Natural Energyin

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE

Prof. Hassan FathyA Study of Design Principles & Methods

ARCH 716: Sustainable ArchitectureMiriam Neet, Asst. Prof.

Tulu Toros, AIASean Rigdon

November 16, 2009

Prof. Hassan Fathy (1900-1989)

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Prof. Hassan Fathy was a noted Egyptian architect who pioneered appropriate technologies for buildings in Egypt. He worked to reestablish the use of traditional building methods and materials.

In 1926, Prof. Fathy received his architecture degree from the University of King Fuad I (University of Cairo) in Egypt. He designed numerous public and commercial buildings early in his career “blending eastern and western styles” (Steele, 1997, p. 23). In Mansouria, 1937, he exhibited “his own repertoire of indigenous historical forms” on un- built designs, after which he designed his fi rst mud-brick buildings (Steele, 1997, p. 23). During his career Prof. Fathy held several government positions including being the chairman for the Architectural Section of the Faculty of Fine Arts in University of Cairo in 1954.

He primarily applied a working knowledge of ancient architectural and town design techniques within the contemporary economic situation of rural Egypt. At times, he trained local inhabitants to make their own materials and build their own buildings.

Climatic conditions, public health considerations, and ancient craft skills shaped his design vocabulary. Based on requirements of hot arid regions, Prof. Fathy incorporated elaborate passive environmental control techniques that met physical, cultural and economical challenges.

The progressive maturity in his projects has been categorized by intimate scholars in fi ve major periods:

1928-1937 Early Work 1937-1957 Mansouria & Beyond 1957-1962 Years in Greece 1962-1978 Return to Egypt 1980-1988 Late Work

He received the Union of International Architects Gold Medal, which is the Egyptian Government’s National Prize for Arts and Letters. He founded and directed the Institute for Appropriate Technology for buildings in Egypt in 1977. His lifelong achievements were recognized, in 1980, with the Aga Khan Award for Architecture Chairman’s Award.

“Prof. Fathy insists that architects must thoroughly analyze traditional building methods and forms using scientifi c principles and an understanding of social and cultural requirements before discarding any of them.

Prof. Fathy’s work demonstrates the application of these principles and has shown how useful they can be in the development of viable solutions to the problems of contemporary architecture…”

Walter Shearer, Sr. Program Offi cerUnited Nations University

Geographic Distribution of Projects

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Prof. Hassan Fathy’s projects are primarily located in hot and arid climates similar to his country of origin, Egypt. Over his lifelong, industrious career Fathy had the chance not only to travel abroad extensively but also to practice his design concepts in many different countries of the world.

Prof. Fathy traveled to Europe in 1957 as part of a “self-imposed exile” (Steele, 1998, p. 20), where he exchanged ideas and experiences with a series of academic and political fi gures of the time, joining the Doxiades Organization in Athens on a research project for the city of the future, and lecturing on climate and architecture at the Athens Technical Institute. He returned back to Egypt in 1962.

Through his large network of acquaintances he seized a number of international commissions that implemented his principles abroad.

In addition to his rich portfolio inside Egypt, Fathy’s architectural works extend to many other countries such as:

India (Shri Ahmed House in Hyderabad) Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Kuwait Lebanon Nigeria (Ambassador’s Villa in Niamey) Oman Palestine Pakistan (Mosque in Punjab) Sudan (Mosque and Conference Centre) Tunisia and the United States (Aspen, CO; Abiquiu, NM).

Vernacular Context: Egyptian Architecture in mid-1900s

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Drawing from a vast history of civilizations the vernacular architecture of Egypt constitutes a rich variety of architectural precedents. Best examples of urban dwelling traditions that remained in daily use through 1900s were primarily “Mameluke and Ottoman houses” (Al-Sayyad, 1997, p. 1603).

“…Vernacular houses are all variations on the theme of an inward-facing courtyard form, but they differ in size - between 389 sq.ft. and 5,165 sq.ft. - from tiny single-storey dwellings to large, elaborate multi-room compounds and small apartment blocks” (El-Gohary, 1997, p. 1606).

