Recherches de Theologie et Philosophie medievales

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NEW INTEREST IN PETER LOMBARD: THE CURRENT STATE OF RESEARCH

AND SOME DESIDERATA FOR THE FUTURE

Philipp W ROSEMANN

Abstract

After the publication of Marcia Colish's Peter Lombard in 1994, studies on the author of the Book of Sentences have entered a new phase. This article provides an assessment of the state of research in the field and makes suggestions for its further development. In an appreciation and critique of Marcia Colish's contri­bution, it argues that Colish's interpretation, for all its merit, errs on a number of points: the proofs of God's existence, charity, and the structure of theological ethics are important examples. The second part of the essay considers the poten­tial of research on the tradition of commentaries upon the Sentences. Given the central place that this genre of theological writing occupied in Christian thought between the twelfth and the sixteenth centuries, the Sentences com­mentaries could serve as a window upon the tradition. It is suggested that study of the literary form of the commentaries will shed much light on changes in the conception of theology which occurred in the period under consideration.

It is well known that Peter Lombard's Book of Sentences - Sententiae in quatuor libris distinctae - served as the standard theological text­book in the Christian West between the early thirteenth century and, roughly, the Council of Trent. The Sentences thus shaped the minds of generations of theologians during one of the most formative peri­ods in the history of Christian doctrine. Indeed, since in the medieval university it was part of the duties of every aspiring master of theology to lecture on the Sentences, there is no piece of Christian literature that has been commented upon more frequently - except only for Scripture itself!. When in 1947 Friedrich Stegmiiller pub­lished his repertory of surviving commentaries upon the Book of Sen-

I. See Marrin GRABMANN, Die Geschichte der scholastischen Methode, vol. 2: Die scholastische Methode im 12. und beginnenden 13. Jahrhundert, Freiburg 1911 (repr., Berlin 1988), p. 392.

©RTPM 72,I (2005) 133-152

134 P. W ROSEMANN

tences, he already listed 1,407 items2, and more have been discovered since3. Towards the end of the work's long career, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, the young Martin Luther was one of the last

great theologians to lecture on the Sentences. He left behind a series of detailed glosses that have become the object of intense study4. As commentator on the Sentences, the Reformer was preceded by thinkers such as Alexander of Hales, Bonaventure, Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scorns, Ockham, Marsilius of Inghen, and Gabriel Biel - to mention but a few of the most famous. As a consequence of this unique situation, it would be possible to write the history of much of later medieval and early modern thought as a history of commen­taries upon the Book of Sentences.

However, the Book of Sentences not only constituted the point of departure for much of theological reflection from the time of the first universities through the Council of Trent; it was also the point of arrival for the development of the Christian thought that preceded it5. For that was the nature of the sentence collection as a literary genre: to gather together the most important scriptural and patristic quotations - the sententiae - on crucial theological topics; to arrange these topics in a systematic order; and to synthesize, as far as

2. See Friedrich STEGMOLLER, Repertorium commentariorum in Sententias Petri Lom­bardi, 2 vols., Wiirzburg 1947. In truth, not all 1,407 entries are commentaries on the Sentences, though the bulk of them are. Stegmiiller, however, also includes literature that is related to the Sentences, such as the works of Peter Abelard or Thomas Aquinas's Summa theologiae.

3. Several updates to Stegmiiller's Repertorium have appeared; the first one was Vic­torin DOUCET, Commentaires sur !es Sentences: supplement au Repertoire de M. Frederic Stegmueller, Quaracchi 1954. For an up-to-date assessment of efforts to complete and correct Stegmiiller's work, see Steven]. LIVESEY, «Lombardus electronicus: A Biographical Database of Medieval Commentators on Peter Lombard's Sentences», in: G. R. EVANS (ed.), Mediaeval Commentaries on the «Sentences» of Peter Lombard: Current Research, vol. 1, Leiden 2002, pp. 1-23, esp. pp. 1-3.

