Simon Goddard Weedon May 31 2013

An analysis of attitudes toward English/Japanese bilingualism

among parents of bilingual children in Japan.

1. Hypothesis

Despite the statistically low number of foreign residents in Japan (1.6% of population) and

the far lower number of bilingual English/Japanese children, this research project posits that

parents of bilingual children place value on the use of both languages and actively seek

different pathways to simultaneous bilingualism.

2. Introduction

2.2 Japan as monoethnic / monoculutural society

According to the Ministry of Justice the population of Japan was 127,770,000 in October

2010. Of this number, 98.6% were classified as being Japanese, and with Korean and

Chinese residents forming 0.9% of the population the native English speaking community is

likely to number less than 0.5%. Available figures for Oita Prefecture, where the study was

conducted, show that non Japanese residents accounted for 0.9% of the population and US

citizens (the only native English speaking residents with sufficient numbers to be included in

the data) account for 0.2% of the population. While figures exist for the number of interracial

marriages, no data exists for the number of mixed race children as the Japanese census

doesn’t collect data on race, only on nationality.

Japan is often described as a group oriented society, where difference from the group is

often viewed in negative terms. Kamada (1999) notes that even among Japanese citizens,

returnee students from English speaking countries were viewed as problematic, especially

when they struggled to reintegrate into the Japanese education system. This sense of

difference or partial exclusion can be acutely felt by long term residents in Japan, where

even permanent residents are still required to carry ID cards (the “Certificate of Alien

Registration”) and are processed at a separate immigration counter when returning to Japan.

This can also be seen to have an effect on young children as they seek to establish

themselves within their group of peers. The following blog comment from a 20 year old of

mixed Japanese/American parents describes the feeling of many mixed race children living

in Japan:

“For as someone who currently possesses two nationalities, Japan and its culture are a

significant part of who I am. However, despite being so, through even the kindest of

Japanese eyes I’m still an outsider to some degree. I’m teetering between the fact that I’m

not a “real” foreigner, but I’m by no means a “real”日本人 (Japanese)”

2.3 Debate over bilingualism in Japan

The status of second or foreign languages in Japan is the topic of fierce debate at present.

In April 2011 classes began in public Elementary Schools that focus on raising awareness of

foreign culture, and particular the English language. However, there is still a “mother tongue

first” approach to language in Japan and a very clear link between language and national

identity: once in Elementary School children have “kokugo” (meaning ‘national language’)

classes, rather than “nihongo” (Japanese) classes.

In 2002 the then Education Minister made the pronouncement that “It is also necessary for

Japanese to develop their ability to clearly express their own opinions in Japanese first in

order to learn English. (Toyama 2002, *translated in Liddicoat). The belief that a second

language may encroach on the learning of Japanese, and affect identity has also been

frequently discussed in newspaper columns and letters pages. The following, from The Daily

Yomiuri on April 29th 2011, is representative of the kind of thoughts commonly expressed. “A

mother was interested in enrolling her preschool son in my class, but her husband was

against it, the reason being that he didn't want his son to lose his Japanese identity”

2.4 Increase in interracial marriage and returnee children.

Despite the representatively low number of non Japanese residents in Japan, incidences of

interracial marriage have grown in recent years. A report in The Hiragana Times noted that

5% of marriages in Japan are inter-racial according to Ministry of Justice, a significant

number when compared to the total 1.7% of non Japanese residents in the country. Despite

this, however, the concept of interracial marriage is still looked upon as a curiosity. In 2006-7

Japanese TV aired the programme “okusama ha gaikokujin” (My wife’s a foreigner)

focussing upon the difficulties that mixed race couples have, and in particular the idea that a

foreign wife would find it very hard to fully integrate and understand Japanese culture.

Similarly, in 2010 the popular book series “watashi no da-rin ha gaijin” (my darling is a

foreigner) was made into a movie, further cementing the popular image of mixed

relationships as points of curiosity.

Kamada (1999) also describes an increase in the number of returnee children to Japan

following the expansion of Japanese businesses overseas during the bubble economy, and

the reaction of Japanese society to these returnees. “White's (1988) study explained

returnee problems as stemming from the exclusive nature of Japanese society in which

attitudes prevail where returnees "contaminated" by the values of the outside world come to

be seen as "different," in a society where sameness is desired.……According to Goodman

(1990), the returnee problem is seldom seen by Japanese society as the result of the

educational system. Instead the fault is laid on the child or parent”.

