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From Lake to Sand

the archaeoLogy oF FaraFra oaSiS WeStern deSert, egypt

edited by

Barbara E. Barich, Giulio Lucarini Mohamed A. Hamdan and Fekri A. Hassan

SApiEnzA UnivErSity oF roME DipArtiMEnto Di SciEnzE DELL’AnticHità

MiniStry oF AntiqUitiES – EGypt contributions by

Donatella BarcaBarbara E. BarichGiorgio BelluominiZbigniew M. BochenskiMario CappozzoLanfredo CastellettiMichela CottiniEmanuela CristianiAhmed G. FahmyMarina GallinaroMaria Carmela GattoAchiel GautierMohamed A. HamdanFekri A. HassanKazimierz Kowalski †Giulio LucariniAbdelmoneim A.MahmoudLuigia ManfraEmanuele MariottiItalo M. MuntoniGiuseppina MutriAugusto PalombiniGiacoma PetrulloBarbara Rzebik- KowalskaErhard SchulzNahla A. ShallalyZbigniew SzyndlarPhilip Van Peer

the volume presents all the data collected during the cycle of research conducted by the italian Archaeological Mission in the Farafra oasis between 1990 and 2005. the 29 multidisciplinary essays contained in this book provide a detailed picture of the population of the Farafra oasis, hitherto one of the least well known within the Western Desert. Farafra became particularly im-portant during the middle Holocene, the period when climate conditions were most favourable, with later brief humid episodes even in the historic periods. the results of the long-term research cycle presented here, combined with data from the survey of the whole Wadi el obeiyid still in progress, allow the authors to identify changes in the peopling of the oasis and to define various occupation phases. the new chronology for the Wadi el obeiyid is one of the main achievements of the book and, as demonstrated in the final chapter, is in complete agreement with the main cultural units of other territories in the Western Desert. on this chronological basis, the contacts between the latter and the populations established on the nile are brought into sharper focus.the importance of the archaeological documents discovered at Farafra and, at the same time their fragility due to the deterioration of the physical environment and the uncon-trolled human activities, make us fear for their conservation. We hope that this book, with its complete documentation of the precious nature of the Farafra oasis landscape and its archaeological heritage, may help to promote more effective policies for its safeguard.

Barbara E. Barich is Professor of Etnografia Preistorica dell’Africa, formerly at the Sapienza University of Rome, and member of the ISMEO, International Association for the Study of the Mediterranean and the East.

Giulio Lucarini is Marie Curie Senior Research Fellow at the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, and member of the ISMEO, International Association for the Study of the Mediterranean and the East.

Mohamed A. Hamdan is Head of the Geology Department, and Professor of Geoarchaeology at the Cairo University.

Fekri A. Hassan is Professor at the Université Française d’Egypte, and Emeritus Petrie Professor at the University College London.

€ 60,00

ISBN 978-88-7814-520-7

From Lake to Sand


edited by



MiniStry oF AntiqUitiES – EGypt

Table of Contents

List of Contributors XI

List of Figures XII

List of Tables XX

Foreword XXII

Editorial note and Acknowledgments XXIII

InTroduCTIon

1 Farafra oasis and the Archaeological Project 3Barbara E. Barich

1 The land and the people 32 The Archaeological Project 93 Safeguarding the oasis: site preservation and protection 184 Conclusions 18

I – ArChAEoLogICAL And hISTorICAL FrAmEwork

2 hints at middle Stone Age occupation in the Farafra oasis 25Philip Van Peer

1 Introduction 252 The site near the mission’s Camp in hidden Valley 253 The hidden Valley Plateau Area 284 The Sheikh el obeiyid area 355 The Ain dalla road 366 Conclusion 37 Addendum by B E Barich 38

3 Early to mid holocene archaeology of the Egyptian western desert 39Barbara E. Barich

3 resuming land occupation in the early holocene 392 Early holocene archaeology at Farafra: the sites of Ain e-raml and Abu kasseb 413 The transition towards the mid holocene at nabta 474 occupation sites in the dakhla oasis 535 Conclusion 54

4 An oasis through time: integrating historical and archaeological sources on Farafra oasis since Pharaonic period to the present 55Mario Cappozzo, Augusto Palombini

1 From the origins to the new kingdom 552 The Ptolemaic and Late Period 573 From the middle Ages to the present 58

II – BEdroCk gEoLogy And gEomorPhoLogy

5 desert and oasis: geomorphology and geomorphic evolution 63Fekri A. Hassan, Mohamed A. Hamdan, Abdelmoneim A. Mahmoud

1 origins of the Farafra depression 632 Bedrock geology 633 Aeolian landforms 694 Playa sediments 705 Conclusion: depositional history and palaeoclimate 78

III – ThE wAdI EL oBEIyId PLAyA: EL-BAhr

6 Sedimentological characteristics and geomorphic evolution of the holocene playa of wadi el obeiyid 81Mohamed A. Hamdan

1 Introduction 812 Stratigraphy and sedimento logical characteristics 823 Early and middle holocene palaeo environmental and palaeoclimatic implications 904 Late holocene geomorphic evolution of wadi el obeiyid playa 91

7 The El-Bahr/wadi el obeiyid playa: its general setting and the main archaeological features 101Barbara E. Barich

1 Introduction 1012 Topography and archaeological features 1033 The mid holocene horizon: the main occupation phase 1064 Excavation at the Bh-90-5C sheltered site: the late occupation phase 1235 main typological and techno logical characteristics 1256 El-Bahr/El obeiyid playa: cli matic phases, chronology and compa risons 126

8 workshop activities: Site El-Bahr 2A 129Barbara E. Barich

1 Introduction 1292 The site 1293 The lithic assemblage 1314 discussion 139

9 Fieldwork in recent decades in the El-Bahr basin: hearths and human occupation 141Marina Gallinaro

1 Introduction 1412 The Steinplätze 1413 Excavated structures 1434 Spatial analyses 145

IV – hIddEn VALLEy In ThE wAdI EL oBEIyId

10 geology of the holocene playa sediments of hidden Valley, wadi el obeiyid, Farafra 151Mohamed A. Hamdan

1 Introduction 1512 methods of study 1513 Bedrock geology and geomorphology 1514 Lithostratigraphy 1545 Sedimentology of the holocene sediments 1636 depositional environment 1647 geological evolution of the hidden Valley playa 1648 Conclusion 165

11/1 hidden Valley: a 7000 year-old village in wadi el obeiyid 167Barbara E.Barich

1 Introduction – The archaeological investigation 1672 Stratigraphy and features 1693 The hidden Valley village: phases of occupation and contextual analysis 203

11/2 The excavated artefacts from hidden Valley village: 1990-2001 209Barbara E. Barich

1 Introduction 2092 Surface 2113 Layer I 2174 Layer II 2185 Layer IIA 2256 Layer III 2347 Layer IIIA 2428 Technological features: an overview from the examined sectors 243

11/3 The excavated artefacts from sectors B/4, d/2, E/1 at hidden Valley (2003 and 2005 field seasons) 251Giulio Lucarini

1 Introduction 2512 Surface 2513 Layer I 2554 Layer II 2555 Layer IIA 2566 Layer III 2607 Techno-typological and functional considerations 261

11/4 The bifacial products from hidden Valley and neighbouring areas in wadi el obeiyid 265Giulio Lucarini

1 The study area 2652 The bifacial collections 2673 The bifacial tradition of the wadi el obeiyid region 282

11/5 Large stone tools from the hidden Valley village and basin 285Giulio Lucarini

1 Introduction: materials and research methodology 2852 Technology and raw material 2873 The hidden Valley village assemblage 2884 The assemblage from the hidden Valley basin 294

11/6 ostrich eggshell products from hidden Valley village, Farafra oasis – Contributions from technological analysis 301Emanuela Cristiani

1 The archaeological context 3012 methodology and materials analysed 302

11/7 hearths of the hidden Valley area, Farafra oasis 307Marina Gallinaro

1 Introduction 3072 hearths in the main hidden Valley area 3083 hidden Valley 2 3104 discussion 310

11/8 Technological and functional approach to the bone artefacts from hidden Valley village, Farafra oasis 315Giacoma Petrullo

1 Introduction 3152 methodology 3153 Analysis of the archaeological artefacts 3194 Conclusion 320

11/9 The hidden Valley technological complex – An overview 321Barbara E. Barich, Giulio Lucarini

1 Flaked stone production 3212 ground stone tools 3253 ostrich eggshell production 3264 Bone artefacts 3275 discussion: main points of comparison outside the Farafra depression 327