4. See, most recently, Josef WIENEKE, Luther und Petrus Lombardus: Martin Luthers Notizen an/.ajJlich seiner Vorlesung iiber die Sentenzen des Petrus Lombardus, Erfurt 1509111 (Dissertationen, Theologische Reihe 71), St. Ottilien 1994. Paul VIGNAUX already devoted a book to «Luther as commentator of the Sentences» in 1935: Luther commenta­teur des Sentences (livre L distinction XVII) (Etudes de philosophie medievale 21), Paris 1935.

5. Martin Anton SCHMIDT calls the Sentences «ein Sammelbecken der bisherigen scholastischen Arbeit»; see his article, «Die umfassende Bestandsaufnahme durch Petrus Lombardus», in: Carl ANDRESEN (ed.), Handbuch der Dogmen- und Theologiegeschichte, vol. 1: Die Lehrentwicklung im Rahmen der Katholizitiit, Gottingen 1982, pp. 594-605, at p. 594.

NEW INTEREST IN PETER LOMBARD 135

possible, the positions represented by the quotations, while bearing in mind contemporary theological debates. A good sentence collec­tion - and Peter Lombard's was an outstanding one - would thus represent the state of the art in theology.

Of course, every historian of medieval thought knows of Peter Lombard and his Sentences. But who has actually read this work, of which - tellingly - no translation into any modern language is available? Who understands the specificity of Peter Lombard's theol­ogy: how it differs from that of his predecessors and contemporaries, but also from the thought of later theologians? What, precisely, was it in the Book of Sentences that allowed it to become the absolute best­seller of medieval theology? The fact of the matter is that, until very recently, research on Peter Lombard was so neglected that we did not possess satisfactory answers to some of the most basic questions. One understands, then, why the British historian David Luscombe called the Sentences «one of the least read of the world's great books» 6.

1. The Sentences - «a work whose celebriry surpasses its value»?

Peter Lombard's contemporaries chose the Book of Sentences, among a number of similar works, as the best account of theological research in its day. What is more, long after their author's death, several gen­erations of thinkers continued to consider the Sentences a valuable, or at least viable, starting point for their own reflections. Against this background, it is not easy to understand the modern judgment on the standard theological manual of the Scholastics; for this judgment has been overwhelmingly negative. It may not surprise us that many post-Reformation thinkers distanced themselves from this epitome of Scholasticism, or that the Enlightenment did not find much to its liking in a collection of authoritative quotations7. But why does Joseph de Ghellinck, one of the pioneers of modern research on Peter

6. David E. LUSCOMBE, The School of Peter Abelard: The Influence of Abelard's Thought in the Early Scholastic Period (Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought, 2"d Series, 14), Cambridge 1969, p. 262.

7. On the evaluation of Peter Lombard in modern scholarship, see Ermenegildo BERTOLA, «Pietro Lombardo nella storiografia filosofica medioevale», in: Pier Lombardo 4 (1960), pp. 95-113.

136 P. W ROSEMANN

Lombard and not at all an unsympathetic commentator, call the Book of Sentences «a work whose celebrity surpasses its value» 8? De Ghellinck is not in bad company with his judgment. In his classic History of Scholastic Method, Martin Grabmann compares the Sen­tences with a roughly contemporary work of systematic theology, Hugh of St. Victor's De sacramentis christianae fidei. Grabmann arrives at the following conclusion:

Hugh's chef-cl' ceuvre, De sacramentis christianae fidei, could also light the way for our Schoolman, as an ideal of large-scale systematiciry. Peter Lom­bard did not reach this ideal. Due to its twofold division into opera conditio­nis et restaurationis and its broad unified point of view stemming from the person and work of Christ, Hugh's work has a considerably better structure and represents, right to the level of detail, an organic view and digestion of ideas from Scripture and the Fathers; it possesses to a larger extent the appeal and power of the personal, whereas for long stretches Peter Lombard does not rise above an external classification of statements from Scripture and the Fathers. On the level of detail, too, through the constant attempt at reconciling contradictory authorities, he does not sufficiently bring out the architectonic principles of his work9•

With this negative assessment, Grabmann has no other way to explain the success of the Sentences than through «a happy coinci­dence of historical accidents or, if one wants to put it that way, chance events» 10

• A puzzling explanation - or, rather, non-explana­tion - especially from the mouth of such an eminent historian.