It is against this societal backdrop that the parents of bilingual children make decisions over

language development efforts and the degree to which their children attempt to integrate

fully, or maintain their unique cultural heritage. The popular term in Japan for mixed race

children is “ha-fu” (half), however, this is often viewed by parents of such children as a

stigmatizing term, perhaps due to the negative English connotation of “half cast” or “half

breed”. In reaction to this some parents of mixed race children in Japan use the term

“daburu” (double) to present the image of receiving the benefit of two cultures. (see Kosaka

2009) For “visible ha-fu” children, those whose features are clearly non Asian and names

are not Japanese, English becomes another aspect of difference that has the potential to

cause anxiety. At least one of the respondents in the survey has experienced situations at

school where other children use the address ‘gaijin’ (foreigner) for their child and frequently

ask ‘eigo de hanashite’ (say something in English).

The participants of the study deal with this reality on a daily basis and their responses may

shed some light on attitudes to bilingualism formed in this unique linguistic situation.

Methods

3.1 The Respondents

The respondents to the questionnaire were chosen from the researcher’s acquaintances in

the Oita area, with a total of 7 families (N11) participating in the study. Six of the families

comprise of a Japanese woman married to a man from New Zealand or the United Kingdom.

The remaining family are all native Japanese, but spent a period of 6 years living in England,

with 2 of their 3 children born and partially raised in the UK. The age of the children ranged

from 6 months to 9 years old, with the average age being 5-6 years.

This age period was specifically chosen in light of two factors.

1. None of the children have received any formal English education in the Japanese school

system. English is introduced as a school subject at age 12-13 in public Junior High

School, while from April 2011 public Elementary Schools have provided an average of

one period a week for cultural awareness activities that loosely introduce English to

students.

2. The concept of the Critical Period Hypothesis (described in Brown, 2007), and more

recent research cited by Patricia Kuhl (2010) that places the critical language acquisition

period as 0 to 7 years. The respondents all have children currently in the age period

described by CPH and it was the researcher’s intention to focus on parental attitudes to

bilingual language acquisition for children in this age group.

3.2 Questionnaire

All the respondents completed a questionnaire covering family make up, language use at

home, current language use of the child and finally opinions on 10 statements relating to

bilingual language use. The responses to the opinion statements were designed using a

Likert scale and respondents were also invited to add further commentary where they

wished. This was not a requirement however, as the aim was to minimize the burden to

those that had agreed to participate in the study.

The final phase consisted of telephone and face to face interviews with the participants to

further explore some of the points raised in the initial questionnaire feedback.

Results

4.1 Respondents L1 and L2

Respondents English as L1 Japanese as L1 L2 spoken No L2 spoken

11 6 5 10 1

A total of 7 families were given the questionnaire, with all families responding, however, for 3

of the families only the husband (in each case the L1 English speaker) provided responses.

In 6 of the 7 families both parents spoke both English and Japanese, while in the remaining

family the mother spoke both languages, while the father spoke only English.

4.2 Language use at home

English Japanese Both

Language spoken at home by

parent

3 1 7

Language spoken at home by child 1 *6

Language spoken between parent

and child

5 2 4

*The data concerning responses for language spoken by the child at home has been altered to reflect the

number of families involved, rather than the mean number of responses. As data was missing from 3 of the

mothers the initial figure would have provided an inaccurate description.

In the questionnaire, one respondent indicated speaking Japanese at home, however, in the

comments section denoted that she uses English when her husband is at home.

In only one family (the Brooks) English was the child’s predominant spoken language. In this

case the child is 3 years old and both parents speak exclusively in English with their children.

(see Analysis below for a further discussion of this case)

4.3 Current language use by each child

Child’s current language use

Balance of English and Japanese 1

Main language is Japanese but also speaks English 5

Predominantly speaks English 1

*The data concerning responses for current language use by each child has been altered to reflect the

number of families involved, rather than the mean number of responses. As data was missing from 3 of the

mothers the initial figure would have provided an inaccurate description.

In the case where a balance of English and Japanese is spoken the child is still 2 years old

and has only recently started attending day care. The family has chosen English as the

language to be used at home, and the child’s main Japanese input comes from his mother

when they are outside the home and also once a week from his grandmother. The child

speaking predominantly English is 3 years old and as yet has not attended any kind of

pre-school. Furthermore, his parents speak only English at home.

