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Winter Quarter 2008Christopher T. Russell
Raymond J. Walker
Date
Topic1/7 Organization and Introduction
to Space Physics I1/9 Introduction to Space Physics II1/14 Introduction to Space Physics III1/16 The Sun I1/23 The Sun II1/25
The Solar Wind I1/28 The Solar Wind II2/ 1 First Exam2/4 Bow Shock and Magnetosheath2/6 The Magnetosphere I
ESS 200C -
Space Plasma Physics
Date
Topic2/11 The Magnetosphere II2/16 The Magnetosphere III2/20 Planetary Magnetospheres2/22 The Earth’s Ionosphere2/25 Substorms2/27 Aurorae3/3 Planetary Ionospheres3/5 Pulsations and waves3./10 Storms and Review3/12 Second Exam
Schedule of Classes
ESS 200C –
Space Plasma Physics
•
There will be two examinations and homework assignments.•
The grade will be based on–
35% Exam 1–
35% Exam 2–
30% Homework
•
References–
Kivelson M. G. and C. T. Russell, Introduction to Space Physics, Cambridge University Press, 1995.
–
Gombosi, T. I., Physics of the Space Environment, Cambridge University Press, 1998
–
Kellenrode, M-B, Space Physics, An Introduction to Plasmas and Particles in the Heliosphere
and Magnetospheres, Springer, 2000.–
Walker, A. D. M., Magnetohydrodynamic Waves in Space, Institute of Physics Publishing, 2005.
Space Plasma Physics
•
Space physics is concerned with the interaction of charged particles with electric and magnetic fields in space.
•
Space physics involves the interaction between the Sun, the solar wind, the magnetosphere and the ionosphere.
•
Space physics started with observations of the aurorae.–
Old Testament references to auroras.
–
Greek literature speaks of “moving accumulations of burning clouds”
–
Chinese literature has references to auroras prior to 2000BC
–
Galileo theorized that aurora is caused by air rising out of the Earth’s shadow to where it could be illuminated by sunlight. (Note he also coined the name aurora borealis meaning “northern dawn”.)
–
Descartes thought they are reflections from ice crystals.–
Halley suggested that auroral phenomena are ordered by the Earth’s magnetic field.
–
In 1731 the French philosopher de Mairan
suggested they are connected to the solar atmosphere.
•
By the 11th century the Chinese had learned that a magnetic needle points north-south.
•
By the 12th century the European records mention the compass.
•
That there was a difference between magnetic north and the direction of the compass needle (declination) was known by the 16th century.
•
William Gilbert (1600) realized that the field was dipolar.
•
In 1698 Edmund Halley organized the first scientific expedition to map the field in the Atlantic Ocean.
The Plasma State
•
A plasma is an electrically neutral ionized gas.–
The Sun is a plasma
–
The space between the Sun and the Earth is “filled” with a plasma.
–
The Earth is surrounded by a plasma.–
A stroke of lightning forms a plasma
–
Over 99% of the Universe is a plasma.•
Although neutral a plasma is composed of charged particles-
electric and magnetic
forces are critical for understanding plasmas.
The Motion of Charged Particles
•
Equation of motion
•
SI Units–
mass (m) -
kg–
length (l) -
m–
time (t) -
s–
electric field (E) -
V/m–
magnetic field (B) -
T–
velocity (v) -
m/s–
Fg
stands for non-electromagnetic forces (e.g. gravity) -
usually ignorable.
gFBvqEqdtvdm
rrrrr
+×+=
•
B acts to change the motion of a charged particle only
in directions perpendicular to the motion.
–
Set E = 0, assume B along z-direction.
–
Equations of circular motion with angular frequency (cyclotron frequency or gyro frequency)
–
If q is positive particle gyrates in left handed sense–
If q is negative particle gyrates in a right handed sense
2
22
2
22
mBvq
v
mBvq
mBvq
v
Bqvvm
Bqvvm
yy
xyx
xy
yx
−=
−==
−=
=
&&
&&&
&
&
mqB
c =Ω
•
Radius of circle ( rc
) -
cyclotron radius or Larmor radius or gyro radius.