V – Food rESourCES AT hIddEn VALLEy

12 Plant food resources at hidden Valley, Farafra oasis 333Ahmed G. Fahmy

1 Introduction 3332 materials and methods 3343 results 3344 morphology of plant macro-remains 3365 Synthesis 3416 discussion and conclusions 342

13 Exploitation and management of wild grasses at hidden Valley, Farafra oasis 345Giulio Lucarini

1 Introduction 3452 Quantitative correlations between plant macro-remains and archaeological contexts 3463 Techniques for harvesting wild and domesticated Sorghum: an experimental programme 3504 Study of harvesting techniques at hidden Valley through experimental archaeology and functional

analysis 3575 Study of the archaeological sample collected at hidden Valley 3626 discussion: stone tools associated with harvesting activities in hidden Valley 3657 The use of sickles and other plant working tools in the Egyptian western desert and the nile Valley 366

14 Animal remains from the hidden Valley neolithic site, Farafra oasis 369Achiel Gautier

1 Introduction 3692 The animal groups encountered 3703 Fossil traces 3734 Taphonomic groups 3735 Palaeoeconomy and palaeo environment 3736 neolithic sheep and goat in the western desert 3737 Conclusion 374

VI – ThE wAdI EL oBEIyId CAVE 1 (FArAFrA CAVE)

15 The wadi el obeiyid Cave 1 – geological features 377Mohamed A. Hamdan, Fekri A. Hassan, Abdelmoneim A. Mahmoud

1 Introduction 3772 Cavern morphometry 3793 Cavern sediments 3814 Cave 1 speleothems dating and their palaeoclimatic implications 3835 Conclusion 384

16 The wadi el obeiyid Cave 1: the rock art archive 385Barbara E. Barich

1 Introduction 3852 Structural features 3853 wind-blown sand deposit 3864 rock art works 3875 Conclusion 395

Appendix I The Boats Arch: a new rock art site in wadi el obeiyid 406Giulio Lucarini, Emanuele Mariotti

Appendix II Vertebrate remains from wadi el obeiyid Cave 1, Farafra oasis 411Kazimierz Kowalski †, Zbigniew M. Bochenski, Barbara Rzebik-Kowalska, Zbigniew Szyndlar

1 Introduction 4112 The sample 4113 remarks on vertebrates taxa 4124 general remarks 414

Appendix III Pollen analysis on samples from wadi el obeiyid Cave 1 415Erhard Schulz

VII – ArChAEomETry And AnThrACoLogy

17 radiocarbon datings from Farafra oasis – Analysis and calibration 419Giorgio Belluomini, Luigia Manfra

18 Source of the prehistoric lithic artefacts and grindstones of wadi el obeiyid: petrographical and geochemical approach 427Mohamed A. Hamdan, Giuseppina Mutri, Donatella Barca, Nahla A. Shallaly

1 Introduction 4272 methodology 428

3 raw material geologic setting 4304 Petrography of raw materials 4335 Chemical composition of the geological and archaeological materials 4356 Provenance of the archaeological materials 4407 Conclusions 441

19 Archaeological and archaeometric data on the Farafra pottery 445Italo M. Muntoni, Maria Carmela Gatto

1 Introduction 4452 material and descriptive method 4453 The hidden Valley sample: geological description and sedimentary clay deposits 4454 Analytical methods 4485 The pottery and its archaeological context 4486 mineralogical and chemical analyses 4517 Archaeometric results 4568 discussion and conclusions 456

20 The hidden Valley, Farafra oasis: an anthracological study 459Michela Cottini, Lanfredo Castelletti

1 Introduction 4592 methodology 4593 results 4594 Identification and discussion of Tamarix and Acacia genera 4605 Conclusions 462

ConCLuSIon

21 Social dynamics in northern Farafra from the middle to late holocene: changing life under uncertainty 467Barbara E. Barich, Giulio Lucarini

1 Palaeoclimate and human occupation 4672 The middle-late holocene sequence of the wadi el obeiyid 4703 movements and exchanges – Farafra in the context of the western desert of Egypt 481

rEFErEnCES 485

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11/4. The bifacial products from Hidden Valley and neighbouring areas in Wadi el Obeiyid

GIULIO LUCARINI

1. THE STUDY AREA

One of the main characteristics of the mid Ho-locene lithic production of the Egyptian Western Desert is the presence of specific tools characterized mainly by their large size and by a careful and highly standardized, often couvrante, facial or bifacial retouch, manufactured by a pressure technique. In Farafra, these tools were often found and collected on the surface so that their precise stratigraphic and chronological position was not always clear. Despite this, the complex analyzed here, from sites all located along the course of the Wadi El Obeiyid, finds an important chrono-stratigraphic reference point in the Hidden Valley village sequence, where the presence of bifacial tools is attested from layer III of the sequence (ca 7000 bp).

This study considers the lithic complexes identi-fied in the Hidden Valley, Hidden Valley 2 and El-Bahr depressions and on the playa basins located on top of the Northern Limestone Plateau (fig.11/4.1). All together, these areas form a settlement system occupying, at different altitudes, every layer of the Northern Plateau, from the bed of the wadi, where the large playa basin of El-Bahr shows the traces of intensive frequentation, moving to the mid terraces, where the seasonal semi-sedentary slab structure site of Hidden Valley village has been found, up to the top of the plateau where areas of raw material exploitation are mainly concentrated and where other slab structure sites were recently discovered. All the lithic complexes are characterized by a highly standardized bifacial production with types that are directly comparable to other mid Holocene contexts in the Western Desert and the Nile Valley.

In the Hidden Valley these tools were mainly found immediately outside the village structures or scattered at the centre of the basin and, as already said, must be related to the occupation of the village from ca 7000 bp. Their scattering on the surface of the basin can be partially attributed to processes of deflation and weathering which have seriously damaged some areas of the in situ occupation (see Barich, chapter 11/1). In the Hidden Valley village complex, alongside a very high number of oppor-tunistic types, mainly used for scraping and cutting, the presence of bifacial manufacturing is attested by numerous bipointed lens-shaped arrowheads, present from layer III of the sequence, and by a fragment of a bifacial knife, also found in sector F/1 layer III (fig.11/2.7, 9), dated to 7187±89 bp (R-2481). Furthermore, a spear point from sector Hut1 90/91 (fig.11/2.2, 4) is related to the third phase of occupation (occupation C) of the village. It is clear that bifacial types on the one hand and opportunistic tools characterized by edge retouch on the other were two different components of the same lithic tradition. The larger number of scrap-ers, denticulates and notches compared to the quite low frequency of bifacial tools in the Hidden Valley village stratigraphic sequence cannot be explained in terms of different cultural traditions, but must depend mainly on the type of domestic activities carried out in the site.

In the El-Bahr playa basin the distribution of bifa-cial tools, like that of grinding equipment, relates to the area of most intense occupation emerging from the study of the lithic clusters (see Barich, chapter 7) and Steinplätze (see Gallinaro, chapter 9), both concentrated mostly on the northern edge of the

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Fig. 11/4.1. Farafra, Wadi el Obeiyid. Map of the Wadi el Obeiyid with the areas of provenance of bifacial tools.

basin. All these features, remains of temporary open-air camps, are found mainly along an ancient shore comprised between 114 m and 110 m asl, the level reached by the lake during its highest phase (Unit III of Hamdan’s reconstruction, see chapter 6). The radiocarbon dates allow us to date this phase to between 6730±60 (R-1901) and 6050±75 (R-2232).

Two large playa basins (NP1 and NP2) were identified on top of the Northern Limestone Plateau

in the vicinity of the Hidden Valley basin, more precisely 3.5 km north of the village and 2.4 km north-east of the Wadi el Obeiyid Cave 1. The two basins are contiguous depressions, linked by a kind of natural passage opening between the low surrounding hills. NP1, at an altitude comprised between 198 and 205 m asl, has an irregular trap-ezoidal shape and covers ca 500×300 m. NP2, at an altitude comprised between 201 and 208 m asl,

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Key: HV, Hidden Valley; HV2, Hidden Valley 2; EB, El-Bahr; HV-EB, area connecting Hidden Valley and El-Bahr; NP1, Northern Plateau playa 1; NP2, Northern Plateau playa 2; NP, scattered artefacts on the

Northern Plateau.

