IMPORTANT DATES

Registration starts on: 1st March, 2011; Deadline for submission of full papers: 15th April, 2011 Deadline for Registration: 20th May, 2011

Contact Us Conference Secretary: Ms. Sandrine Bonin , sandrine@am.amrita.edu ; Conference Email: icstsd@am.amrita.edu

International Conference on Society, Technology &

Sustainable Development (ICSTSD 2011)

Web: http://amrita.edu/icstsd; Email: icstsd@am.amrita.edu

Dear Md. Nawrose Fatemi,

Sub: Acceptance of Abstract for Oral Presentation at the First Annual International

Conference on Society, Technology and Sustainable Development – Intimation Regarding

Greetings from Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India.

The organizers of the First Annual International Conference on Society, Technology and Sustainable

Development are pleased to inform you that your paper titled Sustainability and Eco-Adaptability

in Vernacular Housing of Bangladesh has been accepted for oral presentation. Your paper has

been selected by a process of strict peer review and the referees have recommended your paper to

be presented in the thematic session Community Resilience and Disaster Risk Reduction.

Authors kindly note that the mere acceptance of your abstract will not ensure your presentation and

participation in the conference. To ensure that your paper is published in the conference proceedings

you need to (1) send your full paper as per the author guidelines on or before 15th April 2011; and

(2) register for the conference on or before 5th May 2011.

Registration is mandatory to attend the conference. Registration fee includes attendance for all the

sessions, Panel Discussions, Lunch & Refreshments on all three days, Banquet Dinner on the second

day and a conference kit including a gift, writing pad, pen, etc. Registration is confirmed only after

receiving the duly filled Registration Form at the Conference Secretariat along with the payment.

Payment can be made as demand draft or electronic transfer to the account details as given in the

registration form.

The recommended hotels situated near the conference venue are given in our website

http://www.amrita.edu/icstsd. Participants are requested to reserve their rooms on their own

depending on their comfort and tariff. We are anticipating some extent of financial support from

several government agencies to provide partial TA & DA for the authors who have registered and

presenting their paper at the conference. In such a scenario, as soon as the confirmation of financial

assistance is received, the travel grant form will be published in the website and will be informed to

all the registered participants via email.

Best Wishes, Sunil D Santha ICSTSD 2011 Convener.

34

3. Sustainability and Eco-Adaptability in Vernacular Housing in Bangladesh

Md. Nawrose Fatemi and Nabanita Islam Department of Architecture

University of Asia Pacific, Bangladesh nawrose@uap-bd.edu nabanita@uap-bd.edu

ABSTRACT Geo-Climatic factors encouraged people of different periods to shape their settlement strategy from the beginning of human race. House became the emblem of protection and safety for human existence. Whenever people plan to build their houses, geo-climatic factors come forward as the primary consideration to deal with the adverse natural calamities and unusual environmental behavior. Geo-Climatic and economic reasoning have always been a foremost apprehension in any housing technology being practiced specifically among those groups of people who have been living in close association with the nature for years. In order to adjust with the environmental behavior, the people have generated traditional paradigm of well-protected, sustainable and ecologically-sound housing form and technology. Bangladesh possesses a rich tradition in the formation and developments of its human settlement. The built forms of these settlements have their own specific characteristics. Indigenous people of this country have hereditarily been exercising this sort of housing technology for years that reflect ecological and environmental concern. There is a long history regarding eco-adaptive, environmentally sound and self-sustaining traditional house form and technology in this region. The paper explores such traditional housing technologies practiced in different parts of Bangladesh. It aims to investigate those traditional rural houses as a suitable form of architecture in Bangladesh. It also presents the regional expression, cultural significance, ecological and economic reasoning of the rural housing technology of Bangladesh. Key word: Rural House Form, Traditional Architecture, Sustainability, Eco Adaptability, Housing Technique.