–
The gyro radius is a function of energy.–
Energy of charged particles is usually given in electron volts (eV)
–
Energy that a particle with the charge of an electron gets in falling through a potential drop of 1 Volt-
1 eV
= 1.6X10-19
Joules (J).•
Energies in space plasmas go from electron Volts to kiloelectron
Volts (1 keV
= 103 eV) to millions of electron Volts (1 meV
= 106
eV)•
Cosmic ray energies go to gigaelectron
Volts ( 1 geV
= 109 eV).
•
The circular motion does no work on a particle
qBmv
v
c
cc
⊥
⊥
=
Ω=
ρ
ρ
0)()( 221
=×⋅==⋅=⋅ Bvvqdtmvdv
dtvdmvF
rrrrr
rr
Only the electric field can energize particles!
•
The electric field can modify the particles motion.–
Assume but still uniform and Fg
=0.–
Frequently in space physics it is ok to set•
Only can accelerate particles along•
Positive particles go along and negative particles go along
•
Eventually charge separation wipes out–
has a major effect on motion. •
As a particle gyrates it moves along and gains energy •
Later in the circle it losses energy.•
This causes different parts of the “circle” to have different radii -
it doesn’t close on itself.
•
Drift velocity is perpendicular to and•
No charge dependence, therefore no currents
0≠Er
0=⋅ BErr
Er
Br
EE−
E
⊥EEr
2BBEuE
rrr ×
=
Er
Br
Br
•
Any force capable of accelerating and decelerating charged particles can cause them to drift.
–
If the force is charge independent the drift motion will depend on the sign of the charge and can form perpendicular currents.
•
Changing magnetic fields cause a drift velocity.–
If changes over a gyro-orbit the radius of curvature will change.
–
gets smaller when the particle goes into a region of stronger B. Thus the drift is opposite to that of motion.
–
ug
depends on the charge so it can yield perpendicular currents.
2qBBFuF
rrr ×
=
Br
qBmv
c⊥=ρ
BErr
×
32
21
32
21
qBBBmv
qBBBmvug
∇×=
×∇= ⊥⊥
−
rrr
•
The change in the direction of the magnetic field along a field line can cause motion.–
The curvature of the magnetic field line introduces a drift motion.
•
As particles move along the field they undergo centrifugal acceleration.
•
Rc
is the radius of curvature of a field line ( ) where
, is perpendicular to and points away from the center of curvature, is the component of velocity along
•
Curvature drift can cause currents.
cc
RR
mvF ˆ
2
=r
bbRn
c
ˆ)ˆ(ˆ
∇⋅−=
BBbr
=ˆ n̂ Br
v Br
2
2
2
2 ˆˆ)ˆ(
qBR
nBmv
qB
bbBmvu
cc
×−=
∇⋅×=
rrr
•
The Concept of the Guiding Center–
Separates the motion ( ) of a particle into motion perpendicular ( ) and parallel ( ) to the magnetic field.
–
To a good approximation the perpendicular motion can consist of a drift ( ) and the gyro-motion ( )
–
Over long times the gyro-motion is averaged out and the particle motion can be described by the guiding center motion consisting of the parallel motion and drift. This is very
useful for distances l such that and time scales τ such that
vr
⊥v v
Dvc
vΩ
ccvvvvvvvv gcD ΩΩ⊥ +=++=+=rrrrrrrr
1<<lcρ( ) 11 <<Ω −τ
•
Maxwell’s equations–
Poisson’s Equation
•
is the electric field•
is the charge density•
is the electric permittivity (8.85 X 10-12
Farad/m)–
Gauss’ Law (absence of magnetic monopoles)
•
is the magnetic field
0ερ
=⋅∇ Er
Er
0=⋅∇ Br
Br
ρ
0ε
–
Faraday’s Law
–
Ampere’s Law
•
c is the speed of light.•
Is the permeability of free space, H/m•
is the current density
tBE
∂∂
−=×∇r
r
JtE
cB
rr
r02
1 μ+∂∂
=×∇
0μ 7
0 104 −×= πμ
Jr
•
Maxwell’s equations in integral form
–
A is the area, dA
is the differential element of area–
is a unit normal vector to dA
pointing outward.–
V is the volume, dV
is the differential volume element
–
is a unit normal vector to the surface element dF
in the
direction given by the right hand rule for integration around
C, and is magnetic flux through the surface. –
is the differential element around C.