Table 11/4.1. The bifacial products from the Wadi el Obeiyid.

has an elongated oval shape and covers ca 800×300 m. Both basins are characterized by the presence of slab structures and surface Steinplätze. Though they have been investigated only marginally so far, the two basins show a remarkable concentration of bi-facial tools, a sample of which is analyzed here. The significant presence of these artefacts may be due to proximity to the supply areas for the particular type of chert used to manufacture these tools and which have been brought to light on top of the Northern Plateau (see Hamdan et al., chapter 18). Specifi-cally, the NP2 basin includes numerous knapping areas where chert, mainly of the tabular type, was intensively exploited in association with workshops for the manufacture of large blades. The latter may have been used as blanks for the bifacial stone tools found in a very large numbers, both in preparation and finished. The two basins were also characterized by a very high number of ostrich eggshell sherds. A sample of these was dated to 6450±135 bp (Gds-1232). This is the only date available so far for the two basins NP1 and NP2 and came from an ostrich eggshell bead production area in relation to some circular slab structures found in NP1.

2. THE BIFACIAL COLLECTIONS

The bifacial complex under scrutiny is made up of 105 (bi)facially retouched tools collected dur-ing the surface surveys carried out on the Hidden Valley, Hidden Valley 2, El-Bahr and and the two Northern Limestone Plateau playa basins (NP1 and NP2) (table 11/4.1). The materials from the surface of the gridded area of the Hidden Valley village and the gridded collection areas of the El-Bahr basin are not considered in this section and are presented in the chapters 7, 8, 11/2, 11/3.

For the study of these lithic complexes typological classification system proposed by Holmes (1989) for the Predynastic lithic industries of Upper Egypt was used, partly reworked and adapted for the contexts under scrutiny.

The Hidden Valley and Hidden Valley 2 basins yielded a total of 53 bifacial tools, among which 17 knives, 14 scrapers, 10 among planes gouges and axes, nine arrowheads and points, two drills and one oval-shaped bifacial tool. In the El-Bahr basin 13 tools were found: seven knives, two gouges and one ground axe, two sidescrapers and one arrowhead.

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The area connecting Hidden Valley and El-Bahr ba-sins yielded six tools: one knife, four planes and one sidescraper. The Northern Limestone Plateau basins yielded 33 tools: 12 knives, nine planes, gouges and axes, nine scrapers, one arrowhead, one drill and one oval-shaped bifacial tool.

The bifacial tools were mainly manufactured using various types of local chert (Tarawan, Ain Dalla and Farafra chert), coming from different raw material supply areas, located on the ridge of the Northern Plateau (see Hamdan et al., chapter 18). In the above described NP2 playa, located 2 km north of the Hidden Valley village, two main types of chert have been detected. The first one, dark brown in colour, occurs in the erosional surface between Tarawan and the Ain Dalla Formations as fragments reworked into the depression floor from the dissolu-tion of the surrounding limestone of the Ain Dalla Formation. It occurs both in nodules or bands and often has a white cortex. The nodules, of small and medium size, are usually round or oval and covered by a thick cortex layer, while the tabular chert are flat tablets covered in a thin whitish cortex. The second type is a chertified limestone, occurring as nodules in the Eocene Farafra limestone and characterized by a light grey colour and the presence of alveolinid microfossils.

When producing smaller artefacts, small or me-dium chert cobbles were chosen, while for the large bifacial tools large cobbles and tabular chert were mainly exploited1.

Even if in other contexts in the Egyptian Western Desert the practice of heat treating in order to make the knapping easier is reported as quite common, and it could have been the cause of the reddish brown coloured artefacts (McDonald 1993), in the assemblages we analyzed the tools exposed to this treatment were quite rare.

2.1 Bifacial Knives

Knives are the most common bifacial tools in the lithic assemblages analyzed. The bifacial knives found in the areas studied presented a wide range of shapes, sizes and types of retouch. The following types were identified in the contexts analyzed.

Symmetric pointed type

This type of knife is one of the most frequent in all the contexts studied and the best represented in the

Hidden Valley basin, which yielded 10 specimens. Five knives were found in the Northern Plateau playas (including three from playa 1 and one from playa 2) and two in the El-Bahr basin (one from Area 2 and one from Area 3). This type of knife has two straight or slightly convex edges curving gently towards the distal end and meeting at the pointed end. In this type, the knife edge is generally indistin-guishable from the back. Both edges were probably used (fig.11/4.2). Two specimens found immediately outside squares E and A of the Hidden Valley village were fragmentary but were included in this group considering their peculiar features (fig.11/4.2, 5). The second knife was burnt and associated with a surface hearth.

The length of the symmetric pointed knives ranged from 85 to 153 mm, with a mean value of 111.10 mm, the width from 19 to 47 mm (mean value 30.12 mm), and the thickness from 2 to 12 mm (mean value 7.76 mm). Three specimens were manufactured from tertiary products (two blades and one unidentifiable blank) and presented a slightly arched profile. These laminar blanks were probably knapped from large single platform cores. Four knives were made of tabular chert (fig.11/4.2, 1, 3, 5) and one of tabular mudstone (fig.11/4.2, 4). Some cortex was still preserved on both surfaces. One specimen from the Hidden Valley basin was manufactured on a side blow flake (fig.11/4.2, 6), whilst it was impossible to determine the type of blank used for the remaining eight specimens. They presented no trace of cortex on the surfaces and it is unclear if they were made of tabular chert or from tertiary blades/flakes. This knife type often has two convergent slightly convex or straight edges forming a pointed use end. The proximal end may be naturally straight, truncated or intentionally snapped for hafting. Some specimens were lens-shaped with slightly convex sides converging both at the pointed end and the proximal end which was usually retouched and rounded. Retouch was always bifacial and flat, and often couvrante. However, for items made of tabular chert, retouch was present only on the edges, more or less invasive, and the cortex was left on the surfaces to avoid thinning the tool excessively. Some knives presented secondary semi-abrupt retouch running along the perimeter and others semi-abrupt denticulated retouch to facilitate hafting. The detachments were generally small to medium-sized. Their morphology was often elongate parallel, elongate sub-parallel or lamellar

1 According to the Munsell Soil Color Charts (1990 Revised Edition), chert colours range between brown and gray tones (7.5YR and 10YR) and go from brown and dark gray to very light brown to reddish yellow.

Fig. 11/4.2. Farafra, Wadi el Obeiyid. Symmetric pointed knives from Hidden Valley (nos 1, 5, 6), El-Bahr (no 2), Northern Plateau playa 1 (no 3), Northern Plateau (no 4). (Scale 2:3).

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parallel. Some specimens presented large normal-scalar retouch. One knife from Hidden Valley had a narrowing on the proximal end forming a tang (28×19×5 mm). Another from the same area had a single blow notch on one edge (15×3 mm).

Asymmetric pointed type

Another very common knife in all the contexts surveyed was the asymmetric pointed type. Four specimens came from the Hidden Valley basin, one from Hidden Valley Area 2, five from the El-Bahr basin, one was found between Hidden Valley and El-Bahr and five on the Northern Limestone Plateau, including one from playa 1 and two from playa 2. This knife has a convex edge and a slightly concave or straight back meeting at the pointed end. Unlike the symmetric type, on this type of tool the knife edge and back are clearly distinct though it is likely that, in this case too, both edges were used. Their length ranged from 79 mm to 178 mm, with a mean value of 126.27 mm, the width from 24 mm to 44 mm (mean value 35.06 mm), and the thick-ness from 4 mm to 11 mm (mean value 8.69 mm). These knives were often made of tabular chert. Four specimens came from the Hidden Valley, two from the Northern Plateau and one from the El-Bahr basin. One from El-Bahr Area 2 was manufactured on a ESCP blank, whilst two specimens, one from El-Bahr Area 5 and another from the Northern Plateau playa 2, were made on tertiary blanks. For the remaining six specimens the blank was unidentifiable. The knives were divided into two subgroups on the basis of their shape: lenticular or irregularly lenticular and saber-like. The first type has a convex edge forming a pointed use end with the slightly convex or rectilinear back (fig.11/4.3, 1). Five specimens belonging to this group, defined as bipointed, presented very similar (though always identifiable) retouched and rounded distal and proximal ends (fig.11/4.3, 2). The saber-like type is characterized by one convex and one concave edge forming a pointed use end (fig.11/4.3, 3, 4, 6). The base is retouched and rounded or cortical snapped. Some saber-like knives presented a double fracture on anvil giving the base a triangular form, useful for hafting the tool (fig.11/4.3, 6). Retouch was always bifacial and flat, couvrante for knives manufactured on tertiary blanks or limited to the edges, bilateral, continuous and differently invasive for specimens made of tabular chert. Some specimens presented secondary non-invasive retouch running along the perimeter. The detachments generally ranged from small to large. Their morphology was lamellar parallel, elongate parallel, elongate sub-parallel

or square sub-parallel. Some bipointed specimens presented large or very large normal-scalar retouch. An additional or particular retouch was limited to the proximal end for ease of hafting: a knife from the El-Bahr basin presented a narrowing which formed a sort of tang (fig.11/4.3, 5), whilst another specimen from Hidden Valley had a cran-like edge (fig.11/4.3, 1). Two knives from Hidden Valley were notched and the single blow notches measured 16×3 mm and 15×3 mm respectively.

