price, t.d., seiichi nakamura, shintaro suzuki, james h. burton y vera tiesler (2014). new isotope...

Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 36 (2014) 32–47

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Journal of Anthropological Archaeology

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New isotope data on Maya mobility and enclaves at Classic Copan,Honduras

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2014.02.0030278-4165/� 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

⇑ Corresponding author.E-mail address: [email protected] (T.D. Price).

T. Douglas Price a,⇑, Seiichi Nakamura b, Shintaro Suzuki c, James H. Burton d, Vera Tiesler e

a Laboratory for Archaeological Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1180 Observatory Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USAb Center for Cultural Resource Studies, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-cho, Kanazawa City 920-1192, Japanc Unidad de Posgrado, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, CP. 04360 Mexico DF, Mexicod Laboratory for Archaeological Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USAe Universidad Autonoma de Yucatan, Calle 76 No 455 entre 41 y 43, CP 97305 Mérida Yucatan, Mexico

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 22 May 2012Revision received 7 July 2013Available online 24 August 2014

Keywords:MayaMobilityMigrationIsotopesProvenienceHuman remainsStrontiumOxygenCarbonEnclave

a b s t r a c t

Strontium, oxygen and carbon isotopes are measured in human tooth enamel from 32 human burials instructural complex 10J-45 at the Classic Maya site of Copan in western Honduras. These results are com-pared with similar information from the Copan Acropolis, common graves throughout the site, and base-line information from the surrounding region and the Maya area in general. More than one-third of theburials are identified as non-local based on strontium and oxygen isotope ratios. These non-local individ-uals came from a variety of different places. Two of these persons appear to be dynastic rulers or highlyplaced nobles in Copan society. The high density of non-locals and the location of the burials suggest thisarea may have been an enclave of foreign Maya at the site. The presence of non-local rulers in both thisarea and the Acropolis supports the concept of ‘‘stranger kings’’ in the Maya realm.

� 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction

Copan has been a World Heritage site since 1980. The archaeo-logical site, located in western Honduras near the Guatemalan bor-der, was once the important capital of a Classic Maya state. Theruins of the ancient city extend over an area of approximately16 km2 in the Copan Valley, one of the best-preserved centers inthe entire Maya region. Small farming communities appeared inthe valley ca. 1400 BC and monumental construction at Copanitself began during the late Preclassic and the first part of the EarlyClassic period (ca. AD 200–400). In AD 426/427, a royal dynastywas founded at Copan by a foreign individual known as K’inichYax K’uk’ Mo’. His reign was followed by a sequence of 15 rulerswho governed the city and its surrounding polity for a period ofsome 400 years, until ca. AD 822 (Andrews and Fash, 2005; Bellet al., 2004; Fash, 2001; Martin and Grube, 2008; Price et al.,2009; Webster et al., 2000).

Copan is composed of political, economic and ceremonial coreareas, surrounded by elite and commoner residential structuresthat range from large, masonry palaces to low earthen mounds thatonce supported pole-and-thatch houses. At its peak, population isestimated to have between 20,000 and 30,000 people (Websteret al., 1992). Recent excavations via extensive tunnels of deeplyburied structures in the massive Acropolis at the core of the sitehave exposed its Early Classic building phases and a number ofburials that reveal much about the initial development of the city.These include three chambered tombs from the early dynastic era(ca. AD 400–600), which likely contained royal individuals. Inaddition, six burials dating to this same period were recoveredfrom construction fill. Some of these may be the remains ofsacrificial offerings (Bell et al., 2004:131–157; Price et al., 2007).A preliminary report on these burials was published by Buikstraet al. (2004). Price et al. (2010) published a detailed study of theAcropolis burials from Copan and identified several non-localindividuals among the skeletal remains, including the bones andteeth of K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’.

We have now completed the analysis of a new set of burialsfrom a different area near the core of the site, known as the

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10J-45 complex. These excavations were a part of an archaeologicalrescue project (designated as PICPAC, Programa Integral deConservación del Parque Arqueológico Copan) of the HonduranInstitute of Anthropology and History (IHAH), undertaken to miti-gate problems with the conservation of the central area of Copan(Nakamura, 2004). A total of 32 individuals were sampled fromthe many burials excavated by this project. We believe the resultsare of interest in part as they provide a more complete picture ofisotopes and migration during the time of dynastic establishmentat Copan and before, and in part because the information from thispart of the site differs substantially from that of the roughly coevaltombs at the Acropolis, providing novel insights on Early Classicgroups of Maya newcomers at Copan, together with their residen-tial histories and role in Copan’s dynastic rulership.

Our study is organized as follows. We first describe theexcavations, the structures uncovered, and the burial locations.A synthetic discussion of the physical anthropology of the burialsincludes estimated dates, tomb construction and contents alongwith age, sex, ethnically relevant body modifications (cranialvault modification and dental decoration), and the estimated sta-tus level of each burial based on the tomb and its contents. Thisinformation provides the context for the isotopic studies. The iso-topic investigations involve both light and heavy isotopes forinformation on diet and place of origin. Background and baselineinformation for these isotopic analyses are followed by theresults and interpretation of the measurements. Our conclusionssummarize the study in the larger context of early Classic Copanand Classic period Maya society and its implications for broaderperspectives on Maya social networks and the rise of earlystates.

The PICPAC project

The skeletal collection under study derived from the archaeo-logical rescue project designated as PICPAC conducted between

Fig. 1. The location of Quadrant 10J at the site of Copan in relatio

1999 and 2002, under the direction of Seiichi Nakamura. This pro-ject included salvage excavations at archaeological structures dam-aged by natural forces and areas to be disturbed by constructionactivities in various parts of the Copan Valley.

In 2000, IHAH assigned a rescue excavation to PICPAC in an areaapproximately 1 km west of Copans Acropolis, in advance ofconstruction of the new paved road that connects the Guatemalanborder with the town of Copan Ruinas. The area of concern lieswithin Quadrant 10J (Fig. 1), as defined in the archaeologicalmap of the site produced by a previous project (Fash and Long,1983). A survey of the area conducted by PICPAC with the repre-sentative of IHAH revealed that there were a number of pre-Hispanic structures, remains, and other features in danger, whichhad not been previously mapped (Nakamura, 2004).

The salvage excavations in Quadrant 10J were conducted at fourarchitectural groups (10J-9, 10J-10, 10J-11, and 10J-12) and onestructural complex built around Structure 10J-45 (Fash and Long,1983) (Fig. 2). These patio compounds are described in more detailbelow. The burials recovered in the excavations were numberedsequentially in each of the 2 years of the excavations, i.e., 2000and 2001.

Patio group 10J-9

There were five structures in this group (labeled as 10J-34,-35, -36, -37 and -38). The PICPAC excavation revealed the pres-

ence of three additional structures (labeled as 10J-63, -64, and -86). Eight skeletons were recovered in this group and three of themhave been sampled in this study (Season 2000: burials 5, 13 and14).

Patio group 10J-10

Two structures (10J-39 and -40) make up this original group.Four more structures were recorded during the PICPAC operation

n to the Acropolis and other important architectural groups.

Fig. 2. The location of the PICPAC architectural groups where burials were encountered: Quadrant 10J (10J-9, -10, -11) and the structural complex (10J-45).

Table 1Scoring criteria for wealth designation among Maya burials (adapted from Krejci andCulbert, 1995).

Score Criterion Status Markers

0 Without offering Feline remains, allocation in funerarychamber, allocation in monolithicmortuary vehicle, abundance of ceramicvessels (>13), abundant shell pieces (>20),abundant jadeite pieces (>20), manta rayspine(s), pair(s) of ear spools, redpigmentation, alabaster, glyphs, obsidianspecial(s), mask artifact(s), pectoral,mosaic(s), pearl(s), associated containerburial(s)

1 Offering without anykind of StatusIndication

2 Offering with 1 StatusIndication

3 Offering with 2–3Status Indications

4 Offering with 4–5Status Indications

5 Offering with 6 or moreStatus Indicators

34 T.D. Price et al. / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 36 (2014) 32–47

(labeled as 10J-65, -66, -67 and -68). In this household arrange-ment, some 12 burials were found of which nine were sampledfor this analysis (Season 2000: 7, 11, 12, 15B, 17, 20, 22, 24 and 26).

Patio group 10J-11

This group of 3 structures (10J-42, -43 and -44) was the startingpoint for the rescue operations under PICPAC. Only one burial (Bur-ial 2-2000) was found and was not used in this study.

Patio group 10J-12

This group contains 12 structures, but no burials were found inthe test pit excavations of PICPAC.

Patio group 10J-45

The central structure of this group was originally catalogued asan isolated mound unconnected with the any of the abovemen-tioned groups (Fash and Long, 1983:30). PICPAC excavationsrevealed that Structure 10J-45 was really only one of 17 differentstructures (10J-60, -61, -62A, -62B, -69A, -69B, -69C, -70, -71,-72, -80, -81, -82, -83, -84, -85, and -45), which were part of themassive patio unit. The human burials recovered from this patiocompound total 32, including the remains of a male dignitarypresumed to have been one of Copan’s dynastic rulers (Burial36-2000). Some 20 skeletons were sampled for isotopic analysisfrom this group (Field Season 2000: 4, 18, 19, 21, 25, 30A, 30B,32, 35 and 36; Field Season 2001: 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14).