1. INTRODUCTION

Vernacular houses reflect the environmental, cultural and historical features of the country in which they exist. The wisdom behind vernacular architecture is based largely upon traditional knowledge achieved through trial and error process and handed down through the generations. Vernacular houses are associated with culturally defined values and norms of that country. Bangladesh possesses a rich tradition in the formation and the developments of its human settlements. The settlements possess distinct characteristics in planning organization, use of materials and location. Evolving history of human settlement practice reveals that ecological factors have long been incorporated in human survival and living technology with great significance. Many unique housing technologies have been developed by the locals that keep them least-affected and relatively safe against mightiest disasters. But there is a serious deficiency to conserve proper documentation of eco-adaptive, environmentally sound and self-sustaining traditional housing technology in this region. Recently, the importance of traditional indigenous knowledge is understood as it is highly significant and experimented paradigm that exists over years from generations to generations. These vernacular responses embody a wealth of design principles which should be retrieved and applied today.

35

2. OBJECTIVE The main focus of this study is to introduce a clear vision about sustainability and eco-adaptability of our vernacular architecture. This paper is outlined to explore the traditional housing technologies practiced in different parts of Bangladesh and also to investigate the traditional rural houses as a responsive and suitable form which present the regional expression, cultural significance, ecological and economic reasoning. The area and case studies are selected only on the basis of geo-climatic characteristics. The Case studies depend on direct observations, sketch and photographs which are used to trace the present status and the formations of vernacular architecture compared to the knowledge base. The literature reviews served the purpose of making the knowledge base about the pattern of vernacular architecture.

3. CONTEXT OF BANGLADESH The term “vernacular” is derived from the Latin "vernaculus", meaning "domestic, native, and indigenous". Architecture is vernacular when it exhibits all of its criteria related to the ‘native context’ in the sense that it can only be acceptable and recognizable within any particular society by applying some particular technology, materials, social rules and systems. Vernacular architecture is a term refers to buildings in indigenous styles constructed from locally available materials, following the traditional practice and patterns. Bangladesh possesses a wide variety of vernacular architecture based on the traditional knowledge regarding the topography and climate of the region.

3.1. Topographical Characteristics Topographical configuration of a land surface, including its relief and contours, the distribution of mountains and valleys, the patterns of rivers, and all other features, natural and artificial, produce the landscape. Although Bangladesh is a small country, it has considerable topographic diversity. It has three distinctive features: (a) a broad alluvial plain subject to frequent flooding, (b) a slightly elevated relatively older plain, and (c) a small hill region drained by flashy rivers (Fig. 01) Fig. 01 Broad Physiographic Units, Bangladesh (Sultana, S., 1993)

36

The topography of Bangladesh is roughly 80% flat land, 12% hilly areas, and 8% terrace land. On the south, a highly irregular deltaic coastline of about 600 km is situated, fissured by many rivers and channels flowing into the Bay of Bengal. The alluvial plain is part of the larger plain of Bengal, which is sometimes called the Lower Gangetic Plain. The hilly areas of the southeastern region of Chittagong, the northeastern hills of Sylhet and highlands in the north and northwest are of low elevations. The settlement pattern is linear along the river levees of the Ganges and the Meghna flood plains in the central region of the country and in the Haor basins in the North-East region. Linear settlements are also found along the dead or the dying river levees in the South-West Moribund deltas and along the spring lines of the Chittagong Hill Tracts. In the rest of the country the settlements are either clustered or scattered. By creating a land (or a 'mound') for the 'house' the act of homesteading in the Gangetic plains starts. The land for the homestead is raised above the flood plains demarcating it from the surrounding agricultural land (Fig. 02). The shape, size and height of the 'mound' vary from place to place. In some places, especially in the high lands of Modhupur and Barind Tract, there is no need to have elaborated rising of the land for the homestead, even though in practice, the homestead is demarcated from the rest of the land by slightly raising it. This also helps to protect it from the surface run off. In most other places, however, large excavation and earth work is done, while creating the 'mound' and also while progressively enlarging a house by creating ponds, tanks, canals, drains etc. in and around the homestead. These are the ecological (service) bases of the house and they also play significant roles in ensuring privacy by creating barriers from the next homesteads and thereby generating the loose, distributed settlement pattern. After the raising of land for the proposed homestead, various shelters, huts and open spaces are organized on it and gradually the ‘house’ takes its shape. Fig. 02 The rural settlement Characteristics (Hasan, D. M., 1985, modified by author)

3.2. Climatic Context Bangladesh has a subtropical monsoon climate characterized by wide seasonal variations in rainfall, moderately warm temperatures, and high humidity. Regional climatic differences in this flat country are minor. Three seasons are generally recognized: (a) a hot, humid summer from March to June; (b) a cool, rainy monsoon season from June to October; and (c) a cool and dry winter from October to March. The predominant characteristics of the climate are high solar radiation and heavy annual rainfall. In such a warm humid climate, thermal comfort in the built environment is extremely important and protection from rain and wetness is of high concern in the design and construction of the house structures.

