cognitive characteristic of bilingual children
TRANSCRIPT
Akademia Pomorska w Słupsku
Wydział Filologiczno - Historyczny
Instytut Neofilologii
Agnieszka PlenikowskaFH/24755/05/D
COGNITIVE CHARACTERISTIC OF BILINGUAL CHILDREN
Praca licencjacka wykonana
w Zakładzie Filologii Angielskiej
pod kirunkiem
dr Adriany Biedroń
Słupsk 2008
1
Akademia Pomorska w Słupsku
Wydział Filologiczno - Historyczny
Instytut Neofilologii
Agnieszka PlenikowskaFH/24755/05/D
CHARAKTERYSTYKA POZNAWCZA DZIECI DWUJĘZYCZNYCH
Praca licencjacka wykonana
w Zakładzie Filologii Angielskiej
pod kierunkiem
dr Adriany Biedroń
Słupsk 2008
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS1. Introduction
2. Theoretical section
2.1. What is Bilingualism
2.1.1. General definition of bilingualism
2.1.2. Kinds of bilingualism
2.1.3. Bilingualism among children
2.2. What is Cognitive Development?
2.2.1. General Definition of Cognitive Development
2.2.2. Ways in Which Cognitive Development is Being Studied
2.3. Influence that Bilingualism has on Cognitive Development
2.4. Influence that Bilingualism has on Non-Verbal Aspects of Cognitive Development
2.4.1.Mathematical Abilities
2.4.2. Concept Formation and Task Switching
2.4.3. Theory-of-Mind
2.5. Current Types of Tasks Investigating the Influence that Bilingualism has on
Cognitive Development.
2.5.1. Card Soirting Task
2.5.2. Appearance-Reality Task and False Content Task
2.5.3. Sharing Task
3. Practical Aplication
3.1. Objectives of the Research
3.2.Subjects of the Research
3.3. Procedure
3.3.1 Appearance-Reality Task
3.3.2. False Content Task
3.3.3. Sharing Task
3.3.4. Card Soirting Task
3.4. Results of Research
3.5.Concluding Remarks
4. Conclusion
Bibliography
3
1. WSTĘP
W przeszłości dzieci, dwujęzyczne uważne był za gorsze, a ich rozwój poznawczy za
niepełny. Jednakże poprzez lata badań naukowcy i psychologowie dowiedli, ż wpływ
dwujęzyczności na rozwój poznawczy dzieci nie jest zgubny. Przedstawiona poniżej
praca ma na celu określenie i charakterystykę rozwoju poznawczego dzieci
dwujęzycznych. Autorka tej pracy skupił się głównie nad ukazaniem różnicy pomiędzy
dziećmi dwujęzycznymi i jednojęzycznymi.
W częuc0śi teoretycznej wytłumaczone został podstawowe pojęcia, metody
badań dwujęyczności oraz rozwoju poznawczego. W częuc0śi tej przywołane również
został róże badania, przeprowadzone przez różnych naukowców. Ma to na celu
określenia jak charakteryzowane był dzieci dwujęzyczne w aspekcie rozwoju
poznawczego przez uczonych na przestrzeni lat.
W częuc0śi drugiej, praktycznej, autorka pracy przywołuje własne badania
przeprowadzone na dwojgu dzieci, jednojęzycznej Zuzannie oraz dwujęzycznej
Wiktorii. Częuc0śuc0ćta ma na celu sprawdzenie teorii przytoczonej w częuc0śi
pierwszej poprzez serię badań Poprzez wyniki badań autorka chce również okreśić
czy dzieci dwujęzyczne maja przewagę nad dziećmi jednojęzycznymi, gdy brany pod
uwagę jest rozwój poznawczy.
W całej pracy znaleźuc0ćmoża róże wnioski dotyczące wpływu dwujęyczności
na rozwój poznawczy dzieci dwujęzycznych. Można znaleźć też podsumowanie i
wnioski z badania przeprowadzonego przez autorkę W ostatniej części pracy znaleźć
można główne wnioski podsumowujące zebrane dane i porównanie ich z
przeprowadzonymi badaniami
4
1. INTRODUCTION
In the past bilingual children were perceived as problematic. They were thought to be
in worse situation because their cognitive development had to divide into two
language systems. Scholars and psychologists thought that because bilinguals have
two language systems their development in neither of languages will be complete.
