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Year 28 Nº 112 fourth quarter 2008SEGURIDADy Medio Ambiente

Main aspects of the asbestos-exposure technical guide ● Ergonomics: HADA assisted design and analysis tool ● Environmental education

and meaningful learning ● Environmental repercussions of artificial lighting

Main aspects of the asbestos-exposure tecnical guide SECURITY

La Guía técnica de exposición al amianto ha arrojado luz sobre los aspectos más interpretativos del Real Decreto 396/2006, relativo a disposiciones de seguridad y salud aplicables a los trabajos con riesgo de exposición al amianto. Este artículo aborda los puntos que suponen un mayor cambio a la hora de proteger a los trabajadores expuestos. By MARIANO MARTÍNEZ. Licenciado en Ciencias Químicas. Director de Higiene Industrial. Sociedad de Prevención de FREMAP.

Over two years after the appearance of Royal Decree (Real Decreto) 396/2006 of 31 March, establishing the minimum health-and-safety provisions for work with asbestos-exposure risk, the Technical Guide developing this Royal Decree has finally seen the light of day. The guide aims to clarify those points of theRoyal Decree that have been differently interpreted and acted upon by the stakeholders involved in the prevention of asbestos-exposure risks.

It should be pointed out from the start that all the technical guides of the National Institute of Health and Safety at Work (Instituto Nacional de Seguridad e Higiene en el Trabajo: INSHT) are non binding in character and there is hence no legal obligation to comply with them. Nonetheless, from a technical point of view, the guide is of unquestioned prestige and lays down the recognised path to follow in assessing asbestos exposure.

Moreover, as with the rest of the technical guides published beforehand, the Asbestos-Exposure Technical Guide (Guía Técnica de Exposición al Amianto), will have its share of defenders and detractors. Some will uphold it as necessary and advocate its criteria, which, even though they may often be part of the armoury of measures already being implemented by employers or industrial hygienists, needed to be pooled in one reference document. Others, on the contrary, will argue that the guide or even the decree itself is unnecessary on the grounds that there is already a risk-prevention royal decree dealing withcarcinogenic agents, including all varieties of asbestos. It may also be claimed that the Technical Guide is more lenient than the Practical guide on best practice to prevent or minimise asbestos risks of the European Commission’s Senior Labour Inspectors Committee (SLIC). But all these guides, the asbestos guide, the carcinogenic agents guide and the good practice guide, should in fact be regarded as complementary rather than mutually exclusive; proper protection of exposed workers will be obtained only by the joint application of all of them.

The aim of this article is not to give a detailed analysis of saidTechnical Guide, which would call for a document bigger than the

Figure 1. Identificación pMCA.

Figure 2. pACM “Cata” (sampling)

Year 28 Nº 112 fourth quarter 2008

Page 1 of 9Seguridad y Medio Ambiente - Nº 112

guide itself, but merely to bring out those points of interest that involve a significant and groundbreaking change in the way of protecting exposed or potentially exposed workers and how to assess this exposure

From our point of view the most important points, in no particular order, would be the following:

Identification of asbestos-containing material

Material with asbestos: Removal or containment

Assessment of the exposure

Occupational exposure limits and decontamination indices

Scope of application and any exceptions

Identification of asbestos-containing material

Much of the material currently present in our daily life was originally made with asbestos. Existing technical studies seem to show that only a small percentage of buildings in which asbestos was used in their construction have since been refitted to removeit. Furthermore, asbestos might be present in pipelines, lagging, union joints or insulation, vinyl type flooring or even in suchdecorative elements as jardinières.

This widespread presence of asbestos, and the difficulty ofknowing with any certainty whether or not any element is asbestos-free, means that identification is the first step to be taken whenever confronting material suspected of containing asbestos.

We also have to bear in mind here that a wrong identification of said asbestos-containing material (ACM) could lead to unnoticed exposure without the due preventive measures being taken, thusundermining the organisational and economic efforts made elsewhere to prevent asbestos exposure risks.

The ACM identification process could itself imply exposure to asbestos. This process should therefore be properly planned and the due preventive measures taken. The first step in this process should be to draw up an inventory of potential asbestos-containing material (pACM), including, as we have already pointed out, all items suspected of containing asbestos due totheir manufacture, constituent products or purpose. The pACM inventory will therefore be the result of a document study and a reconnaissance of the zone in question.

Once the inventory has been drawn up, the pACMs then have to be classified. Although it is inadvisable to break up or perforate the pACMs, it is often the only classification procedure possible. The collection of said material, a process known in Spanish as“cata” (testing or sampling), shall be considered as a situation of potential asbestos exposure risk, calling therefore for adoption ofthe proper preventive measures. It is vital to bear this in mind for, although the intervention on the material involved is usuallyminimal, the object thereof is to release fibres or material made up by fibres.

Once the sampling has been performed the material obtained shall be enclosed in keeping with the stipulations of royal decree396/2006 while the sampled zones should be sealed to avoid anyresidual risks for the sample-transporting personnel, theanalytical laboratory personnel and the personnel of the sites thematerial has been taken from.

Finally, it is vital for the analyses to be carried out in certified labs with a recognised quality management system, which participate in intercomparison programmes to ensure the

Figure 3. Sealing the sampling zone

Figure 4. Identification of fibres in materials No. of annual samples


dependability of the identifications made. It would also berecommendable, in accordance with the technical guide, to ask the laboratories not only to identify whether or not the material contains asbestos but also to specify the type of fibre present in the material analysed, since, even if asbestos is ruled out, there might still be another chemical agent classified as carcinogenic.

Fremap’ Prevention Society’s Central Laboratories (Laboratorios Centrales de la Sociedad de Prevención de Fremap) boast amicroscopy area for identifying asbestos in material and also for counting the fibres captured in working environments. This area has noted a certain change both in the amount and type of samples received since the appearance of Royal Decree 396/2006; we believe this change could be a telltale sign of the current asbestos situation.

An analysis of the numbers of received samples for fibre-identification shows a really significant change (Figure 4).

The spectacular increase in the number of samples for identification of asbestos-containing material over these two years (up by 150%), shows a deep-seated change in the perception of the public at large and of the people working in the prevention of occupational risks, while also indicating a higherawareness of the importance of finding out about the risks workers are exposed to.

Asbestos containing material: removal or containment

In general, whenever asbestos is detected in any area, the first idea that occurs to us is its removal. Without doubt there is a strong association of ideas, quite rightly, between asbestos and cancer, asbestosis and extreme toxicity; the knee-jerk reaction is therefore to remove it from our presence. But is removalnecessarily always the best idea or might there in fact be situations where it would be best to keep it and monitor its state of conservation? This aspect of asbestos is where the technical guide gives us least to go on.

As might have been supposed, the first option upon discovering any asbestos-containing material should not always be removal. On the contrary the removal option should be resorted to only when the material cannot be kept in such a state of conservation as to guarantee no release of fibres into the environment.

Various methods are recorded in today’s bibliography to help us decide whether we can conserve the ACM without risks or, on the contrary, whether we should replace it. Of all these methods there are two deemed to be the most recommendable, on the strength of their methodology and the prestige of the organisations that have drawn them up. These methods are the “Decision flow chart for asbestos containing material” from the Practical guide on best practice to prevent or minimise asbestos risks in work that involves (or may involve) asbestos: for the employer, the workers and the labour inspectors” of the Senior Labour Inspectors Committee (SLIC) and the “ACM Assessment” of MDHS 100 Surveying, Sampling and Assessment of AsbestosContaining Materials of the Health & Safety Laboratory of the HSE.

The decision flow chart of the SLIC’s Guide of Good Practices involves a logical yes-no decision process for ACMs to decide whether to remove or repair the material in question. The logical sequence begins with a question about the material’s state of conservation, continuing with a consideration of its ease of repair and accessibility of the ACM. If the state of conservation or ease of repair are considered feasible the flow chart leads us off


towards the non-removal option. A second phase then confirms the need to remove the ACM. These phases, as can be seen from the attached chart, consist of establishing whether the damage actually or potentially suffered is superficial and whether or not sealing or encapsulating is feasible. Should the damage be established as extensive in this phase or should it be thought impossible to repair it safely, the flow chart obviously leads youto the removal decision.

Figure 5: Decision flow chart for asbestos-containing materials

The “ACM Assessment” included in the Method for Determination of Hazardous Substances number 100 of the Health and Safety Executive (INSHT’s opposite number in the United Kingdom) consists of a method of similar characteristics to the SLIC’s Guide of Good Practices, including a material assessment algorithm toassess likely magnitude of fibre release. This classification ismade in terms of four parameters: type of product, extent of damage or deterioration, surface treatment and type of asbestos.

Each of these parameters is scored as high, medium or low. In the case of deterioration and surface treatment a nil score ispossible. All these values will give us a numerical-type ACM classification enabling us to rate the risk of fibre release. It should be pointed out that strict application of this method is not in accord with Spanish legislation, since this algorithm penalisescrocidolite as more hazardous than the rest of the amphiboles and these in turn more than chrysotile, while Spanish legislation


establishes no difference between the hazardousness of the various asbestos varieties.

According to the score obtained, the assessment is as follows:

HSE Material Assessment Algorithm. The potential risk in score 4 or less is very low; in score 5-6 is low: In score 7-9 is medium and in the score over 10 is high

The resulting assessment, together with the rest of the information gleaned on the location of material, extent thereof, activities carried out on the premises, occupancy, etc, will give employers enough wherewithal for establishing their order ofACM-removal priorities and also for deciding which material can be maintained.

Nonetheless, in those cases in which the decision is taken not to remove the ACM, a careful control should be kept over this material thereafter, checking that the conditions at the moment of assessment are maintained. Any change in these conditions would then prompt a new assessment and even new removal decisions.

Exposure assesment

Without doubt the most important aspect from the technical prevention point of view is assessment of the asbestos exposure risk, and this has not gone unnoticed to those who drafted the Technical Guide of Royal Decree 396/2006, who have dealt with this aspect in great depth

The Royal Decree lays it down that the risk assessment should be carried out with the work in progress; witness point 1 of article 5, which runs as follows “.… the risk assessment ..… should includemeasurement of the airborne concentration of asbestos fibres in the workplace.” Nonetheless the guide itself, with an eminently preventive outlook, recommends that said risk assessment should begin at an earlier stage, during the asbestos removal plan or work plan. In other words, before beginning any work anassessment should be made of the potential risk that said work might entail, including the preventive measures in the plan. A previous risk assessment should be carried out. Furthermore, the previous assessment should be carried out regardless of the nature of the jobs or whether a work plan is needed to carrythem out.

The previous assessment could be carried out with values drawnfrom the bibliography, databases or earlier assessments. In default of any figures to go on, the working assumption shall be that threshold limits are exceeded. It will therefore not be the measurement that determines the adoption of preventive measures. Nonetheless, the assumption is that whenever the work plan has been approved, either explicitly or tacitly, there will be no need for a previous assessment since this would be intrinsically included in the plan.

Once the previous assessment has been carried out, with the work in execution phase and the work plan already approved, the necessary measurements shall be made to establish the exposure level and decide, accordingly, whether the preventive measures adopted are the most fitting. The airborne fibre concentration will be measured for each type of given activity, including all the tasks carried out by the firm during any particular job. Likewise, for those jobs that have been carried out previously and in the


same conditions, it will not be necessary to repeat the measurement for the purpose of carrying out the assessment.