Within a transition space (Mandara) off the street a simple sitting arrangement (Mastaba) welcomed and transitioned the visitors to the indoors. Elaborate woodworks (Mushrabiya) often provided both climatic shelter and social seclusion. Based on their socio-economic and cultural settings these dwellings were usually arranged around appropriately-scaled courtyards (Hosh). Reception halls (Durqa’a) lead the visitors to vaulted niches (Iwan) decorated to refl ect the stature and provisions of residents. Open-air sitting rooms formed the hearts of these houses where daily family activities were centered.

Generally, the countryside dwellings of the peasants (Fellahin) steadily reserved their culture and customs, and were usually “not exceeding two- stories” (Al-Sayyad, 1997, p. 1605). Their dwellings had to be built to handle large “diurnal temperature changes (16 F-27 F)” (El-Gohary, 1997, p. 1605) where roof-top, sleeping areas (Sateh) were utilized during hot summer nights, and hot baking spaces (Forn) were transformed into sleeping space in winter. Cattle, “the main capital of peasants,” occupied one of the back rooms of the courtyards (Shabka, 1997, p. 1608).

On Dynamics of Nature & Human Comfort

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Fathy (1986, p. 11) notes that in an “environment of continuously changing pressure, wind movement, temperature, humidity, and cloud cover, an architect places a fi xed building …intended to provide a comfortable internal environment over a wide range of these external variables.”

Vernacular building traditions in hot arid climates generally utilize materials with lower thermal conduction and higher resistance characteristics in order to reduce and delay heat gain for comfort.

“In hot arid climates, the coeffi cient of thermal resistance should be about 1.1 kcal/hr.m2.C (0.225 Btu/hr.ft2.F) for an outer wall to have an appropriate thermal resistance” (Fathy, 1986, p. 25).

The impact of solar radiation is minimized by use of lighter exterior colors, large overhangs shading walls and openings where warm air is discharged through convection vents.

Water vapor and air movement form the basis of evaporative (or adiabatic) passive cooling.

Thermal gain from solar radiation, ventilation and inhabitants of dwellings need to be reduced while thermal loss should be increased through controlled ventilation systems in order to maintain a dynamic thermal equilibrium. “The principle of thermal inertia can also be used advantageously to provide dynamic heating and cooling of a building by selecting the wall material and its thickness such that the warmth of the day penetrates the building only after nightfall when it would be welcomed and is dissipated before morning” (Fathy, 1986, p. 25).

Therefore, in maintaining a comfortable microclimate for its dwellers, buildings are designed in ways to ensure protection against heat and provide adequate cooling.

Climate Appropriate Design Principles & Methods

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• Positioning & Orientation -Solar path and prevailing winds are primary determining factors for any site, with the main objective of establishing an optimum setting to take advantage of and prevent adverse affects of the sun and winds (Fathy, 1986, p. 42). Topography and other features of the site, like slopes, trees, formation or a body of water, are crucial for manipulating the microclimate.• Shading -In general, longer sides of the buildings should face the South whereby minimizing exposure to solar radiation during mornings and afternoons. Excessive openings to the West should be avoided. Blocks of buildings can be designed to shade one another. -Permanent and temporary shading characteristics of landscaping and plants on the site, if any, should be fully taken advantage of.• Layout -Traditionally open interior courtyard (Qa’a) with intensive planting provides evaporative cooling. -Vaulted, elevated alcoves (Iwan) of courtyard are main living spaces often carpeted and low-roofed. -Upper level balcony around courtyards and open-air sitting rooms (Maq’ad) function very well. Spaces are used depending on their diurnal and seasonal traits.• Building Materials -Since majority of energy is transmitted through the walls and the roofs the material selection and the properties of envelop systems are extremely important for comfortable interiors (Fathy, 1986, p. 38). -Wall materials should be of appropriate thickness, physical and thermal characters in order to prevent excessive fl uctuations in indoor temperature and humidity. Heavy masonry walls increase thermal mass, assisting in reduction of heat gain and loss. -Refl ectivity and use of lighter colors for walls and the roof are extremely useful in reducing thermal gains.• Facade Treatments -Northern Facade spaces will capture cool breezes during the summer but they will not receive any direct solar radiation in winter. North facing windows will always receive a more uniformly distributed light free from glare.