The aim of this diploma paper is to investigate and characterize the cognitive
development of bilingual children. As secondary aim, the paper compare bilingual and
monolingual children to show whether children possessing two language system are
superior to their monolingual peers.
The paper consists of two sections. The first section is the theoretical part, in
which the author of this paper explains the basic terms, and invoke researchers and
their research that are relevant to the paper. The intention of this part is to look how
bilinguals were characterized over years of research, on the aspect of cognitive
development.
The second part of this paper is the practical section in which discussed theory
is related to two subjects of research, monolingual Zuzanna and bilingual Wiktoria.
The key purpose of this study is to investigate the influence that bilinguals has on
subjects' cognitive features. The research show also whether bilinguals have
advantage over monolinguals, in cognitive abilities.
Throughout the paper are conclusions emphasizing what has been deducted
from practical section. Finally there is a main conclusion summarizing the findings of
the paper.
5
2.1 WHAT IS BILINGUALISM?
2.1.1. General definition
The definition of bilingualism that can be meet in a number of dictionaries and other
sources is that bilingualism is the ability to understand, speak, read and write in two
languages(1). Some sources provide, additionally that this ability must be fluent and
equal in both languages (2).
2.1.2. Kinds of Bilingualism
Through years of research bilingualism has been divided into different kinds.
According to Weinreich (Romaine 1995:78) Bilingualism can be divided into
"compound" and "coordinate":
c. Compound bilingualism occurs when "person learns the two languages in the
same context, where they are used concurrently, so that there is a fused
representation of the languages in the brain" (ibid.:79). This mean that if an
English-French bilingual would know both English home and French maison he or
she would have one meaning for both of these words (home=maison).
b. Coordinate bilingualism can be observed when a person acquires the languages in
two separate environments, then the words that he or she has learned are also
kept separately and each of them have its own meaning (ibid.:78)
c. Weinreich also distinguished a sub-coordinate bilingualism. In this kind of
bilingualism person translates the word of the weaker language via stronger
language. This means that if there is an English-French bilingual and the English
language is the one that a child knows worse home would evoke the word maison
in the stronger, French language (ibid.:79)
d. Balanced bilingualism, it occurs when the level of competence in both languages is
roughly equal and abilities of a bilingual person are similar to the abilities that a
monolingual speakers of both languages have(Kurcz 2007:17).
6
2.1.3. Bilingualism among children
When talking about bilingualism among children there are certain theoretical notions
that should be defined, such as:
a. Primary bilingualism, it occurs when a child has acquired out first and second
language in natural environment simultaneously before reaching the age of three
or first language before the third year of life and second after that(Kurcz
2007:155).
b. Native bilingualism occurs when a child is acquiring both languages at the
same time.(Snow 2005: 509)
c. Simultaneous bilingualism, it occurs when both languages are thought from
infancy. In this kind of bilingualism, child primarily has only one language system.
During the development the two language systems are becoming recognizable,
although mixing of two systems still occurs. In the end both languages are
perfected and unique (3).
d. Sequential bilingualism is a term referring to a situation when second language has
been introduced after the first one had been perfected(3).
Highly important terms while investigating bilingualism among children are:
submersion and immersion, as they are two most commonly known and used
alternatives to bilingual education.
Submersion is a process of adsorbtion the first language by the second one. It
is also known as subtractive bilingualism. It occurs when a child get acquainted with
the second language at school and is being taught only in the foreign language and
additionally at school children speak only in this new language(Kurcz 2007: 23).
Submersion results in losing fluency in usage of first language(Snow 2005: 509).