∫∫ =⋅ dVdAnEA
ρε 0
1ˆr
n̂
tdFn
tBsdE
AdnB
C
A
∂Φ∂
−=⋅∂∂
−=⋅
=⋅
∫∫
∫'ˆ
0ˆr
rv
r
'n̂
sdr
dFnJdFntEsdB
cC ∫∫∫ ⋅+⋅∂∂
=⋅ '0
'1 ˆˆ2 μr
rr
Φ
•
The first adiabatic invariant–
says that changing drives (electromotive
force). This means that the particles change energy in
changing magnetic fields.
–
Even if the energy changes there is a quantity that remains constant provided the magnetic field changes slowly enough.
–
is called the magnetic moment. In a wire loop the magnetic moment is the current through the loop times the area.
–
As a particle moves to a region of stronger (weaker) B it is accelerated (decelerated).
EtB rr
×−∇=∂∂
Er
.2
21
constBmv
== ⊥μ
μ
Br
•
For a coordinate in which the motion is periodic the action integral
is conserved. Here pi is the canonical momentum ( where A is the vector potential).
•
First term –•
Second term -
•
For a gyrating particle
•
The action integrals are conserved when the properties of the system change slowly compared to the period of the coordinate.
constant == ∫ iii dqpJ
μπqmsdpJ 2
1 =⋅= ∫ ⊥rr
Aqvmprrr
+=
qmmvdsmv μππρ 42 == ⊥⊥∫qm
qBvmSdBqSdAqsdAq μππ 22 22
−=−=⋅=⋅×∇=⋅ ∫∫ ∫∫∫ ⊥rrrrrr
•
The magnetic mirror–
As a particle gyrates the current will be
where
–
The force on a dipole magnetic moment is
where
cTqI =
ccT
Ω=
π2
μ
ππ
π
π ===
Ω==
⊥Ω
Ω
⊥
⊥
BmvIA
vrA
c
cqv
cc
2
2
2
2
22
2
2
dzdBBF μμ −=∇⋅−=
rr
b̂μμ =r
•
The force is along and away from the direction of increasing B.
•
Since and kinetic energy must be conserved
a decrease in must yield an increase in •
Particles will turn around when
Br
0=E
v ⊥v
μ221 mvB =
)( 22212
21
⊥+= vvmmv
•
The second adiabatic invariant–
The integral of the parallel momentum over one complete bounce between mirrors is constant (as long as B doesn’t change much in a bounce).
–
Using conservation of energy and the first adiabatic invariant
here Bm
is the magnetic field at the mirror point.
.22
1
constdsmvJs
s== ∫
.)1(2 212
1
constdsBBmvJ
s
sm
=−= ∫
–
As particles bounce they will drift because of gradient and curvature drift motion.
–
If the field is a dipole their trajectories will take them around the planet and close on themselves.
•
The third adiabatic invariant–
As long as the magnetic field doesn’t change much in the time required to drift around a planet the magnetic flux inside the orbit must be constant.
–
Note it is the total flux that is conserved including the flux within the planet.
∫ ⋅=Φ dAnB ˆr
•
Limitations on the invariants–
is constant when there is little change in the field’s strength over a cyclotron path.
–
All invariants require that the magnetic field not change much in the time required for one cycle of motion
where is the orbit period.
τ11
<<∂∂
tB
B
ms
s
J
~1~
1010~ 36
Φ
−− −
ττ
τ μ
τ
μ
cBB
ρ1
<<∇
•
A plasma as a collection of particles–
The properties of a collection of particles can be described by specifying how many there are in a 6 dimensional volume called phase space.
•
There are 3 dimensions in “real” or configuration space and 3 dimensions in velocity space.
•
The volume in phase space is•
The number of particles in a phase space volume iswhere f is called the distribution function.
–
The density of particles of species “s” (number per unit volume)
–
The average velocity (bulk flow velocity)
dxdydzdvdvdvdvdr zyx=dvdrtvrf ),,( rr
dvtvrftrn ss ),,(),( rrr∫=
dvtvrfdvtvrfvtru sss ∫∫= ),,(/),,(),( rrrrrrr
The Properties of a Plasma
–
Average random energy
–
The partial pressure of s is given by
where N is the number of independent velocity components (usually 3).