Elongated narrow type

These are long knives with a limited width and parallel edges, rectilinear or with one gently con-vex and one gently concave edge converging at the rounded knife end and the rounded base. Only two specimens of this type were found, one in the area immediately outside the Hidden Valley village and another in Northern Plateau playa 2. The blank type was unidentifiable for both knives, though the very straight profiles suggested the use of tabular chert. The first knife (fig.11/4.4, 1), measuring 130×24×7 mm, had rectilinear edges, whilst the second, measuring 165×25×10 mm, presented one slightly convex and one slightly concave edge (fig.11/4.4, 2). Retouch was always bifacial couvrante and flat. The detachments were small to large, elongate parallel on the first specimen and elongate sub-parallel on the second one.

Proto Gerzean type

Another type of knife found infrequently in the contexts analyzed is the proto-Gerzean type, thus named for its shape resembling that of the later Pre-dynastic tool. Only two specimens were collected, one from the Hidden Valley basin and a second from Northern Plateau playa 1. The first (fig.11/4.4, 3) had a slightly convex knife back and a rectilinear knife edge curving steeply towards the distal end to meet the knife back, forming a sort of right angle. The proximal end was straight snapped. The piece, measuring 137×56×9 mm, was manufactured on tabular chert. Flat retouch was restricted to one face only and was bilateral, continuous on both edges and invasive. The detachments were broad elongate sub-parallel. The base was unretouched. The second knife (fig.11/4.4, 4) had a slightly concave knife back and a rectilinear knife edge curving steeply towards the distal end. The tool, measuring 86×58×9 mm, was broken at the proximal end where the width tended to decrease. The missing part may have been a sort of tang to facilitate hafting. The retouch was bifacial couvrante and flat, with small to large, scalar and broad elongate sub-parallel detachments.

Fig. 11/4.3. Farafra, Wadi el Obeiyid. Asymmetric pointed knives from Hidden Valley (nos 1, 6), Northern Plateau playa 2 (no 2), Northern Plateau playa 1 (no 3), El-Bahr (nos 4, 5). (Scale 2:3).

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Technological and functional considerations

As we have seen, a large number of bifacial knives were made by simply retouching naturally flat chert tablets. This allowed for optimal results with minimal effort, also given the abundance of this raw material in the area. The straight profiles of many knives and the presence of cortex on both surfaces of some specimens support the hypothesis that this type of tabular raw material was widely used.

Almost all the bifacial knives were hafted, prob-ably with wooden handles. It is worth noting that the proximal end of some knives was specially shaped to aid hafting. Specifically, on several specimens the edges of the proximal end were snapped to create a triangular base (fig.11/4.3, 6) Another type with a thick proximal end, narrowed with one or two op-posed notches, was found in the Sheikh el Obeiyid area (Lucarini 2013a: 89) but was absent from the assemblages presented here. This type finds direct parallels in two other specimens, one found at the Djara 90/1 site dating to the Djara B phase (Kin-dermann 2004: 47, fig.14, 1) and a second from the Fayum depression (Caton-Thompson, Gardner 1934: pl. XXXVI, fig.10). Only three items had a true tang.

Retouch could cover the whole surface of the ar-tefact or be limited to the edges. Couvrante retouch was often characterized by normal-scalar, medium or large, detachments, probably made by direct percussion with a hard hammer. Secondary retouch, with a series of elongate parallel or sub-parallel de-tachments effected by pressure flaking and limited to the edges, was sometimes added to the couvrante retouch. Generally, the specimens with naturally even surfaces, such as those made of tabular chert, presented only this secondary pressure retouch; in the case of knives which were not particularly wide and thin, it could also extend to the whole central area of the artefact thus becoming couvrante. The parallel pressure flaking could go from the proximal to the distal end or vice versa.

Greater care was taken to retouch only one side of some knives, probably intended to be its working edge. This retouch consisted of highly standardized elongate parallel detachments contrasting with the more irregular scalar detachments characterizing the opposite edge of the tool on both surfaces (fig.11/4.3, 2). Each single elongate detachment on the tool’s working edge overlapped with the previ-ous one for ca 20% of its area, thus creating the distinctive ‘deltas’. One technique used to achieve extremely regular parallel detachments was to grind one of the surfaces, subsequently used as a retouch-ing platform for pressure flaking the opposite face.

The Farafra contexts did not yield specimens made using this technique; instead the more even tabular chert with a thin cortex was chosen and used.

Macro-wear, fractures and traces of resharpen-ing on the use edge of the knives may have been produced by their use for specific tasks, possibly hunting and butchering activities (Shirai 2006: 364; 2010: 305), woodworking or cutting the bushes, shrubs or spontaneous grasses that grew around the numerous basins along the course of the Wadi el Obeiyid (Lucarini 2008). Other specimens may have circulated as status symbols and can be interpreted as cultural objects or offerings; this was true of the fine retouched items presenting regular parallel detachments and no evident use-wear. Knives with this function are usually of the elongate narrow type. They are very well finished, with lamellar parallel detachments and an extremely thin section that would have made them too fragile to be used for work. The examination of the artefacts from the Djara cave also showed that specimens with large irregular detachments may have been used to cut a range of materials, while other knives presenting fine pressure retouch had an exclusively symbolic function (Kindermann 2004: 46). During later peri-ods, too, along the Nile Valley the evolution of the knapping technique which led to the first appearance of ‘ripple-flaking’ retouch and the fact that some of these items were found inside graves, show that these artefacts were not just seen as mere stone tools but had a strong religious significance (Needler 1984; Midant-Reynes 1984).

2.2 Gouges, Planes and Axes

Another common class of tools in the Hidden Valley, El-Bahr and Northern Plateau contexts com-prises planes, gouges, tranchet axes and ground axes.

Planes

Of the axe types, planes are the best represented in all the contexts investigated. Six planes came from the Northern Limestone Plateau, five from the Hid-den Valley basin and four from the area between the Hidden Valley and El-Bahr basin. Planes are tools made on thin tabular chert with the plane surface being naturally flaked or presenting the remaining natural cortex. They could also be manufactured on large flakes. In all cases, retouch is limited to one face only. Some specimens from the contexts analyzed did not present the ‘flake scars’ on the ventral surface caused by the blow struck on a core at the point of flake detachment (fig.11/4.4, 5-6). The complete absence of percussion bulbs or ripples

Fig. 11/4.4. Farafra, Wadi el Obeiyid. Retouched tools from Hidden Valley (nos 1, 3, 5, 7), Northern Plateau playa 2 (no 2), Northern Plateau playa 1 (no 4), Northern Plateau (no 6). (Scale 2:3).

Key: 1-2, elongate narrow knives; 3-4, proto-Gerzean knives; 5-7, planes.

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suggests that some blanks created by, for example, thermoclastic fractures, may have been particularly suitable for the production of this type of tools. A similar practice is also documented in the Djara area (Kindermann 2004: 37) and in the Fayum (Caton-Thompson, Gardner 1934: pl. XXXIV, 12). The length of the planes ranged from 43 mm to 95 mm, with a mean value of 68.93 mm, the width from 39 mm to 58 mm (mean value 49 mm), and the thickness from 8 mm to 32 mm (mean value 15.27 mm). Seven specimens were made of thin patinated chert preserving the natural surface and probably resulting from thermoclastic fracture. Four planes were manufactured from ESCP blanks and three from large tertiary or secondary flakes. The blank of the final specimen is unidentifiable. The shape was generally expanding triangular (6) or trapezoidal (4). Rarer profiles were drop-shaped (2 specimens), long expanding triangular (1), oval (1) and U-shaped (1) (fig.11/4.4, 7). The functional edge was often convex or slightly convex (10), followed by rectilinear (3) and concave (2) edges. The transverse section was either plano-convex (9) or biconvex (6). As already said, retouch was often facial. The flaked surface presented central couvrante flat retouch with large to very large detachments. Secondary semi-abrupt small normal-scalar retouch was usually added to the working and lateral edges. Bifacial retouch was sometimes partially or continuously extended to the working edge, perhaps for resharpening (fig.11/4.4, 5-6). Two specimens presented bifacial retouch, in one case limited to the lateral edges (fig.11/4.5, 1) and in the other covering the whole proximal end, probably to facilitate hafting. Considering the pres-ence of specimens bearing clear traces of fire, some of these tools probably underwent heat treatment to make knapping easier, though accidental contact with fire cannot be ruled out.