Climate Appropriate Design Principles & Methods

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-Southern Facade will be exposed to the extremes of solar radiation. Features like permanent arcading, or deciduous trees tend to work extremely well for climatic control. -East and West Facade exposures should be controlled and limited. Uses in these spaces should be chosen appropriately (Fathy, 1986, p. 44).

• Opening Treatments -Blinds are tremendously helpful in providing control over the daily or seasonal changes, providing for not only to sunlight adjustment but also ventilation. -Brise-Soleil (sun-breaker) is another system to protect the entire facade. Though it works effectively from thermal standpoint it may cause unpleasant glare concerns from within the spaces. -Mushrabiya, sometimes in form of an Oriel window, is wooden lattice-work screen used to prevent glare, control air fl ow, reduce air temperature, increase humidity and ensure privacy (Fathy, 1986, p. 47).

• Air Movement by Pressure -The velocity of the air can be changed by the area of passages in its path, hence, creating differing pressures or vice versa, utilizing Venturi action. -Claustrum is a series of small vent that allow air fl ow but prevent direct solar radiation. The Claustra are primarily used at higher parts of the spaces. -Wind-Escapes (Shuksheika) are smaller, closable, low pressure air vents at top of high tower, also called. -Wind-Catch (Malkaf) is a device to capture and redirect air currents through baffl es. Badgir is a similar system with openings on all sides, used in Gulf region (Fathy, 1986, p. 47).

• Air Movement by Convection -Courtyard (Durqa’a) is a ventilated reception hall central to arrangement of spaces. -Loggia (Takhtabush) is a public private separation area functioning also as a wind funnel.

• Humidity Devices -Water Fountain is an effective humidifi cation and evaporative cooling feature which is also symbolic. -Marble Plates (Salsabil) are decorative devices which help humidifi cation and passive cooling.

Hamed Said House (1942-1945)

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Prof. Fathy’s friend and artist Hamed Said was both instrumental and critical in design process. The house refl ected Said’s directions “simplest means to achieve highest ends” (Steele, 1998, p. 55).

Building location was carefully chosen after two friends “camped out in a tent on the property... for some time” (ArchNet, 1999). The original structure was a domed studio, an Iwan and a Loggia for study purposes. The expansion, later, added a larger studio and living spaces in 1945.

The simplistic design exemplifi es many traits of Prof. Fathy’s mature work including:

Sheltered within a shady oasis Design respect for existing environment & context Space planning around a courtyard saving trees Arrangement of building segments provide partial protection for some exterior walls and openings minimizing western exposure Separation of public and private zones Seamless entirety Traditional Egyptian forms like arches, vaults and domes Thick mud-brick walls and roof Light color fi nishes on walls and roof Mushrabiya, blinds and evaporative cooling

“The Friends of Art and Life” group still held meetings and exhibitions in the courtyard to form a connection between the people and the environment. It was truly a “complete fulfi llment of his client’s wishes” (Steele, 1998, p. 58).

Hamed Said and his wife actually lived to witness Cairo’s suburban sprawl swallowing up the green haven once their house was located in (Steele, 1988, p. 55).

Hamdi Seif Al-Nasr Resthouse (1944)

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The Hamdi Seif Al-Nasr resthouse was initially designed in two-stories around an internal courtyard which was later altered to be external with a sheltered entrance for visitors. Formal arrangement of Durqa’a, Iwans and Qa’a in line with the lake views is one of the noblest examples of Prof. Fathy’s design tradition (Steele, 1988, p. 59).