Both the previous assessment and the risk assessment will be conducted not only for the workstations directly exposed to asbestos but also for those that might be exposed by residual risk, including zones that might be contaminated with asbestos.

Even though an assessment measurement is made, the work itself will still be subjected to control measurements to confirm that accidental exposure is not occurring to other workers in the immediate surroundings. The number of control measurements will be determined by the friability of the material concerned andthe duration of the jobs. For friable material a measurement should be made every 5 working days while for non-friable material the measurement would be every 20 days or even one-off.

These assessments, in view of their complexity, the experience required and the need of minimising error in the measurement itself and interpretation of results, shall be carried out byindustrial hygienists with specific training in this field, from the INSHT or similar organisations. These organisations, such as Fremap’s Prevention Society (Sociedad de Prevención de Fremap), have trained up specialist technicians, with skills exceeding even the level laid down in article 5 of said Royal Decree (“the risk assessments shall be made by qualified personnel with high skills levels and specialising in industrial hygiene”). These technicians, apart from their training in industrial hygiene, have also received specific training in asbestos-related matters, from identification of potential ACMs to the taking of analysis samples, the drawing up of work plans and, of course, the taking of environmental samples and assessment of the risks faced by potentially exposed workers.

Finally, another factor to be taken into account in asbestos-exposure assessments is the need for the asbestos analysis (fibre counts) to be carried out by specialist laboratories recognised by the Factory Inspectorate (Dirección General de Trabajo). These labs have to be included in INSHT’s fibre control programme (PICC-FA), to ensure the validity of the results. We would also make bold to suggest that the pACM analyses to ascertain whether or not the material contains asbestos should be carried out in labs with similar types of controls and recognition levels.

Occupational exposure limits and decontamination indices

As is well known, Royal Decree 396/2006 laid down a Threshold Limit Value, Time Weighted Average (TLV-TWA) [in Spanish “valor límite ambiental de exposición diaria” (VAL-ED)], weighted for a period of 8 hours, as the concentration above which noworker should be exposed. For varieties of asbestos this value was set at:

TLV-TWA = 0.1 fibres/cm3

As can be seen this concentration will be determined by the number of fibres collected in a sampling filter and the volume of air that has been driven through said filter.

Nonetheless, in its keenness to meet all the needs of the preventive work, the technical guide goes beyond this value of daily exposure. Neither should we forget that the Royal Decree laid down a maximum working period of 4 hours a day. As of today, therefore, where work with asbestos should be limited to the removal and withdrawal thereof, we usually find a host of exposures where the exposure time is no higher than a few


minutes.

For these short-duration exposures, and in default of any short-term TLVs (VLA-EC in Spanish initials), the guide recommends that Deviation Limits should be applied (DLs) defined in the document of occupational exposure limits for chemical agents in Spain. These deviation limits, complementary to the TLV-TWAs, are statistically established as 3 x TLV-TWA where the concentration should not be exceeded for more than 30 minutes throughout the working day and as 5 x TLV-TWA as theconcentration that should not be exceeded at any moment of the working day. Applying these deviation limits to asbestos, we would have:

Concentration not to be exceeded for more than 30 minutes: 0.3 fib/cm3 Concentration not to be exceeded at any moment of the working day: 0.5 fib/cm3

Lastly, with regard to the TLVs, it should be made clear here that, as with the other carcinogenic agents, these values should be taken solely as indicators of the concentration of fibres present in the working environment and not as indicators of the potentialinhalation of fibres by workers, which should without a shadow of a doubt be nil. In other words these values will serve to gauge only the suitability of the control measures set up, and hence the sufficiency thereof, but under no circumstances should they be taken as indicators of the concentration of fibres breathed in by the worker.

In its article dealing with work plans the Royal Decree stipulates that “once the asbestos demolition or removal work is over it will then be necessary to ensure that there are no asbestos exposure risks in the workplace”. This would involve carrying out measures to ascertain the Decontamination Index in the workplace.

The Decontamination Index is an indicator of the air quality interms of its possible content of asbestos fibre. Its aim is to ensure that the air is not contaminated with fibre and that there is therefore no asbestos exposure risk. This index should be checked after the final cleaning of the workplace and before definitively removing the protection measures; this would involve a visual inspection and an environmental control measurement to confirm the absence of fibres in the atmosphere. The guide stipulates that this measurement will not be necessary when the work has been carried out outdoors or when indoor demolition or removal work involves only non-friable material; in these cases there is unlikely to be any dispersion of fibres in the environmentor the working environment in the case of indoor working. On the other hand, a thoroughgoing visual inspection must always be carried out after the final cleaning.

Spanish regulation lays down no threshold level below which anyenvironment may be considered to be decontaminated. The guide therefore gives a series of guideline criteria to allow employers involved in the work to establish a reference value for said decontamination index. These criteria are defined as follows:

Background concentration: the concentration as measured after carrying out the work shall be no higher than the concentration measured before beginning same.

Fibre concentration outdoors: the fibre concentration measured after carrying out the work shall be less than the fibre concentration outdoors.

International reference values: these are based on the values laid down in other countries. Although these differ from country to country, the most widespread figure used is 0.01 fibre/cm3.


In relation to these criteria it is important to carry out additional measures before going ahead with the work in the case of opting for the first two options, either in the working environment in normal occupancy conditions or in the environment adjacent to the site where the work was carried out.

Lastly, in the case of control measures, the criterion forascertaining the reference value to be used can be established in the same way as the decontamination index.

Scope of application and any exceptions

Chronologically speaking this point should have been dealt with first but we have left it to the end because we consider that the guide’s recommendations are going to produce a significant change in the modus operandi of the various stakeholders involved, both in the execution and assessment of work involving exposure to asbestos.

Royal Decree 396/2006, when coming into force, established its field of application as the work of demolition, dismantling, removal, withdrawal and maintenance of asbestos-containing material with workers actually or potentially exposed thereto.Notwithstanding the above, said royal decree also laid down a series of exceptions for sporadic, low-intensity exposures where the assessment clearly indicates that the TLV is not exceeded. For these situations, even though the rest of the royal decree isstill applicable, there is no obligation to comply with the articles dealing with work plans or health surveillance: neither is there any obligation to enrol with the Registry of Firms with Asbestos Risk (Registro de Empresas con Riesgo de Amianto: RERA). Examples cited of such work are short and discontinuous maintenance work with non-friable material, removal withoutdeterioration of non-friable material, encapsulating and sealing work on material in a good state and surveillance and sample-taking activities for detecting the presence of asbestos.

As already pointed out, the main condition for invoking these exceptions was that the work be carried out sporadically. Before the appearance of the guide, the term “sporadic” was defined in INSHT’s Technical Prevention Note 330 on a Simplified Accident Risk Assessment System where sporadic is defined as that riskexposure that occurs with irregular frequency. Solely by way ofexample we should remember that the technical note itself defined “Occasional” as that exposure to risk that might occur at some time during the working day with a short time period. On the contrary, the technical guide, referring to the definition given by the Spanish Language Dictionary of the Spanish Royal Academy, defines sporadic as “occasional, bearing no relationshipto preceding or following events”, ie. exposure that has not occurred beforehand and is unlikely to recur in the future.

The guide also points out that any activity not meeting thiscondition, whether or not the other conditions are complied with, falls within the field of application of royal decree 396/2006 andis hence subject to all the articles of the royal decree.

In view of this new definition of “sporadic” given in the guide and the study of work with ACMs, including of course the abovementioned exceptions, there is unlikely to be any activity that is not bound to comply with all the articles of royal decree396/2006.

Conclusions

Other points are dealt with thoroughly in the guide, though they are not considered here. These include personal protection equipment, where information is given to help in compliance with


the obligations laid down in Royal Decree 396/2006.

We therefore see that the Asbestos-Exposure Technical Guide meets its remit of helping to fill in the interpretative loopholes ofRoyal Decree 396/2006 on the protection of workers from asbestos-exposure risks.

There are certain other aspects where there is still room for improvement, such as:

Removal and encapsulation

Why such an important risk, worthy of legislation in its own right, should have its work plans automatically approved if no government response is forthcoming within 45 days.

The real need of making a biennial radiographic study of workers when it can be proven that the exposure was low intensity and the respiratory function study shows no anomaly.

The ongoing advances in this field and the experience learnt from applying the technical guide mean that there will almost certainlybe a need for future revisions.

ACRONYMS USED

ACM: Asbestos-containing material

pACM: Potential asbestos-containing material

INSHT: Instituto Nacional de Seguridad e Higiene en el Trabajo

SLIC: Senior Labour Inspectors Committee

RERA: Registro de Empresas con Riesgo de Amianto

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. “Guía Técnica para la evaluación y prevención de los riesgos relacionados con la Exposición al Amianto”. INSHT.

2. “Practical guide on best practice to prevent or minimise asbestos risks in work that involves (or may involve) asbestos: for the employer, the workers and the labour inspectors”. Senior Labour Inspectors Committee (SLIC). European Commission. Directorate General for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities.

3. Límites de Exposición Profesional para Agentes Químicos en España. INSHT.

4. MTA/MA-051/A04. Determinación de fibras de amianto y otras fibras en aire. Método del filtro de membrana / microscopia óptica de contraste de fases. INSHT.

5. CR-02/2005. Medida fiable de las concentraciones de fibras de amianto en aire. Aplicación del método de toma de muestras y análisis MTA/MA-051/A04. INSHT.

6. MDHS 100 “Surveying, sampling and assessment of asbestos-containing materials” Health and Safety Laboratory. HSE.

7. “Prospección sobre la presencia de amianto o de materiales que lo contengan en edificios. Identificación práctica de amianto en edificios y metodologías de análisis”. Fundación para la Prevención de Riesgos Laborales.


HADA Assisted Design and Analysis Tool ERGONOMICS

This article describes the HADA Assisted Design and Analysis Tool, so called from its Spanish initials (Herramienta de Análisis y Diseño Asistido). Fruit of a 3-year research-and-development project by Grupo ID ERGO of the Engineering Research Institute (I3A) of Zaragoza University and Instituto de Ergonomía MAPFRE, S.A.

It enables all human movements to be captured outside a laboratory environment. This system has been designed to help in the analysis of work-related musculoskeletal risks under real conditions and in the design of workstations. The technology is based on inertial motion sensors fitted inside a jacket worn by the worker under study.

The system includes software for displaying the captured motion on a male or female biomechanical model, adjusting its anthropometry to the subject under observation. A biomechanicalanalysis can be conducted and ergonomic evaluation methods can be applied to ascertain whether musculoskeletal injuries might occur during work performance.

The system makes it possible to recreate scenarios, both realones and those proposed as alternatives to improve workingconditions.

General system objective

The aim of the HADA system is the capture and 3D analysis of human motion in workstations. It is based on inertial motion sensors, with the information they pick up being passed onto 3D biomechanical models. It is a portable system comprising a set of motion sensors fitted in an instrumented jacket worn by the worker, with minimum interference to his or her work, combined with motion-capture and –analysis software. The information picked up by the sensors in the field is used in conjunction with 3D animation software to reproduce the worker’s motion on a biomechanical model. This information can then be used for a subsequent ergonomic evaluation of the musculoskeletal risks of the activity under study.