Significantly, only one scholar marked the seventh centenary of Peter Lombard's death, in 1960. In that year, Louvain moralist Philippe Delhaye devoted the annual Albert the Great lecture which he was invited to deliver at the now defunct Institut d'etudes medie­vales in Montreal to «Peter Lombard: his life, works, and ethics» 11 .

While acknowledging the historical influence of Peter Lombard's work - «Peter Lombard is the author who most profoundly marked

8. Joseph DE GHELLINCK S.J., Le mouvement theologique du XII' siecle. Sa preparation lointaine avant et autour de Pierre Lombard. Ses rapports avec les initiatives des canonistes. Etudes, recherches et documents, 2nd ed. (Museum Lessianum, Section hiscorique IO), Bruges/Brussels/Paris 1948, p. 2: «une oeuvre ... done la celebrice depasse la valeur».

9. GRABMANN, Geschichte der schofastischen Methode, vol. 2, p. 369. I 0. Ibid., p. 406. 11. See Philippe DELHAYE, Pierre Lombard: sa vie, ses reuvres, sa morale (Conference

Alben-le-Grand 1960), Montreal/Paris 1961.

NEW INTEREST IN PETER LOMBARD 137

medieval theology and thought», Delhaye writes12 - he is quick to dismiss the Lombard's achievement as a thinker: «his epoch knew more profound theologians . .. [and] better informed philosophers» 13•

2. The Contribution of Marcia Colish: An Appreciation and Critique

It is only recently that the dominant view of the Sentences as a work of modest intrinsic merit has come to be challenged. This reversal of perspectives on Peter Lombard, and the revival of interest in his achievement, is almost exclusively the work of a single contemporary scholar: Marcia L. Colish, now retired from Oberlin College. Profes­sor Colish, who was a widely published and highly regarded medievalist even before the appearance of her magisterial study of Peter Lombard, is perhaps best known for her volume, Medieval Foundations of the "Western Intellectual Tradition, 400-1400, which is widely used as a college textbook14.

In her work on Peter Lombard, Colish was able to build upon foundations laid by Fr. Ignatius Brady, the learned Franciscan whose critical edition of the Book of Sentences was preceded by indispensable studies on the career of its author, as well as the composition and manuscript tradition of the work. Brady summarized most of these studies in the prolegomena to his edition, which remain an authori­tative source on these issues15• Fr. Brady was of course aware of the tendency « [t]o dismiss Lombard ... as primarily an unoriginal com­piler almost completely lacking any philosophical foundations, and of historical importance only through the popularity his work attained»; yet his preoccupation with the edition did not allow him to mount a detailed challenge to what he modestly called «not

12. Ibid., p. 9. 13. Ibid. : «Son epoque a connu des theologiens plus profonds: Abelard ou Hugues

de Saine-Victor, des philosophes plus avertis ... ».

14. See Marcia L. CO LISH, The Mirror of Language: A Study in the Medieval Theory of Knowledge, New Haven 1968 (rev. ed., Lincoln, Nebr. 1983); The Stoic Tradition from Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages, 2 vols. (Studies in the Hisrory of Christian Thought 34-35), Leiden 1985 (repr., 1990); and Medieval Foundatiom of the "Western Intellectual Tradition, 400-1400, New Haven 1997 (repr., 1999).

15. See Magistri PETRI LOMBARDI Parisiensis Episcopi Sententiae in IV libris distinc­tae, 2 vols., ed. Ignatius BRADY O.F.M. (Spicilegium Bonavencurianum 4-5), Grottafer­rata 1971-1981.

138 P. W ROSEMANN

exactly a just judgment» 16. Brady did, however, provide an important hint concerning the route that needed to be taken in order to arrive at a more balanced assessment of the Lombard's achievement: «Often enough», he wrote in the Encyclopedia of Philosophy, «his doctrinal importance emerges only when his teachings are examined against the background of his times» 17.