Immersion is a process of "dipping" a child in new, second language. It is
often named additive bilingualism. In order to not change immersion into submersion
several conditions must be fulfilled. They were formulated by Genesee'a in 1987 into
the following points:
1. Child must carry out from home the knowledge of first language, this first
7
language must be the language of majority and must have high social prestige.
2. Teachers an school must sustain this prestige.
3. Child must appreciate the first language.
4. Child, school andf parents are interested in aquaireing the abilities in second
language by a child(Kurcz 2007: 23).
8
2.2. WHAT IS COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT?
2.2.1. General definition of cognitive development
Term cognitive development comprises mental processes including remembering,
problem solving, noticing, imagining, decision making, information processing and
perception from childhood to to adulthood (4).
"Among the areas of cognitive development are information processing, intelligence,
reasoning, language development, and memory" (4).
2.2.2. Ways in which cognitive development is being studied
In the past children's cognitive development was studied through intelligence tests.
The most widely used was Stanford Binet Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test . It was first
adopted in 1916 by Lewis Terman in the United States. In this test IQ score is based
on the perspective of "mental age." This means that if a child's score is average his
IQ matches his or her age group, if the score is lower the IQ matches the younger
age group, while if the score is higher, the child is considered as gifted and is
assigned to older age group. IQ test were widely used in the United States, although
at present they are criticized and discouraged(4).
Nowadays children's development is studied in following methods.
1) Naturalistic observation.
In this method children are observed in their natural environment, often without
realizing that they are observed. This kind of observation provides psychologists with
natural behaviors and development of children. Although the children are unaware
and act naturally the results may be affected by parents unusual behavior. This
method often do not provide the researchers with the information they require, as the
child may not present the actions they want to examine(Oakley 2004: 4).
9
2) Controlled observation
When employing this method researchers must obey rules and guidelines as to what,
when and were to observe. This method allows scholars to manipulate and control a
situation in order to investigate child's behavior they want to examine. The results of
this kind of observation are reliable and easier to compare with the results of other
children's observations. Main disadvantage of this method is that because of the
unusual setting and surrounding children may not act naturally and their behavior may
not be realistic. Very often also researchers do not note important behaviors(Oakley
2004: 5).
3) Cross-sectional studies
The procedure in this method involves comparing one cognitive aspect of children
from different age groups. For instance, scholars may analyze children from the same
school but different grades at the same time and in the same place. The purpose of
this method is to discover whether and how cognitive development of children
proceed. Short amount of time needed to gather information is the main advantage of
this method. Other advantages of this method are that results of such research may
be easily repeated and costs on it are low. In favor of this method is also fact that
findings are very useful in investigating age-related changes and differences among
groups. However there are some disadvantages of this method. The main problem
may be that the children taking part in research may not be comparable. They may
differ in characteristic, they can come from different environments and their cohorts
may also differ. Researchers must remember that this method do not investigate the
individual but a whole group(ibid.: 5).
4) Longitudinal studies
In this method researches study the same children or a child over a period of time.
Participants are tested at regular time distances. Scholars compare children's
answers and solutions to presented problems when they are in first grade, second,
10
third and so on. While using this method researchers may identify aspects that
influence the development of a child. It also allows to examine whether individual
behavior is stable over time. The major difficulty of this approach s that it is very time
consuming and requests high outlay. Problematic issue may also arise if participant
refuse to take part in the research or may become not interested in it. Losing interest
may affect the reliability of the results as the person involved may not answer or act
naturally(Oakley 2004: 6).
5) Interviews
Interview is a research method in which children their parents and carers are asked
questions in order to gain knowledge about particular features of development.
Interviews differ form observations by the fact that interviewers may discover the
reason of behavior, because they are able to ask a question about the purpose of
taken action.Main disadvantage of this method is that participants may not be telling
the truth or may say what the believe is proper. Another problematic issue is
standardization of interviews as many researchers may have preconceptions and own
believes. The effectiveness of the usage interviews in developmental psychology is
limited by the age of a child and its ability to enunciate(ibid.: 7).
6) Experiments
Researchers choose experiments when they want to gain valid and reliable results.
