Era4:GlobalInteractions,c.1450toc.1750KeyConcept4.1.GlobalizingNetworksofCommunicationandExchangeTheinterconnectionoftheEasternandWesternhemispheresmadepossiblebytransoceanicvoyagingmarkedakeytransformationofthisperiod.Technologicalinnovationshelpedtomaketransoceanicconnectionspossible.Changingpatternsoflong-distancetradeincludedtheglobalcirculationofsomecommoditiesandtheformationofnewregionalmarketsandfinancialcenters.Increasedtransregionalandglobaltradenetworksfacilitatedthespreadofreligionandotherelementsofcultureaswellasthemigrationoflargenumbersofpeople.GermscarriedtotheAmericasravagedtheindigenouspeoples,whiletheglobalexchangeofcropsandanimalsalteredagriculture,diets,andpopulationsaroundtheplanet.

I. Inthecontextofthenewglobalcirculationofgoods,therewasanintensificationofallexistingregionalpatternsoftradethatbroughtprosperityandeconomicdisruptiontothemerchantsandgovernmentsinthetradingregionsoftheIndianOcean,Mediterranean,Sahara,andoverlandEurasia.[Textbook:417-418;437-442;523-539]

II. Europeantechnologicaldevelopmentsincartographyandnavigationbuiltonpreviousknowledgedevelopedintheclassical,Islamic,andAsianworlds,andincludedtheproductionofnewtools,innovationsinshipdesigns,andanimprovedunderstandingofglobalwindandcurrentspatterns—allofwhichmadetransoceanictravelandtradepossible.[Textbook:417-418;455-459]

Illustrativeexamplesofinnovationsinshipdesigns:

• Caravel• Carrack• Fluyt

III. Remarkablenewtransoceanicmaritimereconnaissanceoccurredinthisperiod.[Textbook:417-429;437-442]A. PortuguesedevelopmentofmaritimetechnologyandnavigationalskillsledtoincreasedtraveltoandtradewithWestAfrica,andresultedintheconstructionofaglobaltrading-postempire.

B. SpanishsponsorshipofthefirstColumbianandsubsequentvoyagesacrosstheAtlanticandPacificdramaticallyincreasedEuropeaninterestintransoceanictravelandtrade.

C. NorthernAtlanticcrossingsforfishingandsettlementscontinuedandspurredEuropeansearchesformultipleroutestoAsia.

IV. Thenewglobalcirculationofgoodswasfacilitatedbyroyal-charteredEuropeanmonopolycompaniesthattooksilverfromSpanishcoloniesintheAmericastopurchaseAsiangoodsfortheAtlanticmarkets.RegionalmarketscontinuedtoflourishinAfro-EurasiabyusingestablishedcommercialpracticesandnewtransoceanicshippingservicesdevelopedbyEuropeanmerchants.[Textbook:439-441;447-449;495-500;503-511;527-539;554-555;558-560;566-568]A. Europeanmerchants’roleinAsiantradewascharacterizedmostlybytransportinggoodsfromoneAsiancountrytoanothermarketinAsiaortheIndianOceanregion.

B. CommercializationandthecreationofaglobaleconomywereintimatelyconnectedtonewglobalcirculationofsilverfromtheAmericas.

C. Influencedbymercantilism,joint-stockcompanieswerenewmethodsusedbyEuropeanrulerstocontroltheirdomesticandcolonialeconomiesandbyEuropeanmerchantstocompeteagainstoneanotheringlobaltrade.

D. TheAtlanticsysteminvolvedthemovementofgoods,wealth,andfreeandunfreelaborers,andthemixingofAfrican,American,andEuropeanculturesandpeoples.

V. ThenewconnectionsbetweentheEasternandWesternhemispheresresultedintheColumbianExchange.[Textbook:417-418;430-431;441-442;447-449;494-516;520-522;527-537]A. EuropeancolonizationoftheAmericasledtothespreadofdiseases—includingsmallpox,measles,andinfluenza—thatwereendemicintheEasternHemisphereamongAmerindianpopulationsandtheunintentionaltransferofvermin,includingmosquitoesandrats.

B. AmericanfoodsbecamestaplecropsinvariouspartsofEurope,Asia,andAfrica.CashcropsweregrownprimarilyonplantationswithcoercedlaborandwereexportedmostlytoEuropeandtheMiddleEastinthisperiod.

IllustrativeexamplesofAmericanfoods:•Potatoes •Maize •Manioc

Illustrativeexamplesofcashcrops:•Sugar •Tobacco

C. Afro-Eurasianfruittrees,grains,sugar,anddomesticatedanimalswerebroughtbyEuropeanstotheAmericas,whileotherfoodswerebroughtbyAfricanslaves.Illustrativeexamplesofdomesticatedanimals:•Horses •Pigs •Cattle

IllustrativeexamplesoffoodsbroughtbyAfricanslaves:•Okra •Rice

D. PopulationsinAfro-EurasiabenefitednutritionallyfromtheincreaseddiversityofAmericanfoodcrops.

E. EuropeancolonizationandtheintroductionofEuropeanagricultureandsettlementspracticesintheAmericasoftenaffectedthephysicalenvironmentthroughdeforestationandsoildepletion.