The approach that Fr. Brady suggested is precisely the one that Marcia Colish embraced in her two volumes on Peter Lombard -volumes, by the way, that shed light upon the Lombard's other works (in particular the biblical commentaries) but concentrate upon the Sentences18• Adverting to the «paradoxical situation» 19 of the gap existing between the Lombard's former fame and his contemporary underrating, Colish dismisses the negative assessment of the Sentences as an anachronistic caricature. Consequently, she proposes to explain why exactly «a young scholar who arrive[d] in Paris in the 1140s or 1150s, seeking the instruction that would enable him to become a master of theology in his own right», would have found the Sentences «SO clearly superior» to the essays in systematic theology of the other masters20• Colish answers this question by means of a painstaking comparison, on well-nigh eight hundred pages, between Peter Lom­bard's teachings and those of his contemporaries. In this way, she manages to draw a picture of the Lombard and his achievement that corresponds more closely to historical fact, rather than having to resort to the unsatisfactory strategy of attributing the high esteem in which he was held to mere chance.

Professor Colish has put contemporary research concerning Peter Lombard on an entirely new footing. For many years to come, other

16. Ignatius BRADY, O .F.M., «Peter Lombard», in: Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Paul EDWARDS, vol. 5, New York/London 1967, pp. 124-25, at p. 124.

17. Ibid. 18. Marcia L. COLISH, Peter Lombard, 2 vols. (Brill's Studies in Intellectual History

41), Leiden 1994. 19. Ibid., p. 3. 20. Ibid., pp. 77f. Earlier scholars, such as Joseph DE GHELLINCK, were not oblivious

to the genuine superiority of the Sentences by comparison with its contemporary rivals: «On le voit» , de Ghellinck wrote in his long article on Peter Lombard in the Dictionnaire de theologie catholique, «la suite logique des matieres et un programme des questions aussi complet que possible donnent a l'ceuvre de Pierre Lombard une reelle superiorite!» («Pierre Lombard», in: DTCXlI/2 (1935), cols. 1941- 2019, at col. 1980.) Strange that de Ghellinck nonetheless came to the negative judgment quoted earlier.

NEW INTEREST IN PETER LOMBARD 139

scholars will have to situate their work over against Colish's ground­breaking interpretation. This is what I have attempted co do in my recent, much more concise introduction co Peter Lombard21 • With­out Colish, chis book could not have been written in its present form. And yet, amica mihi Colish, magis amica veritas: as I became more familiar with the Sentences, I discovered a number of problems in Colish's reading of the Lombard. These weaknesses, if that is indeed what they are, in no way diminish Colish's accomplishment in single-handedly reviving and giving a fresh direction to Lombard studies. Nevertheless, in attempting to establish Peter's superiority by comparison with his contemporaries, Colish is sometimes carried away by her enthusiasm: in particular, she has a tendency co read Peter Lombard in terms derived from lacer, more «advanced» theo­logical systems. As a consequence, her interpretations are not always accurate. To state my critique provocatively: at crucial junctures of his thought, Marcia Colish's Peter Lombard looks uncannily like a twelfth-century version of Thomas Aquinas.

(1) This is the case, I believe, in Colish's interpretation of the four proofs of God's existence that the Book of Sentences has co offer. In the first of these, Peter Lombard argues chat there are realities «which no creature is capable of making or unmaking». Citing heaven and earth as examples, he concludes chat, «since no creature is able co make such things, it is certain that above every creature there is He who makes chem»: quia nu/la creatura talia facere potest, constat supra omnem creaturam esse ilium qui ea facit22

• Peter Lombard, then, is suggesting chat the existence of a particularly imposing kind of real­ity - heaven and earth - discloses the existence of a divine power which «has made chat which cannot be made by man» 23. There is no metaphysical argument comparable co Aquinas's secunda via here; chat is co say, an argument proceeding from a consideration of the order of efficient causes as such. Professor Colish's summary of the proof is therefore misleading: «Observing, with Robert Pullen, chat all created beings muse have causes since they are incapable of caus-

21. See PHILIPP W. ROSEMANN, Peter Lombard (Great Medieval Thinkers}, New York 2004. I have reused some material from this book in the first pages of the present article.

22. Sentences, Bk. I, dist. 3, chap. I , no. 2 (p. 69). All translations are mine. 23. Ibid.

140 P. W ROSEMANN

ing themselves, he yokes the argument from effects to a first cause with the argument from design» 24.