Purpose of experiment is to control variables and to be easily duplicated. This method
admit researchers to investigate both cause and effect. Such examination may lead to
firm conclusions. Nevertheless experiments are often conducted in artificial conditions
and reliability of the results may be affected. They are also limited by the time and
due to this limitations there might be a difficulty with judging whether the behavior is
typical(ibid.: 8).
11
2.3. INFLUENCE THAT BILINGUALISM HAS ON COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AMONG CHILDREN
Since late 1950s researchers began to investigate bilinguals from a new perspective
of cognitive development. They began to wonder whether the possession of two
language systems affects the development of cognition.Studies showed that
bilingualism has a positive influence on cognitive features(Lee 1996: 503).
The first important study was carried out by Elizabeth Peal and Wallance
Lambert in 1962. This breakthrough study conducted on balanced bilinguals in order
to investigate the effects of second language acquisition on intelligence. Peal and
Lambert in order to get the most specific results decided to examine children of the
same age, sex and socioeconomic status. The children were also at the same level
of linguistic proficiency. The results of the research showed that bilinguals achieved
better results than their monolingual peers, in both verbal and nonverbal tests.
Especially better results bilingual children scored in tests involving mental
manipulation, concept formation and symbolic flexibility. Researchers came to the
conclusion that bilinguals surpass their monolingual peers because they have grater
mental flexibility and stronger concept formation skills(ibid.: 503).
With the beginning of 1960's a great number of studies concerning the
bilingualism and its influence on cognitive development was conducted. Many of them
was devoted to metalinguistic awareness(MLA). MLA "refers to the ability to make
language forms opaque and attend to them in and for themselves."(Cazden 1944: 24,
in Lee 1996: 504). Metalinguistic awareness has turned to be very important
component of bilingual children's intellectual development(Lee1996: 504).
One of the most important and significant study, investigating MLA, was
conducted in 1977 by Ben- Zeev. Her research on bilingual Hebrew -English and
monolingual English children showed that bilinguals gain better results in tasks
involving children's awareness of language features and the ability to control the
production of correct sentences.
Metalinguistic awareness issue has also been examined in later researches.
The results showed that bilinguals have "greater capacities to evaluate tautological
12
and contradictory statements that their monolingual peers"(Cummins, 1978a in Lee
1996: 505).
What is more in 1982 Galambos by his research found that bilinguals show
better syntactic orientation when considering grammatically correct and incorrect
sentences in first and second language(Lee 1996: 505).
Studies mentioned above present positive influence of bilingualism on cognitive
development. However, there were also studies, which results show that bilingualism
is harmful to cognitive development.
D.J. Saer in 1923 used Stanford Binet Intelligence Quotient to investigate
whether bilingualism has influence on intelligence. He examined English monolingual
children and Welsh-English bilinguals. The results that bilingual children gained were
worser than monolinguals. He found that bilinguals show a kind of mental confusion.
Still in ensuing years these worse results were explained by the fact that tests were
conducted it the language that bilinguals knew worse.(Kurcz 2007: 270)
Another negative results bilinguals gained in the study of Tsushima and Hogan
in 1975. Their findings showed that bilinguals have lower verbal ability. Additionally
two years later Ben Zeev's study bilinguals displayed delay in grammatical structures
and vocabulary(Lee 1996: 506).
13
2.4. INFLUENCE THAT BILINGUALISM HAS ON NON-VERBAL ASPECTS OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Bilingualism affects not only verbal elements of cognitive development it also affects
non-verbal processes. Scholars believe that this is due to the fact that bilingualism
influence general functions of cognitive system. Researchers wanted to investigate
whether way and time of gaining mathematical abilities, concept formation and theory
of mind by bilinguals differ from those needed by monolingual children(Kurcz 2007:
272).
2.4.1 Mathematical abilities
John Macnamara was first who began to wonder whether bilingualism affect
mathematical abilities. His researches research supported his believe that
bilingualism disturb children's competitions in this field. Poor results of bilinguals were
explained by the fact that the research was conducted in the second language. This
means that bilingualism in itself does not have to be the only factor responsible for
Macnamara's result.