–
In equilibrium the phase space distribution is a Maxwellian
distribution
where
( ) ( )⎥⎦
⎤⎢⎣
⎡ −=
s
ssss kT
uvmAvrf2
21
exp,rr
rr
∫∫ −=− dvtvrfdvtvrfuvmuvm ssssss ),,(/),,()()( 2212
21 rrrrrrrr
221 )(2( ss
s
s uvmNn
p rr−=
( )23
2 TkmnA ss π=
•
For monatomic particles in equilibrium
where k is the Boltzman
constant (k=1.38x10-23 JK-1)•
For monatomic particles in equilibrium
•
This is true even for magnetized particles.•
The ideal gas law becomes
( )( ) 2221
sss NkTuvm =−rr
2/)( 221 NkTuvm ss =−
rr
sss kTnp =
sss kTnp =
–
Other frequently used distribution functions.•
The bi-Maxwellian
distribution
–
where –
It is useful when there is a difference between the distributions perpendicular and parallel to the magnetic field
•
The kappa distribution
Κ characterizes the departure from Maxwellian form.–
ETs
is an energy.–
At high energies E>>κETs
it falls off more slowly than a Maxwellian
(similar to a power law)
–
For it becomes a Maxwellian
with temperature kT=ETs
( )( ) ( )
⎥⎦
⎤⎢⎣
⎡ −−
⎥⎥⎦
⎤
⎢⎢⎣
⎡ −−=
⊥
⊥⊥
s
ss
s
ssss kT
uvmkT
uvmAvrf
221
221
' expexp,rr
rr
( ) ( ) 1221
1,−−
⎥⎦
⎤⎢⎣
⎡ −+=
κ
κ κ Ts
ssss E
uvmAvrfrr
rr
∞→κ
⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛= ⊥
21
23
'sssss TTTAA
•
What makes an ionized gas a plasma?–
The electrostatic potential of an isolated ion–
The electrons in the gas will be attracted to the ion and will reduce the potential at large distances.
–
If we assume neutrality Poisson’s equation around a test charge
q0 is
–
Expanding in a Taylor series for r>0 and for both electrons and ions
–
( ) ( ) ⎥⎦
⎤⎢⎣
⎡⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛ −−⎟⎟
⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛+−=
−=∇
ione kTe
kTeenrqr ϕϕ
εδ
εερϕ expexp
0
03
0
0
0
2 rr
rq
04πεϕ =
1<<kTeϕ
( ) ϕε
ϕϕε
ϕkTne
kTe
kTeenr
ione 0
2
0
2 11 =⎥⎦
⎤⎢⎣
⎡+−+=∇
r
•The Debye
length ( ) is
where n is the electron number density and now e is the electron charge.•The number of particles within a Debye
sphere
needs to be large for shielding to occur
(ND
>>1). Far from the central charge the electrostatic
force is shielded.
rqe D
r
04 επϕ
λ−
=
34 3
DD
nN λπ=
Dλ21
20 ⎟
⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛=
nekT
Dελ
•
The plasma frequency–
Consider a slab of plasma of thickness L.–
At t=0 displace the electron part of the slab by <<L and the ion part of the slab by <<L in the opposite direction.
–
Poisson’s equation gives
–
The equations of motion for the electron and ion slabs are
ie δδδ −=
δε0
0enE =
δεε
δδδ
δ
δ
)(0
02
0
02
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
ione
ie
iion
ee
mne
mne
dtd
dtd
dtd
eEdtdm
eEdt
dm
+−=−=
=
−=
eδiδ
–
The frequency of this oscillation is the plasma frequency
–
Because mion
>>me
ionpi
epe
pipep
mne
mne
0
02
2
0
02
2
222
εω
εω
ωωω
=
=
+=
pep ωω ≈
•
A note on conservation laws–
Consider a quantity that can be moved from place to place.
–
Let be the flux of this quantity –
i.e. if we have an element of area then is the amount of the quantity passing the area element per unit time.
–
Consider a volume V of space, bounded by a surface S.