The three remaining rationes vel modi through which God can be known - to use Peter Lombard's own terminology - are similarly loose, lacking the conceptual rigor that would be typical of later Christian thought. Indeed, the arguments that the Lombard provides are less «proofs» in the strict sense of the term than indications of the plausibility of belief in a Creator-God. The author of the Book of Sentences does not yet operate in the kind of environment in which proving God's existence can become a major issue. In other words, his God is not yet «the God of the philosophers», to borrow an expression from Martin Heidegger.

(2) Even a very rapid comparison between the Lombard's rationes vel modi of knowing God's existence and Aquinas's quinque viae points to marked and profound differences between the great Scholastic theologian of the twelfth century and Thomas Aquinas, in whom the moderate Aristotelianism of the thirteenth century reached its historically most influential expression. Ultimately, these differences boil down to contrasting views of the relationship between grace and nature, the sacred and the secular; they manifest themselves on both the (a) formal-methodological and the (b) doc­trinal levels.

(a) The Lombard compiled his Book of Sentences before the redis­covery of the Aristotelian conception of scientific knowledge. Conse­quently, the Sentences still belong to an older, largely Augustinian form of Christian thought. The work provides a system of theology that is not only deeply rooted in Scripture and the Fathers; more than that, its fabric is almost entirely woven from authoritative quo­tations. These are held together relatively loosely by such method­ological devices as a table of contents, chapter headings, and brief paragraphs and sentences that mark logical transitions. The method­ological feature, however, that most thoroughly permeates the Book of Sentences is the sic et non form of argumentation: the constant jux­taposition of arguments in favor of and against certain positions, which is then followed by an attempt to resolve the tension. Thus, the material gathered in the Book of Sentences is no longer arranged in

24. COLISH, Peter Lombard, 240.

NEW INTEREST IN PETER LOMBARD 141

the manner of a simple Scripture commentary, which accompanies and elucidates a fundamentally narrative structure. The «story» of the people of Israel and of Christ has already been transposed from time into space: theology is laid out before the reader's eye as a sys­tem. Nevertheless, this system is fragile; for better or for worse, it lacks methodological rigor. Most notably perhaps, Peter Lombard fails to indicate with sufficient consistency how the organization of the Sentences corresponds to the structuring principle that he himself announces at the beginning of the work; namely, the Augustinian distinction between things and signs, enjoyment and use25 .

In Thomas Aquinas's Summa theologiae, by contrast, the method­ology of scientific reasoning solidifies and moves into the foreground. Reason not only «enter[s] into the structuring of the faith itself» 26, as it already does in Peter Lombard; rather, the structures of theology become completely rational - the structures, I emphasize, not the content. For Aquinas explicitly defines theology as an Aristotelian science: for him, sacra doctrina is a particular type of scientia27• In the Summa theologiae, quotations serve to illustrate and prove positions arrived at by reasoning from premises to conclusions: reason, one could say, has decentered tradition28• In this context, it is germane to mention Christopher de Hamel's brilliant study of the development of medieval manuscripts of the glossed Bible, the Glossa. Up to the twelfth century, any theological reflections that occurred in such copies of Scripture were marginal and interlinear: they quite literally remained confined to the margins and the spaces between the lines. Trembling hands scribbled discontinuous words of explanation around the Word of God. From the twelfth century onwards, how­ever, the glosses developed into coherent treatises, and the pages of Scripture were arranged in function of the amount of commentary

25. For a more detailed analysis of the methodology of the Book of Sentences, see ROSEMANN, Peter Lombard, chap. 3.

26. M.-D. CHENU O.P., «The Masters of the Theological 'Science'», in: IDEM, Nature, Man, and Society in the Twelfth Century: Essays on New Theological Perspectives in the Latin ~st, trans. Jerome TAYLOR and Lester K. LIITLE, Chicago and London 1968, pp. 270- 309, atp. 280.

27. See ST I, qu. l, art. 2: Utrum sacra doctrina sit scientia. 28. For a more detailed comparison between the theological methodologies of the

Book of Sentences and the Summa theologiae, see my article, «Sacra pagina or scientia divina? Peter Lombard, Thomas Aquinas, and the Nature of the Theological Project» , in: Philotheos. International journal for Philosophy and Theology 4 (2004), pp. 284-300.