Burial contexts

The chronology of the burials has been determined primarilythrough the typology of associated ceramics. For burials withoutassociated ceramics, the architectural stratigraphy of the struc-tures or special features like the form of the tomb were examined.In some cases, like the dynastic ruler’s tomb, 14C dating was under-taken. The structures essentially date to the Early and Middle Clas-sic period (400–600 AD), corresponding largely to the Acbi ceramicphase (Bell et al., 2004). Burial 2-2001 is an exception and probablydates to a much earlier time in the Preclassic, judging from its posi-tion in one of the lowest stratigraphic layers.

We have attempted to quantify the wealth of each burial, usinga polythetic set of attributes in order to allow for rough compari-sons among the patio groups. A crude score was calculated for each

burial using a standard set of criteria (Table 1). Six classes of burialcontexts—‘‘0’’ (lowest, no offering), to ‘‘5’’ (highest – more than sixstatus indicators)—were distinguished according to the presence of17 different status markers in complete primary individual inter-ments, a list adjusted and extended from Krejci and Culbert(1995; see also Tiesler, 1999:106). The list includes the presenceof elaborate tomb architecture, funerary masks, alabaster, glyphsand pearls, among others. By themselves, these wealth attributesare rather unreliable indications of burial wealth. However, takentogether, the degree of craftmanship, along with the number andsize of burial artifacts, do roughly mirror social standing in thearea. Elaborated originally from the items documented in knowndynastic Maya tomb contexts (Krejci and Culbert (1995:108-110),the wealth classes work especially well for Classic Period LowlandMaya series (Tiesler, 2010, 2012, 2014). Results of a regional studyof over 800 Maya funerary contexts assigned 89.3 per cent of thecontexts a score of ‘‘0’’ (direct interments without offerings) and‘‘1’’ (direct interments with offerings but no status indicators).Only 11 per cent obtained scores of ‘‘2’’ or higher and less than 5per cent were assigned scores of ‘‘4’’ or ‘‘5’’ (Tiesler, 1999:106).The latter matches well with the profiles documented in Krejciand Culbert’s earlier work on dynastic tombs. Most contexts withthe highest scores are tied to the aristocratic ruling elite, not onlybecause of their exquisite costumes, but also glyphic identificationand their exclusive location within the site or structure.

The mortuary treatment observed among the series sampledfor isotopic analyses from at Group 10J-45 and the adjacent com-pounds is more heterogeneous and, on average, involves more


elaborate burial equipment than at other residential sectorswithin Copan, especially for the male interments. Their averagescore of 1.33 (n = 12), for example, is much higher than the 0.74average (n = 36) for Classic period males from Las Sepulturas tothe east of the Acropolis (Fig. 1; Tiesler, 1999). More austereare the female graves at Group 10J-45 (averaging 0.83; n = 6)and those of children even more so (0.42, n = 7). Individual infor-mation about each sampled context and its contents along withburial wealth attributes is provided in Table 2. Among the gravecontexts in the PICPAC project, there were only five cist burialsand two funerary chambers, one of them large and elaborate.The cist and chamber graves tended to contain much richerofferings than the simpler graves. The general position of theburials was flexed and only four individuals were found in anextended position, including the above-mentioned dynasticchamber burial.

Two of the PICPAC burials warrant more detailed description.Tomb 36-2000 probably harbored the remains of one of Copan’sEarly Classic rulers. Burial 2-2001 stands out for its very early datein Copáns occupation sequence.

Burial 36-2000

The inhabitant of tomb 36-2000 was identified on the groundsof his exquisite offerings including a jadeite ruler’s scepter. Thistomb was discovered in Structure 10J-45, a central platform thatis situated on the east side of the plaza and measures 14 m(N–S) � 12 m (E–W) with a height of 1.5 m. Burial 36-2000 wasdeposited during the second phase of the four construction phasesthat have been identified. It was completely sealed by the stuccofloor after which the structure may have served as a place ofancester worship (Becker, 1971). The excavations uncovered alarge number of capstones, which led to the discovery of Burial36-2000.

The funeral chamber measured 3.3 m in length (E–W) � 1.5 min width (N–S) (Fig. 3). Four layers of heavy monolithic, squarestone beams formed its heavy vaulted roof. Some 17 stone beams,each measuring 60 cm in length (on average), made up the firstcourse, 16 stones of 50 cm in length (on average) were used forthe second, and another 17 stones were used for the third andfourth course, respectively. As in the tomb of Yax Kuk’ Mo, amassive stone slab (1.7 m in length, 0.53 m in width and 0.2 mthick) had been placed on the floor of this chamber, supportedby six short stone columns approximately 25 cm in height, tomake a bench (Bell et al., 2004). This stone bench held theextended remains of Burial 36-2000, accompanied by a numberof exquisite ornaments including two Spondylus shells, four jadependants, one three-dimensional jade figurine, two huge carvedjade pectoral bars (Fig. 4) representing ceremonial serpent bars,and two jade earspools. Beneath the monolithic slab, 13 ceramicvessels, one ceramic lid, and one set of shell bracelets were foundas offerings. Furthermore, fragments of a ceramic ear ornamentwith a mat design were recovered both inside and outside thechamber.

The exquisite offerings, especially those associated with divinepower, along with the monumental architecture of this tomb inthe core of the central household compound, point to the occu-pant’s role as a dynastic ruler at Copan (Nakamura, 2004, 2007).Structural similarities between this chamber and other EarlyClassic royal tombs found in the Acropolis (Bell et al., 2004)—forexample, the distinctive roof construction, the size of the interiorspace, and the worked stone funerary slabs supported by stone col-umns—support this interpretation. Reddish pigment was sprinkledon the dead body and also covered the interior walls of the cham-ber. The iconography associated with the offerings establishesnumerous connotations related to Classic Maya dynastic reign, like

supreme rulership and military power, the rebirth of the maize godat axis mundi in the center of the universe (Nakamura, 2004, 2007;Taube, 2005: 29, 40).

In this context, the two jade pectoral bars are particularly sug-gestive of the tomb occupant’s role as a ruler. The first jade pectoralmeasured 20 cm in length and was carved with a mat design. Itidentifies its owner as ah pop, a man of the mat and therefore hold-ing a governing position. The mat symbolism is recurrently repre-sented (Fig. 5) on the centrally placed stelae A and D at Copán,which are statues of royal figures (Schele and Mathews, 1998:158, 166). The mat motive is seen in the Maya ceremonial serpentbars, which symbolize the sky (kan), the serpent (kan) and thecelestial umbilicus, which connects the ruler with the sources ofhis divine power (Schele and Mathews, 1998: 416). A second jadepectoral, 24 cm in length, had been carved with the Pax god in astyle reminiscent of Early Classic Peten convention, suggestingthe military power that the buried person held during his lifetime.Both pectorals were perforated transversely in order to hang fromthe neck.

This dynastic tomb was constructed between AD 400 and 525,based on 14C dating and the ceramic types encountered amongthe tombs accouterments. If the time of death of this paramountleader coincides with the date of tomb construction, he could wellbe one of the first six rulers in Copan’s dynastic succession (Martinand Grube, 2008).

In addition to the two primary burials, Burial 35-2000, a female,was found in the northwest part of the Structure 10J-45 below theeast wall of the basement of the second phase of the structure,with her legs in the lotus position and without offerings. This bur-ial was probably a sacrificed companion for the dynastic ruler, sim-ilar to Burial 32-2000, a decapitated skull recovered in one of thefour offering deposits in the center of the Plaza. Other burials, like1-2001, 33-2000, and 34-2000 could also be considered sacrificialvictims. These individuals could not be sampled for this studybecause of poor preservation.

Burial 2-2001

Burial 2-2001 was encountered under the west wall of Structure10J-45, some 1.45 m below the plaza level. This context is of partic-ular interest because of its deep stratigraphic location (likely dat-ing to the Preclassic period at Copan), the rare, extended ventralposition of the occupant, and the austere burial environment,although its occupant apparently did wear a jade pectoral. Thepresent analysis of this very early context promises insights inthe provenience of Predynastic Copanecans, who have been identi-fied parsimoniously before as indigenous Lenca people (Andrewsand Fash, 2005: 397) or assigned an unknown origin (Hendon,2009).

From all of the above and considering the location and standingarchitecture of Group 10J-45, we argue that this residential areamust have played an important role in Copan’s incipient urbangrowth and dynastic life during the Early Classic period. Many ofthe individuals buried beneath the foundations of Group 10J-45likely belonged to the elite sector, as indicated by the quality andquantity of their funerary attire and and the large number of dentalincrustations (Table 1; Tiesler, 2000a). The occupational chronol-ogy suggests that Group 10J-45 was only occupied for two or threegenerations, possibly comprising one of the major ‘‘house’’ groupsof Copans Early Classic elite.