Even though the scope of the project was drastically reduced the design still demonstrates a series of key principles including:

Sheltered within a shady oasis Design respect for existing environment & context Building raised to protect against fl ooding Arrangement of building segments provide partial protection for some exterior walls and openings minimizing western exposure Multi-axes interior space planning separating public and private zones Traditional Egyptian forms like arches, vaults and dome Thick mud-brick walls and roof Light color fi nishes on walls and roof Arcaded entry positioned to be shaded Durqa’a originally intended to be naturally ventilated by a large Malkaf, which was changed to a staircase Mushrabiya, blinds and evaporative cooling Fountain in Qa’a for cooling

Kallini House (1945)

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The Kallini House was never built, however, it remained as “one of the best-resolved designs of his career” (ArchNet, 1999). Formal composition of Durqa’a, Iwans and Qa’a is one of the fi nest examples of [Prof. Hassan Fathy’s] creation where the Qa’a is covered by a “masonry dome rather than the familiar wooden Shuksheika” (Steele, 1988, p. 49).

Prof. Fathy followed the framework of architectural ideas formed in this project, with ingenious variations, for the next thirty years: Connection between formal area and exterior courtyard space formed by intersection of two wings Arrangement of building segments provide partial protection for some exterior walls and openings minimizing western exposure Multi-axes interior space planning separating public and private zones Traditional Egyptian forms like arches, vaults and dome in grand harmony, proportion and rhythm Thick mud-brick walls and roof Light color fi nishes on walls and roof Arcaded entry positioned to be shaded Fountain in Qa’a for cooling

New Baris Village - Site & Market Complex (1970)

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The New Baris Village site was determined by the existence of “a highly productive well [that] made extensive agricultural developments possible” (Steele,1988, p. 92). Prof. Hassan Fathy was commissioned to design the entire village to accommodate about 150 families with a center serving six neighboring villages.

The ancient ruins of Bagawat nearby the site (from 4 A.D.) further inspired Prof. Fathy to study and utilize local methods and materials to maximize cooling while improving application of his basic design principles.In laying out the overall site plan Prof. Fathy paid special attention to: Orient main streets in North to South direction to maximize shades during the day Utilize courtyards and streets to provide cooling through “convective loop” (where rising heated air from wider streets mobilized cooler air in side streets that was replaced by the air from courtyard houses beside them, completing the loop) Preserve the sense of cultural pride, rich local architectural heritage

Among the many individual buildings that constituted the village center Prof. Fathy carefully studied and designed the Market Complex in order to regulate the interior climate for perishable fruits, vegetables and grains. His provisions included: Detailed studies of temperature and wind patterns Extensive use of claustra-work for ventilation maximized air movement Natural tower techniques to cool and refrigerate the produce, where air scoops catching desert winds funneled through angled baffl es achieved “15C degree temperature reductions” in storage areas below grade (Steele, 1989, p. 29). Minimizing solar gain where higher walls shaded lower parts

Prof. Hassan Fathy applied appropriate technologiesboth for larger context and users, controlled by innateknowledge.

New Baris Village - Public Buildings (1970)

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Prof. Hassan Fathy’s designs in the New Baris Village included many public buildings of various sizes and uses, such as a large mosque, a hospital, administration, police and post offi ces, as well as a “Moorish Cafe”, in addition to the Market Complex. In all of these buildings he applied appropriate technologies to the furthest extent possible.

Unlike the troubled New Gourna experimentation, the New Baris Village was “more relevant to the needs of the population, and there [were] no vast open squares baking under the sun, but the interior courtyards within each building as in Arab villages in the past” (Steele, 1988, p. 92).

In laying out and designing each one of these individual buildings he consciously aimed to: Create intimate compact, well-connected and intimately scaled spaces where public and private functions could take place appropriately Locate corridors not only for functions but also for air movement and distribution Orient main streets in North to South direction to maximize shades during the day Utilize courtyards and streets to provide cooling through “convective loop” (where rising heated air from wider streets mobilized cooler air in side streets that was replaced by the air from courtyard houses beside them, completing the loop) Arrange building segments to provide partial protection for some exterior walls and openings minimizing western exposure Use traditional Egyptian forms like arches, vaults and domes Thick mud-brick walls and roof Light color fi nishes on walls and roof Arcaded entry positioned to be shaded Malkaf for harnessing winds and funneling cool air Mushrabiya, blinds and evaporative cooling Fountains in Qa’a for cooling

New Baris Village - Houses (1970)

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Prof. Hassan Fathy also designed many different types and scales of houses as part of the New Baris Village.