142 P. W ROSEMANN

that needed to be accommodated on them. The words of the theolo­gian thus became an increasingly integral part of the layout of the scriptural text. In this manner, the history of the text of the Gloss testifies to the transition from sacra pagina to sacra doctrina; it illus­trates the rise of theology as methodology-conscious «doctrine» 29

.

(b) The emphasis that one finds in scientia divina upon natural intelligibility right at the heart of faith, and the differences between a Thomistic kind of approach and that of Peter Lombard, can be elu­cidated further by a quick examination of the two authors' respective positions on a crucial doctrinal issue - namely, the nature of char­ity, of the love of God and neighbor that is meant to animate the Christian life. For Thomas Aquinas, charity is an «infused virtue»; in other words, it is a predisposition to act charitably that cannot be acquired simply by habit, but requires an act of grace in which it is granted to, or «infused into», the human soul3°. In all other respects, however, charity functions just like a natural virtue, and is thus capa­ble of being analyzed in Aristotelian terms. Indeed, Thomas Aquinas believes that the Aristotelian theory of friendship, as developed in the Nicomachean Ethics, provides the ideal cool for understanding Chris­tian love31 . Peter Lombard, on the other hand, denies that charity is a virtue. Instead, he firmly and stubbornly maintains that charity is nothing but the unmediated presence of the Holy Spirit in the soul. When we act charitably, it is really God who acts in and through us. Human nature is somehow taken up into grace and deified, rather than grace entering into human nature and conforming itself to it. Marcia Colish, however, interprets Peter Lombard's position on char­ity Thomistically, thus misunderstanding and misrepresenting it fun­damentally. She writes:

... Peter stresses that what the Holy Spirit gives is divine grace. He gives the gift of grace; he does not communicate Himself or the divine essence as such to the believers who receive His charisms. Here, Peter harks back to the distinction between God's essence, as incommutable, and the personal determinations of the Trinitarian persons vis-a-vis each other, on the one hand, and, on the other, the effects of divine action as manifested in the created world and in the sanctifica­tion of Christians. This distinction must be preserved in order to avoid any trace

29. See C. F. R. DE HAMEL, Glossed Books of the Bible and the Origim of the Paris Booktrade, Woodbridge, Suffolk 1984.

30. See ST II-II, qu. 24, art 2. 31. See ST II-II, qu. 23, art. 1.

NEW INTEREST IN PETER LOMBARD 143

of pantheism or participationism in considering the interactions between God and creatures. In speaking of the Holy Spirit as the love bonding believers to

each other, and to God, therefore, Peter means, strictly, the effects of the Holy Spirit, which assist man in developing the virtue of charity and other virtues. The notion of the Holy Spirit as charity in His mission to man was later rejected by Thomas Aquinas and some other thirteenth-century scholastics. In taking that line, they appear to have read Peter as the participationist that he decidedly was not . . . 32.

By interpreting Peter Lombard's position on charity in light of what she considers to be basic principles of his doctrine on God, Colish defuses the radical nature of that position and eliminates the grounds on which it was later to be criticized by Thomas Aquinas. Yet the Lombard is unambiguous in denying that charity is a virtue, regard­ing it, instead, as the dwelling of the Holy Spirit in the Christian soul. Among the many passages that could be adduced to support this interpretation, the following one is particularly clear:

... charity {that is, the Holy Spirit) brings about the other acts and motions of virtue by the mediation of the virtues whose acts they are, such as the act of faith {that is, to believe) through the medium of faith, and the act of hope (that is, to hope) through the medium of hope: for it brings about these aforesaid acts through faith and hope. However, the act of loving (that is, to

love) it brings about only through itself, without the medium of any virtue. It therefore brings about this act in a different manner than the other acts of virtue; and for this reason Scripture, which attributes this [act of loving] specifically to charity, speaks about it and the others in a different way. Charity, then, truly is the Holy Spirit33 .

