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Academic language is the language used in content area classrooms. It is linked to higher order thinking processes and developed by extensive modeling and scaffolding of classroom talk. (Zwiers 2008, p. xi) In order to develop academic language, students must be immersed in a language-rich, interactive environment.

Language in the content areasEach of the core content areas has some language in common. For example, all content areas will use language to describe cause and effect, sequencing and inferencing. Phrases such as “This is probably because…” and “_____ resulted in ______,” and “I can infer that…” would occur in all content areas during academic discussions.

Academic language also contains specialized language unique to the subject.

For example:

DEVELOPING ACADEMIC LANGUAGE

Students should have

daily opportunities to talk

and write about what

they read and hear in the

classroom each day using

formal academic

language.

Language Arts language structures allow for:• interpretation• persuasion• inferring cause and effect

Mathmathematical language:• tends to be more abstract • includes specialized meanings of

common terms such as variable, cancel, balance, and positive

• utilizes: comparatives: 5 is greater

than 3, Joe is twice as old as Georgia

prepositions: divided by, multiplied by

passive voice: x is defi ned as a number greater than 12

reversals: The number x is fi ve less than y

Sciencefocuses on:• classifi cation• procedures• description of phenomena • inductive arguments• use of passive voice

Social Studies contains words and phrases used to describe:• the past• the present• point of view • analysis of relationships

between persons, places, and events

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TYPES OF VOCABULARY: BRICKS AND MORTAR

Dutro & Moran (2003) (Zwiers, 22) refer to “brick” and “mortar” terms as a way to distinguish between content-specifi c vocabulary and general cross-curricular academic language.

“Brick” words are the vocabulary specifi c to the content and concepts taught in a specifi c discipline. “Brick” words tend to be found in glossaries and in bold face print in the content area text books.

“Mortar” words and phrases are the general utility vocabulary required for constructing sentences and paragraphs to engage in discussions using academic English. Mortar words and phrases help to connect language together and are essential to its comprehension. Mortar terms include:

• Connecting words: best represents, for example, however and whereas• Prepositions and prepositional phrases: on, in, under, behind, between• Academic vocabulary typically found in content area objectives, test

questions and assignments: analyze, plan, compare, evaluate

While native English speakers may have more familiarity with “mortar” terms, English learners often do not and such vocabulary requires explicit instruction.

Students need both bricks and mortar terms and phrases to fully participate in academic English discourse.

Example: Social Studies Bricks: federalism, sovereignty, monarchy, and sectionalism Mortar: therefore, consequently, implications, and corroborate

FEDERALISM SOVEREIGNTY

SECTIONALISMMONARCHY

THEREFORE CORROBORATECO

NS

EQ

UE

NTL

Y

IMP

LIC

ATIO

NS

Additional examples:Discipline Bricks MortarMath reciprocal, equation, proof,

obtuseestimate, solve, represents, approximate

Science photosynthesis, igneous, genetic hypothesis, variable, conclude, observe, evaluate

Language Arts characterization, alliteration, theme, plot, simile, foreshadowing

in contrast, interpret, persuade, narrate, punctuation

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Set up a classroom learning

environment where all students

communicate using academic

language.

Establish specific

language objectives, in addition to

TEKS-based content objectives for each lesson.

Explicitly teach students academic language structures

using focused vocabulary instruction and sentence stems.

PROCESS FOR TEACHING ACADEMIC LANGUAGE

Setting up the classroom environmentIn a classroom, talk is priceless. Teachers must create an environment characterized by high expectations for academic achievement and equal, active participation among all students during classroom discussions. Teachers must provide linguistic support for English learners so that they may all participate daily in classroom discussions that use academic language.

Teaching students classroom norms

for classroom discussion that

ensure respect and accountability.

Encouraging students to speak in complete sentences.

Teaching students how to ask for clarifi cation and help.

Ensuring that all students have the opportunity to participate.

Sample norms:

Listen to the speaker.

Stay on topic.

Disagree respectfully.

Refer to the previous person’s comments and provide a transition into what you want to say.

Teacher prompts:

“Please express your thoughts in complete sentences.”

“Could you please connect your ideas using a complete sentence?”

Student responses:

“Could I please have some more information about that?”

“I’d like some time to refl ect on this.”

“One thing I have a question about is…”

“I’d like to discuss this further with my peers.”

Teacher ensures equal participation through:

Randomly calling on students to respond using Popsicle® sticks with student names or index cards.

Use the think/pair/share strategy to have all students process learning tasks, not just teacher-selected students.

PROCESS FOR TEACHING ACADEMIC LANGUAGE

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Creating sentence stemsMany English learners benefi t from having language scaffolded through the use of sentence stems when engaging in activities involving speaking and writing. Sentence stems:

are short phrases that provide models for how to use academic vocabulary and correct grammar in context.

help English learners have a starting place for communicating their ideas orally and in writing.

may be oral and/or written.can focus on issues and concepts.may be created using the language of TEKS and TAKS.are created by understanding the academic language students are currently able to

use and will need to use to demonstrate their knowledge of the content objective.

The social studies example below represents the use of the TEKS to craft sentence stems to scaffold academic language for English learners:

TEKS 8.6C:Identify colonial grievances listed in the Declaration of Independence, and explain how those grievances were addressed in the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights.

Content Objective: Students will use a graphic organizer to identify colonial grievances in the Declaration of Independence.

ELPS: 3(H) Narrate, describe, and explain with increasing specificity and detail as more English is acquired.

Language Objective: Students will identify and describe colonial grievances using the sentence stems:

A grievance can be defined as ________.Three examples of colonial grievances listed in the Declaration of Independence are _______________, ___________, and _____________.

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Using Sentence Stems in the Classroom:One strategy to get students to use sentence stems that contain academic language is John Seidlitz’ QSSSA (Question, Signal, Stem, Share, Assess). The teacher asks a question and then asks students to show a signal when they are ready to respond to the question with a particular sentence stem provided by the teacher. When all students are ready, they share their answers. Students are then assessed either through randomly selecting individual students after the conversation or through writing assignments that follow the conversation.

For example:

Questionsignal

stemshare

assess

How do organisms including producers, consumers, and decomposers live together in an environment and use existing resources? (TEKS 7.12B)

Stand up when you can complete this sentence stem.

“Producers, consumers, and decomposers live together in an environment and use existing resources by…”

Turn to your partner and share your thoughts.

In your journal, write the answer using the sentence stem “producers, consumers, and decomposers live together in an environment and use existing resources by…”