Following the interment of its dynastic ruler, the residents ofGroup 10J-45 apparently used its central structure as a sanctuarytemple for ancestral veneration and visitation up until the 7th cen-tury. It is noteworthy in this respect that Copan’s 12th ruler, SmokeJaguar or K’ak’ Nab K’awil, erected Stelae 5 and 6 close to Group 10J-45. The orientation of the tomb of the dynastic ruler in Group 10J-45

Table 2Burials sampled for isotopic analysis from the PICPAC project.

Burial (Age and Sex) Group orComplex

Context FuneraryStructure

Offering Position Architectural Association

5-2000 (Young or middle agedadult)

10J-9 Pit 3 vessels, 2 jade beads, 3 jadeitafragments, and 1 fragment of jade

Extendeddorsal dec.

Found at the northwest end, inside ofthe structure 10J38

2

13-2000 (Middle aged ormature adult)

10J-9 Pit 3 vessels and 1 jade pectoral NID Found below the stone line thatbelongs to the possible substructure10J38

2

14-2000 (Juvenile of 4-6 yrs.) 10J-9 Pit 1 obsidian button and 1 ceramicfigure

NID Found inside of the structure 10J38 1

7-2000 (Middle aged female) 10J-10 Pit No Flexed Found at the southwest corner, insideof the structure 10J-39

0


10J-10 Pit 2 vessels and 1 jade bead for dentalincrustation

Extendeddorsal dec.

Found inside of the structure 10J-65 1

12-2000 (Middle aged female) 10J-10 Cist 1 vessel, 1 fragmented bone needle,and 1 jade earspool

Flexed Found below the stairs of the east endof the structure 10J-65

2

15-2000 Ind. 2 (Young ormiddle aged male)

10J-10 Pit 1 vessel Flexed Found below the south wall in thesouthwest part of the structure 10J-65

1

17-2000 (Middle aged female) 10J-10 Pit 2 vessels Flexed Found at the southeast corner of thestructure 10J-65

1

20-2000 (Infant of 6–12 ms.) 10J-10 Pit No NID Found below the structure 10J-65 022-2000 (Mature male) 10J-10 Cist 1 jade pectoral Flexed Found at the east side of the west

wall of the basement 10J-682


10J-10 Cist 1 vessel NID Found in the northeast corner of thestructure 10J-67

1

26-2000 (Juvenile of 2–4 yrs.) 10J-10 Pit No NID Found between the northwest cornerand the west wall of the amplificationof the basement 10J-68

0

4-2000 (Middle aged ormature probably female)

10J-45 No 0

18-2000 (Juvnile or youngfemale)

10J-45 Pit No Flexed Found in the southwest part, inside ofthe structure 10J-45

0

19-2000 (Middle aged ormature probably male)

10J-45 Pit 1 vessel Flexed Found at the southeast corner, insideof the structure 10J-69

1

21-2000 (Young or middleaged adult)

10J-45 Pit 1 vessel Flexed Found inside of the structure 10J-69B 1


10J-45 Pit No Flexed Found inside of the structure 10J-69B 0

30-2000 Ind. 1 (Young ormiddle aged probablyfemale)

10J-45 Pit No Flexed Found inside of the structure 10J-69B 0

30-2000 Ind. 2 (Infant agedaround 2 yrs.)

10J-45 Found as mixed with Ind. 1 in thelaboratory

0


10J-45 S OfferingDeposit

Skull in cache Found below the West Plaza of theGroup 10J-45

0

35-2000 (Middle aged female) 10J-45 S Pit No Irr. (leg inLotusposition)

Found at the northwest part, belowthe west wall of the basement 10J-45

0

36-2000 (Young or middleaged male)

10J-45 Chamber Rich offering, including 2 longcarved jade pectorals

Extended ‘‘Dynastic Ruler’’ 5


10J-45 Pit No Extendedventral dec.

Found below the west wall of thestructure 10J-45 (at 1.45 m below thePlaza level)

0


10J-45 Cist 1 jade pectoral, 2 jade earspools, and1 jade bead

Flexed Found at the northwest corner, insideof the structure 10J-80

3

5-2001 (Juvenile or youngadult)

10J-45 Cist 1 jade pectoral and probably 2vessels

Flexed Found at the southwest corner, insideof the structure 10J-70

2

7-2001 (Juvenile of 9–15 yrs.) 10J-45 Pit 1 jade pectoral, and 4 jade fragments NID Found at the south east corner, insideof the wall of the basement 10J-62(A)

2


10J-45 Chamber 2 vessels and 2 jade earspools Flexed Found at the south end of thestructure 10J-69

2

10-2001 (Juvenile or youngprobably female)

10J-45 Pit 1 fragment of metate Flexed Found at the central part, inside ofthe structure 10J-62B

1

11-2001 (Middle aged ormature probably female)

10J-45 Pit 1 vessel Flexed Found at the south end, inside of thestructure 10J-62B

1

12-2001 (Middle aged ormature male)

10J-45 Pit 1 flint knife Flexed Found at the south part of thestructure 10J-62B

1

13-2001 (Infant of 1-2 yrs.) 10J-45 Pit No NID Found outside of the structure (at 3 msouthwest of the basement) 10J-62B

0

14-2001 (Infant of 1–2 yrs) 10J-45 Pit No NID Found behind the structure 10J-62(B) 0


aligns with the axis mundi of the ancient city of Copan, defined byAcropolis. The attention of the person carved on Stelae 6 appears

to focus on Group 10J-45 and the important dignitary whoseremains were strategically located on the sacred east–west axis.

Fig. 3. Burial 36-2000 and the grave goods and interior of the chamber tomb.

Fig. 4. The two jadeite pectorals found in Burial 36 (2000). One is engraved withmat motifs on its four sides (a) and another one shows a carved god Pax motif (b)(Taube, 2001; Photos: PICPAC).

Fig. 5. Stela A at Copan showing the mat-decorated pectoral bar on the chest of thefigure.


Basic biographic data

We used the general morphology of pelvis, skull and mandible(Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994; Loth and Henneberg, 1996) and spe-cifically the morphology of the auricular surface and the os pubis ofthe iliac bone when available (Lovejoy et al., 1985), along withdegenerative changes, overall skeletal robustness, and long bonedimorphic measures (Black, 1978; Tiesler, 1999), to determinatesex and age in adults. Tooth abrasion was recorded according tothe table developed by Brothwell (1987: 108), following the algo-rithm defined for Maya population by Tiesler (2000b: 70), to assignan additional adult age estimate for those individuals lackingmajor diagnostic features (Lagunas Rodríguez, 2000: 38). In thecase of Burials 35-2000 and 36-2000, age at death was calculatedhistomorphologically in thin sections of mid-rib shafts, using stan-dards established by Stout and Paine (1992) and Valencia et al.(2010) (see also Tiesler et al., 2006; Suzuki et al., 2013). Epiphysealclosure and dental tooth growth and eruption were employed insubadult age determination (Ubelaker, 1989). In classifying dental

decorations and artificial changes of the cranial vault, we usedstandard criteria, adapted from the taxonomies originally estab-lished and adjusted for Mesoamerica by Javier Romero, José Imbel-loni, and Arturo Romano (Tiesler, 2000a, 2012, 2014).

This biographic data from the skeletal remains is summarized inTable 2. Similar to the overall funerary population of Group 10J-45,the sampled individuals identify a population composed predomi-nantly of adults (75% of n = 32). Among the adults, middle age andmature individuals are predominant. Apart from the living demo-graphic cohort from which this series originally derived, its ageand sex distribution is probably the result of taphonomic biases,as an expected higher portion of infant skeletons are more suscep-tible to deterioration and complete destruction than older agegroups. The proportion of adults and subadults and between bothsexes is similar in all three sampled patio groups (10J-9, 10J-10,10J-45), attesting to the residential use of these structures byextended families.

The cultural modifications of head form and frontal dentitiondocumented in Group 10J-45’s residents are roughly in line withthose documented in other residential areas at Classic Copan. Sixof eight sufficiently preserved skulls show artificial flattening ofthe tabular erect or oblique type, a proportion similar to the pref-erences documented in the Copan Valley (Tiesler, 2014). Some 44%of 25 examined adult dentitions were culturally modified. Morethan half of these had been decorated with inlays, a sign of distinc-tion, although not exclusive to Copan’s elite (Buikstra et al., 2004;Tiesler, 2000a; Whittington, 1989).

Isotopic analyses

The use of certain chemical tracers makes it possible to prove-nience human skeletons (Price and Burton, 2011). The principleis straightforward. Tooth enamel forms during infancy and doesnot change chemically during life and relatively little after death.Bone, on the other hand, is constantly rebuilding itself as part ofthe body’s maintenance. Tooth enamel is composed from the foodsand liquids an individual consumed during infancy and early child-hood. The composition of bone is a product of the nutrients con-sumed during the later years of life. Thus the chemistry of toothenamel comes from the place of birth; the chemical compositionof bone often comes from the place of death.