There are currently various very advanced motion-capture systems [2]. Most of them, however are restricted to use underlaboratory conditions, are costly and call for considerable userinstruction.

This article presents a portable, low-cost, high-performance,user-friendly system. Motion in real working conditions can be captured merely by issuing the worker to be observed with a sensor-fitted jacket and then using a PDA to pool the information picked up by the sensors and a video camera, which can be mounted on a tripod or be hand held by the technician duringfilming.

Figure 1. Field components of the HADA System.



In a more advanced version the camera could be fitted withcalibrated lenses. This option would make it possible, by means of photogrammetry, to reconstruct the workstation in 3D and accurately ascertain its dimensions without having to make any measurements of the real workstation; this is another great advantage of this system.

The motion information captured in the field is processed by software to display the resulting movement on a biomechanical model (male or female), whose anthropometrical characteristics can be automatically varied to simulate and analyse the risks for different population percentiles. A 3D motion study can also be made together with a biomechanical analysis; software-incorporated ergonomic evaluation methods can also be applied.

In sum, the HADA System has been designed to capture motion in the actual workstation and is geared towards occupational-risk-prevention officers who carry out field studies, helping themto make the corresponding ergonomic studies and assess the risk involved.

The system has been successfully applied for designing andredesigning workstations.

Motion capture in real scenarios

The “virtual models" that mimic the movements and gestures of human beings have been developed on the basis of a key tool: Motion Capture, hereinafter shortened to MoCap [1]. MoCap systems are being widely used by many companies in the fields of 3D modelling, virtual animation and cinema applications.

They are also being used in the fields of sports medicine and medical rehabilitation.

The HADA equipment applies MoCap systems to study and assess possible ergonomic risks on the basis of motion analysis and also to design and redesign workstations.

There are currently various different MoCap systems and methodologies [2,3], but the most widely used ones are probably those based on optical methods using spherical reflective markers and infrared cameras capable of picking up marker reflection (fig. 2). These are very advanced systems that can even capture facial movements.

Systems of this type are generally restricted to use in laboratory conditions, with a high number of cameras (typically from 4 to 8)suitably arranged and with an appropriate calibration system; this makes them little apt for real working conditions. The capture times are usually high and the systems need highly skilled and trained operators, especially to eliminate any errors deriving from hidden markers during the filming process.

The HADA system, based on inertial motion sensors, has largely overcome the shortfalls of vision-based systems, allowinginformation to be picked up in real field conditions rather than based on task simulation. This design, furthermore, is totally portable and easy to use. The subsequent work of processing andworking up the field information is also simple and user friendly.

Inertial motion sensor technology

The sensors used in this equipment are fitted in an instrumented jacket worn by the subject under study. Each sensor is placed in pre-defined positions to allow recording of the spatial position of each joint in real time (fig 3).

Figure 2. VICON System. Fitting the markers. Camera detail.

Figure 3. Inertial sensors and how they might be fitted to the body.

Figure 4. Detail of the hub that communicates by bluetooth with a PDA.


The HADA system uses motion sensors built up from both inertial and magnetic sensors, working from three rotation angles with respect to an overall coordinates system, together with the linear acceleration of the three axes and their corresponding angular acceleration rates.

The selected sensors meet the requirements of portability and basically supply three degrees of freedom, specifically the 3 rotations in space. This choice facilitates management of the stored data, since there is no need for a desktop-sized processing unit.

The information generated by each sensor is sent by wireless bluetooth connection to a PDA that stores captured data (fig. 4).

Description of the system hardware

The HADA system includes the following elements:

Inertial motion sensor kit. The minimum configuration is 5 sensors, but the recommended number is 7 sensors and the maximum is 15, the last case covering all segments of bodily movement (fig. 5).

A hub or communication unit that is connected to the sensors by cable and sends on the data by bluetooth to the PDA (fig. 5).

Instrumented jacket specifically designed to hold the sensors with certain additional fixing elements (fig. 6).

PDA including software for starting and stopping the motion capturing operation, recording the sensor information in a file (fig. 7).

Video camera, sold as a standard product in the mass consumption market, for filming the worker’s activity, then to be synchronised with the motion capture information (fig. 7).

Other necessary elements for field tasks, such as tripod or transporting bags and additional batteries for the video camera or communication unit.

Workstation evaluation usually involves fitting sensors to theupper limbs using the instrumented jacket, but if the lower limbs also need to be analysed certain additional fixtures can be supplied for fitting sensors to the legs.

A working set-up with one or two calibrated cameras can be chosen. Specific photogrammetry software can then be used toaccurately reconstruct the workstation’s detailed dimensions.

The result is a set of elements that make up a complete motion capture system applicable in real workstations (fig. 8).

Description of the HADA system software

The HADA system software includes a set of motion capturingfunctions that have been implemented in a general-purpose 3D animation programme called Poser4 (fig. 9) [4].

The functions for translating the sensor-captured information to a biomechanical model are the following:

Motion importation and sensor acceleration. In this process different methods can be chosen for importing the sensor motion, in turn depending on how these sensors have been set up:

If there are 7 or more sensors it will be possible to fit sensors on the upper and lower body. For example 4

Figure 5. Possible sensor arrangement on the body. Detail of the communication unit.

Figure 6. Instrumented jacket and sensor fixing elements

Figure 7. PDA for recording field data. Camera and tripod (optional).


sensors could be fitted to the legs, 1 on the pelvis and the rest on the trunk, head and/or arms.

If the choice is made to fit sensors to the arms, the software will automatically calculate the leg position by inverse kinematics and by applying certain parametrisable motion rules.

Synchronising motion with the video. Once the motion has been imported and translated to the virtual model, the motion can then be synchronised with the video of the background images. This task is highly automated and has hence been greatly simplified in relation to the earlier version.

Motion analysis

Once the worker’s motion has been reconstructed and suitably adjusted to the anthropometry of the virtual model, access can then be gained to the motion analysis module, thereby obtaining the kinematic properties of the subject’s motion: body segmentangles at each instant and also positions, speeds and acceleration rates, both of translation and rotation (fig. 10).

For each body segment of the virtual model a display can bemade of the variation of certain parameters throughout the different filming frames; this information can then be printed out (fig. 10). Within the desired range of images or frames, the variation in the following parameters can be observed:

Joint angles in relation to biomechanical planes and the rotation angles of each segment.

Acceleration rates, speeds and positions.

Displacements of the body’s centre of gravity and arms and legs plus the speeds and acceleration rates of these displacements.

Analysis of acceleration rates

If the anthropometry of the virtual model is adjusted to the dimensions of the observed worker then the measurabledisplacements will correspond to real values. The motion analysis module can then be used to estimate the acceleration rates ofcertain parts of the body, such as hands or head.

A more accurate measurement of acceleration rates, however, can be obtained from the sensor information, since the sensors are fitted with accelerometers. The precision measurement of acceleration rates, together with inclinometer information,enables the sensor orientation to be calculated at each moment.

For measuring acceleration rates a set of functions has been developed, implemented on a spreadsheet for displaying the variation in the different acceleration parameters synchronisedwith the motion of the virtual actor and the video filmed in the field (fig. 11).

Ergonomic evaluation. REBA analysis, NIOSH and OCRA.

The 3D recreation of the motion gives us all informationpertaining to heights, reaches, position of the different body segments, etc. Feeding in some parameters such as appliedforce, weights handled or motion frequency, therefore, enables us to apply various evaluation methods.

Figure 8. MH-Sensors System working in the field.

Figure 9. Field components of the MH-Sensors System.

Figure 10. Graphic display of the variation in angular parameters and report.


The NIOSH lifting equation [5,6] can now be applied for evaluating manual weight handling tasks contained in thestandard UNE-EN 1005-2:2004 (fig. 12) as well as the REBA method [7,8] for analysing the musculoskeletal risks deriving from the working posture (fig. 13) or the OCRA method for evaluating repeated movements of the upper limbs as detailed in the standard ISO 11228-3:2007 [9].

When redesigning a workstation, with the object of improving its conditions, a new risk assessment can be quickly obtained. Improvements can therefore be proposed after the corresponding ergonomic evaluation.

The reports corresponding to each chosen evaluation method are generated in MS Word format. Users can select the postures and data (results obtained, graphs, statistical summary, etc.) thatthey wish to record in each report. This simplifies the technicians’ tasks, since they only have to fill in the standard report with the conclusions and recommendations they deem fitting, while the rest of the study data are filled in automatically.

Photogrammtry

The HADA System can be rounded out with photogrammetry software called PhotoModeler [10]. An account is given below of the system’s possibility-expanding functions, especially in terms of redesigning workstations.

Scene Photogrammetry The photogrammetry software builds up a 3D reconstruction of the scene from a set of workstation photos.

The virtual or real actor, as desired, can then be introduced intothe scene as well as displaying the various angles of the scene (Fig. 15 and 16).

Photogrammetry of the Worker Anthropometry The photogrammetry module can be used to measure certain anthropometric dimensions of the worker. To do so it suffices to take two photos of the worker, preferably in cross position (fig. 17).

A simple procedure can then be followed to measure accurately certain references such as those indicated in the figure (fig. 18).These references can then be used to establish the worker’s height and the length of his arms.

Simulation of improvement proposals

The HADA system is especially useful for analysing improvement proposals. To do so the abovementioned set of functions can beused and activated after modifying the arrangement of elements making up the workstation.

Analysis of the resulting movement will establish the soundnessof the various proposals. An analysis can therefore be made ofthe impact of the modifications of the working conditions before physically going ahead with them (fig. 19).

In sum, the modules of motion analysis, ergonomic evaluationand photogrammetry can be combined to simulate and propose workstation improvements, accompanied by the corresponding motion analysis and the resulting new ergonomic evaluation.

Conclusions

The system presented herein, HADA in its current version,

Figure 11. Analysis of the acceleration rates supplied by the sensors.

Figure 12. Application of the NIOSH Method. Angular parameters considered.

Figure 13. Application of the REBA Method. Resulting Statistics.

Figure 14. Imported scene in Poser4 with two types of rendering.

Figure 15. Display of the real and virtual actors superimposed, varying the rendering.


enables motion to be captured by means of an instrumented jacket with inertial motion-capturing sensors, combined with a set of functions implemented on simulation and 3D animation software, thereby recreating the movements of the observed subject on a biomechanical model.

Its portability and ease of use make it ideal for use in real settings, and it has been successfully put through its paces inindustrial workstations and sporting activities.

Optical system usually work fine under laboratory conditions but they are in general unsuitable for real settings, in particular industrial environments where the problem of markers being hidden by unavoidable obstacles often makes them unviable. Their portability is also low and the worker often has to wear special clothes calling for very precise fitting of markers. The HADA system, on the contrary, even enables field objects that the observer does not see to be “seen and measured”.

The overriding concerns in the design of the system were portability and ease of use in the field and also simple processing and working up of the data afterwards in the office. The result isa really portable system that quickly obtains results for analysis and gathers its data much more accurately than a direct-vision or video system.