Gouges

Two gouges were collected in the area imme-diately outside the Hidden Valley village, another two in the El-Bahr basin (Area 2 and 5c) and a final specimen in Northern Plateau playa 2. The gouges from Farafra are bifacially retouched axes with an expanding triangular, elongate oval or drop-shaped outline (fig.11/4.5, 2-4). The distal end of the tool, usually wider and thicker, should be considered its working edge, whilst the proximal end, narrower, rounded or pointed (in the drop-shaped specimens), was hafted. The length of the gouges ranged from 71 mm to 101 mm, with a mean value of 82.60 mm, the width from 37 mm to 53 mm (mean value 30.12 mm), and the thickness from 7 mm to 32 mm

(mean value 7.76 mm). The two specimens from El-Bahr basin and that from the Northern Plateau playa 2 were made of tabular chert, only one from Hidden Valley from a large tertiary flake. The blank of the last specimen was unidentifiable. Three oval specimens had a convex working edge, whilst the remaining two presented a rectilinear working edge. The transverse section was plano-convex or bicon-vex. Retouch was always bifacial. In this case, too, the surfaces presented central couvrante flat retouch. Secondary semi-abrupt normal-scalar retouch was usually added to the working edge and sometimes extended to the lateral edges. On some specimens the central couvrante retouch was limited exclusively to the distal end, to thin and sharpen the working edge. On others, primary retouch was not couvrante but invasive flat scalar detachments were spread all over the perimeter and traces of cortex were still present on the central area of the surface.

Tranchet axes

A tranchet axe is a type of axe presenting bifa-cial retouch and preparation of the working edge (fig.11/4.5, 5-6). This may be thinned by the typical side blow tranchet scar, the partial tranchet scar or present normal retouch. Three tranchet axes were found in the Hidden Valley basin and one in North-ern Plateau playa 2. They were generally shorter than planes and gouges. The length of tranchet axes ranged from 55 mm to 69 mm, with a mean value of 63.25 mm, the width from 47 mm to 51 mm (mean value 48.50 mm), and the thickness from 12 mm to 18 mm (mean value 15 mm). All these axes were manufactured from different blanks: one on an ESCP product, one on thin patinated chert and one on tabular chert. The final blank was unidentifiable. Like the specimens belonging to the previous two classes, the shape was always expanding triangular or trapezoidal and the transverse section was plano-convex. Three specimens had slightly convex work-ing and lateral edges, whilst a triangular tranchet axe from Hidden Valley presented fairly unusual slightly concave working and lateral edges. Re-touch was always bifacial. The surfaces were often characterized by a central flat retouch that could be couvrante or invasive. Edge retouch consisted of semi-abrupt small scalar detachments along the whole perimeter. On two specimens, the second face was heavily patinated and presented large detach-ments limited to the distal end as preparation of the tool’s working edge. The functional edge of the specimen from the Northern Plateau had the typi-cal side blow tranchet scar on one face (fig.11/4.5, 5), whilst the working edge of a tranchet axe from

Fig. 11/4.5. Farafra, Wadi el Obeiyid. Retouched and ground tools from Northern Plateau (no 1), Hidden Valley (nos 2, 6), Northern Plateau playa 2 (nos 3, 5), Northern Plateau playa 1 (no 7), El-Bahr (nos 4, 8). (Scale 2:3).

Key: 1, plane; 2-4, gouges; 5-6, tranchet axes; 7-8, ground axes.

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Hidden Valley was trimmed with three very large semi-abrupt detachments (fig.11/4.5, 6).

Ground axes

Two ground basalt axes were collected from the El-Bahr basin Area 3 and Northern Plateau playa 1, not far from some recently recorded slab structures (fig.11/4.5, 7-8). Both were cone-shaped, one with a rectilinear and one with a slightly convex work-ing edge. Both had slightly convex lateral edges and a rounded base. The cross-section was thick biconvex. The first specimen measured 65×50×22 mm and the second 81×49×23 mm. Considering the absence of basalt outcrops in the region, this discovery is particularly significant as regards the range of movements between the Farafra Oasis and the Nile Valley. In Egypt, Oligocene basalt depos-its can be found in the Bahariya Oasis and in the Fayum depression.

In addition to the unusual raw material, the two ground axes are peculiar products from a techno-logical point of view as well. With the exception of grindstones, the Farafra Oasis yielded no ground stone artefacts. The predominance of facially re-touched planes, gouges and axes compared to the almost complete absence of ground implements was explained by Shirai (2010: 306) with the fact that the former could be easily resharpened.

Functional considerations

The function of planes, axes and gouges is still debated. Arkell (1953: 31), who considered the gouge as one of the typical classes of the Sudanese Shaheinab culture, advanced the hypothesis that at sites belonging to this complex, gouges may have been used as axes to hollow out tree trunks for mak-ing canoes. Haaland (1987: 76-77, 221) suggested a use as hoes for breaking up the ground, suitably hafted on wooden handles. According to Magid (1989: 170), who proposed a classification for the Sudanese gouges, this was implausible. The small size of the Sudanese specimens, a result of repeated flaking and resharpening, would have made them particularly unsuitable for hafting, thus suggesting that they were used as axes rather than as hoes for working the earth.

In my opinion these functions are not necessar-ily mutually exclusive. If suitably hafted, gouges are functionally excellent tools both for scraping and wood cutting, and for working the land. In the specific case of the Farafra Oasis, the economy was based on the exploitation of sheep/goats, small animal hunting and intensive gathering of wild grasses, which did not require intensive working of

the land (Lucarini 2006a; 2006b). This suggests that the gouges were used more for cutting and scrap-ing wood, considering the large number of acacia and tamarisk remains found in the deposit of the Hidden Valley village and available in large quanti-ties within the settlement. For the Fayum region, Shirai (2010: 306) also stressed that the emergence of bifacially-retouched and ground tools coincided with increasing wood-cutting requirements.

Planes, gouges and axes similar to those found in Farafra come from the Djara B (Gehlen et al. 2002; Kindermann 2004, 2010) and Bashendi B contexts (McDonald 2002a, 2009), from Lobo site 81/55 (Klees 1989a), and from the Fayum depression (Caton-Thompson, Gardner 1934; Shirai 2010). Gouges resembling the Farafra specimens were also found in the Neolithic layers of the Haua Fteah cave (McBurney 1967: figs. IX.16, IX.19, 6). The two basalt ground axes from Farafra resemble other specimens from the Kom W and Kom K sites in the Fayum (Caton-Thompson, Gardner 1934: pls. VIII, IX, XXII, XXIII). The presence of ground axes in the Egyptian Western Desert is reported at the Chufu 02/15 site. These tools were made of fossil wood and black quartzite (Riemer 2006: fig.9, 15-16).

2.3 Scrapers

Scrapers were common tools in the mid Holo-cene Wadi El Obeiyid contexts. Different types of scrapers were found: large sidescrapers manufac-tured on side blow flake, D-shaped or circular speci-mens on ESCP blanks or tabular chert, sidescrapers on tertiary flakes or elongate ones on blades. One endscraper/gouge was also found in the Hidden Valley basin.

Sidescrapers on side blow flake

The side blow flake is a typical product of the mid Holocene lithic assemblages of the Egyptian Western Desert and Fayum depression. This is a broad, con-cave-convex flake, detached from a tabular block or nodule by a direct blow struck at right-angles to the main axis with a hard hammer (Caton-Thompson, Gardner 1934: 21). Side blow flakes were usually used as blanks for making sidescrapers or knives. The complete production sequence for this type of artefact is well documented for the Djara region (Kindermann 2004: 43, fig.12).

Five sidescrapers manufactured on side blow flake were found in the Northern Limestone Pla-teau playa 1, one in the Hidden Valley Area 2 and a final specimen in the area connecting the Hidden Valley and El-Bahr (fig.11/4.6, 1-2). Their length

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ranged from 29 mm to 58 mm, with a mean value of 37.57 mm, the width from 82 to 130 mm (mean value 100.43 mm), and the thickness from 5 mm to 18 mm (mean value 11 mm).