Various isotopes and elements have been used to characterizetooth enamel. Isotope ratios of strontium and oxygen are particu-larly good signatures for place of origin because they varygeographically and are well preserved in tooth enamel. Isotope


measurements are usually reported as a ratio of one isotope toanother, lighter, and more abundant cousin. Ratios are used inorder to standardize the value that is reported, regardless of theamount of material measured or the concentration of the element.

Strontium isotopes vary among different types of rock and enterthe body from the food chain—from rock to soil to plant to animalto human. In very general terms, older rocks have higher strontiumisotope ratios. Strontium isotopes, reported as the ratio 87Sr/86Sr,are measured in hydroxyapatite, the primary mineral componentof tooth enamel. The ratio in the enamel is compared to the ratioat the place of burial to determine if an individual is local ornon-local by birth. The local isotopic signal can be determined inseveral ways: in human bone from the individuals whose teethare analyzed, from the bones of other humans or archaeologicalfauna at the burial site, or from modern fauna in the vicinity. Soil,water, and vegetation have also been used to determine baselineratios in some studies. The local geological isotope signals of stron-tium have been constant over the last several tens of thousands ofyears. Exotic 87Sr/86Sr values sometimes point to specific places oforigin. Strontium isotopes have been used widely in Mesoamericawith important results (e.g., Wright, 2005; Price et al., 2000; Priceet al., 2008; Freiwald, 2011).

In bones and teeth, oxygen isotopes principally reflect the ratioof body water (Luz et al., 1984; Luz and Kolodny, 1985), which inturn largely comes from local rainfall. Isotope ratios in rainfall varyprimarily with temperature, elevation, and latitude. Rain that fallsin warm areas close to the sea has a high oxygen isotope ratio,while rain that falls inland and at higher elevations and latitudeshas a lower ratio. Thus oxygen isotopes have the potential, likestrontium, to be used to investigate human mobility and prove-nience. Like strontium, oxygen is incorporated into dental enamel– both into carbonate and phosphate ions – during the early life ofan individual where they remain unchanged through adulthood.Phosphate and carbonate produce comparable analytical results,but less sample is needed for carbonate, preparation is lessdemanding, and results between laboratories are morecomparable.

Oxygen has three stable and non-radiogenic isotopes—16O(99.762%), 17O (0.038%), 18O (0.2%). Oxygen isotope measurementsare reported as a ratio of 18O–16O. This ratio (d18O) is reported rel-ative to a standard (either SMOV or PDB), and expressed in partsper thousand (per mil, ‰). Oxygen isotopes are commonlyreported as the per mil difference (‰ or parts per thousand) in18O/16O between a sample and a standard. In our study we havemeasured carbonate in the apatite using a PDB standard.

Because oxygen and carbon isotope ratios are measured simul-taneously in the same sample, we also report d13C values for thePICPAC samples. This ratio in tooth enamel provides a measureof childhood diet and, in Mesoamerica, primarily offers an indexof maize consumption.

In the following pages we provide some further details on theprinciples of strontium and oxygen isotope analysis. Some detailsregarding sample preparation and measurement appear as anappendix. These methods have been described numerous timesin the literature (e.g., Price et al., 2008, 2010) Related sections pro-vide information on strontium and oxygen baseline values fromCopan for comparison with the results from individuals from thePICPAC excavations. The conclusions summarize the results ofthe analysis and place this new information in the larger contextof the Maya state.

Strontium isotopes in Mesoamerica

Variation in strontium isotope ratios across Mesoamerica issubstantial and is closely related to geology (Price et al., 2008). Inthe following discussion we focus on the Maya region in the

Yucatan peninsula of Mexico and the countries of Guatemala,Belize, and Honduras.

The Peten of northern Guatemala and the Yucatan Peninsula ofMexico consist of a huge limestone shelf. The oldest limestones, ofCretaceous age, are found in the southernmost part of the region.The limestone deposits are younger to the north, from Eocenecarbonates in the southern lowlands and Miocene carbonates inthe northern peninsula, to the youngest Quaternary rocks on thenorthern periphery and along the north coast. Because of an age-dependent trend in marine carbonates, the Sr isotopic characteris-tics of the region can be directly inferred from the well-definedCretaceous-to-Quaternary seawater 87Sr/86Sr values, whichincrease northwards from approximately 0.7070 in the southernCretaceous carbonates to 0.7092 in the latest Quaternary depositson the northern coasts (Hess et al., 1986; Hodell et al., 2004).

The carbonate-dominated lowlands are bounded to the southby the young volcanic rocks of the Guatemalan and Chiapas high-lands. The Guatemalan Highlands are largely volcanic in origin andhave lower 87Sr/86Sr ratios, approximating 0.704–0.706, character-istic of young Cordilleran volcanic rocks throughout Mesoamerica(Torres-Alvarado et al., 2000). The southern slopes of the volcanichighlands and the Pacific coast region are likewise derived fromthese rocks and have similar isotope ratios reflecting the morerecent geology of this area, with values largely between 0.705and 0.706.

The lowest geological 87Sr/86Sr values in Mesoamerica, in therange of 0.703–0.704, come from the Quaternary volcanics ofbasaltic composition in the Tuxtla Mountains of Veracruz. Thehighest ratios in Mesoamerica are likely to be those of the MayaMountains in the southeastern part of the Maya region and else-where in the metamorphic highlands where there are small pock-ets of relatively ancient rocks with 87Sr/86Sr ratios in the range of0.711–0.712 (Freiwald, 2011; Hodell et al., 2004).

Strontium isotopes at Copan

The site of Copan lies at the juncture of two major east–westtrending geological groups in western Honduras: the Groupo PadreMiguel to the north consists of younger Tertiary volcanic rocks ofrhyolite and andesite. Sedimentary deposits in the area are derivedfrom volcanic rocks and flows of rhyolite, andesite, and basalt. Thisregion is expected solely on a geological basis to have isotopic val-ues similar to other Tertiary volcanics of the Cordillera, with87Sr/86Sr values between 0.704 and 0.707.

The second major east–west trending geological group—GrupoValle de Angeles, to the south—is a heterogeneous mixture of red-beds consisting of mudstones, shales, sandstones, conglomeratesand limestones dating to the Cretaceous. The conglomerates con-tain clasts of schist, phyllite, quartz, limestone, and volcanic rockfragments. This group, geologically the most complex, should alsobe the most isotopically variable, with 87Sr/86Sr ratios estimates of0.708 for the calcareous rocks, and much higher ratios (>0.711?)for the conglomerates, and intermediate values for the redbeds.Further to the north of Copan are Cretaceous marine sediments(ca. 0.708–0.709) and even further north along the Guatemalanborder lies another region of exposed Paleozoic basement rocks(with values of perhaps 0.712 or higher).

Interpretation of strontium isotope ratios with regard to humanmobility is based on knowledge of geology and baseline isotopicratios in the study area. For various reasons, rock does not alwaysprovide a reliable proxy for the isotope ratios that enter toothenamel from the foods that are eaten (Price et al., 2002). It is essen-tial to measure bioavailable ratios of strontium isotopes in the areaof interest. Moreover, it is important to remember that the forma-tion of human bone and tooth is a long-term process, over monthsand years, that averages the mix of isotope ratios consumed during


the period of formation. It is this average in human tooth enamelthat we are comparing with the baseline data.

The Laboratory for Archaeological Chemistry in Madison hasbeen involved in the acquisition of baseline 87Sr/86Sr data forMesoamerica for many years (Price et al., 2000). We have mea-sured hundreds of strontium isotope samples from the Mayaregion to determine local baseline values (Price et al., 2008).The map in Fig. 6 shows our current baseline data for the Mayaregion. Distinct, measurable differences exist between many ofthese places. In general the data document the presence ofincreasing values from south to north in the Maya Lowlands—values range from approximately 0.707–0.709. The SouthernHighlands in Guatemala are largely volcanic and exhibit lowervalues ranging around 0.705. However, apart from Copan itself,we know very little about the strontium isotope geology of Cen-tral America (Honduras, Salvador, Costa Rica, Panama), regions tothe east of Copan.

There are several sources of information on strontium isotoperatios around Copan. An early study of Copan fauna by Hal

Fig. 6. Baseline bioavailable strontium isotope

Krueger (1985) provided some initial numbers. Measurement ofstrontium isotope ratios in water and plants in the region byHodell et al. (2004) provided additional data on geographic varia-tion. Over the last decade we have conducted detailed studies ofboth modern and archaeological fauna from the site as well asof a number of human burials (Buikstra et al., 2004; Price et al.,2010).

These baseline data are summarized in Table 3 and shown in abar graph in Fig. 7. The data point to a local 87Sr/86Sr value at Copanbetween 0.7052 and 0.7072 (mean 0.7067, s.d. 0.0010). Three unu-sual values appear in the data set, one very low value (0.7055 –peccary) and two high values (0.7089 – puma and 0.7090 – deer).These animals were likely imported from some distance to Copan.The peccary comes from a younger rock region, perhaps more vol-canic regions to the north or east. The puma and deer are likelyfrom the younger limestone of the northern Yucatan peninsula.Again, however, it is important to reiterate that we know very littleabout Central America and these non-local values may well origi-nate in that region.

ratios in the Maya area (Price et al., 2008).