37

4. RURAL SETTLEMENT IN BANGLADESH In predominantly rural (nearly 76%) Bangladesh, low-lying alluvial floodplains comprise the major part of the land. There are two main types of rural settlement: elongated-linear and amorphous (Sultana, 1993), both established on raised or high land above the annual flood level. The elongated linear type is built on high land along natural levees of rivers or water channels. The amorphous type, consisting of clustered or scattered settlements built on raised land, is often dispersed throughout the terrain. Fig. 03The rural settlements and built form (Hasan, D. M., 1985, modified by author)

Settlements are elevated to adapt to the annual flooding, but during extreme floods even raised settlements may become flooded (Fig. 03). Where high land is not available, earth obtained from excavating ponds or channels is raised into a mound about 2 to 3 meters high depending on the surrounding water level, on which a homestead or BARI is established. A BARI often begins with an individual household and incrementally develops into a settlement of several GHORS (dwelling units and ancillary structures) of inter-generational households belonging to an extended family. Over time more earth is added to extend the mound as the settlement gradually expands and settlements thus established on raised mounds and in the rainy season virtually become islands.

5. TRADITIONAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM Size and layout of a rural house is determined by 'bandh' (length width = 'Bandh' in hand unit or 'hath'). There is a prejudice that the 'Bandh' must be an odd number which commonly varies from 13 'hath' to 27 'hath'(1 'hath'=0.45 m). Besides 'hath' there are other traditional units of measurement like 'Bighat' (half of a 'hath) and 'angul' (width of a finger). These are used in more detailed measurements (Fig. 04). Height of the plinth varies in different regions within ½ 'hath' (or 1’Bighat’) to 2½ ‘hath’. Height of walls varies from 4½ ‘hath’ to 8 ‘hath.

38

Fig. 04 Traditional measurement unit (Hasan, D. M., 1985, modified by author)

Again, Courtyards tend to be square not rectangular; other shape such as circle, triangle, pentagon etc, are perceived to be less acceptable. This is because they seem to be difficult to accommodate material, cultural and environmental needs. Again, square courtyard is preferable as eco-adaption over rectangle because it provides optimum space use without wastage as during separating paddy from straw by making cows walk upon it; the villagers create a circular movement and circle fits into square.

Paddy separated from straw by making cows walk upon it creating a circle

More Acceptable Acceptable Less acceptable

39

6. DIVERSITY IN HOUSE FORM A number of characteristic features of housing may be observed in the three board physiographic divisions of the country, i.e. the plain land characterized by floodplain, the terrace land of the BARIND, MADHUPUR and LALMAI (COMILLA), and in the hilly and upland areas of the east and northeast for their differences in physical characteristics. These types of houses, however, have the tendency of gradually transforming to the most common design found in the region.

6.1. Plain Land Floodplain is relatively smooth valley floors adjacent to and formed by alleviating rivers which is subject to overflow. Parts of Dhaka, Gazipur, Narayanganj, Tangail, Joydevpur, Sunamganj, Mymensingh, Kushtia, Jessore and Cox’sbazar are perceived as plain land. Fig. 04 Housing Unit at Plain Land; ‘CHOUCHALA’ and ‘DOCHALA’

An open planning pattern is the appropriate response to this Warm Humid climate. Basically separate rectangular form of living zones that elongated along east-west direction are arranged around a square or rectangular shaped courtyard. But the corners of the living zones are separate from each other. According to roof variation they are of two types: (a) ‘CHOUCHALA’ and (b) ‘DOCHALA’. To provide sufficient air circulation, buildings are scattered while introvert in Character. They are separated with large, free spaces between them to allow airflow which provides ventilation for cooling.