In Prof. Fathy’s design the houses were “clustered around courtyards which [were] joined by Takhtaboosh to adjoining open areas and eventually to the pedestrian way itself, so that a combined convective system [provided] continuous airfl ow” (Steele, 1989, p. 29).In single family designs, Prof. Fathy made extensive use of old local traditions in confi guration of spaces, adjacencies and separations in addition to masterfully applying traditional building materials and methods. These houses were typically confi ned within massive exterior walls creating secluded exterior courtyards and spaces as extensions of interior spaces.Generally the courtyards are well-protected from the sun, and work toward cooling the outside air around the buildings from where cooler breezes were drawn in. Main living rooms under vented domes and adjoining vaulted loggia (Iwans) took advantage of the movement of cooler breezes.

In multifamily designs Prof. Fathy masterfully provided the residential units with not only adequate spaces within minimal fl oor areas but also widely varying interior form and defi nitions through artful and ingenious spacial confi gurations.

For the individual design of each house he carefully applied a series of recurring principles. including: Orienting buildings on North-South axis in order to maximize shades during the day Clustering buildings closely in order to minimize exposed surfaces to heat gain during the day Arranging building segments to provide partial protection for some exterior walls and openings minimizing western exposure Creating shaded and well-protected corridors not only for circulation but also air movement as well Using traditional Egyptian forms like arches, vaults and domes Thick mud-brick walls and roofs Light color fi nishes on walls and roofs Arcaded entries positioned to be shaded Mushrabiya, blinds and evaporative cooling Fountains in Qa’a for cooling

Fouad Riad House (1973)

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In 1970s, “the Egyptian Government issued an edict... to prohibit the stripping of the only remaining top soil, thus bringing the centuries- old practice of brick-making to an end” (Steele, 1988, p.92). The Fouad Riad House was, therefore, one of the fi rst houses that Prof. Hassan Fathy designed in stone masonry within the banned fl ood area of the Nile.

Dr. Fouad Riad initially intended to use this house only during weekends and vacations but later adopted it for “permanent residence for the family” (Steele,1989, p. 23).

Prof. Fathy intentionally laid off a strong supervisory hand during construction to allow the notion of traditional forms coming from the popular collective will to permeate the fi nal outcome as seen in the incomplete Malkaf and rough stonework. The rough stonework came from his visit to the Red Sea villages which used stone rather than mud brick. In the design of the house Prof. Fathy aimed to: Orient the building parallel with the shoreline, and arches of loggia towards ocean view Give a blind side to the public road and an open face to the sea Compress to the sea-facade with cuneiform slotted vaulting to capture cool ocean breezes Use claustra-work for light, air or views of ocean Allow for outdoor rooms on ground level as well as on the roof accessed by stairs from entry and courtyard Incorporate existing stand of mature palm trees Push building up to the wall to give more privacy on restrictive site between drainage canal and boundary wall Use traditional Egyptian forms like arches and vaults Light color fi nishes on walls and roof Arcaded entry positioned to be shaded Mushrabiya, blinds and evaporative cooling Fountains in Qa’a for cooling

President Anwar Sadat Resthouse (1981)

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One of the most sophisticated and ambitious residences designed by Prof. Hassan Fathy was a Presidential Resthouse near Lake Nasser in Nubia. The resthouse was a single “walled compound” (ArchNet,1999), “actually made up of three separate buildings sequentially organized according to the status of each” (Steele, 1989, p. 33). Prof. Fathy created a series of walled, open air garden courtyards that separated and interconnected these living quarters at the same time.