Table 3Local measurements of baseline 87Sr/86Sr at Copan. Data from Krueger (1985), Hodellet al. (2004), and Price et al. (2010).

AB-1 Deer 0.70663 Krueger (1985)CAB-2 Deer 0.70904 Krueger (1985)CAB-3 Deer 0.70612 Krueger (1985)CAB-18 Peccary 0.70554 Krueger (1985)CAB-19 Peccary 0.70576 Krueger (1985)CAB-34 Puma 0.70895 Krueger (1985)CAB-36 Paca 0.70632 Krueger (1985)Town of Copan Water 0.70633 Hodell et al. (2004)Town of Copan Plant 0.70622 Hodell et al. (2004)Town of Copan Plant 0.70639 Hodell et al. (2004)Rio Copan Water 0.70681 Hodell et al. (2004)Rio Copan Water 0.70644 Hodell et al. (2004)Santa Rita Rabbit 0.70698 Price et al. (2010)El Jaral Rabbit 0.70687 Price et al. (2010)Hacienda Rabbit 0.7069 Price et al. (2010)Grande Llanetillo Rabbit 0.70644 Price et al. (2010)Copan Cemetery Rabbit 0.7063 Price et al. (2010)Carrizalito Field Mouse 0.70722 Price et al. (2010)Cerron Field Mouse 0.70681 Price et al. (2010)Copan ruins Field Mouse 0.707 Price et al. (2010)Copan unknown Armadillo 0.70637 Price et al. (2010)Copan WDM Cow 0.70735 Price et al. (2010)Copan WDM Cow 0.70424 Price et al. (2010)

Fig. 7. Oxygen isotope values (carbonate PDB) for various sites and regions inMesoamerica.


We have also measured a series of ancient human remains fromother areas at Copan. In addition to the tombs and sacrificial buri-als beneath the Acropolis (Price et al., 2010), we have measuredenamel samples from 11 commoner graves from the Copan valleyto verify the local human isotope signal (Fig. 8). Most of these indi-viduals, with three exceptions, fall within the local range as deter-mined by the fauna and confirm that these baseline values are theappropriate local signal for Copan. The three exceptions (one lowvalue, two high values) are likely immigrants to Copan and not rep-resentative of the local bioavailable strontium isotope signature.

Oxygen Isotopes in Mesoamerica

Oxygen baseline information is now available from recentgroundwater and precipitation studies in Mesoamerica, albeit atstill a gross level of resolution. Wassenaar et al. (2009) report mea-surements of ™18O in groundwater across large parts of Mexico,ranging between �10‰ and �4‰, and provide a map of variation.Variation appears correlated primarily in relationship to elevationand sources of the precipitation, the colder waters of the Pacific vs.the warmer Gulf and Caribbean. Values in the higher elevations ofthe Central Highlands are on the more negative end of the range,while the more positive values between �7‰ and �4‰ dominate

the Yucatan peninsula and Gulf Coast of Mexico. Thus, individualswith origins in the Highlands whose remains are found in theYucatan may be distinguishable with both strontium and oxygenisotopes.

Oxygen isotopes have been used in a number of bioarchaeolog-ical studies in Mesoamerica (e.g., Price et al., 2008; Wright andSchwarcz, 1998; White et al., 1998, 2004, 2007) and there is a nas-cent database from major archaeological sites. Oxygen isotopes inbone phosphate ratios have been measured from Teotihuacan,Monte Alban, Kaminaljuyu, Altun Ha, and elsewhere (e.g., Whiteet al., 1998). Oxygen isotopes in enamel carbonate are now avail-able from Calakmul, Kaminaljuyú, Copan and other sites (Priceet al., 2007; Wright and Schwarcz, 1999; Wright, 2012, 2013).

Variation within sites is generally less than among them,demonstrating the potential for useful signals for mobility and pro-venience studies. Data from White et al. (e.g., 2000, 2004, 2007)and our own Laboratory for Archaeological Chemistry show thatthere are general geographic trends (Fig. 7). (Carbonate valuesare reported with the PDB reference standard.) Values in carbonateare generally negative and range from 0‰ to �10‰PDB in humans;values in phosphate are positive and range between 10‰ and20‰SMOW. Again conversion requires the addition or subtractionof a value of approximately 21.0‰ for carbonate to phosphate,and vice versa. More detailed specifics for this conversion can befound in Chenery et al. (2012).

There is a distinction depending on whether rainfall comes pre-dominantly from the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico (�1‰ to �7‰) orfrom the Pacific (�8‰ to �9‰). There is also a crude trend corre-sponding with distance inland and elevation, with lower coastalregions (�1‰ to �4‰) at the lighter end and interior sites lower(�5‰ to �7‰), as would be expected. Apart from the Belize coast,the most positive values come from the site of Calakmul, just northof the Guatemalan border in the southern Yucatan Peninsula. Thehigher values in southern Yucatan and northern Peten are likelydue to the heavier amounts of rain that fall in that area(Wassenaar et al., 2009). Nonetheless it is also apparent that localranges are large. Because of the high variation present in oxygenisotope ratios, the use of this information for provenience studiesmust be done with caution, particularly at smaller scales.

In practice, there are a number of problems with the applicationof oxygen isotopes to questions of human migration. We haveobserved variation on the order of ±2‰ in d18O values among indi-viduals from the same location.

The d18O of human tissues may differ from that of rain falling inthe same landscape. Several different variables appear to affect thefinal values measured in the human skeleton. Rainwater d18O is sea-sonally variable, both in temperate latitudes and in tropical areaswith marked dry and wet seasons. In the tropics, seasonal fluctua-tion in d18O is determined more directly by seasonal variation in theamount of rainfall (Rozanski et al., 1993). Rainfall levels also varyfrom year to year. This annual variability is undoubtedly a majorcontributor to the broad range of d18O values seen at a given site.There are also reservoir effects. Water in lakes, ponds, and storagevessels can have higher d18O values due to evaporation of thelighter isotope. And through-flowing river waters can have d18Othat differs from local rainfall values. Even beverage-preparationtechniques can affect mean dietary d18O (Knudson, 2009).

Moreover, considerable variability may be expected among theteeth of a single individual (Fricke and O’Neil, 1996; Weidemannet al., 1999; Wright and Schwarcz, 1998), or indeed within a singletooth. Since most permanent teeth form over the span of 2–4 years,seasonal fluctuations may well be visible in dental d18O values, ifmeasurements are sufficiently precise. Cultural practices, such aslong-term water storage, cooking, diet, and breastfeeding can influ-ence the d18O of human skeletal tissues (White et al., 2007; Wrightand Schwarcz, 1998). Though they occur on longer-term cycles

Fig. 8. Bar graph of strontium isotope values from Copan. Baseline data from water, plants, and fauna. Human tooth enamel from burials of commoners, the Acropolis, and thePICPAC excavations.


than the lives of most individuals, even skeletons buried within asingle chronological period can be expected to vary somewhatdue to climate fluctuation (Wright, 2013).

We have a substantial number of enamel samples from Copanitself with d18O data. In order to determine the local oxygen isotopevalue at Copan we selected those individuals that fell within thelocal strontium isotope ratio range of 0.7052–0.7072. This filterincreases the likelihood that we are measuring local individualsonly. There were 35 individuals in this local strontium categorywith oxygen isotope data. These individuals had an average d18Ovalue of �4.41‰ with a s.d. of 1.23, providing a range of �3.18‰

to �5.64‰ at ±1 s.d. The range of values was high, from �0.21‰

to �7.79‰ suggesting that a few of the individuals with ‘‘local’’strontium isotope ratios may not have been local in terms ofoxygen.

In spite of a number of potential problems with oxygen isotoperatios in human remains, there have been several successful stud-ies done and the method appears to work reasonably well in Mes-oamerica. The results of the analysis of strontium, carbon, andoxygen isotopes in the PICPAC burials are presented in the follow-ing section.

Isotopic analysis of the PICPAC burials

Given this background on isotope ratio variation in Mesoamer-ica and at Copan, we return to the burials from the PICPAC excava-tions and the results of the isotopic analysis. The strontium isotopedata from the PICPAC analyses are presented in Table 5. These dataare also graphed in Fig. 8, along with other samples from Copan.This bar graph shows the baseline samples of water, plants, andfauna, the commoner burials, the Acropolis burials, and the burialsfrom the PICPAC project. Samples in each category are arranged inranked order by 87Sr/86Sr value. In addition, the local baseline valuefrom various sites and regions of Mesoamerica are marked on thegraph.

The baseline and commoner samples provide a good indicationof the local Copan 87Sr/86Sr signal, approximately 0.7052–0.7072.The Acropolis samples (Price et al., 2010) consist of 10 individuals,both royal burials and sacrificial victims found deep in the base ofthe Acropolis, directly beneath the highest temple at Tikal. Theseindividuals are thought to include K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’, the foun-der and first king of Copan, and some of his relatives and retainers.

