb •  Modifying verb in a complex predicate

Conclusions •  Converbs are heterogenous or a very broad category

•  Substantial variation in the languages of the world

•  Although adverbial usage is one of several functions, making this the central property of converbs is about as problematic as the grab bag category of “adverbs” itself

•  General converbs often indicate temporal subordination •  Sometimes non-adverbial usage, almost coordination

•  Semantically specific converbs may be used for specific types of adverbial subordinate clauses

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Thank you! Questions?