VI. Theincreaseininteractionsbetweennewlyconnectedhemispheresandintensificationofconnectionswithinhemispheresexpandedthespreadandreformofexistingreligionsandcreatedsyncreticbeliefsystemsandpractices.[Textbook:437-439;443-447;452-459;465-469;473-481;500-503;566-568]Illustrativeexamplesofthereformofexistingreligionsandthecreationofsyncreticbeliefsystemsandpractices:

• ThecontinuingimportanceofSufipracticescontributedtothefurtherspreadofIslaminAfro-EurasiaasbelieversadaptedIslamtolocalculturalpractices.

• ThepoliticalrivalrybetweenOttomansandSafavidsintensifiedthesplitbetweenSunniandShi’a.

• ThepracticeofChristianitycontinuedtospreadthroughouttheworldandwasincreasinglydiversifiedbytheprocessofdiffusionandtheReformation.

• VodundevelopedintheCaribbeaninthecontextofinteractionsbetweenChristianityandAfricanreligions.

• SikhismdevelopedinSouthAsiainthecontextofinteractionsbetweenHinduismandIslam.

• WhilethepracticeofBuddhismdeclinedinSouthAsiaandislandSoutheastAsia,differentsectsofBuddhismandBuddhistpracticesspreadinNortheastAsiaandmainlandSoutheastAsia.

VII. Asmerchants’profitsincreasedandgovernmentscollectedmoretaxes,fundingfor

thevisualandperformingarts,evenforpopularaudiences,increasedalongwithanexpansionofliteracy.[Textbook:444-445;449-453;572-573]

KeyConcept4.2:NewFormsofSocialOrganizationandModesofProductionAlthoughtheworld’sproductivesystemscontinuedtobeheavilycenteredonagriculturalproductionthroughoutthisperiod,majorchangesoccurredinagriculturallabor,thesystemsandlocationsofmanufacturing,genderandsocialstructures,andenvironmentalprocesses.AdaptingtotheLittleIceAge,farmersincreasedagriculturalproductivitybyintroducingnewcropsandusingnewmethodsincrop-and-fieldrotation.Economicgrowthalsodependedonnewformsofmanufacturingandnewcommercialpatterns,especiallyinlong-distancetrade.Politicalandeconomiccenterswithinregionsshifted,andmerchants’socialstatustendedtoriseinvariousstates.Demographicgrowth—eveninareassuchastheAmericas,wherediseasehadravagedthepopulation—wasrestoredbythe18thcenturyandsurgedinmanyregions,especiallywiththeintroductionofAmericanfoodcropsthroughouttheEasternHemisphere.TheColumbianExchangeledtonewwaysofhumansinteractingwiththeirenvironments.NewformsofcoercedandsemicoercedlaboremergedinEurope,Africa,andtheAmericas,andaffectedethnicandracialclassificationsandgenderroles.

I. Beginninginthe14thcentury,therewasadecreaseinmeantemperatures,oftenreferredtoastheLittleIceAge,aroundtheworldthatlasteduntilthe19thcentury,contributingtochangesinagriculturalpracticesandthecontractionofsettlementinpartsoftheNorthernHemisphere.

II. Traditionalpeasantagricultureincreasedandchanged,plantationsexpanded,and

demandforlaborincreased.Thesechangesbothfedandrespondedtogrowingglobaldemandforrawmaterialsandfinishedproducts.[Textbook:417-418;427;441-442;495-500;506-507;509-516;527-537;556;560-561;566-568]

A. Peasantlaborintensifiedinmanyregions.Illustrativeexamplesoftheintensificationofpeasantlabor:•ThedevelopmentoffrontiersettlementsinRussianSiberia•CottontextileproductioninIndia•SilktextileproductioninChina

B. SlaveryinAfricacontinuedboththetraditionalincorporationofslavesintohouseholdsandtheexportofslavestotheMediterraneanandtheIndianOcean.

C. ThegrowthoftheplantationeconomyincreasedthedemandforslavesintheAmericas.

D. ColonialeconomiesintheAmericasdependedonarangeofcoercedlabor.Illustrativeexamplesofcoercedlabor:•Chattelslavery•Indenturedservitude

•Encomiendaandhaciendasystems•TheSpanishadaptationoftheIncamit’a

III. Asnewsocialandpoliticaleliteschanged,theyalsorestructuredethnic,racial,andgenderhierarchies.[Textbook:449-452;478-481;495-500;553-560]

A. Bothimperialconquestsandwideningglobaleconomicopportunitiescontributedtotheformationofnewpoliticalandeconomicelites.

Illustrativeexamplesofnewelites:•TheManchusinChina•CreoleelitesinSpanishAmerica

•Europeangentry•Urbancommercialentrepreneursinallmajorportcitiesintheworld

B. Thepowerofexistingpoliticalandeconomicelitesfluctuatedastheyconfrontednewchallengestotheirabilitytoaffectthepoliciesoftheincreasinglypowerfulmonarchsandleaders.Illustrativeexamplesofexistingelites:•ThezamindarsintheMughalEmpire •ThenobilityinEurope •ThedaimyoinJapan