The system’s set of functions, as described above, greatly simplifies the work of occupational risk prevention officers, furnishing them with important information on subject postures and movements and dependable measurements. It enables recognised evaluation methods to be applied and lends itself to simple and rapid application in subjects with different anthropometric dimensions, while enabling different improvement proposals to be compared.

It can be integrated with other applications, such as photogrammetry, to reconstruct scenes in three dimensions from workstation photos and thereby facilitate the design and redesign of workstations and evaluation of risks before they are put intopractice.

REFERENCES

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_capture

2. www.peakperform.com; http://www.simi.com; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_capture; http://www.vicon.com

3. INITION. http://inition.co.uk/inition/products.php

4. POSER. Curious Labs. http://graphics.smithmicro.com/

5. NIOSH. Work practices guide for manual handling. Technical report nº 81122. US Department of Health and Human Services. National Institute for Occupational Health, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1981.

6. Waters, Putz-Anderson, Garg, «Aplication Manual for the Revised NIOSH Lifting Equation», U.S. Department of Health and Human Service - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1994.

7. Hignett, S. and McAtamney, L. Rapid Entire Body Assessment: REBA Applied Ergonomics, 31, 201-5, 2000.

8. NTP 601 Evaluación de las condiciones de trabajo: carga postural. Método REBA (Rapid Entire Body Assessment). Instituto Nacional de Seguridad e Higiene en el Trabajo, España.

9. ISO 11228-3:2007. Ergonomics. Manual handling. Part 3: Handling of low loads at high frequency.

Figure 16. Display of the animation from different and selectable points of view.

Figure 17. Photogrammetry Software. Template with worker photos.

Figure 18. Anthropometric worker references.

Figure 19. Simulation of the current situation and improvement proposals


10. PhotoModeler. http://www.photomodeler.com/


Environmental education and meaningful learning ENVIRONMENT

Environmental education favours values that are conducive to a greater respect for and knowledge of the environment. The meaningful learning theory is widely recognised as a basis for fomenting the learning experience within the educational process. This article summarises the results of a research project involving joint application of environmental education knowledge, meaningful learning and museology in Navarre University’s Natural Sciences Museum (Museo de Ciencias Naturales). Fruit of this research was the proposal of a teaching unit geared towards children aged 11-12 to foment learning of the value «respect» and the meaning of the term «biodiversity» by means of a museum visit, using learning tools such as Cmap Tools, webquest and m-learning, together with the new information and communication technologies. By FERNANDO ECHARRI and JORDI PUIG I BAGUER

In recent decades mankind has come to realise that the current development model has adverse effects on the environment, such as overexploitation of natural resources and pollution. But these consequences are not only to be seen in the environment. Overproduction and overconsumption also have effects in the social sphere. It is often claimed, for example, that a model of society has been promoted in which “having” is valued more highly than “being.”

At the start of the nineteen seventies the UN, concerned about the worsening of some environmental problems, organised the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972), in a search for principles that would inspire and guide efforts towards the conservation and improvement of the environment. This forum gave birth to the concept of environmental education as the educational response to environmental problems, a concept that has then become fleshed out over the following years. In Spain, 1999 saw publication of the White Paper on Environmental Education in Spain (Libro blanco de la educación ambiental en España) which reflected, among other aspects, the need of introducing environmental education into the education system (1999: 71).

One of the most interesting inputs for environmental education purposes was Novak’s «theory of education» (1977, 1990, 1998), proposing teaching techniques that build on the meaningful language theory (Ausubel, 1968). One of the key features of these techniques is the use of concept maps during the educational process. The theories of Novak and Ausubel have proven to be useful tools in increasing learners’ knowledge andinfluencing their conduct. They are based on the theory of constructivism and propose an educational system for fomenting changes of conduct, attitudes and values, which is one of the main purposes of environmental education.

Indoor and outdoor views of Navarre University’s Natural Sciences Museum.



Education is heavily influenced by its venues. Museums, forexample, can tap into motivations and living experiences based on the presence of real objects; this enables museums to design and carry out educational activities in their own right. Theirholdings can be used to pass on bang up-to-date scientific knowledge to all types of visitors. Navarre University’s Natural Sciences Museum, recently set up (1998), offers the opportunity of designing and applying educational programmes from and in the university, geared towards visitors from all walks of life,university students or otherwise. The nature of its holdings allows the museum to incorporate into its activity the objectives and measures proposed by environmental education and meaningful learning. It can also harness the possibilities offered by the new information and communication technologies (NICTs) by using interactive learning-facilitating resources and methodologies such as m-learning and webquest.

Bringing together all these «stakeholders», and after educational design and research work, a draft syllabus has been drawn up in the form of a teaching unit that aims to foster higher-quality, longer lasting and more truthful environmental-science learningprocesses, which have a positive influence on the learners’ environmental conduct. This syllabus focuses on the concept of«biodiversity» and the value of «respect», as laid down in the formal educational legislation for the third cycle of primary education.

In sum, the aim of the research project dealt with in this article is to analyse Ausubel and Novak’s constructivist theories of meaningful learning in the theoretical framework of environmental education and use them to develop a coherent teaching unit geared towards schoolchildren aged 11 and 12, using as educational resource the material available in NavarreUniversity’s Natural Sciences Museum and today’s scientific knowledge. The teaching unit has also been designed to make the best use of educational advances in the field of the new technologies and aims to improve the environmental attitudes of learners.

Environmental Education

Although there are many definitions of environmental education,one of the most oft-quoted ones is the definition proposed in theIntergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education (Tbilisi, 1977). This definition extends its concept of environmental education to take in the social perspective, speaking of social relations, culture and values: «the processwhereby individuals and communities come to understand the complex nature of the natural and the built environments resulting from the interaction of their biological, physical, social, economic and cultural aspects, and acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes, and practical skills to participate in aresponsible and effective way in anticipating and solving environmental problems, and the management of the quality ofthe environment» (Tbilisi Conference. Final Report, 1977).

Environmental education is generally considered to have been born in the United Nations Conference on the HumanEnvironment, held in Stockholm in 1972. According to principle 19, environmental education is to be understood as an education in values, an aspect that will be stressed in the following section.

The concept of environmental education has undergone far-reaching changes over the years, as progressively developed inthe United Nations Conferences held in Belgrade, Tbilisi, Moscow, Río de Janeiro, Thessalonica, Johannesburg, etc. These changes are largely a reflection of the parallel changes in the scientific, political and social spheres. As originally conceived, the overriding aim of environmental education was to conserve the

School visit to Navarre University’s Natural Sciences Museum.

Navarre University’s Natural Sciences Museum. Showcase display of real objects in the form of preserved specimens, as wherewithal for experiential learning. (Source TVE).

Figure 2. Webquest designed for the “respect and biodiversity” teaching unit.


environment; increasing importance was thence given to the social aspect underpinning the way of interacting with the environment.

In Spain’s case the objectives of environmental education are laid down in the Libro Blanco de la educación ambiental (1999: 28), and respond to those set forth in the final report of the Tbilisi Conference of 1977. The aim is to foment, among others, the following aspects in the learners: a critical sense, decision-making skills, a change of behaviour, problem solving abilities,citizen participation, interdisciplinary openness, the perception of the environment as a diverse and complex whole, understanding environmental education as a permanent process, understanding the role of scientific and educational research and an education in values.

Environmental education calls for training activities to achieve its ends. This is to be understood as the instruction of people to improve them as human beings and agents of social change. Instruction is needed in concepts, capacities and skills so thatattitudes and values are renewed in each learner, promoting the desired change.

Environmental Education and Education in Values

Caduto (1992: 1) argues that the crisis of personal and environmental values is one of the causes of environmental problems. This idea has been especially important for the design of the teaching unit proposed as a result of the research project, seeking, through the diverse programmes of environmental education «to foster a change of values, attitudes and habits in the interests of drawing up a code of conduct in relation to environment-related questions» (UNESCO, 1978).

As regards the relation between values and behaviour, Kluckhohn(1957: 403) states that: «Any act is seen as a compromise between motivation, the conditions of the situation, available resources and goals interpreted in terms of values». For their part, Sureda and Colom (1989: 126) stress that «values and decision-taking are two aspects that are closely bound up with each other». Decision taking can express changes in behaviour brought about by environmental education.

According to these ideas, it would seem logical to assume that encouragement of the values proposed by environmental education could bring about changes in attitudes and behaviour. These values might be encouraged by means of constructivist teaching methods based on meaningful learning.

Environmental Education and Meaningful Learning

Environmental education aims to change the population’sbehaviour, but over the years this has proved to be an elusive object, as recorded in the Libro Blanco de la educación ambiental en España (1999:4). One of the causes might be defective teaching methods, which need to be improved to bring about the desired attitude changes. Knowledge of the human learning process might favour these changes. The study thereof has been deemed to be fundamental in this research work. Hence the attention paid to Ausubel’s meaningful learning theory (1968), to which a specific reference is made in the book Educación ambiental: principios de enseñanza y aprendizaje (1993: 31), although no explicit mention is made therein of its relation withenvironmental education.

Navarre University’s



Figure 6. Webquest designed for the teaching unit «Respect and Biodiversity


The encouragement of the values proposed by environmental education could bring about

changes in attitudes and behaviour. These values might be encouraged by means of constructivist teaching methods based on meaningful learning.

The meaningful learning theory (Ausubel, 1968) is a theoretical framework that has proven its effectiveness in improving learning processes (Mayer, 2004). Ausubel’s theory is reaffirmed andconsidered as the central thrust of the education proposed by Novak (1977; 1990; 1998). This latter theory is based on epistemology, which studies how knowledge is acquired and the human learning process in general. But the most interestingaspect of his thinking for our purposes here is reflected in his paper A theory of education as a basis for environmental education (1978), where Novak presents an explicit and developed relationship between environmental education and his theory of education. Novak presents his theory as a pedagogical tool promoting the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes posed by environmental education.

The basic tenet of the meaningful learning theory is to eschew incomprehensible knowledge. This means that all new conceptslearned should always be brought into coherent relationship with the concepts already forming part of the learners’ cognitive structure so that these learners can always discover a meaning in them. Meaningful learning is diametrically opposed to mere rote learning, in which learners can lend no meaning to what they are trying to learn. The theory stresses the importance of the learners’ active role, taking on responsibility for their own learning process.

Novak’s particular input was to further involve the learner bymeans of an affective component (Novak, 1978). The underlying hypothesis is that more meaningful learning processes, integrating an affective factor, will make it easier to promote the attitudinal changes sought by environmental education. This would encourage an educational process properly integrating «thought, feeling and action» (Gowin, 1981: 11).

Novak (1998: 22) identifies five elements that impinge on education: the teacher, the learner, the content, the context, and evaluation. He argues that all these must factors must be focusedat first on the learning of concepts. He therefore considers it to be essential, in curriculum planning, to analyse the subject first and identify the most meaningful concepts. But at the same time he considers that in the planning of the instruction the pupils also play a key role. All these factors have been taken into account in the design of the teaching unit built up from the results of the research project.

The appearance of the meaningful learning theory has led to a detailed study of techniques and variables that may facilitate thelearning process. Table 1 pools those that have been considered in the research project, based on Mayer’s proposal (2004)1.