–
If σ is the density of the substance then the total amount in the volume is
–
The rate at which material is lost through the surface is
–
Use Gauss’ theorem
–
An equation of the preceeding
form means that the quantity whose
density is σ
is conserved.
fr
Ar
δAfrr
δ⋅
∫V
dVσ
∫ ⋅S
Adfrr
∫ ∫ ⋅−=V S
AdfdVdtd rr
σ
0=⎭⎬⎫
⎩⎨⎧ ⋅∇+
∂∂
∫ dVftV
rσ
ft
r⋅−∇=
∂∂σ
•
Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD)–
The average properties are governed by the basic conservation laws for mass, momentum and energy in a fluid.
–
Continuity equation
–
Ss
and Ls represent sources and losses. Ss
-Ls
is the net rate at which particles are added or lost per unit volume.
–
The number of particles changes only if there are sources and losses.
–
Ss
,Ls
,ns
, and us can be functions of time and position.–
Assume Ss
=0 and Ls
=0, where Ms
is the total mass of s and dr is a volume element (e.g. dxdydz)
where is a surface element bounding the volume.
sssss LSuntn
−=⋅∇+∂
∂ r
sssss Mdrnm == ∫ ρρ ,
sdut
Mdrut
Mss
sss
s rrr⋅+
∂∂
=⋅∇+∂
∂∫∫ ρρ )(
sdr
–
Momentum equation
where is the charge density, is the current density, and the last term is the density of non-
electromagnetic forces.–
The operator is called the convective derivative and gives the total time derivative resulting from intrinsic time changes and spatial motion.
–
If the fluid is not moving (us =0) the left side gives the net change in the momentum density of the fluid element.
–
The right side is the density of forces•
If there is a pressure gradient then the fluid moves toward lower pressure.
•
The second and third terms are the electric and magnetic forces.
sgssqsssssssss
s mFBJEpLSumuut
u ρρρ +×++−∇=−+∇⋅+∂
∂ rrrrrrr
)()(
ssqs nq=ρ ssss unqJ rr=
)( ∇⋅+∂∂
sut
r
( )( ) sgssqssssstu mFBJEpuuss
rrrrrrr
ρρρρ +×++−∇=⋅∇+∂∂
–
The term means that the fluid transports momentum with it.
•
Combine the species for the continuity and momentum equations–
Drop the sources and losses, multiply the continuity equations by ms
, assume np
=ne
and add.
Continuity
–
Add the momentum equations and use me
<<mp
Momentum
ss uu rr∇⋅
0)( =⋅∇+∂∂ u
trρρ
mFBJpuutu
gρρ +×+−∇=∇⋅+∂∂ rrrrr
)(
•
Energy equation
where is the heat flux, U is the internal energy density of the monatomic plasma and N is the number of degrees of freedom–
adds three unknowns to our set of equations. It is usually treated by making approximations so it can be handled by the other variables.
–
Many treatments make the adiabatic assumption (no change in the entropy of the fluid element) instead of using the energy equation
or
where cs
is the speed of sound and cp
and cv
are the specific heats at constant pressure and constant volume. It is called the polytropic
index. In thermodynamic equilibrium
mFuEJqupuUuUut g
rrrrrrr⋅+⋅=+++⋅∇++
∂∂ ρρρ ])[()( 2
212
21
)2/( nNkTU =qr
qr
.constp =−γρ)(2 ρρ
∇⋅+∂∂
=∇⋅+∂∂ u
tcpu
tp
srr
ργ pcs =2vp cc=γ
3/5)2( =+= NNγ
•
Maxwell’s equations
–
doesn’t help because
–
There are 14 unknowns in this set of equations -–
We have 11 equations.