The fact that level of proficiency in language is important when solving
mathematical tasks was confirmed in 1993 by French-Mestre and Vaid. They came to
the conclusion that bilinguals do tasks when they are presented in numerals, slower
when in first language and slowest when presented in second language.Mestre and
Geary discovered also that the ability of counting and doing mathematical tasks
depends on the on the language that the rules were introduced(Kurcz 2007: 274).
Later in 2001 Elizabeth Spelke and Susan Tsivkin discovered that information
are coded in definite language. This confirmed the theory of numeral information
coding system exitance, which is inseparable part of language representation.
All in all, researches have shown that bilingual people need more time when
they are doing mathematical tasks and that they have difficulties if the task is
presented in second language(Kurcz 2007: 275).
14
2.4.2. Concept formation and task switching
Another field that began to be interested for scholars was concept formation
and task switching. In series of researches Philip D. Zelazo revealed that children do
not have the ability to switch from once established criterion into another for specific
set. With usage of card sorting task he showed that bilinguals are able to realize that
figure on the card can be individual criterion. His science board explained that correct
solving the task requires selective focus of the attention. Child must ignore non-
existing feature of stimulant in order to classify the card correctly. In this study
bilinguals showed more developed abilities of task switching and concept formation
2.4.3. Theory of mind
Theory of mind is understanding of own mental processes and mental
processes of other people. Scholars who tackled this issue wanted to discover how a
child understand the fact that mind creates believes, attitudes and remarks. basing
only on their own viewpoint.
Four years old child is able to solve task that examines the understanding of
theory of mind. There are two explanations of this fact. According to one approach
Theory-theory (implying similarity between theories that children create for their own
usage and scientific theories), theory of mind forms independently from other
cognitive efficiency that are gained through development of a child.In accordance to
second approach a tasks testing this theory impose requirements for memory and
executive functions. Scholars revealed that there is correlation between results of the
task involving usage of the executive functions and task testing understanding of the
theory of mind. On the other hand, Perner, Stummer and Lang reversed the direction
of this causality(Kurcz 2007: 281).
Development of the theory of mind was verified in 2004 by Bialystok and
Senman. Their study revealed clear differences between the bilinguals and
monolinguals. Bilingual children proved to be better in ignoring the false information
15
that was approachable in their perception. Bilinguals also turned to have better
control of attention(ibid.: 282).
Bilinguals do not gain significantly better results in all three aspects of cognitive
development. However they results gain better results in tasks involving misleading
information that may deceive participants.
16
In conclusion of the theoretical part it can be stated that bilinguality affects
development of a child. This influence in most instances is positive, as bilingual
children have shown, over years of research that they have greater mind flexibility.
They have better linguistic and metalinguistic abilities. Bilinguals characterize also in
possessing greater abilities in concept formation, divergent thinking, general
reasoning and verbal abilities. On the other hand bilingual children often need more
time when dealing with a range of activities and tasks, for example mathematical
tasks.
17
1.5. CURRENT TYPES OF TASKS INVESTIGATING THE INFLUENCE THAT BILINGUALISM HAS ON COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
There are numerous ways in which the influence of bilingualism on cognitive
development can be used. The examples are following
1.5.1 Card Sorting Task
In card sorting task subjects of a research are presented with a box divided into two
parts. In one part of the box subjects see red circle and in the second green square.
They are also presented with cards that have symbols of green circle and red square.
In the first section of a task subject are to sort the cards according to the criteria of
colour. In the second part of a task the criteria changes and subjects are to sort cards
according the shape of the symbols.(Kurcz 2007: 279)
The aim of the task is to investigate whether the subjects understanding of
causality(Zelazo 1995: 487) and is able to switch between the criteria during the task.
1.5.2. Appearance- Reality Task and False Content Task
Appearance- reality and false content are two of the tasks investigating how a child
understands the theory-of-mind (Kurcz 2007: 281).
In appearance-reality subjects of a research are presented with objects that
seemed to be something different than they really were, for instance a sponge that
imitate a rock or a plastic snowman that after opening turns out to be a picture frame.