Table 1. Techniques and variables that might facilitate meaningful learning

Give productive feedback to pupils

Provide hands-on activity and familiarity.

Explain with examples.

Guide the cognitive processing during the learning process.

Foment learning strategies that favour «learning how to

Figure 7. Museum information search proposal. Webquest Designed for the teaching unit «Respect and Biodiversity


learn», such as the concept map.

Foment problem-solving strategies.

Cooperative learning: a phrase coined by Slavin (1990: 238).

Open-ended work.

Motivation.

The setting.

Creativity.

Concept Maps Concept maps are a pedagogical «knowledge-representation» tool (Novak, 1998: 21) that is particularly interesting for our purposes here. In general, concept maps are used for promoting a more meaningful learning process, helping to systematise andstructure the information. According to Ballester (2002), the concept map «is the best instrument for producing a meaningful learning experience, since the concepts are presented in aproperly connected and coherent way».

Concept maps are a pedagogical «knowledge-representation» tool (Novak, 1998: 21) used in

general for promoting a more meaningful learning process, helping to systematise and structure the

information

Learning, to be meaningful, has to assimilate new concepts, phasing them into the existing cognitive structure and reorganising them, instead of rote-learning isolated concepts that are finally forgotten. In concept maps the concepts are unitedforming propositions that are unique for each individual. This is why they are also used to check whether meaningful learning is actually occurring (figure 1). Concept maps have several advantages described, among others, by Ballester (2002) and Aguirre and Vivas (2006). Here we highlight the following:

They improve education quality.

They improve academic performance.

They help pupils become more aware of what they are learning, motivating them in turn to learn more.

They facilitate cooperation and teamwork.

Pupils themselves are involved in the process of drawing them up.

A participative and democratic climate is created in the classroom.

Pupils learn how to learn and can therefore extrapolate their learning further afield.

They can be used as an assessment instrument and technique, by ascertaining whether or not the concept taught has been properly grasped.

Concept maps, moreover, can be a staunch ally in the pursuit of several objectives of environmental education, such as education in decision taking (González and Novak 1993: 95), in problem solving (Novak, Gowin and Johansen 1983, in González and Novak 1993: 96) and the encouragement of attitudes proposed by environmental education (Edward and Fraser 1983, inGonzález and Novak 1993: 96; Brumsted 1990, quoted in González and Novak 1993: 96).


Figure 1: Concept map explaining concept maps. Source: Ramírez de M.and Sanabria (2000).

Navarre University’s Natural Sciences Museum

Navarre University’s Natural Science Museum, opened in 1998, boasts several showcase displays of preserved specimens of living beings, shells and minerals of varied origin, with a total of 9014 exhibits2 . It has been set up with an educational and awareness raising purpose, so it is accessible to all people who may wish to visit it.

The decision to use these holdings as an educational resource for the teaching unit presented herein called for a previous study of museology as a theoretical conceptualisation framework. Integration of the three inputs of museum science, environmentaleducation and meaningful learning has pinpointed a set of concepts, characteristics and proposals held in common by these three theoretical frameworks, as set forth in Table 2.

Table 2. Points held in common by the theoretical frameworks of Museology, Environmental Education and Meaningful Learning.

Museology Environmental Education

Meaningful Learning

Interactivity, hands-on contact with the object, freedom of movement promoting experiential and affective education.

Learner participation promoting experiential education.

Promotion of active and experiential methodologies. The affective component might boost meaningful learning.


Activities to familiarise society with the contents of science and technology.

Contents geared towards a better knowledge of the environment.

Activity-based learning.

Consider the target age bracket of the museum programmes.

Consider the target age bracket of the environmental education syllabi.

Consider the target age bracket of the education syllabi.

Work from the visiting public’s knowledge.

Work from the population’s socio-cultural context, adapting contents thereto.

Work from the learners’ previous stock of knowledge.

Concept of intangible heritage, including the values.

Education in environmental values.

Education in values, including environmental values, sometimes through the hidden curriculum.

Encourage information searches by displaying exhibits without labels or with incomplete information.

Information search and critical discrimination thereof.

Each person builds up his or her knowledge by selecting the information that is meaningful to them.

Museum as facilitator, furnishing users with information.

Environmental educators as facilitators and promoters of environmental knowledge.

Teacher as learning facilitator.

Seductive, powerful and thrilling learning processes.

Learning of environmental content and changes of content are favoured by motivation.

Meaningful learning is favoured by motivation.

Use culture in the learning processes, integration of science in culture in a holistic and multidimensional way.

Integral and interdisciplinary nature. Contents of integration with the social and natural environment.

Integral contents could favour the transfer or generalisation thereof and the detection of conceptual errors.

Fun-based learning. Context of fun, inspiration, creativity.

Use of simulation games as methodology.

Play as a an educational methodology. For example, «treasure hunt». This


could promote meaningful learning.

Learning processes in the museum for any age bracket.

Lifelong, forward-looking education.

Lifelong learning.

Relations between concepts. Lateral or complex thinking.

Complex, integral nature, decision-taking, critical spirit.

Multi-relationship. Use of concept maps for representation thereof.

Field of action: formal, non-formal and informal education.



Local-based and universal learning.

Think globally, act locally.

Seek contents from the learners’ immediate setting and then generalise them.

Learning subjectivity to suit each personal experience and cognitive structure. «Favour the capacity of critical thinking» (Hernández, 2004).

Personal critical spirit determining decision-taking procedures.

Learning subjectivity to suit each personal experience and cognitive structure.

Complex and integral nature of contents.

Complex and integral nature of the environment. Freedom in decision taking and problem solving.

Multi-relationships in contents.

Free itineraries for visitors.

Freedom in decision taking and problem solving.

Personalisation of the learning. Divergence of contents.

Research need. Research need. Research need.

Importance of communication processes.

Environmental educator as communicator.

Tap into the learners’ centres of interest.

Public studies. Studies of behaviour, perceptions of the environment.

Studies of constructivist applications. Knowledge of previous ideas.

Adaptation to the age of the public.

Adaptation of environmental syllabi to the age of users.

Adaptation to the learners’ psychological development.

Adaptation to the Adaptation to Personalisation


NICTs as an Educational Resource

The resources to be used in teaching any syllabus are without doubt a key educational aspect. Regardless of the methodology employed in each case, a shrewd use of resources will favour the most meaningful learning experience, kindling creativity and motivating pupils.

One of the hallmarks of today’s society is the progressive implementation of the new information and communication technologies (hereinafter NICTs). This widespread implementation has spawned the term «information society» to refer to this situation, as coined by Bell and Touraine in the seventies of last century (Cabero, 2007). Although the term NICTs was already used as far back as the sixties with the appearance of the audiovisual resources (television) in the sixties(Chacón, 2007), NICTs per se are considered to have really takenoff with the appearance of internet in 1969 (Cabero, 2002a) and the development thereof from the nineties onwards (Bellido, 2001: 64). From then on internet has been rapidly incorporated into many aspects of daily life, both social and individual.

In recent years NICTs have been phased into many cultural and social fields, such as museology, education and leisure. Bellido(2005) believes that the new technologies will continually gain ground in the museum field, because they give society exactlywhat it wants: «easy assimilation, entertainment, learning and surprise». Almazán and Álvarez (2005) consider that theappearance of NICTs has boosted spectator participation and interactivity.

NICTs in a museum context need to be properly used as part of an overall pedagogical project, otherwise they might even be counter productive and distract learners from the educationalpurpose in view. Furthermore, NICTs can help not only to improve the educational process but also «to rethink the teaching process and seek new ways of tackling, designing and developing it» (González, 2007: 219). The irruption of NICTs offers teachers a new modus operandi as «learning facilitators», anotherexpression proper of the meaningful learning theory.

The teaching unit proposed as a result of the research projectharnesses some of the educational possibilities offered by the NICTs. The specific resources used are: Cmap Tools, m-learningand webquest.

En la unidad didáctica propuesta como resultado del proyecto de investigación se incorporan algunas de las posibilidades educativas que presentan las NTIC's. En concreto, se han

diversity of the public. the diversity of the public.

of the learning. Divergence of contents.

Presence of real objects.

Real experiences can boost a favourable attitude towards the environment.

Real experiences can boost motivation, emotion and meaningful learning.

Didactic exposition: facilitates the learning process.

Didactic: facilitate the learning process by example, with experiential education.

Techniques for learning how to learn, such as concept maps.


utilizado los siguientes recursos: Cmap Tools, m-learning y webquest.

Cmap Tools Internet educational resources have also been brought into the field of concept maps. These maps, already outlined above, are spinoffs from the meaningful learning theories. Several computer programmes exist to help build them (Rovira, 2005). From among this software a choice was made of the programme developed by Florida’s Institute for Human and Machine Cognition (IHMC), as the one most cited in the bibliographies dealing withmeaningful learning.3.

Cmap Tools taps into the World Wide Web to provide new learning and collaborative knowledge possibilities. Should map builders desire, their concept maps may be «seen» by other users from any part of the world; these users may also be entitled to make modifications and inputs.

Due to its hypermedia concept Cmap Tools can make links between the concepts of the map drawn up and other resources such as «photos, images, graphs, videos, letters, tables, texts, WWW websites or other concept maps» (Novak and Cañas, 2004) located in any site in internet. The links to these resources appear as icons below the concepts making up the concept map, so that users can decide which link they wish to examine. The links are lent meaning by their inclusion in a concept map; this avoids the problem of users who are uncertain about where to go, what they are going to find in the new site and which related paths they might visit. Browsing progress is along the lines proposed for the forthcoming Web 3.0.

Webquest Webquests were invented in 1995 by Dodge and March (Dodge, 2001). As the name suggests4 , a webquest is a learning tool that uses, at least partially, internet information-search resources and then «organises it and transforms it into new information» (Adell, 2004) (Figure 2). The answer «is not ready made on the net and it needs to be sought, it needs to be built up» (Barba, 2002). Dodge (2001) points out that the methodology used is «inquiry oriented» and also seeks an efficient use of pupil time to develop«their thinking in the levels of analysis, synthesis and evaluation». It also embraces cooperative work, whereby Barba (2002) believes that it exercises «the pupil’s cognitive capacities». He also claims (2002) that webquests can be applied as an educational tool at «all levels and for all subjects».

Garzo (2004) reckons that the webquest methodology has a series of significant advantages:

Integration of NICTs in the pupils’ curriculum, with the possibility of replacing or complementing other methodologies in relation to some subjects.

Easier motivation by teachers for some subjects that are difficult to tackle.

Possibility of creating its own subjects to suit the interests of teachers and pupils.

Allows multi-tier teaching to suit different pupil learning speeds.

Facilitates stricter information access than «free» searches.

Enables the work difficulty and complexity levels to be pre-selected.

Enables the pupils’ various conclusions to be pooled and compared.

m-learning


This is the learning activity that uses mobile technology resources such as mobile phones, PDAs or tablet-PCs (Figure 3). Correa and Ibáñez (2005) predict that «mlearning technology usinghandhelds is about to take off in a big way in the museum field». These authors (2005) consider that it has several advantages:

Handheld access to internet possibilities.

Permits technological applications in the knowledge-building process.

Allows interactivity between learners and knowledge objects.

Improves and develops the museum’s mediation task.

Lends itself to individual and cooperative work.