•
Ohm’s law–
Multiply the momentum equations for each individual species by qs
/ms and subtract.
where and σ
is the electrical conductivity
JB
EtB
rr
rr
0μ=×∇
×−∇=∂∂
0=⋅∇ Br
0)(=×∇⋅−∇=
∂⋅∇∂ EtB rr
puJBE ,,,,, ρrrrr
)]}([11){( 2 uJtJ
nemBJ
nep
neBuEJ e
err
rrrrrrr
⋅∇+∂∂
−×−∇+×+= σ
sss
s unqJ rr∑=
– Often the last terms on the right in Ohm’s Law can be dropped
– If the plasma is collisionless, may be very large soσ)( BuEJrrrr
×+= σ
0=×+ BuErrr
•
Frozen in flux–
Combining Faraday’s law ( ), and
Ampere’ law ( ) with
where is the magnetic viscosity–
If the fluid is at rest this becomes a “diffusion” equation
–
The magnetic field will exponentially decay (or diffuse) from a
conducting medium in a time where LB is the system size.
tBE
∂∂
−=×∇r
r
JBrr
0μ=×∇
BButB
m
rrrr
2)( ∇+××∇=∂∂ η
01 μση =m
BtB
m
rr
2∇=∂∂ η
mBD L ητ 2=
)( BuEJrrrr
×+= σ
–
On time scales much shorter than
–
The electric field vanishes in the frame moving with the fluid.–
Consider the rate of change of magnetic flux
–
The first term on the right is caused by the temporal changes in B
–
The second term is caused by motion of the boundary–
The term is the area swept out per unit time–
Use the identity and Stoke’s
theorem
–
If the fluid is initially on surface s as it moves through the system the flux through the surface will remain constant even though the location and shape of the surface change.
)( ButB rrr
××∇=∂∂
∫∫ ∫ ×⋅+⋅∂∂
=⋅=Φ
CA AlduBdAn
tBdAnB
dtd
dtd )(ˆˆ
rrrr
r
ldurr
×
0ˆ)( =⋅⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛××∇−
∂∂
=Φ
∫ dAnButB
dtd
A
rrr
Dτ
BACCBArrrrrr
×⋅=×⋅
•
Magnetic pressure and tension
since
–
A magnetic pressure analogous to the plasma
pressure ( )
–
A “cold” plasma has and a “warm”
plasma has
–
In equilibrium
•
Pressure gradients form currents
0021 )(2)(
0μμμ BBBBBBJFB
rrrrrrr∇⋅+∇−=××∇=×=
0
2
2μBpB =
p∇−
0
2
2μβ
Bp
≡ 1<<β
1≥β
pBJ ∇=×rr
( ) ( ) ( )BAABBArrrrrr
∇⋅−⋅∇=×∇×
– cancels the parallel component
of the term. Thus only the perpendicular component of the magnetic pressure exerts a force on the plasma.
–
is the magnetic tension and is
directed antiparallel
to the radius of curvature (RC
) of the
field line. Note that is directed outward.
0
2
0 2ˆˆˆ
μμBbbBBb ∇=∇⋅
r
0
2
2μB∇−
)ˆ
(ˆˆ)(0
2
0
2
CRBnbbB
μμ −=∇⋅
n̂
– The second term in can be written as a sum of two terms
bbBBBbBB ˆˆ)(ˆ])[(0
2
00∇⋅+∇⋅=∇⋅
μμμrrrBJrr
×
•Some elementary wave concepts
–For a plane wave propagating in the x-direction with wavelength and frequency f, the oscillating quantities can be taken to be proportional to sines
and cosines.
For example the pressure in a sound wave propagating along an organ pipe might vary like
–A sinusoidal wave can be described by its frequency
and wave vector . (In the organ pipe the frequency is f and . The wave number is ).
ωkr
)}(exp{),( 0 trkiBtrB ω−⋅=rvrr ( ))sin()cos(),( 0 trkitrkBtrB ωω −⋅+−⋅=
rrrrrr
λ
)sin(0 tkxpp ω−=
fπω 2= λπ2=k
• The exponent gives the phase of the wave. The phase velocity specifies how fast a feature of a monotonic wave is moving
•
Information propagates at the group velocity. A wave can carry information provided it is formed from a finite range of frequencies or wave numbers. The group velocity is given by
•
The phase and group velocities are calculated and waves are analyzed by determining the dispersion relation
kk
v ph
r2
ω=
kv g r
∂∂
=ω
)(kωω =
• When the dispersion relation shows asymptotic behavior toward a given frequency, , vg goes to zero, the wave no longer propagates and all the wave energy goes into stationary oscillations. This is called a resonance.
resω
•
MHD waves -
natural wave modes of a
magnetized fluid
–
Sound waves in a fluid
•
Longitudinal compressional oscillations which propagate
at
•
and is comparable to the thermal speed.