40

6.2. Terrace Land Parts of the Greater Dinajpur, Bogra, Pabna, Joypurhat Rangpur, Rajshahi, and Naogaon Districts of Rajshahi Division are perceived as terrace land. A compact planning pattern is the appropriate response to this Hot Dry climate. Fig.5 Housing Unit at Terrace Land (DO MAHELA) (Doza, S.B. and Razzaque, M. Z. I., 2008)

This rectangular form of the building is usually elongated along east-west direction, i.e. the orientation of the building is north-south. The best layout is that of a courtyard surrounded by walls and thus partially isolated from the full impact of the outdoor air. Buildings are introvert in Character and compacted with enclosed spaces between them. The configuration of buildings, their orientations, and their arrangement in space create a specific microclimate for each site.

6.3. Hilly Area Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracks, Mainamoti Hill Tracks and Parts of Sylhet are perceived as hilly area. The construction of buildings are apart from each other, where possible, to allow free movement of air around the building.

Fig.6 Housing Unit at Hilly Area (‘MHRANG ING’ - elevated house)

The courtyard is absent in housing of PAHARI communities, which is in contrast a distinguishing feature in rural housing in the plains. A compact planning pattern is the appropriate response to the climate and topography. Construction of compact and airy structures occupies a few lands and allows cross-ventilation. Buildings are extrovert in Character and an elevated flat platform (MACHANG) is provided with each built form.

41

7. ECO-ADAPTABILITY IN VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE 7.1. Settlement Pattern 7.1.1. Topography

Plain Land In Plain Land, people have to raise their land from the flood level. The traditional houses in this area are on higher plinth level than the terrace land (Fig. 12 &13).

Fig. 7 House at COX’S BAZAR with Fig. 8 House at NETROKONA with higher plinth higher plinth (Huq, B. et al, 1999)

Ecological Analysis: The landform is comparatively at a lower elevation and shallowly flooded; most of the ridges and all the basins of this floodplain region are flooded more than 0.91m deep for about four months (mid-June to mid-October) during the monsoon. Because of the lower elevation and proximity to flood level, houses, in these regions are made of bamboo matting and also of mud. Terrace Land In Terrace Land, people do not have to raise their land from the flood level. Again, the traditional houses in this area are also on lower plinth level than the plain land (Fig. 8 & 9). (Doza, S.B. et al, 2008) Fig. 8 House at DINAJPUR with lower plinth Fig. 9 House at RAJSHAHI with lower plinth

Ecological Analysis: The landform is comparatively at a higher elevation than the adjoining floodplains. About 47% of this region is classified as highland, about 41% as medium highland. There are two terrace levels - one at 40m and the other between 19.8 and 22.9m. Therefore, when the floodplains go under water during the monsoon the whole area remains free from flooding. Because of the higher elevation - much above normal flood level and of the lateritic content of the soil, houses in these regions are generally made of mud wall.

42

Hilly Area In hilly area, all the mountain ranges are almost hogback ridges. They rise steeply, thus looking far more impressive than their height would imply. Generally the hill ranges and the river valleys are longitudinally aligned. Ranges are with an average elevation of over three hundred meters. Houses are built on stilts above the ground.

Fig. 10 House at RANGAMATI with Fig. 11 House at BANDARBAN with bamboo stilt bamboo stilt (Ahmed et al, 2005)

Ecological Analysis: The reasons to build are: firstly, to be secured from wild animal, as the terrain was crowded with beasts like fox and tigers and secondly, to safe guard from the water gush during rainy season.

7.1.2. Climatic Conditions Plain Land The weather of this region is characterized by tropical monsoon climate. The climate of the area is generally warm and humid with high rainfall. With the above factors, relatively high rainfall and humid climate of the plain Land, houses should be separated with large, free spaces between them.

Fig. 12 Settlement at plain land (Huq, B. et al, 1999)

Ecological Analysis: The house arrangements are scattered in character of this region for the reasons: Firstly, to allow free movement of air through buildings and through spaces between buildings and Secondly, many activities are carried on out-of-doors.