(3) Let me provide one final example of how expectations derived from later theological developments tend to interfere with Colish's interpretation of Peter Lombard's theology. Lamenting the absence of a synthetic treatment of ethics in the Sentences, Professor Colish wntes:

From a schematic point of view, ethics is the major subject on which his gift for lucid organization deserts [Peter]. He does not take up all the points rel­evant to this topic in one place. There is some analysis of the psychology of

32. COLISH, Peter Lombard, 261. 33. Sentences I, dist. 17, chap. 6, nos. 8 and 9 (pp. 151£). The translation is from my

article, «Fraterna dilectio est Deus: Peter Lombard's Thesis on Charity as the Holy Spirit», in: Thomas A. F. KELLY & Philipp W ROSEMANN (edd.), Amor amicitiae - On the Love that is Friendship : Essays in Medieval Thought and Beyond in Honor of the Rev. Professor James McEvoy (Recherches de theologie et philosophie medievales, Bibliorheca 6), Lou­vain 2004, pp. 409-36. This article contains a complete translation of distinction 17.

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ethical decision-making ... in his consideration of the fall in Book 2 of the Sentences. It is there, as well, under the heading of human nature, that he considers the vices, and the relationship between man's free will and divine grace in the moral life both before and after the fall. Ethical intentionality and sin reappear, in detail, in his analysis of the sacraments ... in Book 4. While Peter discusses the gifts of the Holy Spirit and the virtues which they help mankind to develop as an extension of his treatment of grace and free will in Book 2, his principal analysis of virtue, both the theological virtues, the cardinal virtues, and the gifts of the Holy Spirit, occurs in Book 3, in connection with the moral aptitudes of the human Christ34.

In an astonishing gesture of anachronism, Colish decides to gather together arguments advanced in different books of the Sentences to reflect later ideals of what shape a successful ethics should take35 .

Colish's dissatisfaction is to a large extent due to the fact, it seems, that she was expecting a treatment of ethics in the context of a dis­cussion of human nature, such as the one offered by Thomas Aquinas in the Prima secundae of the Summa theologiae: « Unques­tionably the most problematic feature of the Lombard's ethics», she explains, «is his decision to deal ... with virtue in conjunction with Christ's human nature» 36•

For Peter Lombard, ethics does indeed have its central place in Christology: there is no other way to acquire virtue than by looking to and emulating the example of Christ. Without Christ, truly virtu­ous behavior is impossible. In addition, there are briefer treatments of ethics where other contexts of the Sentences call for them. Thomas Aquinas, on the other hand, follows Aristotle in the belief that merely natural virtue is possible: it is perfected and completed, but not constituted by grace37. To reconstruct Peter Lombard's ethics on a later, Aristotelico-Thomistic model is to misunderstand it.

34. COLISH, Peter Lombard, pp. 471£ Also see pp. 514-6. 35. As Colish herself notes, among the more immediate successors of Peter Lombard,

only one, Peter of Poitiers, abandoned the Master's approach to ethics; see Marcia L. COLISH, «The Development ofLombardian Theology, 1160-1215», in: Jan Willem DRI­JVERS & Alasdair A. MACDONALD (edd.), Centres of Learning: Learning and Location in Pre-Modern Europe and the Near East (Brill's Studies in Inrellecrual History 61), Leiden 1995, pp. 207-16, esp. pp. 209-12.

36. COLISH, Peter Lombard, p. 515. 37. See ST II-II, qu. 23, arr. 7, resp.: «Sed si accipiarur virrus secundum quod est in

ordine ad aliquem finem particularem, sic potest aliqua virrus dici sine charitate, inquan­rum ordinatur ad aliquod parriculare bonum. . . . Si vero illud bonum parriculare sit verum bonum, puta conservatio civitatis, vel aliquid huiusmodi, erit quidem vera virtus, sed imperfecta, nisi referarur ad finale et perfectum bonum».