Retouch was often obverse and semi-abrupt, spread continuously all over the distal or proximal edge; in the latter case, the striking platform was trimmed. Preparation detachments were sometimes visible on the striking platform. Retouch covered the whole perimeter in only one case. Detachments were usually small to medium in size, normal or normal-scalar in morphology and gave the edge a convex or denticulated form. Only one sample from Northern Plateau playa 1 presented alternate (obverse-distal/inverse-proximal) retouch which was abrupt on the proximal edge (fig.11/4.6, 2). Alternate retouch was also seen on a specimen from Djara 98/4 (Kinder-mann 2004: fig.13, 1).

In the Egyptian Western Desert sidescrapers on side blow flake are typical of the Djara B (Kinder-mann 2004: fig.13.1; 2010: fig.48, 3) and Bashendi B contexts (McDonald 2002a: fig.1, a). They were also found in Kharga Oasis (Caton-Thompson 1952: 177-180). Further south, other specimens come from site E-75-8 at Nabta Playa (Banks 1984a), where this technology is attributed to the Late Neolithic between 6300 and 5800 bp (Wendorf, Schild 1984). In the Nile Valley the presence of side blow flakes was reported in the Fayum depression (Caton-Thompson, Gardner 1934: pl. XLIII), at the Badarian site of Mahgar Dendera 2 (Hendrickx et al. 2001: pl. 29, 2) and at the Makhadma 4 site (Vermeersch et al. 1992: fig.11). The Tree Shelter site in the Red Sea area also yielded a side blow flake in association with a hearth dated to 5835 bp (Vermeersch et al. 2002: 135, fig.11, 3).

D-shaped and circular scrapers

D-shaped and circular scrapers are tools usu-ally manufactured on thin tabular chert or ESCP blanks, with flat retouch running along all, or most, of the perimeter. Two D-shaped scrapers came from Northern Limestone Plateau playa 1 and one from playa 2, one from the Hidden Valley basin and one from El-Bahr area 2 (fig.11/4.6, 3-4). Their length ranged from 84 mm to 141 mm, with a mean value of 111.60 mm, the width from 58 mm to 83 mm (mean value 69.6 mm), and the thickness from 9 mm to 15 mm (mean value 13 mm). Three were manufactured on ESCP blanks and the remaining two on thin tabular chert. Retouch was obverse, alternate or bifacial, and always continuous on one side of the edge of the tool. The extension of retouch was usually slightly invasive or invasive and

the angle flat although in some cases semi-abrupt or abrupt detachments were also present. The re-touch morphology was normal, scalar or elongate sub-parallel.

An irregular-shaped scraper, also made of tabular chert, came from the Northern Plateau playa 2. It measured 115×74×6 mm and presented bifacial flat retouch. This tool could be considered an early stage of production of a D-shaped scraper.

The last tool was a oval scraper from the area outside the Hidden Valley village. It was manufac-tured on a ESCP blank and measured 92×54×11 mm. It presented obverse continuous semi-abrupt retouch characterized by small normal detachments.

Circular and D-shaped scrapers were also found at Djara 90/1 (Kindermann 2004: fig.13, 3), the El Kharafish site (Riemer et al. 2008: fig.8, 8) and the Fayum depression (Caton-Thompson, Gardner 1934: pl. XLVI, 1, 4, 6). They are one of the typical tools of the Predynastic lithic assemblages of the Nile Valley (Holmes 1989: 396-398).

Sidescrapers on flake or blade

Six sidescrapers were manufactured on flakes, all from the Hidden Valley basin. Five were made of chert. Of these, three were on tertiary flakes and one on a secondary flake. One specimen, measur-ing 83×54×11 mm, was made by retouching an old quartzite Levallois flake. The length of the five chert pieces ranged from 59 mm to 80 mm, with a mean value of 70.20 mm, the width from 32 mm to 59 mm (mean value 44.80 mm), and the thickness from 6 mm to 16 mm (mean value 11.80 mm). Retouch was always obverse, running continuously along one side or edge; in only one case was it bilateral. It could be non-invasive or invasive in extension. The angle of retouch was flat or semi-abrupt. Detachments were usually small and normal in morphology. Only one small specimen presented very regular elongate sub-parallel retouch all over one side.

The lithic assemblage also included five sidescrap-ers manufactured on large blades. Five of these came from the Hidden Valley basin and only one from El-Bahr area 2F. Four pieces were manufactured on tertiary blades and one on a ESCP laminar blank (fig.11/4.6, 6). The final sidescraper, highly pati-nated, was manufactured on a old Levallois blade (fig.11/4.6, 5). Their length ranged from 80 mm to 113 mm, with a mean value of 98.60 mm, the width from 24 mm to 43 mm (mean value 35.80 mm), and the thickness from 6 mm to 12 mm (mean value 8.40 mm). They usually had a fairly regular elon-gate shape with a rounded distal front which was sometimes retouched. Irregularly shaped pieces were

Fig. 11/4.6. Farafra, Wadi el Obeiyid. Scrapers from Northern Plateau playa 1 (nos 1, 2, 4), Hidden Valley (nos 3, 5), El-Bahr (no 6), Hidden Valley 2 (no 7). (Scale 2:3).

Key: 1-2, sidescrapers on side blow flake; 3-4, D-shaped scrapers; 5-6, sidescrapers on blade; 7, endscraper.

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also present. Retouch was often obverse continuous on one edge only or bilateral. Only one specimen presented alternating retouch. The angle of retouch was flat or semi-abrupt. Different degrees of exten-sion were found: non invasive, slightly invasive or invasive. The morphology of retouch was normal or normal-scalar.

Endscraper

The Hidden Valley basin yielded a drop-shaped endscraper measuring 56×36×14 mm (fig.11/4.6, 7) and resembling a small rounded-edge gouge in shape. Considering its small size, it was character-ized by a thick tabular section with a convex upper and flat lower surface. The tool presented bifacial couvrante retouch. On the lower face, flat very large scalar detachments were present, whilst abrupt square sub-parallel retouch covered the perimeter of the upper face.

2.4 Arrowheads and Points

The Wadi el Obeiyid region yielded numerous ar-rowheads found both in situ, during the excavation of the Hidden Valley village, and on the surface of the surveyed playa basins. The types recorded were: a stemmed and winged, bifacially retouched type; Ounan points, manufactured on bladelets and pre-senting non-invasive retouch; bipointed lens-shaped arrowheads. Some large and massive points, unsuit-able for setting into the arrow shaft given their size, may have been used as spearheads.

Stemmed arrowheads

Seven stemmed arrowheads were found in two of the three survey areas. Specifically, five came from the Hidden Valley basin, one from Hidden Valley Area 2 and one from El-Bahr basin.

The presence of three large specimens among the arrowheads from the Hidden Valley and Hidden Val-ley Area 2 should be stressed. One of these, stemmed and barbless, was manufactured on a tertiary blade and measured 72×44×9 mm. It presented proximal retouch to shape the stem. The other two points, very similar in shape and size, were triangular stemmed types manufactured on ESCP flakes (fig.11/4.7, 1-2). They measured 56×37×8 mm and 56×31×9 mm and had short pointed stems respectively measur-ing 10×11×6 mm and 13×12×7 mm. Bifacial semi-abrupt retouch was continuously spread all over their perimeter. The presence of large arrowheads is quite unusual in the Farafra contexts and this may be due to the generally small and medium size of the animals habitually hunted. None of the large

concave-based arrowheads typical of the Fayum depression were found. Given the discovery of two of these among the bones of an hippopotamus and an elephant (Caton-Thompson, Gardner 1934: 72, 84), Shirai (2010: 304) associated these tools with the hunting of large animals. Since such animals are absent from Farafra and other regions of the Egyptian Western Desert, and given the limited ef-fectiveness of these large points for hunting small and fast animals, their use for killing humans has been suggested (Shirai 2006: 366).

Among the small stemmed arrowheads, we could mention a triangular elongate barbed type, measur-ing 34×10×3 mm and presenting bifacial couvrante flat retouch characterized by very regular small elongate parallel detachments (fig.11/4.7, 3). The final two specimens, elongate triangular in shape, stemmed and barbed, measured 22×11×3 mm and 45×14×5 mm respectively. Both presented bifacial, couvrante flat retouch with small elongate sub-parallel detachments. The typical feature of these two specimens were the significant size of the stem, which in one case was oval and measured 17×9×3 mm (fig.11/4.7, 4). This type strongly resembled a specimen from the Fayum (Caton-Thompson, Gardner 1934: pl. LI, 12) and two fragmented points from Djara 00/68-Cluster 2 (Kindermann 2010: fig.284, 5-6).