Fig. 13 free movement of air through buildings (Huq, B. et al, 1999)

43

TERRACE LAND The Terrace Land lies in the monsoon region of the summer dominant hemisphere. The tropic of cancer lies south of this region. The climate of the area is generally hot and dry. With the above factors, relatively low rainfall and dry climate of the Terrace Land have led to the development of compact and contiguous housing structure with lower average height ranging from 8 to 10 feet. Ecological Analysis: The house arrangements are compact and contiguous in character of this region because of: Firstly, the building layout is that of a courtyard surrounded by walls and thus partially isolated from the full impact of the outdoor air and Secondly, the configuration of buildings, their orientations and their arrangement in space create a specific microclimate for each site. HILLY AREA The hilly area lies also in tropical monsoon climate with mean annual rainfall nearly 2540 mm in the north and east and 2540 mm to 3810 mm in the south and west. The dry and cool season is from November to March; pre-monsoon season is April-May which is very hot and sunny and the monsoon season is from June to October, which is warm, cloudy and wet.

Fig. 15 Settlement at Hilly Area

Ecological Analysis: The settlement originated where a JHIRI (water body) originated. The houses are in disorganized pattern raised beside the JHIRI direction. The location of JHIRI determines the position of the settlement as in hill area; there is lack of drinking water.

Fig. 14 air flow pattern through compact buildings

Fig. 16 location of JHIRI determines the settlement pattern

44

7.2. PATTERN OF HOUSE FORMS 7.2.1. Building Form and Shape

PLAIN LAND The shapes of the houses of the plain land are predominantly oblong (Fig. 17). A small veranda with wood or bamboo support is the common design. The roofs of these houses are steep. A few out door shaded space are seen. All functional spaces are separated into separate structure around a court yard. Walls are constructed by bamboo matting. Fig. 17 CHOUCHALA Built Form (Huq, B. et al, 1999)

Ecological Analysis: Rectangular oblong form of the building is elongated along east-west direction, i.e. the orientation of the building is north-south to get natural ventilation. Shaded out door spaces and shaded veranda are provided for the climatic reason. Steep roofs are provided as high rainfall is a regular phenomenon. Separated functional spaces into separate structure are in response to warm humid climate characteristics. For passive ventilation, bamboo matting walls are constructed which are perforated and act as a breathing wall.

TERRACE LAND The houses of terrace land have a regular geometry, which is approximately squarish (Fig. 18), where the organization of the houses is focused on the courtyard or BAHIR PASH. All functions are accommodated around the courtyard. The served and the service spaces are separated distinctly and rationally.

Fig. 18 Plan of DO MAHELA (Doza et al, 2008)

Ecological Analysis: The houses are compact in nature and a sort of introvert for the climatic reasons. Thus the built form is partially isolated from the full impact of the outdoor hot air. The whole building with all the functional spaces is adjoined around a courtyard. The walls are act as a thermal mass as the weather is too much hot in this area.

45

HILLY AREA Houses of Hilly area are consisting of square parts (Fig. 19). Even if any extension of the existing house is done, it would be certainly another square. But it is to notice that the other spatial divisions that they made by dividing the main house or any part are not square. The courtyard was absent in housing of PAHARI communities, which is in contrast a distinguishing feature in rural housing in the plains. An elevated flat platform (MACHANG) is provided with each built form.

Fig.19 ‘MHRANG ING’ (elevated house) at BANDARBAN

Ecological Analysis: The dimensions of the divided spaces directly response to the agronomics, activity type and need. The MACHANG is in front of the house act as courtyards which are found in the houses of plain or terrace land. The character of the house is much more extrovert in nature and the living zones are too small as the space is limited and as they are on stilts.

7.2.2. Building Material In all house form the basic materials are mud and bamboo as they are mostly available in nature (Fig.20). They are easy to collect and the people have a long heredity to use them skillfully. The plinth is mostly made of mud. The walls of the house structure are made from bamboos plaited into diamond or squared patterns or from mud. In the low lying areas and amongst the very poor, jute sticks and various types of local reeds are used as wall materials, often with mud plastering on both sides. The walls have small window openings and receive considerable climatic protection from the sloping, stooping and overhanging roof structures above. The roof is usually thatched with Chhon, Ulu, Khari, Bena grass, Golpatta, Tal leaves, Coconut leaves, or with rice straw. Those who can afford do prefer corrugated iron sheets (C.I. Sheet) for roofing and also for walls, because of its relative permanence. Fig. 20 material used in vernacular houses

Elevated Plinth from bamboo

Elevated Plinth from bamboo

Thatch roof

Wall of bamboo matting

Plinth from mud

46

Ecological Analysis: All the building materials used in traditional housings are natural and from local sources. It can be imagined that in earlier times, particularly when there were no permanent buildings, housing was within the framework of a sustainable paradigm. Local renewable resources were cultivated or nurtured, harvested sensitively and utilized without depleting the resource base. This is perhaps the prime lesson that can be learned from vernacular housing: the sustainable use of natural resources for creating human habitat.