Consideration of the PICPAC samples in the bar graph and thelocal baseline range for Copan (Fig. 8) reveals clear distinctionsbetween local and non-local individuals. Of the total 32 PICPACsamples, 14 (44%) appear to be non-local. There are three low

87Sr/86Sr values and 11 high values that fall outside the local Copanbaseline marked by the blue band in the graph. Again with thecaveat that we do not have baseline data from Central America,the majority of the higher 87Sr/86Sr values fit readily with theknown signatures for the lowland Maya region with the majorityof values (ca. 0.7080) from the central Peten/southern Yucatanzone, and at least one signature (0.7091) matches the northernMaya region.

The very high 87Sr/86Sr value (0.7117) likely comes from theMaya Mountains of southern Belize where granites and Paleozoicsediments produce some of the highest 87Sr/86Sr values in Meso-america, ranging from 0.711–0.715 (Freiwald, 2010). The lowervalues from 0.704 to 0.705 may come from more recent volcanicuplands in Mesoamerica, perhaps from the volcanic highlands ofGuatemala, the small belt of tectonic deposits just west of Copanin the Montagua Valley, or the volcanic regions of Central America.Finally another potential and closer source for these low values isin the Groupo Padre Miguel to the north of Copan composed ofyounger Tertiary volcanic rocks. One of these low values individu-als was Burial 2-2001, the deeply buried early grave on the westside of 10J-45, thought to date to the Preclassic.

Another perspective on these data is provided by the oxygenisotopes. Oxygen isotope ratios (d18O) are plotted against stron-tium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) values in Fig. 9. Several groups have beencircled and labeled in this plot to facilitate discussion. In addition,a data point for K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’ has been added to the graphas well for comparison. The local Copan individuals fall in a rathertight group between 0.7052 and 0.7072 (87Sr/86Sr) and �4.0‰ and�5.0‰ (d18O). To the left of this group, there are three individualswith similar oxygen ratios and lower strontium values that likelycome from the more recent volcanic terrains. The range of 87Sr/86Srvalues in this group suggests that at least two different locationsare represented among the three individuals. The oxygen valuesare similar to Copan suggesting that these individuals are not fromareas of significant elevation.

There is a single individual to the right of the local Copan groupin the graph with a very high strontium isotope ratio, comparableto baseline values in the northern Yucatan. To the right of this indi-vidual, with the highest 87Sr/86Sr at Copan is the individual likelyfrom the older rocks that define the Maya Mountains of southernBelize.

Individuals with less negative oxygen isotope ratios than thosefound at Copan also have slightly higher 87Sr/86Sr values, outsidethe local Copan range. These individuals may well come from theMaya Lowlands to the west. Both the strontium and oxygen isotopevalues fit with a small group from the southern lowlands and a

Fig. 9. Scatterplot of strontium isotope (X-axis) vs. oxygen isotope ratios for thePICPAC burials from Copan. Black squares are cist graves; hollow squares arechamber tombs; circles are simple graves.


larger group from the central lowlands, perhaps near the border ofGuatemala and the Yucatan, which would include such Maya cen-ters as Calakmul, Tikal, and others. Three individuals scattered onthe graph for whom we cannot easily assign a place of origin areindicated with question marks. They clearly do not fit within thelocal Copan range.

In addition to the information on the place of origin, some dataon the social status of the interred is available from the burial con-text and grave goods. The PICPAC samples come from two architec-tural groups (10J-9 and 10J-10) and the structural complexcentered around Structure 10J-45. The plan of these structures in

Fig. 10. The location of structural groups and burials in Area 10J at Copan. The color of thare indicated with a triangle; chamber tombs with a double square; simple graves with areader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 10 also shows the location of the sampled burials, the typeof grave (simple, cist, chamber), and the strontium isotope ratiosof the sample in one of three categories (low, local, or high). Thelocal dead distribute indistinguishably with the first generationimmigrants from different parts of the Highland and Lowland areasin all three patio groups under study. However, adult foreignersscore slightly higher in status attributes (1.13; n = 15) than theirlocal adult counterparts (1; n = 11).

Twenty-three of the 32 burials sampled from the PICPAC exca-vations were simple interments, and the quality and quantity ofgrave goods varied substantially among these individuals (Table 2).Five burials were found in identified cists and two were placed inlarger, more elaborate funeral chambers. All of the cist and cham-ber burials have notably rich contents. Both of the individuals bur-ied in the chamber tombs were of non-local origin. Burial 36-2000in the rich burial tomb at 10J-45 is likely from the southern Mayalowlands. At least two of the burials in the five cist tombs werenon-local individuals. Two probable sacrificial burials (35-2000and 32-2000) were identified during the excavations. 35-2000was found near the dynastic ruler (36-2000) who was buried inthe rich chamber tomb. 32-2000 was buried in a cache-type con-text in the center of the architectural complex of 10J-10. Both ofthese sacrificial victims appear to be local. This pattern of local sac-rifices and non-local elite was also seen among the Acropolis buri-als, but differs from elsewhere in the Maya area (Price et al., 2007).

Another perspective in provided by comparison of carbon andoxygen isotope ratios in tooth enamel. A scatterplot of these datais shown in Fig. 11. Non-local individuals, based on strontium iso-tope ratios, are marked in red; local individuals are green. Malesand probable males are indicated as squares, females and probablefemales are circles, and individuals of unknown sex are crosses.These isotope ratios confirm the non-local origins of a number ofindividuals from the PICPAC excavations. With only a very fewexceptions local individuals fall within a tightly constrained group

e pinhead indicates 87Sr/86Sr value: blue = low, black = local, red = high. Cist tombssimple square. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the

Fig. 11. Scatterplot of d18O vs. d13C in tooth enamel for PICPAC burials, by sex(male = square, female = circle, unknown = cross) of local (green) and non-local(red) individals as determined by 87Sr/86Sr. (For interpretation of the references tocolor in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)


in the lower right corner of the graph. The non-local individualsexhibit a wide range of variation, congruent with the multipleplaces of origin suggested by the 87Sr/86Sr data. These ratios of car-bon and oxygen isotopes from tooth enamel reflect the intake offood and water during the first years of life. A number of non-localindividuals had diets that were less maize oriented that the indi-viduals local to Copan.

There are three distinctly incongruent individuals in Fig. 11—alocal burial with the least negative oxygen and one of the mostnegative carbon values, and two non-local individuals that fallwithin the local Copan cluster. For the first unusual individual,the 87Sr/86Sr values suggests a geological terrain similar to Copanwhile the oxygen is unusual and points to areas with high rainfalland the carbon indicates less maize and/or fish in the diet. Theidentify of such an area is unknown. The two non-local individualswho cluster with Copan locals come from very different regions,one probably from the northern Yucatan and another from aclearly volcanic terrain, probably in a lowland region similar toCopan. Their childhood rainfall d18O and diets were similar to thoseat Copan.

Additional information on Group 10J-45’s residential history isprovided by comparing the sex and age profiles between localsand first generation immigrants. Noticeably, all of the non-localindividuals buried in Group 10J-45, were adults (N = 16), withone exception. This age profile contrasts with the more balancedproportion of 11 local adults to 5 subadults (below the age of10). In the adult group, the locals’ mortality ages peak in the first5 years and again during the fourth decade. The average age-at-death of first generation migrants at Group 10J-45 is muchhigher. Apart from the only child, an infant who succumbed inhis second year of life, the foreigners’ age distribution leans heavilytoward mature adult individuals beyond the age of 35. The youn-gest non-local adult resident of Group 10J-45, probably a female,died in her late teens. It is noteworthy that both sexes are equallyrepresented not only among locals (4:4), but also among foreigners(5:5). The balanced sex ratio argues against any patri- or matrilocalresidence pattern during the Acbi phase at Copan, at least when itcomes to long-distance movements of individuals. Instead, ourresults point to more likely scenarios of either young men andwomen entering the Copan area during their adolescence or youngadulthood, or young nuclear families with few or no children set-tling at Copan, probably as a part of larger family units.

One of the notable characteristics of the non-local individualsburied in Group 10J-45 is the variation seen in their strontiumand oxygen isotope ratios. Such variation points to a number of

different places of origin. These individuals appear to have cometo Copan from many parts of the Maya region, rather than a singlehomeland. This distribution of widely traveled folk, who we pre-sume resided and died during their adult life in the 10J-45 house-hold patio group suggests that it may have served as some kind ofenclave for incoming family members of a widespread Maya elitenetwork, who soon intermarried with Maya locals. We believe thatthese elite migrants did not travel randomly across vast stretchesof Maya territory to settle in unknown lands, but that their longdistance movements should have occurred along established linesof communication and probably that of family and kinship ties. Infact, family dynamics of the sort we argue for here should havebeen common practice among regionally based elites during theEarly Classic and even before. The combined textual and archeolog-ical evidence from Classic and Postclassic Mesoamerica and CentralAmerica converges to indicate frequent lineage segmentation andmovement of disaffected kin members into new areas. In thenew lands, they would establish new polities, driven not by largepopulations but by increasing labor, tribute demands, or structurallineage inequities (Anthony, 1997:23; Clark, 2001; Fox, 1989;Martin and Grube, 2008).