The main, arcaded, formal and public courtyard was dominated by the main dome and the Durqa’a. Primary residence on south east corner also arranged around a private courtyard and domed living room. In the design of this residence Prof. Fathy: Oriented the massing of the building to shade exterior spaces as much as possible Utilized thick mud brick walls and roofs for low cost and environmental advantages, on a wide scale Clustered buildings closely in order to minimize exposed surfaces to heat gain during the day Arranged building segments to provide partial protection for some exterior walls and openings minimizing western exposure Created shaded and well-protected corridors not only for circulation but also air movement as well Use many traditional Egyptian forms like arches, vaults, domes, Malkaf, Mushrabiya, etc. Used claustra-work extensively for control of light and air movement Used light color fi nishes on walls and roof Shaded the courtyards with domed arcades Provided fountains in Qa’as for evaporative cooling

Conclusions

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• Vernacular Infl uence & MeaningProf. Hassan Fathy was an exemplary practitioner

as well as teacher of vernacular architecture in Egypt. With the exception of few projects where he responded to differing requirements of context and clients, he always adhered to the local building traditions. He consciously chose to go back to the rural areas, and analyzed and advanced the traditional mud brick construction techniques that had been applied there for centuries. In this sense, his practice was an extension of the vernacular architecture.

Beyond mere reinterpretation and reassembly of elements his projects helped resurrect a new sense of pride and ownership of Egyptian vernacular architecture for the poor and the underprivileged folks living in the rural areas.

• Cultural Infl uence & BasisThe cultural context of Prof. Hassan Fathy’s projects

always formed the bases of his designs. These structures to house Muslim families, relationships, activities and interactions were built as literal refl ections of social dynamics. Architectural elements like walls, openings and screens were located strategically to serve for cultural requirements on physical, visual and auditory access or separation. For example, many of his houses incorporated two courtyards, one for private and one for public uses.

• Infl uence of Climate & TopographyProf. Hassan Fathy’s design principles were

very well-thought out, meticulously detailed and thoroughly structured. His professional studies, research and analyses in the fi elds of human comfort, indoor climatic controls, local building methods and materials eventually culminated in his founding and directing of Institute for Appropriate Technology in Egypt.

Prof. Fathy’s principles were skillfully organized to respond effectively to the of solar, wind and humidity dynamics of primarily hot arid climates effectively. His projects were streamlined effi ciently to shade, cool and vent spaces in rural desert conditions.Almost all of his projects were built on-grade without basement levels primarily due to economic reasons. A potion of his buildings were actually elevated above street levels against fl ooding.

Conclusions

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• Building Forms, Materials, Methods & SequenceIn his interpretations of the local vernacular Prof.

Hassan Fathy conformed to the authentic forms, materials and symbols for the most part. He used and refi ned many traditional building features such as formal (public) and informal (private) courtyards, fountains, arcades, vaults, pendentives, squinches, lightly-colored thick mud brick walls, domes as well as wind-catchers and wood lattice screens to the fullest extent possible.

Although Prof. Fathy designed few projects with other kinds of building materials and techniques such as stone masonry or concrete construction, mud brick technology dominated his practice for a variety of reasons including lower costs, convenience of availability, environmental advantages as well as symbolic values. While his buildings made extensive use of masonry methods the stone construction remained uncommon among his clients.

Being a scarce and expensive building material, wood was used very carefully and conservatively in his projects. The level of care in woodwork became especially apparent in opening treatments such as screens, shutters, railings, shades as well as casements, stairs, column, ceiling articulations and so on.

Over the years Prof. Fathy not only consciously explored, improved and perfected these techniques but also formed the foundation of a national architectural vocabulary for Egypt, where controlled use of forms and materials further added to the minimalist, simplistic but unifi ed character.

• Methods & Strategies for Heating & CoolingEven though Prof. Hassan Fathy did not originally invent most of the traditional solar, wind and humidity controls he greatly contributed to the sophisticated and deliberate utilization of these techniques by the rural inhabitants. He utilized and improved on various methods and strategies for heating and cooling aspects of buildings.For reducing heat gain in summer, Prof. Fathy

carefully incorporated; site selection of cooler,

breezier sections of landscape; solar orientation to minimize effects of southwestern exposures; building massing to provide shaded walls and openings; operable or fi xed solar shades, screens around windows and openings; light-color walls and roof fi nishes.

For disposing access heat and cooling effects, his designs ingeniously integrated shaded courtyards enabling convective cooling; water fountains and decorative features providing evaporative cooling; controlled openings taking advantage of cooler breezes or creating air movement through pressure differentials.