The piece from El-Bahr was a stemmed, barb-less arrowhead measuring 31×10×6 mm, with slightly convex convergent edges and an elongate stem measuring 9×4×3 mm (fig.11/4.7, 5). The arrowhead was bifacially retouched all over both surfaces. The detachments were flat and normal. This type of projectile point parallels specimens from Sitra area in the southern Qattara depression (Cziesla 1989: fig.1, 2), from Hatiet Um el Hiyus in the Siwa Oasis (Hassan, Gross 1987: fig.5.4, i) and from the Fayum depression (Caton-Thompson, Gardner 1934: pl. LI, 18; Shirai 2010: fig.8.7, 4). A similar point, but with slightly concave edges, also comes from Djara 90/1, a site ascribable to the Djara B cultural unit (Kindermann 2004: fig.11, 7). Along the coast a similar arrowhead was found in the Neolithic layers of the Haua Fteah Cave (McBurney 1967: fig.IX.15, 11) and bifacially retouched stemmed and barbless arrowheads also come from site WMCS 59 on the Marmarica coast, east of Tobruk (Hulin et al. 2009: fig.4). The so-called Nizzanim points from Negev (Gopher 1994: fig.6) can be considered the closest parallel in the Levantine regions. Considering this resemblance, it is possible that this point was associated with the arrival of the first domesticated caprids from south-west Asia.

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Fig. 11/4.7. Farafra, Wadi el Obeiyid. Retouched tools from Hidden Valley (nos 1-3, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13), Hidden Valley 2 (nos 4, 8), El-Bahr (no 5), Northern Plateau playa 1 (nos 9, 12, 14). (Scale 2:3).

Key: 1-5, stemmed arrowheads; 6, Ounan point; 7-9, large points; 10, 12, bifacial drills; 11, mèche de foret; 13-14, oval bifacial tools.

Ounan pointsThe Ounan point is a stemmed barbless point of-

ten with unretouched or only marginally retouched edges and bifacial couvrante retouch limited to the stem2. In the Hidden Valley village this type of

arrowhead is present starting from layer III, but it was also found in layer II of the sequence, dated to ca 6700 bp (see Barich, chapter 11/2 and Lucarini, chapter 11/3). One Ounan point was found in the area immediately outside the Hidden Valley village,

2 This type, though not presenting either bifacial or couvrante retouch, has been included in this category since in the mid Holo-cene contexts of Farafra it is frequently found in association with bifacial tools proper.

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manufactured on a tertiary bladelet and measuring 25×9×2 mm (fig.11/4.7, 6). Obverse partial retouch was limited to the sinister side of the distal end, whilst the stem was shaped with bilateral invasive retouch. In the Egyptian Western Desert this tool is reported as common in Early Holocene contexts (Kindermann 2004: 41; Riemer et al. 2008: 595)3 but the finds from the Farafra Oasis indicate that the Ounan point was also present along the course of the Wadi el Obeiyid during the mid Holocene.

Lens-shaped arrowheads

The lens-shaped arrowhead is a bipointed ar-rowhead presenting invasive or couvrante retouch (Holmes 1989: 416). A very large number of these arrowheads was found in the Hidden Valley village deposit. This tool is well documented in numerous Egyptian contexts from the mid Holocene onwards4.

Large points

Three large points, to be considered spearheads, were included in the assemblages analyzed. One, from the northern edge of the Hidden Valley basin, was a point manufactured on an elongate tertiary blade from a single platform core (fig.11/4.7, 7). The tool measured 85×22×7 and presented obverse bilateral invasive flat retouch characterized by normal-scalar detachments.

The second tool was a large lens-shaped point from Area 2 of the Hidden Valley basin. The tool was bifacially retouched and measured 72×30×9 mm (fig.11/4.7, 8). Retouch was couvrante and flat on both surfaces and characterized by small to large normal-scalar detachments.

The last specimen, also lens-shaped, came from the Northern Plateau playa 1 (fig.11/4.7, 9). It was manufactured on a tertiary blank (probably a flake) and measured 57×20×5 mm. The piece had bifacial couvrante flat retouch characterized by small to medium normal-scalar detachments.

2.5 Bifacial Drills

Bifacial drills are rod-like implements with a thick cross-section. They have a square or triangular section, and were produced by fine pressure retouch from a blade or flake. In the lithic assemblages analyzed, two bifacial drills came from the surface

area immediately outside the Hidden Valley village and one from the Northern Plateau Playa 1. The first, measuring 48×12×7 mm, had a lozenge sec-tion and presented bifacial couvrante semi-abrupt retouch characterized by very small to small, square and elongate sub-parallel detachments (fig.11/4.7, 10). On both surfaces of the artefact the retouch formed a sort of crest running its entire length. The second drill from Hidden Valley measured 29×7×6 mm and was fractured at both ends (fig.11/4.7, 11). The tool, a typical mèche de foret, had a trapezoidal section and was manufactured on a double-backed flake presenting obverse bilateral abrupt retouch. Both types of drill find parallels in Fayum Z basin (Caton-Thompson, Gardner 1934: pl. XLVIII), whilst mèche de foret drills were found in some number in different areas of the Egyptian Western Desert such as Chufu 02/15 site (Riemer 2006: fig.9, 9-12) and Djara A sites (Kindermann 2010: fig.47, 5).

A different type of bifacial drill also came from the Northern Plateau Playa 1. It was manufac-tured on a ESCP blank and measured 34×9×3 mm (fig.11/4.7, 12). It presented bifacial invasive square sub-parallel retouch continuously running all over the perimeter. The tool was notched on the proximal end, probably to facilitate hafting.

2.6 Other Bifacial Tools

Among the other implements I should stress the presence of two small oval bifacial tools (fig.11/4.7, 13-14). One was found at the southern edge of the Hidden Valley basin and another in the Northern Plateau playa 1. They measured 51×24×4 mm and 45×23×5 mm respectively. Retouch was bifacial couvrante and flat with very small to large scalar detachments. The function of these tools is unclear. The specimen from the Northern Plateau had a slightly pointed end and a round base and could be interpreted as a sort of drop-shaped arrowhead, but the other specimen had two rounded ends which would have made it impossible to use it as a projectile point. It seems likely that they were used as sidescrapers. Similar tools, circular or oval, were found in the Sitra area where they are defined as “leaves” (Cziesla 1989: fig.1, 7-8) and in the Hatiet Um el Hiyus in the Siwa Oasis (Hassan, Gross 1987: fig.5.4, h).

3 For comparisons with specimens found in other contexts in the Egyptian Western Desert and Nile Valley see Lucarini, chapter 11/3.4 For a description see Barich, chapter 11/2 and Lucarini, chapter 11/3. For a description of the chaîne opératoire and comparisons

with specimens from other contexts in the Egyptian Western Desert and Nile Valley see Lucarini, chapter 11/3.

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3. THE BIFACIAL TRADITION OF THE WADI EL OBEIYID REGION

These classes of artefacts which include bifacial knives, gouges, tranchet axes and planes, lens-shaped and tanged arrowheads, various types of scrapers and bifacial borers find parallels in other mid Holo-cene contexts of the Western Desert such as the Djara B phase of the Abu Muhariq plateau (Gehlen et al. 2002; Kindermann 2004, 2010), the Late Bashendi A and Bashendi B of the Dakhla Oasis (McDonald 1998, 2009) and the Late Baris Unit of Kharga Oasis (McDonald 2006, 2009), Lobo in the Eastern Sand Sea (Klees 1989a), the Chufu site (Riemer 2006), the Siwa and Bahrein Oases (Cziesla 1989, 1993; Has-san 1976; Hassan, Gross 1987) and, along the Nile Valley, with the Neolithic artefacts from the Fayum depression (Caton-Thompson, Gardner 1934; Shirai 2010; Wenke et al. 1988). Some bifacial tools were also found on the Marmarican and Cyrenaican coast and, in particular, in the Haua Fteah Cave (Hulin et al. 2009; Lucarini 2013b; McBurney 1967).

On the basis of the results of the stratigraphic investigation of the Hidden Valley village, a con-currence between the first appearance of bifacially retouched tools and the adoption of domesticated caprines from the Levant is attested at the end of the eighth/beginning of the seventh millennium bp (Barich, Lucarini 2002; 2005; 2008). An identical situation is also attested for the Dakhla and Djara regions (Gehlen et al. 2002; Kindermann 2004; 2010; McDonald 2009). Nevertheless, the presence of these tools in the Farafra context does not seem to be directly related to this significant new economic strategy. Pastoral activities, although increasingly important, were just one component of a broad spectrum exploitation of the environment which, at Farafra, also included the consumption of wild plants, small animal hunting and the exploitation of ostriches.