According to the procedure of experiment subjects after being presented with an
object were asked three questions:
a) What do you think it is?
18
b) What will the second participant of the experiment think it when we show him
or her the object?
c) What is it in reality?(ibid.: 282)
In false content task subjects are presented with a box that seems to contain
one kind of objects but in fact the content of the box is replaced by something else,
for instance, a box that is supposed to contain the chocolates appears to be a
crayons container. After presenting the box to the subjects they are asked the same
questions as in the appearance- reality task(Kurcz 2007: 282).
The nature of both tasks is to examine whether subjects are able to block
useless information and control the process of noticing(ibid.: 283).
1.5.3. Sharing Task
In sharing task subjects of the research are given a box of candies and two identical
dolls. Subjects are to share candies between dolls, so they have the same amount of
sweets. After this activity subjects are supposed to count how many candies the first
doll has, and without counting say how many candies the second doll has(Bialystok
2007: 277).
The aim of this task is to investigate whether subjects understand the
cardinality, which is the main principle the children must know(ibid.: 277).
19
3.1. OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH
The objective of the research is to find whether bilingual children's aspects of
cognitive development are more advanced than their monolingual peers.
The author of this paper has chosen the variety of tasks that are supposed to
examine mind flexibility, non -verbal mathematical abilities, theory of mind, noticing
and ability to control and omit irrelevant and unnecessary information
20
3.2. SUBJECTS OF THE RESEARCH
The author of this paper decided to conduct her research among one bilingual and
one monolingual child in order to compare the results they have gained in various
tasks. Subjects were chosen according to the following criteria:
- age
- sex
- SES (socio-economical status)
- family it was brought up ( both or one-parent)
Subjects were examined separately in their natural environment, in the presence of
their parents.
3.2.1. Monolingual Zuzanna
Zuzanna is a five-year-old, monolingual girl. She is being raised in a full, both-parent
family. She classifies into a middle social class. Zuzia started her education at the
age of four in the kindergarten. Girl has never learnt foreign language, has never
been abroad and has never had contact with people from other countries.
3.2.2 Bilingual Wiktoria
Wiktoria is a five-year-old, bilingual child. She is being raised in full family. She can be
classified into middle social class. As first subject she started her education at the age
of four in kindergarten, were she attended English lessons. Wiktoria is a Polish-
German child.
21
3.3. PROCEDURE OF RESEARCH
3.3.1 Appearance- Reality Task
The aim of this task is to examine whether subjects are able to block useless and
irrelevant information and control the process of noticing.
Subjects of the research are presented with two objects and asked several questions.
a) ZUZANNA
Examiner (E): Zuziu zaraz pokażę Ci pewien przedmiot, chciałbym, żebyś
powiedziała mi, jak myślisz, co to jest? (Zuzia, I am going to show you an object, and
I would like you to tell me what do you think it is)
Examiner shows a wallet in a shape of a hamburger
Zuzanna (Z): To jest kanapka. (It is a sandwich).
E: Jak myślisz, co powie druga osoba, jeśli pokażmy jej ten przedmiot? (What will the
second child say when we show her this object?).
Z: Powie, ż to kanapka z miękiem ( She will say that it is a sandwich with meat).
E: Zuziu ten przedmiot jest czymś innym, jak myślisz, czym jest on w rzeczywistości?
(Zuzia, this object is something else than it appears to be, What do you think it is in
reality?).
Z: Poduszka do spania (It is a pillow for sleeping).
E: Teraz pokaż Ci coś innego i też chciałabym, żbyś powiedziała mi, co widzisz. (Now
I am going to show you something else, and I also would like you to say what do you
see).
Examiner shows an apple shaped book to the subject.
Z: To cos w kształie jabła (It is something in a shape of an apple).
E: A co powie druga dziewczynka, jeśi jej to pokażmy?(What will the other girl say
when we show this object to her?)
22
Z: Pewnie, ze to takie jabuszko na niby (Probably that this is a fake apple).