Can work inside and outside closed environments.

Allows personalised responses to be given to each visitor’s enquiries.

Allows integration of the virtual context and real place.

Gives just-in-time information that goes beyond mere object observation.

Figure 3: Content Access Architecture (Bottentuit, 2006).

These two educational resources (m-learning and webquest) can be integrated in the syllabus, together with the use of CmapTools. As proposed by Correa and Ibáñez (2005) and Bottentuit et al (2006), this integration is effected coherently with the research process leading to the knowledge acquisition. In the case of the syllabus proposed by the research project dealt withherein, m-learning is used for access to a webquest. The variation on a traditional webquest resides in the integration ofmobile technology. According to Bottentuit et al (2006) this circumstance provides «a higher mobility than personal computers, enabling the pupils to work collaboratively and allowing them to take the handhelds to the species found to compare theory and practice».

Proposed Teaching Syllabus: Meaningful Teaching Unit «Respect and Biodiversity»

In this research project the joint application of theabovementioned theoretical frameworks has materialised in a specific teaching proposal, developed in the form of a teaching unit designed for the 11-12 age bracket, corresponding in Spain to the third cycle of Primary Education as laid down in Spain’s formal education system under the Education Act 2/2006 (LeyOrgánica de Educación: LOE).

The main reason for choosing this age bracket was to seek the greatest educational efficiency. Two prestigious authors like


Piaget and Inhelder (1980: 151) argue that there is a change in mental structures at the age of 11-12 from «concrete operations», based on inductive thought developed by usingconcrete objects, to a new structure built up from the former, called «formal operations», which will then continue «throughoutadolescence and adulthood» (Piaget and Inhelder, 1980: 151). This stage is characterised above all by the development frominductive to deductive thinking and from concrete to abstractthinking5 . Precisely for this reason, this could be a good time to steer a child’s education towards the construction of his or her own value system.6.

Our teaching proposal has chosen a basic value that must be learned for living harmoniously together: respect, together with avery meaningful concept for the environment: biodiversity. The value «respect» is sometimes expressed as «respect-tolerance» (Bolívar, 1995, Lucini, 1994: 143, González, 2000:58), and it should be the source of specific attitudes of respect-tolerance, reflected in «situations, objects, events or persons» (Coll, 1987: 139).

The contents comprised in the term «biodiversity» have been chosen due to their attractiveness for pupils. Zabala (1997) stresses how it motivates them to find out about their immediateenvironment and some of the major environmental problems such as the loss of biodiversity.

This specific environmental problem can be addressed from alocal perspective but may also be tackled from the complex and holistic standpoint as a global problem of the whole planet. The holdings of Navarre University’s Natural Sciences Museum lend themselves to both approaches. From a local standpoint pupils can be encouraged to find out about the living beings closest to them. From a global standpoint the museum can also draw on itspreserved specimens of living beings from around the planet.

Objectives proposed by the teaching unit The objectives proposed, among others, are the following:

Find out in detail about the loss of biodiversity occurring around the planet and look into the possible causes and solutions.

Seek and interpret information on biodiversity and encourage critical thought about legislation, criteria and decision-taking procedures that might help to solve environmental problems.

Foment environmental education through environmental contents, such as those involved in the concept «biodiversity» and in the value «respect».

Structure of the meaningful teaching unit The meaningful teaching unit (Figure 4) is structured as a concept map, based on the proposal of Ballester (2002).


Contents of the Teaching Unit. The Educational Climate The general contents of the teaching unit are «respect andbiodiversity», broken down and classified in Table 3. The design of the teaching unit pays special attention to the educational climate in the interests of efficiently fomenting the attitudinal content «respect». The term «educational climate» refers to the «the cultural and organisational characteristics that define each teaching centre» (Bolívar, 1995: 194). By extension it may beapplied to the climate generated by each teacher in particular.

Figura 4: Structure of a meaningful teaching unit, expressed simply though a concept map (after Ballester, 2002). * Product is the name given to the material produced by learners.

Table 3. Contents of the teaching unit “Respect and Biodiversity”

Conceptual Contents Based on Regional Decree 24/2007

Procedural Contents Based on Regional Decree 24/2007

Attitudinal Contents Based on Rico (1992) and Lucini (1990, 1994)

Curriculum oculto Based on Bolivar (1995)

Evolution.

Living beings in our local environment: flora and fauna.

Living beings in the world.

The habitat.

The ecosystem.

Human action on the ecosystem.

Biodiversity. Loss of biodiversity: causes and

Information search on living beings and their living conditions.

Awareness of the importance of thoroughgoingness in the observations of animals and plants and in preparing the corresponding work.

Use of techniques based on teamwork.

Apply interview techniques.

Appreciation of all lifeforms in our environment and respect for same.

Understanding, accepting and respecting others and their fundamental rights.

Listening and dialoguing skills are to be honed as the fundamental climate in

All pupils are equally respected.

Teachers treat all pupils as people in their own right, not merely as pupils.

Teachers show due respect for each other.

Pupils feel that the teachers are not


possible solutions

PDA expertise.

Expertise in using webquest.

Expertise in using internet browsers.

Critical selection of information.

Decision taking.

Problem solving.

Drawing up concept maps.

Defending own ideas.

which the interpersonal relationships are to be forged and disputes resolved.

Sensitivity, openness and flexibility towards the inputs and opinions of others.

Interest in and respect for diversity and rejection of all types of personal discrimination.

Acceptance of people we rub shoulders with, respecting their identify, traits and qualities.

Rejection of verbal and gestural aggressiveness in our relations and in any conflict situation.

Respect, consideration and care of the goods and services we receive, especially the wherewithal of the school and museum.

Responsible participation in group decision taking.

Defending own ideas.

All pupils will participate in all school activities, their individual inputs being valued without discrimination.

Personal opinions or points of view will always be respected.

«against them» but rather «with them».

Trust is built up seeing that words are borne out by actions.

Pupils are confident that teachers are ready to listen to their points of view.

Teachers strive to make their pupil’s learning a thrilling experience.

Pupils feel they are taken into account in the school.

Whenever any problem crops up there are procedures for solving it.

Pupils are encouraged to be creative rather than bound by routine.

The school is a pleasant place because I feel loved and needed.

Most of the school’s personnel are friendly.


It is not frequent to find aspects of the «climate» explicitly reflected in a teaching unit. Neither is it easy to discern whether the climate consists of content to be transmitted or only a methodology for ensuring the adoption or learning of the conceptual, attitudinal and procedural contents. But there is nodoubt that the educational climate might impinge directly on the learning of some contents, especially attitudinal contents. Zabala (1997: 86) argues that special attention should be paid to theteacher-pupil and pupil-pupil relationships set up within the educational community, on the grounds that these relationshipshelp to create the school «climate» and could be «one of the key pieces in shaping the personal attitude and values», insofar as these relations could help to mould «models» of specific attitudes for the pupils.

Methodology The following methodologies, principles and educational approaches have been proposed for this teaching unit, as extracted from the theoretical frameworks mentioned in each of the following points:

From environmental education: the education will be active,tapping into the pupils’ living and affective experiences, solving problems structured in a «practical work project» (Porlán et al., 1992: 37), where «the contents are organised around the study of a problem situation for pupils» (Mena, 1999: 26). The experiential component, in this case, includes a museum visit designed for primary education (Gervilla, 1997: 47).

From education in values: this is promoted by means of learning based on practical activities (Caduto, 1992).

From museology: museum exhibits and their potential are harnessed to promote a living educational experience in themuseum based on the affective component of learning.

From the NICTs: the webquest resource is used for solving a problem calling for information searches. An active methodology is therefore proposed, fuelled by this resource, including collaborative work, research, heuristic and fun-based activities.

From meaningful learning: a problem is posed to set up a «discovery learning process» (Ausubel, 1976: 75), in which the pupils «intentionally and substantially bring problems into relation with their cognitive structure» (Ausubel, 1976: 75-76), to seek new responses to the problem that are significant for him or her. Use is also proposed of the modified Piagetian interview and concept maps, firstly for diagnosing the pupils’ previous knowledge and subsequently for assessing their learning process. Within meaningful learning, special mention must be made of the methodology surrounding the use of concept maps, which is still under investigation (Novak and Cañas, 2006).

Concept Maps Novak and Cañas (2006) propose three different methodologies

School material will be shared by all class members.

Keeping silent during personal work.

Abidance by museum rules.


for working with concept maps, of which joint use is to be made:

Focus question7: the concept-map-based investigation of a topic might begin by answering an appropriate «focus question». The maps may therefore be built up not only from topics but also from these questions, which can facilitate the start and subsequent map building. Novak and Cañas (2006) saw them as the map’s «starting point». These authors also argue that the focus question «helps pupils to focus on the map».

Parking lot: the starting point here is a list of important concepts that the teacher wants to ensure that all pupils use in their map.

- Expert skeleton maps: these are basic maps that have been previously prepared by an expert in the topic, containing chosen concepts and ensuring that both pupils and teachers build up their knowledge on solid foundations. They may facilitate the learning process, as shown by O’Donnell et al. (2002).

Novak and Cañas (2006) propose the combination of two of these methods. In our case all three methods are combined. To build up the map proposed for the teaching unit arising from the research project, the pupils start with a focus question on the topic in question. As well as the focus question pupils are given askeleton concept map as a working base. This skeleton map has been adapted from one drawn up by an expert and it has to comprise a set of pre-selected parking lot concepts that pupils have to locate and learn. This initial map can then serve as thebasis for seeking more information and learning about a topic (Carvalho et al., 2000) or other related topics that the pupil deems to be of interest.

Figure 5 Skeleton concept map for the teaching unit «Respect and Biodiversity

Before introducing the topic in the teaching unit, therefore (Mena, 1999, Novak and Cañas, 2006), pupils are asked to complete a skeleton concept map, adding on another five parking-lot concepts (Figure 5), then to be expanded by pupils into a map containing between 12 and 20 concepts (according to Novak and Cañas, 2006, Molina, 1994: 337), with the aim of assessing pupils’ previous knowledge. The skeleton concept map will be newly filled in at the end of the teaching unit to assess the knowledge acquired by the pupils during the learning process bycomparison with the starting situation, as proposed by Vitale and Romance (2000) and Guruceaga (2001).

In sum, the methodologies, principles and educational approaches described above, drawn from different and complementary theoretical frameworks, are brought together in a teaching unit that represents for pupils practical work of interest in the museum and requires them to seek information using NICTs.


The methodologies, principles and educational approaches described above, drawn from different and complementary theoretical frameworks, are

going to be brought together in a practical teaching unit in the museum, which is of interest

to pupils and implies a search for information using NICTs

Planning: Teaching Unit Phases The planning of the objectives, contents and methodologies of the teaching unit has been adapted from the proposal made by Zabala (1997: 58). This author considers his proposal to be applicable to the science teaching of the last years of primary education. Zabala proposes several phases in the implementation of a teaching unit, set up as a research process for pupils. The proposed phases are properly coordinated by means of the «hands-on» methodology, topped up with a webquest (Figure 6) (Dodge, 2001), designed for our case as an environmental education working project.