It is certain that domesticated livestock origi-nated in southwestern Asia (Close 2002; Linseele et al. 2010) and a similar provenance has also been postulated by some scholars for the bifacial techno-complex (Kuper, Kröpelin 2006: 805). It is likely that influences from the Levant may have reached the Egyptian Western Desert via the Nile Valley. In fact, undoubted contacts between these two regions are testified by the numerous mid Holocene campsites of the Abu Muhariq Plateau, dated to between 7000 and 6300 bp (Riemer, Kindermann 2008). However, as shown by McDonald (2013), the characteristic features of the bifacial tools in the Egyptian Western

Desert can only partially be ascribed to Levantine traditions.

The dynamics of contacts/exchanges between the Levant and the North African regions, probably intensified by the 8200 cal BP climatic crisis, present intriguing and complex aspects which have not yet been fully clarified. The most typical features of the southwestern Levant repertoires, such as the bifacial serrated sickle elements, are limited to the lower Nile Valley and are mainly characteristic of the Fayum, Merimde and Buto-Maadi contexts (Eiwanger 1984; Lucarini 2013b; Schmidt 1993; Shirai 2010).

With particular regard to the Farafra bifacial complex, among the rare tools that suggest pos-sible contacts with the southwestern Levant, only a stemmed, barbless, bifacially retouched arrowhead, characterized by convex convergent edges and an elongate stem can be paralleled with the Levantine Nizzanim point (Gopher 1994: fig.6). By contrast, the majority of the mid Holocene lithic production in Farafra is fully embedded in the most typical bi-facial techno-complex characteristic of the central and northern areas of the Egyptian Western Desert. As already noted, its features allow for a more direct association with the assemblages of Djara and Dakhla, with those of the Siwa Oasis and with some repertoires of the Marmarican and Cyrenaican coast, rather than with those of the southwestern Levant. As also noted by Riemer (2006: 523, fig.1), the distribution of the bifacial complex corresponds geographically to the Mediterranean eco-system, characteristic, during the mid Holocene, of the cen-tral and northern regions of the Egyptian Western Desert and the coasts.

The Holocene rain regime was characterized by monsoonal summer rains on the southern edge of the Egyptian Western Desert and Mediterranean winter rains in the northern regions. During the mid Holocene moist phase (ca 7000-6300 bp), these two rain regimes overlapped at around the latitudes of Dakhla and Farafra Oases (Arz et al. 2003; Hassan et al. 2001; Neumann 1989a; 1989b; 1993). In the Farafra Oasis this phenomenon led to particularly favourable climatic and environmental conditions and to a high concentration of people and resources all along the course of the Wadi el Obeiyid. As we have seen above, this phenomenon is attested by the Hidden Valley village occupation sequence (especially during phases B and C) (see Barich, chapter 11/1). The Hidden Valley basin is a significant example of sites located on the shores of ancient playa basins. The appearance of slab structures, along with a greater permanence in the area, around 7000 bp is also attested in other areas along the Wadi el Obeiyid, such as the Sheikh el

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Obeiyid village, located ca 20 km west of the Hid-den Valley village. This site, although not directly connected to a large playa basin, was still located in an area where access to water was particularly easy (Lucarini 2011).

Besides the good availability of water, easy access to raw material procurement areas must have been a further important factor in the selection of these sites. The availability of specific raw materials, espe-cially the fine tabular chert mainly available in the Western Desert Limestone Plateau and particularly suitable for bifacial pressure flaking, may affect the choice of specific areas and, as a consequence, the geographical distribution of the bifacial techno-complex (Shirai 2006: 362). The aforementioned region was characterized by a remarkable quantity of this high-quality chert and it is likely that this great abundance of raw material provided the im-pulse which triggered a true bifacial tradition from the beginning of the mid Holocene.

At Farafra, the manufacturing of bifacial tools, or at least its first step, may have been carried out by specialized craftsmen and knappers directly in the raw material procurement areas and this is confirmed by the presence of several manufacturing workshops. Some retouched tools may also have been finished in the slab structure sites; however, traces of a first stage of pre-core knapping activities are totally absent. As already mentioned, some of the finest specimens may have circulated as status symbols and could be interpreted as cultural objects or offerings. In this regard, a very important find from the most recent excavations came from the Bir el Obeiyid Playa, located ca 20 km west of Hidden Valley. During the excavation of a hearth mound, four burnt bifacial knives were found within the playa deposit forming the hearth base. A charcoal sample gave a date of 6350±85 bp (Gd-19209). Of the four bifacial knives found, one was almost completely destroyed by fire. The exposure to fire

of finished tools found inside a fairly small hearth rules out any functional aims such as heat treatment to facilitate knapping. By contrast, it is likely that these tools had a symbolic value within a ceremonial context (Lucarini 2013a: 92).

As already observed by other authors (Sack 1986), the permanence of a social group in the same area for a long period may lead to increased population pressure, increased social complexity and a stronger link between the group and its ter-ritory, with the latter also being represented by the raw materials present in it and the artefacts manu-factured from them. In a society characterized by greater social complexity, it is also likely that some artefacts and tools acquired a symbolic value. Nor can we rule out their significance as trade goods through which it was possible to form and foster relations among different groups in the region. In this sense, rare and unusual tools which were certainly imported, such as the two basalt ground axes found in the El-Bahr basin and in the Northern Plateau playa 1 could be interpreted as exchange goods or gifts, sensu Mauss (1925). Shirai (2006: 364) suggested that the curated bifacial production of the Egyptian Western Desert and, in particular arrowheads, spearheads and knives, may be related in particular to hunting and butchering activities, whilst less curated and opportunistic tools, such as scrapers, notches, denticulates and drills, were used mainly for food gathering and craft working tasks. According to a model proposed by Wiessner (1983, 1996), the same scholar also suggested that the knappers may have benefitted from a portion of the meat of the animal hunted using tools they had manufactured. This would have led, as a con-sequence, to an improvement in their social status (Shirai 2006: 367). It is likely that in Farafra, too, thanks to the activities carried out using the stone tools they manufactured, knappers gained increasing prestige within the social group.

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From Lake to Sand


edited by



MiniStry oF AntiqUitiES – EGypt contributions by

Donatella BarcaBarbara E. BarichGiorgio BelluominiZbigniew M. BochenskiMario CappozzoLanfredo CastellettiMichela CottiniEmanuela CristianiAhmed G. FahmyMarina GallinaroMaria Carmela GattoAchiel GautierMohamed A. HamdanFekri A. HassanKazimierz Kowalski †Giulio LucariniAbdelmoneim A.MahmoudLuigia ManfraEmanuele MariottiItalo M. MuntoniGiuseppina MutriAugusto PalombiniGiacoma PetrulloBarbara Rzebik- KowalskaErhard SchulzNahla A. ShallalyZbigniew SzyndlarPhilip Van Peer

the volume presents all the data collected during the cycle of research conducted by the italian Archaeological Mission in the Farafra oasis between 1990 and 2005. the 29 multidisciplinary essays contained in this book provide a detailed picture of the population of the Farafra oasis, hitherto one of the least well known within the Western Desert. Farafra became particularly im-portant during the middle Holocene, the period when climate conditions were most favourable, with later brief humid episodes even in the historic periods. the results of the long-term research cycle presented here, combined with data from the survey of the whole Wadi el obeiyid still in progress, allow the authors to identify changes in the peopling of the oasis and to define various occupation phases. the new chronology for the Wadi el obeiyid is one of the main achievements of the book and, as demonstrated in the final chapter, is in complete agreement with the main cultural units of other territories in the Western Desert. on this chronological basis, the contacts between the latter and the populations established on the nile are brought into sharper focus.the importance of the archaeological documents discovered at Farafra and, at the same time their fragility due to the deterioration of the physical environment and the uncon-trolled human activities, make us fear for their conservation. We hope that this book, with its complete documentation of the precious nature of the Farafra oasis landscape and its archaeological heritage, may help to promote more effective policies for its safeguard.

Barbara E. Barich is Professor of Etnografia Preistorica dell’Africa, formerly at the Sapienza University of Rome, and member of the ISMEO, International Association for the Study of the Mediterranean and the East.

Giulio Lucarini is Marie Curie Senior Research Fellow at the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, and member of the ISMEO, International Association for the Study of the Mediterranean and the East.

Mohamed A. Hamdan is Head of the Geology Department, and Professor of Geoarchaeology at the Cairo University.

Fekri A. Hassan is Professor at the Université Française d’Egypte, and Emeritus Petrie Professor at the University College London.

€ 60,00

ISBN 978-88-7814-520-7

the bifacial products from hidden valley and neighbouring areas in wadi el obeiyid

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