E: Zuziu, co to jest tak naprawdę (Zuzia, what is it in reality?)
Z: Myśę ż to kolorowanka z owocami (I think it is a colouring book, with fruits).
b) WIKTORIA
E: Wiktorio zaraz pokażuc0ęCi pewien przedmiot, chciałbym, żebyś powiedziała mi,
jak myślisz, co to jest? (Wiktoria, I am going to show you an object, and I would like
you to tell me what do you think it is).
Examiner shows a wallet in a shape of a hamburger.
Wiktoria (W): Wygląa jak hamburger (It looks like a hamburger).
E: Jak myślisz, co powie druga osoba, jeśli pokażmy jej ten przedmiot? (What will the
second child say when we show her this object?).
W: Chyba powie, ż to maskotka (She will probably say that it is a mascot).
E: Ten przedmiot jest czymś innym, jak myślisz, czym jest on w rzeczywistości? (This
object is something else than it appears to be, What do you think it is in reality?).
W: To torebka w kształie hamburgera (It is a purse in a shape of hamburger).
E: Teraz pokażuc0ęCi coś innego i też chciałbym, żbyś powiedziała mi co widzisz.
(Now I am going to show you something else, and I also would like you to say what
do you see).
Examiner shows an apple shaped book to the subject.
W: Widzęjabłszko (I see an apple).
E: A co powie druga dziewczynka, jeśi jej to pokażmy?(What will the other girl say
when we show this object to her?).
W: Moż powiedzieć to samo co ja (She can saye the same think that I did)
E: Co to jest tak naprawdę (What is it in reality?).
W: Myśe, ż to ksiąuc0żczka (I think it is a book).
3.3.2 False Content Task
This research has the same aim as the appearance-reality task. The author of the
paper decided to conduct both in order to verify results.
23
In this research children were presented with a candy box, which in fact was a
container for hair-grips.
a) ZUZANNA
E: Co to jest? (What is it?)
Z: To pudeło z cukierkami (It is a box with candies).
E: Jak myślisz, co powie druga osoba, jeśli pokażmy jej to pudełko? (What will the
second child say when we show her this box?)
Z: Ż to pudeło z cukierkami (That It is a box with candies).
E: Jak myśisz co to tak naprawdęjest?(What do you think it is in reality?)
Z: Myśę ż to puste pudeło ( I think that it is empty box)
b) WICTORIA
E: Co to jest? (What is it?)
W: To takie pudeło po cukierkach albo z cukierkami(It is a box after or with candies)
E: Jak myślisz, co powie druga osoba, jeśli pokażmy jej to pudełko? (What will the
second child say when we show her this box?)
W: Chyba tak jak ja pomysli, ze pudeło jest puste (She will probably think, just like me
that the box is empty).
E: Jak myśisz co to tak naprawdęjest?(What do you think it is in reality?)
W: Myslę ż to pojemnik na jakieśrzeczy (I think it is a container for something)
3.3.3 Sharing Task
Subjects of the research are to share candies between two dolls, so dolls have the
same number of candies. After this activity children are supposed to count candies of
the first doll and without counting say how much candies the second doll has. The
aim of this task is to examine whether bilingualism, and possession of two language
systems affects in some way mathematical abilities.
Examiner described the rules to the monolingual subject of the research, and
24
asked girl to proceed to the task. During sharing candies Zuzia helped herself with
counting in a form of singing. She gave each doll a candy at the same time and
counted that as one, next she gave candies it the same way and counted two, and so
on. After sharing all candies girl was able to provide amount of candies each doll has
without additional counting.
When second child was taking this activity she first counted all candies. Then
she gave first doll two candies and second one also two, she continued sharing the
candies with two candies for each doll. After she has ended she counted the candies
that the first doll had. When she was asked to provide number of candies that the
second doll had she was confused, and could not understand how without counting is
she supposed to provide that amount. In the end she gave up solving the task.