The three phases, obviously preceded by the requisite collaboration agreement between the school and museum, are the following (Table 4):

1. School. Pre-museum-visit spadework. Presentation by the teacher of a problem situation in the chosen topic.

Posing of problems or questions: Zabala (1997: 96) argues that «it is essential for pupils to be given the chance to express their own ideas». A time is therefore set aside for pupils to come up with intuitiveanswers to each of the problems and situations posed.

2. Museum. Activities in the Museum. Explanation of intuitive responses or suppositions.

Proposal of information sources: the pupils, aided by the teacher, propose the most suitable information sources.

Information search: data is gathered, selected, classified and displayed (Figure 7).

3. School. Post museum visit follow-up work. Drawing of conclusions.

Generalisation of conclusions and summary.

Assessment.

Learning assessment plans to use, among other methodologies, mainly programmed concept maps at the start and end of theteaching unit.

Table 4. Classification of activities by type and timing. (Martínez and Martínez, 1995). Teaching unit «Respect and Biodiversity»

Teaching unit «Respect and Biodiversity»

Type of Activity

Duration (minutes)

Day of the Week

PHASE 1


A1. Welcome to the world of respect. Do you want in?

Initiation-motivation.

45 Monday

A2. I ask you for help...but with respect!


45 Monday

A3. . Rules? What for!


45 Monday

A4. My commitment to the rules.


15 Monday

A5. The bio-whatsitsname map?

Ascertainment of previous knowledge. Assessment.

60 Tuesday

A6. Interview. Ascertainment of previous knowledge. Assessment.

60 Tuesday

A7. The four researchers.

Enlargement. Development or application of new ideas.

45 Tuesday

PHASE 2

A8. Help me with biodiversity!

Enlargement. Development or application of new ideas..

15 Wednesday

A9. «Webquest: How would you solve the problem of animals that are becoming extinct?»

Enlargement. Development or application of new ideas. Restructuring of ideas.

150 Wednesday

A10. «Learn what you want ».


60 Wednesday

PHASE 3

A11. «Point in common ».


45 Thursday

A12. «Creation of a natural park ».


45 Thursday

A13. «I take decisions too ».

Development or application of

45 Thursday


Conclusions

The research work dealt with herein has been conceived and carried out with a synthetic rather than analytical approach, seeking to unify the most representative aspects of several disciplines to develop an educative idea. The synthesis carried out goes beyond a mere superficial or even in-depth study of separate disciplines. It involves pinpointing common criteria and contents between environmental education, education in values, meaningful learning, museology and the new information and communication technologies (NICTs). All these fields of knowledge have a clear educational potential, adding up to more than the sum of their parts when studied in common. Their integration has enabled a specific educational programme to be developed, conserving coherence with the aspects and educational criteria furnished by each field separately. In sum, this article reflects the groundbreaking character of its underlying research, bringing together different fields of theoretical, practical, conceptual and applied knowledge and tapping into their synergies.

The social environment is changing and any educational syllabus has to innovate constantly to keep pace with these changes. At the same time, the design of trailblazing syllabi needs to work from tried and tested knowledge that underpins any new educational idea. The theoretical and practical synthesis of the disciplines studied generates a new, groundbreaking and coherent base for designing many changing educational syllabi. The specific syllabus presented herein is conceived as a first step down many possible paths, opening the way for those that may be defined in the future on the same research basis, even using educational resources other than the holdings of Navarre University’s Natural Sciences Museum.

AUTHORS

Fernando Echarri Iribarren. aged 42 (24.11.65). Graduated in Biology from Navarre University. Has worked in theeducation field since 1997, in the Granja escuela Ilundáin, anenvironmental education farm school. Associate Professor of Navarre University in 2004 in the subjects of Ecology and Environmental Impact. Navarre University is the organisation for which he carried out this work. This article is a summary of the work he is going to present as his doctoral thesis.

Jordi Puig i Baguer. aged 41 (05.08.1967). Graduated in Science (Biology) from Navarre University. Doctored in Biology from the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. Professor

new ideas.

A14. «Biodiversity concept map».

Restructuring of ideas

120 Friday

A15. «The interview again ».

Review. Evaluation. Restructuring of ideas.

60 Friday

A16. . «Now we’ve finished. Thanks everyone».

Review. Evaluation. Restructuring of ideas Review activities

30 Friday


of Environmental Impact Assessment in the Navarre University’s Zoology Department since 1996. He has been visiting professor at University of California, Berkeley, USA (2002-2003) and of the University of Manchester, United Kingdom (2004).

TO FIND OUT MORE

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Legend

1 Ballester (2002) reports the fall in classroom disturbances recorded in several experiences of meaningful learning in schools. Among other causes this may be due to the change in the teacher’s authority status from one of position-based authority (I’m the teacher, you’re the pupil) to one of knowledge- and help-based authority (I’m here to help you if you wish).

2 Internet publication of the museum and its catalogue is done by means of a direct link («Museo de Ciencias») in Navarre University’s website http://www.unav.es

3This software goes under the name of Cmap Tools (Cañas et al., 2004) and is available at the website: «http://cmap.ihmc.us»; it is free, open-source software. Its very nature of shared or «free» software means that it can be presented as fruit of the values that the syllabus is also keen to get across as part of environmental education, such as fellowship, freedom and cooperation (Adell and Bernabé, 2007).

4[Nota de traductor: este pie de página no hace falta tratándose de lectores angloparlantes, Se puede quitar]

5Caduto (1992: 33) argues that 11 to 12 year olds (though there may be a transition phase) mark the limit of «morally dependent» pupils, namely those «who have not yet developed a cognitive and moral reasoning capacity or a personal ethical system».

6In any case the teaching unit has been designed to be effective for the target public, whether or not this chimes in with the teachings of Piaget and Inhelder.

7The focus question could be the same research question proposed in webquests


Environmental repercussions of artificial lighting ENVIRONMENT

Artificial lighting has been a great boon to mankind but its excessive or improper use can also damage the environment. By RAMÓN SAN MARTÍN PÁRAMO. Tenured Professor of the Engineering Projects Department Universidad Politécnica de Cataluña. Leader of the LUMINOTECHNICAL STUDIES Team. E-mail: [email protected]

No one looking at the photograph of Figure 1 could possibly doubt that it shows a city of our days. The intense use of artificial lighting has become one of the trademark signs of our times. Each night, when shadow begins to invade the “dark side of the Earth”, our cities shine out to denote the existence of the humanbeing.

This is a very recent phenomenon on a historical scale, unthinkable only a few decades back. Its transcendence and complexity is cloaked behind the ostensible simplicity of just “throwing a switch”. With this simple gesture we are doused with all the light we need, wherever we may be, whatever time of dayit might be. Nonetheless it is a phenomenon that – at least for us light technicians – is worthy of the closest attention and is endlessly thought provoking.

The History of Artificial Lighting

The flame, under its three classic forms: torch, oil lamp and candle, has been mankind’s main lighting resource since time out of mind.

These lighting systems underwent no substantial changes from their initial invention up to the nineteenth century. The main reason for this was probably the low demand for lighting; mostactivities were conducted outdoors in daylight hours: natural light provided enough illumination. Combustion-based illumination, for all its weakness and intrinsic faults (flickering flame, heat, smoke …) sufficed for the marginal functions it was used for.

Two social changes fuelled by the Industrial Revolution altered this situation:

concentration of activities in areas of easy access to the necessary energy for production; i.e., intensive land use instead of the extensive use hitherto.

prolongation of the periods of activity to recoup capital investments more quickly: nighttime, accounting for 50% of available hours, could no longer be spurned.

Both demands were impossible to meet using only sunlight, and this is where artificial lighting systems came into their own for the first time in history.

Figure 1.



The initial endeavours tried to perfect the classic systems,concentrating on the fuels used: turning to kerosene, oil…Gas fuels also appeared on the scene: acetylene, hydrogen, oxy-hydrogen mixture, still gas ( which, in the Spain of that time,went under the name, precisely, of “lighting gas”)…The first qualitative leap forward came with the introduction of the mantle in the gas and oil lamp: for the first time ever it was not the flame itself that was the direct source of illumination but an intermediary sleeve raised to a state of “incandescence”.

A similar breakthrough came in the arc lamp, working on the basis of a voltaic arc generated between two carbon electrodes. In this case the original chemical energy, stored in the material,gave way to an electrical source, generated by a flow of electrons along a conductor producing a difference of potential at its two ends.

This electricity was the energy used by researchers like Swan…and in 1879 it enabled T. A. Edison to bring into service the first “light bulbs”. Although hindsight might see a straightforward development from the “electric light bulb” to our current systems, the journey was not always so simple. Given the relativecloseness of the twentieth century it might be worth zooming into this period now in our whistlestop tour of artificial lighting.

Artificial Lighting in the Twentieth Century

By the start of the century the incandescent lamp already had a twenty-year track record behind it. Nonetheless, electric lighting still had to fend off fierce competition from combustion systems during the early decades. One of the snags that most held up its expansion was the limited extent of the power network. But the electric lighting of that time also suffered from intrinsic shortfalls. Defenders of gas lighting are said to have scoffed “you have to strike a match to see if the bulb filament has lit up,” alluding not only to the feeble output of the bulbs but also the vagaries of thepower supply and excessive failure rate …

Despite these weaknesses – which were no doubt exaggerated bydetractors but were still real enough to be shocking by today’s standards – electric lighting continued to win ground steadily until building up to its present hegemony.

The turning point in the history of artificial lighting, after which it became more and more like the systems we know today, came before the mid century, in about 1940. The US war industry was stymied in its development by the widespread military call up ofthe working population and therefore had to draw in workers from elsewhere. These new workers were much fussier about their working conditions. This development coincided with the growing influence in industry of the psycho-sociological theories of Elton Mayo, steadily winning out over the previous Taylorism schemes.

This all led to a substantial increase in habitual lighting levels –witness the Hawthorne experiments – and the introduction of the concepts of Visual Comfort.

From the point of view of lighting systems, the main fulcrum ofthis change was the fluorescent tube, with its greater lighting efficiency, lower glare and adaptability of the light tonality. This marked the “starting pistol” in a headlong race towards thediversification of light sources, improvements in efficiency and power, design of optic systems … until building up to today’s wide range of possibilities. Artificial lighting has now spread into a vast array of applications and considerably improved its performance standards.

So, starting out from an initial situation in which the supply of

Thomas Alva Edison

Scheme 1

Scheme 2


lighting fell well short of demand we come to the last decades of the century when any desirable lighting situation is at least theoretically on the cards. Supply has now outstripped demand and even goads it to higher levels. No longer content merely to satisfy demand, it now raises the stakes of utility and comfort and postpones activities such as sporting events to nighttime hours to draw in a bigger public or even in an image-conscious bid to make these events more spectacular and eyecatching.

From the use of a flickering oil lamp a few minutes a day, from dimly candlelit church interiors, we have now moved on to a world in which artificial lighting comes on when the alarm goes off, drenches the workplace, lights up every journey, illuminates our social relationships and fun-seeking activities, floodlights show-business events and only goes off when we all at last retire to bed.

In the Twenty First Century

There is no doubt that the development of artificial lighting, as outlined above, has been a great boon to our society. It hasincreased our time for doing things, prolonging activities into nighttime hours, and has increased our space, allowing us to useindoor and even underground sites, and has boosted our quality of life, enabling us to create the best visual conditions for our activity and well-being.