The combined evidence from Group 10J-45 supports this sort ofcolonization as a common expansion strategy among elite Mayagroups. Distinct from other Mesoamerican enclaves, which wereless assimilated and more oriented toward trade and commerce—like the Zapotec enclave or the Barrio of Merchants at Teotihuacan(Emberling, 1997; Manzanilla, 2009)—the foreigner status of someof Group 10J-45 residents’ would not have been visibly distinctivein the local cultural landscape, given their prompt assimilation intoalready established local Maya elite families with their localcultural expressions. These are also present in Group 10J-45’sarchitectural style, ceramic wares and grave equipment, the latterof which appear to emulate those traditions already establishedtwo centuries earlier during first dynastic reign of Yax Kuk’ Moat Copan (Bell et al., 2004).

Regarding the visible attributes of social and cultural identity,namely dental decoration and artificial head shaping, we couldnot discern statistically significant patterns due to the small sam-ple of sufficiently preserved skulls. Note, however, that the twoincoming women, who presumably grew up in the southern Petenarea and the Maya Mountains, staged reclined oblique head shapes(tabular oblique type), which were modeled in their place of originfar away from Copán, while they were still infants. Centuries later,these tabular oblique cranial modifications would become thecommon style for urban Coner phase Copanecans (Tiesler, 2012,2014; Tiesler and Cucina, 2010).

Interestingly, the Early Classic local Copanecans in our study didnot show this form, but instead staged broad and short cranialvaults (tabular erect head shapes). These erect head shapes weremost probably the common head form in the area in and aroundCopán still during the Early Classic. Afterwards, these were bannedfrom the Coner phase cultural repertoire of central urban Copanec-an practitioners. In our skeletal survey of artificial head shapes ofthe Copán Valley, the erect shapes only dominated the rural hinter-lands but were almost absent in the urban neighborhoods withtheir predominantly reclined head styles (Tiesler and Cucina,2010). We ask ourselves if the described shift in this highly visiblebody attribute could denote the visible reinforcement of‘‘Mayahood’’ in the new territorries towards the Late Classic.

Additional insights regarding cultural identification are givenby the documentation of permanent dental modifications thatwere achieved by incision, filing, polishing, perforations, and/orinlays and were sported by roughly half of the Classic Maya adoles-cents and adults (Tiesler, 2000a). Our results from the CopanecanPICPAC series show a similar proportion of decorated dentitionsamong local folk and incomers. Status must have played a role in


dental display, as the two occupants from chamber tombs and themost richly outfitted cist burials showed heavily inlayed or distinc-tively filed incisors. We can only speculate if these were createdduring young adulthood at the places of origin or at Copan. Themature age profile of those individuals who exhibit such teeth(all of them beyond 30 years of age) make us think that dentaladjustments took place well before that age.

Conclusions

The isotopic study of the residential history of those buriedbeneath the building groups in Grid 10J at the Maya site of Copanhas revealed intriguing new insight on the Preclassic origins andmobility, social networks, and local life among the founder gener-ations of Copan’s aristocracy, centuries before the population peakof the city. Isotopic ratios of strontium and oxygen provide evi-dence of differences in place of origin related to immigration andpositions of high status during the Acbi phase.

Large sites in Mesoamerica usually have a wide range ofvariation in 87Sr/86Sr values due to the inclusion of a number ofnon-local individuals in the sample (Price et al., 2008: 169). Table 4lists the mean, one standard deviation, minimum, and maximum87Sr/86Sr for a series of large centers from the Central Highlandsof Mexico and the Maya region in Mesoamerica. The variation invalues is of particular interest and can be seen in the standard devi-ation. Higher values indicate more variability in the 87Sr/86Sr datafrom each site. Certainly this variation is in part a function of thebioavailable range at the local site and the status of the burialsunder investigation. At the same time, this variation provides acrude index of the proportion of non-local individuals. This valueis high for Teotihuacán, Copan, Tikal, and Kaminaljuyú and lowfor Calakmul and Cholula suggesting that the numbers of foreign-ers at these latter sites may be significantly lower than at theothers.

At Copan, an exceptionally high proportion of individuals inGrid 10J—we think half of them—appear to have been born at somedistance from Copán. This proportion is considerably higher thanamong other sets of burials evaluated from the site (Price et al.,2010). In particular, the 10 contemporary burials from the EarlyClassic period Acropolis were primarily local individuals, withthe notable exception of three graves (30%), one of which includedthe principal ruler, K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’ (Lord Radiant First Quet-zal Macaw). Three of the 10 commoner graves also belonged tonon-local individuals.

As was the case with dynastic burial 36-2000 in our study, rulerK’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’ was a foreigner who arrived at Copan to rulethe east periphery of the Maya region. His arrival and kingly statusis attested by inscriptions at Copan (Martin and Grube, 2008:193).We wonder if the arrival of ruler X from Burial 36-2000 could havebeen recorded somewhere as well. The combination of strontiumand oxygen isotopes in the teeth suggest an origin for this individ-ual in the southern half of the Maya Lowlands.

Among the PICPAC burials, 14 of 32 individuals (44%) are indi-cated as non-local. Several possible explanations for the differencebetween the PICPAC area and the Acropolis come to mind. Perhaps

Table 4Descriptive statistics for 87Sr/86Sr values from selected prehispanic centers inMesoamerica. Data from Tikal and Kaminaljuyú from Wright (2005), Wright et al.(2010).

Teotihuacán Cholula Copan Tikal kJ Calakmul

Mean 0.7057 0.7057 0.7071 0.7080 0.7051 0.7079St. Dev. 0.0010 0.0006 0.0010 0.0011 0.0013 0.0002Min 0.7043 0.7044 0.7046 0.7041 0.7042 0.7078Max 0.7076 0.7072 0.7117 0.7163 0.7105 0.7085

the PICPAC area of the site is a foreign enclave of some sort,although there is little distinctive architectural or artifactual evi-dence to support such a contention. Perhaps the proportion ofnon-local settlers drawn to Copan increased over time as thepower and influence of the center increased. Of particular interestin the case of the PICPAC burials is the fact that a number of differ-ent places of origin are indicated by the strontium and oxygen iso-tope ratios, suggesting a rather diverse burial population in termsof homelands.

Determining the specific place of origin is difficult because welack baseline data on some areas adjacent to Copan. We know littleabout strontium and oxygen isotope ratios in Central America.Copan lies at the southeastern edge of the Maya region and con-tacts to the east may have been important. At the same time, itis the case that most of the archaeological evidence for externalcontacts at Copan points to the rest of the Maya region to the northand west, rather than east to Central America. Given these connec-tions at Copan with the north and west, we have focused on theseareas as probable homelands for migrants to the site. It must beremembered, however, that we cannot rule out places of originin the terra incognita to the east.

The number of different places of origin indicated by the isoto-pic data is striking. Three individuals have much lower 87Sr/86Sr,ca. 0.705, and oxygen between �4‰ and �5‰, consistent with ori-gins in the volcanic terrains further south or west, and ruling out amore northerly origin. Four samples have 87Sr/86Sr values between0.7073 and 0.7076 and lower oxygen, �3.72‰ to �2.88‰. Bothisotope ratios are consistent with origins in the southern lowlandsof the Maya region. Eight samples have 87Sr/86Sr between 0.7079and 0.7090 and still lower oxygen values at �2.43‰ to �0.88‰

(there is one exception at �4.26‰), again consistent with originsstill further north and closer to the Yucatan coast. One other indi-vidual has anomalously high 87Sr/86Sr (0.7117) and slightly loweroxygen (�3.65‰), which is difficult to ascribe to a particularregion, but the high 87Sr/86Sr indicates an ancient metamorphicterrain, which may well correspond to the Maya Mountains ofsouthern Belize.

Of particular interest is the pattern observed among the differ-ent architectural groups excavated by the PICPAC project. At the10J-45 architectural complex, two stone burial chamber tombswere found (36-2000 and 8-2001). The isotopic evidence clearlyindicates that both primary burials in the chamber tombs werenon-local, including Burial 36-2000, whom we presume to havebeen a dynastic ruler. These individuals appear to be coming fromthe southern Maya Lowlands and the central Maya lowlandsrespectively. In addition, there are two cist graves in the 10J-45complex (3-2001 and 5-2001). The two burials in the cist tombsare also non-local, likely from different parts of the southern Mayalowlands to the west.

This pattern contrasts sharply with the structural group 10J-10immediately to the south of 10J-45, where three cist graves wereuncovered along with a number of simple interments. These twogroups should be contemporary, both belonging to the Acbi phaseat Copan (AD 400–600). Each of these three individuals in the cisttombs is indicated as local by the isotopic analysis.