In the remaining cases, all children are now attending either Japanese pre-school or

Elementary School.

4.4 Parental attitudes towards bilingualism

How would you describe your

attitude to the following:

Strongly

agree

Agree neutral disagree Strongly

disagree

I want my children to speak both

English and Japanese

11

I encourage my children to speak 8 2 1

both English and Japanese

I encourage my children to read

both English and Japanese

9 2

Using English could slow my child’s

development in Japanese

1 3 4 3

Using Japanese could slow my

child’s development in English

1 1 3 3 3

Using both English and Japanese

will benefit my child’s development

10 1

My child will choose which

language they want to use

5 3 2 1

One parent should speak only

English, the other only Japanese

4 3 4

Both parents should speak either

language

3 2 4 2

Analysis

It is significant that all respondents show a strong desire for bilingualism to develop,

displaying a respect for both their own L1 and also the L2. In terms of language input and

output there is a very strong tendency towards encouraging spoken competence in both

languages and also a clear focus on literacy. With regards to literacy, Smith’s comment here

is pertinent. “Children should not be encouraged to assume that the minority language

exists mainly as a means of communication in their own families and only importantly as the

spoken word” (1996). In the follow up interviews all respondents reported reading aloud to

their children in both English and Japanese, with the readings being done predominantly by

the L1 speaker. Having books read aloud during infancy has been shown to be a major

determiner of academic success throughout a child’s schooling, the 1985 Commission on

Reading report states “The single most important activity for building knowledge for their

eventual success in reading is reading aloud to children”. Similarly, Unesco has stated

that, ”the biggest single indicator of a child's future success at school is whether they read

for pleasure” (quoted in Richardson, 2011).

A clear majority of respondents disagreed with the idea that using English could negatively

affect their child’s progress in Japanese further displaying a positive stance towards

establishing simultaneous bilingualism.

There was also a clear majority support for the child having the choice over which language

they speak, with only one respondent feeling there should be a degree of parental control

exerted.

The final section saw no support for an absolute “one parent, one language” approach,

preferring a mix of approaches which are described in detail in the following section

Having seen the overall trends described by the responses to the questionnaire, the

following section describes the attitudes and approaches adopted by each individual family

and points out areas of salience and difference.

5.2 One parent, one language?

A two part feature in “Bilingual Japan”, the Japanese Association of Language Teachers

Special Interest Group Newsletter, in April, 2002 carried the following: “I felt it was important

to speak only in English to him from the beginning, since my (Japanese) husband and I both

hoped he would be bilingual.”

This is very close to the approach my wife and I have taken with our daughter, Hana,

currently 6 years old. My personal feeling is that, with English being the minority language, it

is important to maximize the natural input Hana receives in her interactions with me. My wife

predominantly speaks Japanese to Hana, and stated her belief that children are able to

separate appropriate languages according to their perception of speaker’s likely language

use, and therefore it is better that children get L1 level input from their interlocutors –

interestingly, Hana will usually reply in Japanese if spoken to in English by another

Japanese person. When Hana was visiting my parents in England, however, she naturally

spoke English to my wife during phone and Skype conversations and my wife continued the

conversation in English. Neither of us believes in a dogmatic approach to language use and

are happy to speak our L2 with Hana if that’s the language she wishes to use at a particular

time.

The Kudo family are in a similar position, with the father speaking exclusively in English;

however the mother switches between English and Japanese depending on the participants

of the conversation. This is echoed in the experiences described in the JALT feature, where

Japanese use between the L2 speaking mother and her bilingual child only occurred when

they were in a group of predominantly Japanese speakers.

5.3 One language at home, One outside?

The Hall family have one child aged 2 years old and made the decision to use only English

within the family home, hoping to maximize the amount of English input their child receives

on a daily basis. The mother is conversationally fluent in both languages, and the father has

basic conversational competence in Japanese. Both parents feel that the surrounding

linguistic environment is ‘input scarce’ for English and wish to maximize the amount of

English input available.

Mrs Hall commented that while speaking English at home usually poses few problems, she

finds herself naturally using Japanese on occasions and then being unsure whether or not to

repeat the utterance in English. However, she noted that such instances are not

commonplace and in general she feels comfortable using English at home.

The Sakata’s are the only family compromising entirely of Japanese citizens. They have

three children, aged 10 months, 3 years and 6 years, with two of the children born in

England. The elder child was 4 years old when the family moved back to Japan and the

parents are keen to ensure that language attrition does not set in once she enrolls in

Japanese Elementary School.