21
21
⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛=⎟⎟
⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛∂∂
=ρ
γρ
ppcs
21
⎥⎦
⎤⎢⎣
⎡⎟⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛=
mkTcs γ
–
Incompressible Alfvén waves•
Assume , incompressible fluid with background field and homogeneous
•
Incompressibility
•
We want plane wave solutions b=b(z,t), u=u(z,t), bz
=uz
=0
•
Ampere’s law gives the current
•
Ignore convection ( )=0
∞→σ 0Br
z
y
x
B0
J b, u
0=⋅∇ ur
izbJ ˆ
0
1
∂∂
−= μ
r
∇⋅ur
BJptu rrr
×+−∇=∂∂ρ
•
Since and the x-component of momentum becomes
•
Faraday’s law gives
•
The y-component of the momentum equation becomes
•
Differentiating Faraday’s law and substituting the y- component of momentum
0,0 ==∂∂
yJxp 0=zJ
iuBE
juu
JbBJxp
tu
zyyx
ˆ
ˆ
0)(
0
0
−=
=
=−+∂∂
−=∂
∂
r
r
ρ
jzuBj
zEj
tb x ˆˆˆ
0 ∂∂
=∂
∂−=
∂∂
zbBBJ
tuy
∂∂
=×−=∂
∂
ρμρ 0
00
1 rr
2
2
0
22
02
2
zbB
tzuB
tb
∂∂
⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛=
∂∂∂
=∂∂
ρμ
where is called the Alfvén velocity.
•
The most general solution is . This is a
disturbance propagating along magnetic field lines at the
Alfvén velocity.
2
22
2
2
zuC
tb
A ∂∂
=∂∂
21
0
2
⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛=
ρμBCA
)( tCzbb A±=
•
Compressible solutions–
In general incompressibility will not always apply.–
Usually this is approached by assuming that the system starts in equilibrium and that perturbations are small.
•
Assume uniform B0
, perfect conductivity with equilibrium pressure p0 and mass density 0ρ
EE
JJ
uubBB
ppp
T
T
T
T
T
T
rr
rr
rr
rrr
=
=
=+=
+=+=
0
0
0 ρρρ
–
Continuity
–
Momentum
–
Equation of state
–
Differentiate the momentum equation in time, use Faraday’s law and the ideal MHD condition
where
)(0 ut
r⋅∇−=
∂∂ ρρ
))((10
00 bBp
tu rrr
×∇×−−∇=∂∂
μρ
ρρρ
∇=∇∂∂
=∇ 20)( sCpp
0)))((()(
)()(
22
2
0
=××∇×∇×+⋅∇∇−∂∂
××∇=×∇−=∂∂
AAs CuCuCtu
BuEtb
rrrrr
rrrr
21
0 )( ρμ
BAC
rr=
0BuErrr
×−=
–
For a plane wave solution
–
The dispersion relationship between the frequency ( ) and the propagation vector ( ) becomes
This came from replacing derivatives in time and space by
–
Case 1
)](exp[~ trkiu ω−⋅rrr
ωkr
0])()())[(())(( 222 =⋅−⋅−⋅⋅+⋅++− AAAAAs CukkuCukCkCkukCCurrrrrrrrrrrrrrrω
×→∇×
⋅→∇⋅
→∇
−→∂∂
ki
ki
ki
it
r
r
r
ω
0Bkrr
⊥
kukCCu As
rrrr ))(( 222 ⋅+=ω
•
The fluid velocity must be along and perpendicular to
•
These are magnetosonic
waves–
Case 2
•
A longitudinal mode with with dispersion relationship(sound waves)
•
A transverse mode with and (Alfvén waves)
kr
0Br
kr
ur0Br
21
)()( 22Asph CCkkv +±== ωr
0Bkrr
0)()1)(()( 222222 =⋅−+− AAAsA CuCkCCuCkrrrrω
kurr
sCk ±=ω
0=⋅uk rrAC
k±=
ω
• Alfven
waves propagate parallel to the magnetic field.
•The tension force acts as the restoring force.
•The fluctuating quantities are the electromagnetic field and the current density.