C. Somenotablegenderandfamilyrestructuringoccurred,includingdemographicchangesinAfricathatresultedfromtheslavetrades.Illustrativeexamplesofgenderandfamilyrestructuring:•ThedependenceofEuropeanmenonSoutheastAsianwomenforconductingtradeinthatregion•ThesmallersizeofEuropeanfamilies

KeyConcept4.3:StateConsolidationandImperialExpansionEmpiresexpandedandconqueredpeoplesaroundtheworld,buttheyoftenhaddifficultiesincorporatingculturally,ethnically,andreligiouslydiversesubjects,andadministratingwidelydispersedterritories.AgentsoftheEuropeanpowersmovedintoexistingtradenetworksaroundtheworld.InAfricaandthegreaterIndianOcean,nascentEuropeanempiresconsistedmainlyofinterconnectedtradingpostsandenclaves.IntheAmericas,Europeanempiresmovedmorequicklytosettlementandterritorialcontrol,respondingtolocaldemographicandcommercialconditions.Moreover,thecreationofEuropeanempiresintheAmericasquicklyfosteredanewAtlanticexchangenetworkthatincludedthetransAtlanticslavetradeandtranspacificexchangenetwork.Aroundthe

world,empiresandstatesofvaryingsizespursuedstrategiesofcentralization,includingmoreefficienttaxationsystemsthatplacedstrainsonpeasantproducers,sometimespromptinglocalrebellions.Rulersusedpublicdisplaysofartandarchitecturetolegitimizestatepower.AfricanstatessharedcertaincharacteristicswithlargerEurasianempires.ChangesinAfricanandglobaltradingpatternsstrengthenedsomeWestandCentralAfricanstates—especiallyonthecoast;thisledtotheriseofnewstatesandcontributedtothedeclineofstatesonboththecoastandintheinterior.

I. Rulersusedavarietyofmethodstolegitimizeandconsolidatetheirpower.[Textbook:404-407;442-455;462-469;478-489;500-503;523-526;553-560;590-594]A. Rulerscontinuedtousereligiousideas,art,andmonumentalarchitecturetolegitimizetheirrule.

Illustrativeexamplesofartandmonumentalarchitecture:•Ottomanminiaturepainting

•Qingimperialportraits•Mughalmausoleaandmosques,suchastheTajMahal•Europeanpalaces,suchasVersailles

Illustrativeexamplesofreligiousideas:•Europeannotionsofdivineright•SafaviduseofShi’ism•Aztec(Mexica)practiceofhumansacrifice

•SonghaypromotionofIslam•Chineseemperors’publicperformanceofConfucianrituals

B. Statestreateddifferentethnicandreligiousgroupsinwaysthatutilizedtheireconomiccontributionswhilelimitingtheirabilitytochallengetheauthorityofthestate.

Illustrativeexamplesofdifferentialtreatmentofethnicandreligiousgroups:

• Ottomantreatmentofnon-Muslimsubjects

• ManchupoliciestowardChinese

• Spanishcreationofaseparate“RepublicadeIndios”

• SpanishandPortuguesecreationofnewracialclassificationsintheAmericasincludingmestizo,mulatto,creole

C. Recruitmentanduseofbureaucraticelites,aswellasthedevelopmentofmilitaryprofessionals,becamemorecommonamongrulerswhowantedtomaintaincentralizedcontrolovertheirpopulationsandresources.Illustrativeexamplesofbureaucraticelitesormilitaryprofessionals:•Ottomandevshirme•Chineseexaminationsystem

•Salariedsamurai

D. Rulersusedtributecollectionandtaxfarmingtogeneraterevenueforterritorialexpansion.

II. Imperialexpansionreliedontheincreaseduseofgunpowder,cannons,andarmedtradetoestablishlargeempiresinbothhemispheres.[Textbook:418-427;437-452;465-468;472-473;481-489;553-560]A. Europeansestablishednewtrading-postempiresinAfricaandAsia,whichprovedprofitablefortherulersandmerchantsinvolvedinnewglobaltradenetworks,buttheseempiresalsoaffectedthepowerofthestatesininteriorWestandCentralAfrica.

B. Landempires-includingtheManchu,Mughal,Ottoman,andRussian -expandeddramaticallyinsize.

C. EuropeanstatesestablishednewmaritimeempiresintheAmericas,includingthePortuguese,Spanish,Dutch,French,andBritish.

III. Competitionovertraderoutes,staterivalries,andlocalresistanceallprovidedsignificantchallengestostateconsolidationandexpansion.[Textbook:462-469;473-478;523-526;530-533;558-560]

Illustrativeexamplesofcompetitionovertraderoutes:•Omani-EuropeanrivalryintheIndianOcean •Piracyinthe

Caribbean

Illustrativeexamplesofstaterivalries:•ThirtyYearsWar •Ottoman-Safavidconflict

Illustrativeexamplesoflocalresistance:•Foodriots •Samurairevolts•Peasantuprisings