7.2.3. Environmental Aspects Orientation: North-south orientation of the main dwelling unit is preferred, in depth, with its long side along the courtyard facing south to take benefit from the coolness of the prevailing south breeze to relieve humidity. This also allows the best orientation for protection from the sun which is along the east-west axis. Solar Heat Gain Minimization: The adverse affect of the sun on the houses are considerably reduced because of the low height of the structure. Their large projected roof overhangs and wide shaded verandah, the availability of abundant vegetation (such as creepers) for shading the house, the porosity of the house structure as a breathing wall and the inherent coolness of the shaded mud walls as a thermal mass and insulating quality of the thatch roof contribute to the excellent thermal character and thus reflect the traditional response to the ecological and environmental problems. Rain Protection: The extended roof protects the walls of the built form (basically made of mud or bamboo matting) not only from the adverse effect of sun but also of rain. The raised plinth also protects the floor from surface water logging during rain and flood. Ventilation To get proper ventilation, cross ventilation are ensured. Houses are arranged in north-south direction. Built masses are separated to get free flow of the air. Vegetation is incorporated in the courtyard to get cool air from shaded courtyard. Moreover the porous nature of the wall panels also contribute to a well ventilated interior.

8. SUSTAINABILITY IN VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE The sustainable approach in architecture encompasses several characteristics. And each aspect like environmental sustainability, socio-economic sustainability etc. are essentially context specific. This housing technology and the house form are well suited with the cultural, social and physical factors of the region. United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) give some recommendations for sustainable house design are:

The solution that is environmentally sustainable.

When designing a house, consider its whole life cycle.

Consider flexible designs that are easy to upgrade and expand.

Simple, low-cost, robust, and practical solutions.

Materials and tools needed to work the materials should also be locally available.

Ensure cost-effectiveness in all construction activities.

Incorporate the users need and cultural requirements.

47

Based on sustainable design house from UNEP, this paper also aims to assess vernacular housing to know how far it’s sustainable. The assessment of sustainability of vernacular housing is based on three aspects, which are: house shape, building construction system and building materials.

8.1. House Shape The vernacular house shape is predominantly square or rectangular in shape. Vernacular housing has considered the climate and used it to its advantage. Window, door, wall are used to flow fresh air for reducing heat and humidity inside of building (Fig. 22). Elevated floor is also used to reduce humidity from under the floor. With the holes in the gable end of roof (Fig.21) it makes air flow in the roof which can reduce heat inside of roof space and also in building as a whole. The large overhanging roof provides good shading and protection against heavy rains.

Fig.21 The holes in the gable end of roof fig. 22 The air flow inside of building through roof and windows.

8.2. Building Construction System

Vernacular housings are built by local people. Materials used for the building are collected locally. Materials include bamboo for roof battens, and rafter. Walls covering are made bamboo matting. Roof coverings materials such as bamboo and thatch are also collected and processed by the locals themselves. Knowledge about building technology derived from ancestor and passed on from time to time (Fig 23).

Fig. 23 Local peoples construct their house

Use of local materials such as wood, bamboo, thatch, etc. brings down the cost of building. Local people are using local technology to construct their housing, such as knock down system and tie system with bamboo or trunk of trees.

48

8.3. Building Materials

Materials for vernacular houses are mostly derived from locally available resources. The foundation is mud foundation in the plain area and bamboo for elevated housing. The mud is collected from the river which is close to the settlement or pond is dug to extract the soil. Bamboo is collected from the locality. The material of supporting frame is wood. The wall is using bamboo, which is been tied and connected to building frame. The window and the door are made from wood. Bamboo is used as a second layer of window to allow air flow inside the building. The truss frame of roof is made from wood which is connected to the frame of building.