Artificial lighting is technically an energy transforming system, changing a primary form – chemical, thermal, electrical – intoelectromagnetic radiation. But it is necessary for a significant proportion of this radiation to be emitted in wavelengths within the visible spectrum, since its purpose is to shed light rather than provide energy. The interaction of this radiation with objects and spaces has to be capable of stimulating the receptors of the human retina, thus activating the process of visual perception; in most cases this is a sine qua non of the observers being able tocarry out their activities.

The great input of the twentieth century was the quantitative and qualitative improvement of this process. Beforehand we were able only to generate the necessary visual conditions to make activities feasibly performable; today artificial lighting helps us toimprove the performance of these activities, boosting their quality and making them safer and more satisfying.

This explains why our society is so keen to use artificial lighting, increasing its intensity and spreading it further afield so that itnow gives a perfect nighttime vision of our planet from space.

A hypothetical extraterrestrial civilisation watching us from space would see nighttime electromagnetic radiation emissions from planet earth in wavelengths running from 300 to 700manometers. It might draw two conclusions from this: firstly that the atmosphere of planet earth contains high levels of mercury and sodium vapour, which are activated by powerful electricalstorms. But these watchers would be baffled by the regularity ofthe phenomenon over time and space, and the spectrographic analysis of the earth’s atmosphere in daylight hours would not bear out his hypothesis.

The second hypothesis might be that planet earth is peopled by some species of intelligent beings that use nighttime hours to try to communication with other civilisations elsewhere by sending out light signals. But, in the words of the English writer Ian Mc Ewan, given the sheer scale of this emission “they would be amazed to find that we earth dwellers think we suffer from anenergy problem”

If this observation was carried out from a closer point than from Diagram 5.


another planet or even from an artificial satellite, we would find that the use of artificial lighting, urged on by the abovementioned boons, has now reached a situation of overkill. The light produced does not remain in the buildings, streets and workplaces it is meant to illuminate but spills out from there into the surroundingenvironment. And when we pay the light bill at the end of the month we might well reflect that we draw the necessary resources for producing this light from the very same environment it invades.

This picture is true but incomplete. It overlooks the fact that the useful functions of any process are always accompanied by parasite functions, undesired but essential for the system towork. It overlooks the necessary resources for the system to work and the waste it generates.

Resources Consumed and Waste Generated

The scheme outlined above expresses the “luminotechnical intention” and should be topped up by the “luminotechnical need”.

Scheme 3

Our action is not free and self contained; it does haveconsequences. To be able to carry out our function we have to consume not only material and energy resources but alsoinformative wherewithal, understanding the latter not only as technical or scientific knowledge but also “qualitative judgements and demands”, what we call the “culture of light”, whose conceptions shape our proposals and determine the responses of the users of artificial lighting. The waste generated also comes in three forms: material (bulbs and the lighting system, at the end of their useful lives), energy (heat, UV and electromagnetic radiation, non-optic effects...), and informative (light pollution and light trespass, scenic aggression...).

Most light technicians would probably agree that awareness ofthe side effects has crept up on us surreptitiously as the problemitself became worse, and our attitude to the problem has been largely passive. The beginning of this awareness can perhaps be dated back to the nineteen seventies, when the war-fuelled rise in energy prices made the sector more concerned about energy efficiency; a glance at the lighting indices of Congresses before and after the date shows that there was indeed a watershed. If the discovery was largely surreptitious and passive, the response


has generally been defensive.

The above nutshell account has shown the nineteenth century to be the birth period of artificial lighting as we know it today and the twentieth century to be its development period. If the twenty first century is to be its maturity period, we need to swap this passive and defensive approach for a much more active andconstructive attitude, allowing us to head off problems and thus pre-empt them, totally or partially. The starting point could be the analysis of the critical points we know today, concerning the environment, human health and equality.

Environmental Repercussions of Artificial Lighting.

As is well known, these are basically threefold:

Energy Consumption Energy consumption leads to the following environmentalimpacts:

The consumption of resources that are generally non-renewable

The emission of pollutants

Degradation of the natural environment

Artificial lighting taken as a whole represents a very notable proportion of our society’s total energy consumption. Estimates vary according the country concerned and studymethodologies used, but they hover around 25% of total electricity consumption (source “Right Light”), and this share is not falling despite the spectacular improvements in system efficiency. According to the figures of theInternational Energy Agency (IEA Total. August 2008) the total consumption of electrical energy adds up to 6852 TWh a year, representing a 2.4 % increase on the previous year.


It should also be pointed out here that the actual energy efficiency of artificial lighting systems is in general waybelow its potential values. Witness the fact that incandescent light fittings, with an efficiency of only 10 to 15% in comparison with other types, have a market share of between 80 and 90%.

Waste Generation The specific waste problems of artificial lighting can be boiled down to the two following:

Material that is harmful to the environment (mercury, strontium, lead, rare earths …) generally included in the composition of light bulbs. Moreover, the light bulb is the most perishable item of the whole lighting system, so it frequently has to be replaced, increasing the amount of waste generated.

The growing use of ballast or other elements of electrical lighting components, with their specific disposal problems.

This waste is costly and difficult to deal with. Mentionshould also be made here of the considerable effort made by the industry to reduce these harmful components inrecently manufactured products.

Light Pollution The emission of light in directions not necessary for itspurpose (skyglow and light trespass) produces the following effects:

It invades natural spaces, changing the environmental

Diagram 4


conditions of living beings and therefore disturbing their eating, reproducing and migrating habits, etc, upsetting the proper ecological balance.

Skyglow cuts down the visibility of the stars, whether for scientific purposes, stargazing or the simple pleasure of looking at them.

It invades the human habitat, causing great nuisance such as sleep disruption, reduced intimacy and in general washing out our experience of the night. In some built-up areas children now see the garish yellow hue of the nightsky as normal.

It should also be pointed out that all this nuisance-causing light scattered throughout the environment still consumes energy in its production. Rather than a mere waste of energy, therefore it amounts to counterproductive consumption.

Any of these points could be followed up in more detail, itemising specific consequences. For our purposes here,however, it might be more useful to consider some moregeneral aspects:

Although attempts have been made in all cases to bring in corrective measures, the problems are still on the rise. The corrective measures grow only in linear fashion and cannot keep up with the exponential growth of the problem itself, both quantitatively and qualitatively.

Although this problem has been brought to wider notice recently, there is still a fairly widespread ignorance of the matter.

The introduction of corrective measures is slow and difficult. This difficulty could be predicated upon:

ignorance of the problem

underestimation of its impact

natural resistance to change

Artificial Lighting and Human Health

We light technicians are accustomed to consider electromagnetic radiation only in its optical aspects, as transmitter to the brain of information from the outside world.

Nonetheless, this radiation acts on the body in a much broader sense and has other body intake routes besides the optic nerve. Light affects the whole “human envelope”, skin and hair. Within the eye itself it also generates impulses that, instead of headingfor the visual cortex, activate the pituitary gland and regulate the development of many physiological processes in our organism.

In the ancestral evolution of our species this process was triggered only by sunlight, of spectral composition and varying in intensity but always within certain limits and rates. The intensive use of artificial lighting in our society has completely changed this situation. Apart from exceptional effects such as the risk of erythema from an excess of UV radiation, the term social health risks (Nature. February 8 1996) is now being given to a series of phenomena affecting above all our biological rhythms:

depression

stress

heart rate

sleep rhythms


alertness problems…

A correlation has even been mooted between night-work, with its complete alteration of light cycles, and the incidence of some forms of cancer.

Although research into these matters is still in its infancy, the evidence for a relation between health and artificial light is now overwhelming, obliging us to rethink our approach to artificial lighting, especially in the workplace. It should also be pointed out that this relationship is not all bad news. Consideration is nowbeing given to the therapeutic applications of light and the development of biological illumination systems to harness the positive effects of lighting on human beings.

Globalisation: Artificial Lighting and Equality

Rather than an inventor, Edison was really a great promoter of technical applications, large among which looms the “electric light bulb”, but he did not turn out to be a great prophet when he boasted: “we will make electricity so cheap that only the rich will burn candles”

Now that over 120 years have passed since the appearance of his light bulb, we see that about two billion people – one third of the world’s population – do not yet have electricity and still depend on combustion as their only light source. They are certainly not the best off but they are the most prolific: their birth rate outruns the rate of electrification, so the gap is continually growing.

The abovementioned benefits of artificial lighting are unaffordable for a large part of the human population. They are now falling about two hundred years behind the developed society. For their lighting they use costly, inefficient, weak and polluting systems, and it is estimated that the light consumption (lumens per hour) per inhabitant is about one thousandth of the level in othersocieties.

This flies in the face of today’s globalisation drive and would no longer seem to be tenable. If the energy situation is not to become unsustainable we need to slough off our hidebound ways of thinking and turn to a more imaginative approach.

Conclusions

Artificial lighting is an achievement that has without doubt brought great benefits to our society. There is now no way back and efforts should concentrate on developing it in the rightdirections.

We do need to recognise, however, that certain excesses havebeen committed in its pursuit. If the twenty first century, as we have already foreshadowed, is really to be considered as its period of maturity, we need to come up with new ways of thinking that factor in the new variables and remain open to those that may crop up in the future. Learning should no longer be after the event, as hitherto, but should try to head offconsequences.

Artificial lighting has been developed in line with technological breakthroughs on the supply side but has also been fuelled by asocial demand that started out with the limited requirement of visual performance, then moved on to visual comfort and now sets goals of visual amenity. Physiological factors have weighed constantly in this demand but cultural factors have steadily come into their own until now becoming dominant.

The new approach, dubbed visual sustainability, calls for new


technological and procedural measures but above all a true cultural transition. The knee-jerk reaction of today’s society is to value glare as success and penumbra as sadness, consumption as status and non-consumption as poverty. A political figure of our country, speaking of an area with low light-pollution levels, recently observed: “Do you know what that means? There is no life”. The suggestion that lighting levels should be kept at functional levels without exceeding them needlessly, that illumination should be kept to the sphere to be lighted without trespassing elsewhere, is at loggerheads with the scale of values of our current culture of light.

The proposed sustainable approach does not mean renouncing the benefits of artificial lighting but rather rounding them out with a due consideration of its consequences and risks. Our legitimate aspirations for self-affirmation should be tempered with a recognition of its limits, engendering an attitude of respect for our environment and awareness of responsible consumption. We need to relearn our lessons, appreciating that it is the quality of light rather than the quantity that lets us see, and that the penumbra can be just as pleasing and handsome as glaring clarity.

The figures and arguments put forward in this article show that, though there is not a watertight consensus among us, we lighttechnicians cannot carry on working in the same ways in the twenty first century. Just as we were capable of shaping our goals in terms of new ambitions, we now have to phase in new curbs. What possible benefits could accrue from harming the environment and human health or stoking up tensions between the haves and have nots? We should see this a new challenge that we now need to rise to just as we have done in the recent past.

Joseph Pla, the Catalan writer, when confronted with the stunning nightscape of Manhattan’s skyscrapers, observed: “Very beautiful. But who pays for all this light?”. It is a good question: Who pays for this light? and, above all, how is it paid for?


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