3.3.4. Card Sorting Task
The aim of this task is to investigate the subjects' ability to switch between tasks and
concept formation. Subjects are supposed to sort cards according to criterion of color
and then according to shape. In order to complete the task correctly children must
block and ignore useless information about the figure on the card.
Author of this diploma paper has decided to conduct this research in two forms.
A. First attempt
In this attempt children were given only criterion to which they were supposed to sort
cards. During the procedure children were mislead with shapes and often asked the
examiner about the feature they should focus on
B. Second attempt
In the second attempt children were also supposed to sort cards in the same way as
in the first part. However when the criterion changed examiner was telling children
what symbol appears on the card. Despite this children were more confused whether
25
to category cards according shape or colour of the figure.
3.4. RESULTS OF RESEARCH
3.4.1. Appearance -Reality Task
During this research monolingual subject needed more time to answer second and
third question. In the end, girl seemed to understand that presented objects can be
something else, although their appearance was very misleading to her. She also had
problem with assuming that other children will know that the presented object was
something else than it looked like.
Bilingual subject of the research knew that objects are not what they appeared
to be. She was more confident when answering question about real nature of the
subject. Although she has not always predict that second child will say that it is
something else than in reality.
3.4.2. Falce Content Task
This task's results showed that both childern were concious the box may be empty or
may contain something else. Although both subjects could not predict that the other
person will say about the box, that there is something else in it
The aim of coducting this research was to confirm the results of appearance-
reality task, however it showed that there is little difference in the degree of mind
flexibility development girls, if considering guessing what presented box contains.
When oncluding both tasks it can be stated that bilinguals have more developed
theory of mind, which is connected with ignoring apparent and misleading information
that is available in perception
3.4.3. Saring task
26
This task has been conducted in order to investigate whether bilingualism has impact
on mathematical abilities. The results showed that the influence of possessing two
language systems is rather negative.
Bilingual girl needed more time to perform the task, she also did not
understand how she should be able to provide the amount of candies that the second
doll had, by counting only candies of first doll.
Monolingual child came out much better. The girl helped herself with singing
and counting while sharing candies, in the result she did not need to count candies
nor of the first neither the second doll.
It can be stated that bilinguality brings negative effects to non-verbal
mathematical abilities when dealing with mathematical calculations.
3.4.4. Card Sorting Task
The first attempt of this research showed that both children had problems with
ignoring the first criterion during second part of sorting However bilingual child tended
to be more accurate and she gained more correct sorted cards than her monolingual
peer.
The second attempt although it seemed to be simplified with prompts of
examiner, children also made mistakes. They did not blocked useless information, but
still were categorizing cards according first criterion. It seemed that the examiner that
tried to help the children made them more confused than they were in the first
attempt. However still bilingual child gained better results.
The results of this research showed that if children were not disturbed with
presence of examiner they gained better results. It also occurred that bilingual child
has more developed task switching ability. The ability to block irrelevant information is
also better in bilingual child.
27
3.5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
In conclusion, research conducted by the author of this paper showed, that
bilingiualism indeed affects the abilities of children and their cognitive development.
In verbal and most non-verbal abilities it is positive and valuable influence. However
there are some areas of cognitive development that bilingualism has a negative
influence on. This area are mathematical abilities.
28
4. CONCLUSION
The research, conducted over years, that were supposed to investigate the influence
that bilingualism has on cognitive development, showed that overall characteristic of
bilingual children in the light of cognitive aspects, is more positive than monolinguals.
With conducting own research author on this paper came to conclusions that
bilingualism indeed may affects bilingual children's cognitive development. As the
researchers mentioned in the theoretical section, author of the paper discovered that
bilingual children have grater mental flexibility, they also have stronger concept
formation skills. Bilinguals also are characterize by having better control over noticing.
The only aspect where bilinguals performed significantly worse than
monolinguals are mathematical abilities. In this aspect bilingual children need more
time than their monolingual peers. They also present a kind of confusion connected
with understanding the task.
In the end it can be stated that possession of two language systems may be a
kind of a gift. It can be useful and can affect the level of intelligence, due to the fact
that it has positive influence on some aspects of intelligence.
29