9. CONCLUSION Vernacular housing is a valuable example of architecture of wisdom coordinated with natural environment. It specially focuses on the geo-climatic factors and economic reasoning. The paper tried to explore the traditional housing technology, local's interpretation of the environmental behavior and economic determinants associated with the vernacular housing construction, etc. Besides, it also analyzed the eco-adaptability and sustainability that has been in practice for hundreds of years without creating substantial obstacles. There’s still bright possibility to nurture these traditional wisdoms through further research on the scientific basis of these technologies and re-imply these knowledge into modern architectural process to achieve a more sensitive living environment.

49

REFERENCES

Ahmed, K. I. and Kabir, K. H., 2005

: A Study of Traditional Housing of “PAHARI” Communities in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, supported by Centre For Advanced Studies & Research (CASR) and Bangladesh University of Engineering and technology, BUET

Ahmed, K. I., 1994 Up to the Waist in Mud: Earth Based Architecture in Rural Bangladesh, University Press Limited, Dhaka

Ahmed, K. I., 2006,

: The Rural Bangladeshi Courtyard, BRAC University Journal, Vol. III (1), 9-15.

Brunskill, R.W., 2000

: Vernacular Architecture: An Illustrated Handbook, (4th ed.), Faber & Faber

Doza, S.B. and Razzaque, M. Z. I., 2008

: "DO MAHELA": An 'Enlightenment' about Two Storied Mud Architecture Chanduria, Tanore, Rajshahi, Bangladesh, PROTIBESH, department of architecture, BUET

Durham, T. W., 1990

: Current Applications of Indigenous Architecture, Texas Tech University

Heal, A., Paradise, C. and Forster, W., 2006

: The Vernacular as a Model for Sustainable Design, PLEA2006 - The 23rd Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture, Geneva, Switzerland, 6-8

Hasan, D. M., 1985 : A Study of Traditional House Forms on Rural Bangladesh, Department of Architecture, BUET, Dhaka.

Hossain, S. A., 2008

: Traditional Housing Technology of the BARIND Tract, OITIJJHYA, Dhaka.

Huq, B. and Dutt, P. C., 1999

: Battling the Storm: Study on Cyclone Resistant Housing, German Red Cross.

Islam, A.K.M.K., 2003

: Patterns and changes of Vernacular Architecture in Bangladesh: An Application of Amos Rappaport’s Theory of Defining Vernacular Design, The Royal Institutes of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden

Karaosman, S., no date

: Vernacular Design as the Teaching Tool of the Ecological Architecture, Mimar Sinan Fine Art University, Istanbul, Turkey

Mauboy, C. W. , no date

: Sustainability Principle on Traditional Settlement in Indonesia the Village “KAMPUNG NAGA“, Department of Architecture, Budi Luhur University, Jakarta, Indonesia

Menzies, C. R., 2006

: Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Natural Resource Management, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London

Mohsen, S. , no date

: Knowledge Management of Rural Vernacular Architecture, Shahid Beheshti University, Iran

Norton, J., 1999 : Sustainable architecture: a process for achieving shelter that will keep going, Development Workshop France, Lauzerte, France

Oliver, P., 2006 : Built to Meet Needs: Cultural Issues in Vernacular Architecture, Elsevier Ltd.

50

Oliver, P., 2007 : Shelter and Society: Vernacular Architecture in Its Cultural Contexts, General Studies Lectures, Engineering Towards Development and Change, University of Addis Ababa

Rashid, R., 2007 : Traditional House of Bangladesh: Typology of house according to materials and location, Virtual Conference on Sustainable Architectural Design and Urban Planning

Siregar, L. G. , no date

: Ethical and Ecological Realization Facing the Globalization: A Contribution from Vernacular Architecture, University of Indonesia

Sultana, S., 1993 : Rural settlements in Bangladesh: Spatial Pattern and development, Graphosman, Dhaka

Triyadi, S. and Harapan, A. , no date

: Sustainable House Design in Vernacular Housing, Case Study: Dukuh Kampong, West Java, Research Group – Building Technology , School of Architecture, Planning, and Policy Development (SAPPK) , Bandung Institute of Technology

Williams, D. E., 2007

: Sustainable Design: Ecology, Architecture and Planning, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.