Perhaps the most striking pattern emerging from our isotopicstudies at Copan is the number of non-local elite. Both of thedynastic rulers we have studied from the site were born some dis-tance from Copan and came from the Maya Lowlands. A number oftheir retainers and individuals buried near them were also notoriginally from Copan. A similiar non-local ruler has been reportedfrom one of the royal tombs at Tikal (Wright et al., 2012). The dom-inance of foreign-born rulers has led to the idea that dynasticCopán was founded as an elite enclave far from the Maya heart-lands (Fash, 2001:78). Our isotopic evidence from Burial 36-2000strengthens this scenario. This pattern may have been widespread


in the Maya region during the Early Classic, as we have arguedabove.

In an insightful essay in 2008 Marshall Sahlins described a phe-nomena he called the ‘‘stranger king’’ to explain a situation inwhich a foreigner takes or gains power in another society or polit-ical unit. Sahlins points to the role of the stranger as a kind of affi-nal relative in the new place and compiles a long list of examples todocument his case. The process of state formation appears to haveconflicted with the traditional frameworks and rules of social orga-nization and caused resistance to the promotion of state-levelstructures and authority. The incorporation of foreigners intosociety was one strategy for bypassing the established order andintroducing new organizational structures (Dobat, 2010). These‘‘strangers’’ functioned as influential catalysts in the implementa-tion of state organization.

The implications of this pattern of ‘‘stranger kings’’ are intrigu-ing and suggest strongly that the Maya region was much more fullyintegrated than may previously have been appreciated. The workof Martin and Grube (2008) has been particularly illuminating insuch a context, as they have redefined the nature of Maya polities.As Martin has noted (2005: 8), ‘‘Across a range of other worldregions and time periods, aristocracies have acted as independentagents capable of uprooting themselves both from the lands theycontrol and the populations that support them in search of morefavorable conditions elsewhere, and it should not surprise us thatthe Classic Maya could do much the same.’’ Such issues, of course,demand continuing investigation.

Table 5Isotope data for the PICPAC samples from Copan.

LabNo. Structure Burial Sex

F5306 Grp.10J Str. 45 2-2001 ?F5315 Grp. 10J45 Str. 62(B) 14-2001 ?F5291 Grp.10J10 Str. 65 15B-2000 MF5294 Grp. 10J45 Str. 69 19-2000 M?F5314 Grp. 10J45 Str. 62(B) 13-2001 ?F5304 Grp.10J Str. 45 35-2000 FF5295 Grp.10J10 Str. 66 20-2000 ?F5312 Grp. 10J45 Str. 62(B) 11-2001 F?F5302 Grp. 10J45 Str. 69(B) 30-2000 (2) ?F5303 Grp. 10J45 West plaza 32-2000 M?F5293 Grp.10J Str. 45 18-2000 FF5309 Grp. 10J45 Str. 62(A) 7-2001 ?F5290 Grp. 10J9 Str. 38 14-2000 ?F5313 Grp. 10J45 Str. 62(B) 12-2001 MF5300 Grp. 10J10 Str. 68 26-2000 ?F5285 Grp. 10J9 Str. 38 5-2000 ?F5297 Grp. 10J10 Str. 68 22-2000 MF5298 Grp. 10J10 Str. 67 24-2000 ?F5288 Grp.10J10 Str. 65 12-2000 FF5307 Grp.10J45 Str. 80 3-2001 M?F5292 Grp.10J10 Str. 65 17-2000 FF5305 Grp.10J Str. 45 36-2000 MF5299 Grp. 10J45 Str. 69(B) 25-2000 M?F5289 Grp. 10J9 Str. 38 13-2000 ?F5308 Grp.10J45 Str. 70 5-2001 ?F5284 Str. 10J45 4-2000 F?F5287 Grp.10J10 Str. 65 11-2000 ?F5311 Grp. 10J45 Str. 62(B) 10-2001 F?F5310 Grp. 10J45 Str. 69 8-2001 M?F5296 Grp. 10J45 Str. 69(B) 21-2000 ?F5301 Grp. 10J45 Str. 69(B) 30-2000 (1) F?F5286 Grp. 10J10 Str. 39 7-2000 F

‘‘?’’ = no sex determination possible.‘‘M?’’ = probably male.‘‘M’’ = male.‘‘F?’’ = probably female.‘‘F’’ = female.‘‘ULM’’ = upper left molar.‘‘LLM’’ = lower left molar.‘‘URM’’ = upper right molar.‘‘LRM’’ = lower right molar.

Acknowledgments

We thank the Instituto Hondureño de Antropologìa e Historia(IHAH) and Lic. Salvador Varela (Regional Representat of IHAH)for the kind permission and support during the investigations atCopan. Histomorphological analyses were conducted at the Labo-ratory of Histomorphology of the Autonomous University of Yuca-tan, Mexico, and were funded by CONACYT Grants H-49982, H-37743. The Laboratory for Archaeological Chemistry at the Univer-sity of Wisconsin-Madison is supported by the U.S. National Sci-ence Foundation whose support is gratefully acknowledged. Wealso acknowledge the important role of Paul Fullagar at Universityof North Carolina-Chapel Hill and David Dettman at the Universityof Arizona in their care and attention to strontium and carbon/oxy-gen isotopes, respectively. We are grateful to the anonymousreviewers for their valuable corrections and suggestions.

Appendix A. Analytical procedures

Strontium isotope analysis for information on prehistoric resi-dential mobility requires samples of dental enamel. The specificteeth used in this study are listed in Table 5. Tooth samples aremechanically abraded with a dental drill tool fitted with a sandingbit to remove any visible dirt and/or preservative and then drilledto remove the enamel layer from the underlying dentine. Toothenamel samples are then transferred to sterile savilex digestion

Tooth 87Sr/86Sr d13C d18O

ULM1 0.7046 �5.75 �4.58LRM2 (dec.) 0.7052 �2.93 �4.17URM2 0.7052 �4.27 �4.59LRM1 0.7062 �2.72 �4.66LRM2 (dec.) 0.7064 �2.69 �4.52LLM1 0.7065 �0.89 �4.39URM1 (dec.) 0.7065 �1.43 �4.30ULM1 0.7065 �2.42 �4.52LLM2 (dec.) 0.7065 �1.66 �4.37LLM1 0.7066 �3.91 �4.38URM1 0.7066 �2.07 �4.95URM1 0.7067 �2.83 �4.50ULM1 (dec.) 0.7067 �3.54 �4.28LLM1 0.7067 �3.27 �4.39LRM (dec.) 0.7067 �3.13 �4.37URM1 0.7068 �2.23 �4.50URM1 0.7068 �3.13 �4.51ULM1 0.7069 �5.65 �0.21ULM1 0.7069 �2.84 �4.20URM1 0.7073 �3.59 �2.88URM1 0.7073 �3.50 �3.72LLM1 0.7075 �3.81 �2.72ULM1 0.7076 �2.50 �2.94LRM1 0.7079 �4.09 �1.06URM1 0.7081 �4.01 �1.79LRM1 0.7081 �3.90 �1.66LRM1 0.7082 �4.37 �1.16URM1 0.7082 �5.54 �0.88LRM2 0.7082 �6.25 �1.30LLM1 0.7085 �2.29 �2.43URM1 0.7090 �2.25 �4.26URM1 0.7117 �4.96 �3.65


vials and hot digested in ultrapure concentrated nitric acid, driedin a sterile laminar flow drying box, and redissolved in ultrapure2.5 N hydrochloric acid. This procedure may be repeated if thereare any trace organics remaining in the sample. Strontium is iso-lated using cation exchange chromatography with 2.5 N hydro-chloric acid as the mobile phase. Samples are then mounted onzone-refined tantalum filaments, and strontium is analyzed usinga thermal ionization multiple collector mass spectrometer (TIMS).87Sr/86Sr ratios are corrected for mass fractionation in the instru-ment using the exponential mass fractionation law and87Sr/86Sr = 0.1194. The samples are measured using a MicroMassSector 54 at the University of North Carolina. 87Sr/86Sr analyses(n = 40) of the NIST SRM strontium carbonate yielded a value of0.710259 ± 0.0003 (2 SE). Internal precision (standard error) forthe samples analyzed at UNC-CH is typically 0.000006–0.000010,based on 100 dynamic cycles of data collection.

Enamel powder for oxygen and carbon isotope analysis is pre-pared in a similar fashion and sent to the University of Arizona’sEnvironmental Isotope Laboratory. d18O and d13C of tooth enamelcarbonate were measured using an automated carbonate prepara-tion device (KIEL-III) coupled to a gas-ratio mass spectrometer(Finnigan MAT 252). Powdered samples were reacted with dehy-drated phosphoric acid under vacuum at 70 �C in the presence ofsilver foil. The isotope ratio measurement is calibrated based onrepeated measurements of NBS-19 and NBS-18 and precision is±0.1‰ for d18O and ±0.06‰ for d13C (1s). The carbonate – CO2

fractionation for the acid extraction is assumed to be identical tocalcite.

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price, t.d., seiichi nakamura, shintaro suzuki, james h. burton y vera tiesler (2014). new isotope...

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