In order to maintain English level they enrolled her in a pre-school that offers English

classes with an L1 English speaker and also pay for a private L1 English speaking tutor

once a week. In addition to this they have an extensive collection of books and DVDs that

they encourage the children to use. While the mother speaks to the children in Japanese the

family adopted an English only rule when all members of the family are present in the house

together. With a view to establishing biliteracy they have recently enrolled their second

daughter in a private class focused on establishing basic phonics understanding in English.

The Brooks have two children aged 2 and 3 years old. The mother is fluent in both

languages, while the father has intermediate level Japanese ability. While they speak in

Japanese with Mrs Brooks’ parents, they decided to speak only English with their children.

Similarly, they choose English audio channels when available and their son currently shows

a preference for this. In the comments attached to the questionnaire they stated that they

believe Japanese ability will increase rapidly once pre-school begins and therefore English

input is more important at this stage of their children’s development. This is echoed by the

experience recounted by Noguchi in ‘Bilingual Japan’:

“We have noticed a marked improvement in his Japanese speaking ability since he began

first-grade, and are hopeful that this progress will continue. What he mostly seems to lack is

vocabulary, and as he reads more and more in Japanese we expect this to improve.”

The approach taken by all three families described here is also supported by Anthea Fraser

Gupta, Senior Lecturer in Modern English Language at the University of Leeds, who states:

“If both parents can speak a minority language then their best strategy might be to speak

only the minority language to their children, and let them learn the majority language of the

community outside the home.”

5.5.3 Two languages intermixed

The Walsh family have two children aged 4 months and six years. Both parents speak

English and Japanese and feel that there should be no separation of language by parents

L1, and that seeing both parents use both languages will provide a more appropriate model

for their children.

Discussion

“The 'one-parent-one-language' method is sometimes put forward as the only way to raise

bilingual children. It isn't. There are many routes to this end”. (Gupta)

Of the seven families surveyed here, none reported a strong feeling for the strict one parent,

one language approach. What is evident is a desire to establish and maintain a level of

bilingualism in their children despite the input scarce English environment that Japan offers.

Furthermore, despite the difference in approach taken by each family none of the

participants showed concern over incidences of language mixing by their children. The

importance of this is noted by Ford (2000), “The attitudes of the parents of bilingual children

are very important when it concerns language mixing. The perception of language mixing as

a problem can negatively affect the child's bilingual development.”

Another interesting point is that, with the exception of the Sakata’s, none of the families

report labeling languages as English or Japanese. In my own family situation we have opted

for “mummy says ….” and “daddy says ….” if differentiating and Hana will frame questions

as, ”What does daddy say for “X”?, if she wants to know a particular word or phrase. The

Brooks noted that their son talks of “daddy song” and “nana song”, showing an apparent

mapping of language to people by the child as he separates the two kinds of linguistic input

he receives.

Conclusion

It is clear from the responses given in both the questionnaire and in follow up interviews that

parents attach “linguistic capital” (Bourdieu, 1976, 1997; Bourdieu & Passeron, 1990, cited

in Talbot et al., 2003) in roughly equal measures to both English and Japanese. Given the

overwhelming need for Japanese in the environment the participants are in, the parents’

strong desire for a balanced bilingualism is telling.

The respondents all show a positive image of bilingualism and a belief that the ability in two

languages, and the biculturalism that follows, will be a positive force in their child’s

development.

The differences in approaches to attaining simultaneous bilingualism also mirror the debates

that occur among linguists. The participants in the study demonstrated One parent One

Language (OPOL), Minority Language at Home (ML@home)

At this stage all parents are following their own path to bilingualism. One word of warning,

however, is provided by Pulvers (2009). “In the very early years of the child's life, the parents

may very well be convinced that they are having success. The child will easily distinguish

between languages and learn quickly to speak unaccented English with their mother and

perfect Japanese with their father. ..Bilingualism up to age 6 is a cinch …you won't really be

able to say your children are bilingual until they are in their high teens”

It would be interesting then to follow up with the same group after a prolonged period of

Japanese schooling and the socializing effects of the mainly monocultural Japanese

education system, and to see the extent to which parents attitudes change – particularly

whether or not they give up on the minority language – and also the extent to which the

children involved do indeed develop into fully bilingual adults.

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