• Daily & Seasonal UsesIn majority of his projects Prof. Hassan Fathy

utilized fl at roofs that were accessible by interior staircases. These roof areas, in addition to open air courtyards and balconies, were actually used for family activities and sleeping places during the warmer nights of the hot and arid desert nights. And, a good portion of his buildings were designed as summer houses, rest houses or out-houses with complimentary seasonal uses.

• Sustainable Characteristics of BuildingsAll of Prof. Fathy’s projects, with the exception of

few that were designed abroad or for wealthier clients, were built to make use of local and renewable resources, independent of any industrial (energy-intense) materials or methods.

He expressed his own aspirations from the local vernacular traditions by stating that “they constructed their houses, with the materials they found in place, earth and stone, without means of transportation, without industrial materials, without bulldozers, without money nor entrepreneurs, but ready to use their hands and brains and ancestral techniques of construction and building in mud brick” (Steele, 1998, p. 92).

• New Insight to the Study of Architecture and SustainabilityExamining Prof. Hassan Fathy’s architectural

principles and practice certainly reveals a rich variety of alternative techniques viable not only in forming effective shelters against external forces of natural energy but also in controlling internal microclimates effi ciently for comfort.

Prof. Fathy’s examples clearly illustrate that the conditions for human comfort in hot and arid climates can successfully be attained and maintained through careful design and use of simple passive technologies that depend solely on control and management of the natural energy.

At a deeper level, Prof. Hassan Fathy’s work reminds us that instead of repeating widely accepted and applied building techniques it is possible to achieve equally successful results by using and improving on local vernacular methods.

• Vernacular on 21st Century ArchitectureIn most cases, vernacular architecture represents

the totality of continuous experimentation, discovery and adaptation of time-tested building techniques. Close examination and use of these local techniques in meeting the requirements of current demands is vitally relevant to establishing and sustaining regionally responsive practices, as well as nurturing and strengthening contextual diversities.

• Critical Assessment of Assumptions on Culture, Architecture & SustainabilityIn retrospect, it is the privilege and duty of the

design professionals to be aware of the vast and rich heritages of various cultures and their vernacular practices. The design professionals should always maintain a sincerely inquisitive and consciously critical evaluation of the cultural and architectural contexts while respecting and integrating into the existing fabric of natural or man-made environment as appropriately as possible. A key goal for any design professional should be to achieve settings and conditions always in harmony with the natural energy.

References

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Al-Sayyad, N. (1997). Cairo, Egypt in Oliver, P. (1997). Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World. Cambridge; New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, Vol. 2: 1603-1604).

Al-Sayyad, N. (1997). Egyptian: Rural (Egypt; Nile) in Oliver, P. (1997). Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World. Cambridge; New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, Vol. 2: 1605.

ArchNet (1999). Aga Khan Hassan Fathy Archive. Boston, MA: MIT School of Architecture and Planning, Design Lab. (http://www.archnet.org)

El-Gohary, A. (1997). El-Hekr: (Egypt; Nile) in Oliver, P. (1997). Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World. Cambridge; New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, Vol. 2: 1605-1606.

Fathy, H. (1973). Architecture for the Poor: An Experiment in Rural Egypt. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.

Fathy, H. (1986). Natural Energy and Vernacular Architecture: Principles and Examples with Reference to Hot Arid climates. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Shabka, S. (1997). Fellahin (Egypt; Nile) in Oliver, P. (1997). Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World. Cambridge; New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, Vol. 2: 1607-1608.

Steele, J. (1988). Hassan Fathy. London: Academy Editions; New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Steele, J. (1989). The Hassan Fathy Collection: A Catalogue of Visual Documents at The Aga Khan Award for Architecture. Geneva, Switzerland: Aga Khan Trust for Culture.

Steele, J. (1997). An Architecture for People: The Complete Works of Hassan Fathy. New York: Whitney Library of Design.

“When the full power of a human imagination is backed by the weight of a living tradition, the resulting work is far greater than any that an artist can achieve when he has no tradition to work in or when he willfully abandons its tradition.” (Fathy, 1973, p. 25)