NEW INTEREST IN PETER LOMBARD 145

Despite the remarkable impetus, then, that Marcia Colish's work has given to studies of Peter Lombard's thought, there is still much to be done. We must learn to read Peter Lombard more consistently on his own terms. Indeed, perhaps there is even something to recom­mend a theology of the Lombardian type - a hesitant, imperfect one, both the form and content of which constantly remind us of nature's need for grace. On many occasions, Peter Lombard con­cludes discussions of important theological mysteries with remarks such as the following: Haec quaestio insolubilis est, humanum superans sensum - «this question is insoluble, surpassing human understand­ing»38. Quod et haec quaestio inexplicabilis est, quoniam excellit infir­mitates hominis - «This question, too, cannot be explained, since it exceeds the weaknesses of man» 39. Unsatisfactory? Perhaps. But to hear these words from the mouth of one of the tradition's greatest theologians also reminds us that the subject matter of theology is, indeed, ultimately beyond the reach of all human knowledge.

Let me add that, although we are now in a significantly better position to appreciate the Book of Sentences than ten years ago, we still lack reliable, critical editions of Peter Lombard's commentaries on Scripture and of his homilies. These works are only available in the Patrologia latina40• Detailed studies of these important texts rep­resent an urgent desideratum. The homilies, in particular, allow us to catch a glimpse of the Lombard not only as theologian, but as pastor and bishop as well. This is obviously valuable in order to help us arrive at a more complete picture of this great thinker. Moreover, some of the homilies cover topics that are not treated in the Sen­tences.

3. The Sentences Commentaries as a Window upon the Tradition

Earlier on, I remarked that it would be possible to write the history of much of later medieval and early modern thought as a history of

38. Sentences I, dist. 32, chap. l, no. 2 (p. 233). 39. Ibid., chap. 6, no. 2 (p. 239). 40. For the Gloss on the Psalter, see PL 191, cols. 55A-1296B; for the Gloss on the

Pauline Epistles, see PL 191, cols. 1297A- 1696C and PL 192, cols. 9A- 520A. Most of the sermons are printed among the works of Hildeberc of Lavardin, in PL 171.

146 P. W ROSEMANN

commentaries upon the Book of Sentences. Again, this is an idea that we owe to Marcia Colish, who in Peter Lombard wrote:

. . . I was struck by the fact that medievalists would be able to survey and map the terra incognita that remains in our knowledge of much of the his­tory of speculative thought from the middle of the twelfth century to the end of the period if the Sentence[s} commentaries of all the scholastics known to have made them could be studied in chronological order and in a comparative way. Such a study ... would enable us to track, and possibly to account for, the shifting interests in different generations, in different geo­graphical centers, in different religious orders or pedagogical cadres - what­ever categories such an investigation might reveal as significant4 1

.

Despite the ambitious - one could almost say, utopian - character of this suggestion, the realization of which would require «a large international equipe of medievalists with unlimited funding»42

,

research has already moved in the direction indicated by Marcia Col­ish. Thus, G. R. Evans recently edited a collective volume under the tide, Mediaeval Commentaries on the «Sentences» of Peter Lombard: New Research. It contains fifteen contributions ranging from investi­gations concerning a particular author or problem to broader sketches, especially a piece by Russell L. Friedman that is devoted to general trends in the development of the Sentences commentaries between 1250 and 1320, and a synthetic conclusion by the same author43• Most notable absences in the Evans volume are a compre­hensive treatment of the earliest Sentences literature44 and a discus­sion of the development of the genre after 1400. Steven J. Livesey contributed an article on "Lombardus electronicus" to the Evans vol­ume45. This piece explains an important prosopographical database that Livesey has established of commentators upon the Book of Sen­tences. The fruit of about fifteen years of work, «CommBase», as it is

41. COLISH, Peter Lombard, p. 1. 42. Ibid., p. 2. 43. See Russell L. FRJ EDMAN, «The Sentences Commentary, 1250- 1320. General

Trends, the Impact of the Religious Orders, and the Test Case of Predestination», in: Mediaeval Commentaries on the «Sentences» of Peter Lombard (see note 3 above), pp. 41-128, and Friedman, «Conclusion», ibid., pp. 507-27.

44. Ludwig Hedi's contribution is devoted to the earliest known continuous gloss on the Sentences, the so-called Pseudo-Poitiers gloss, which was composed before 1175; see Ludwig HOOL, «Die Sentenzen des Petrus Lombardus in der Diskussion seiner Schub>, in: Mediaeval Commentaries on the «Sentences» of Peter Lombard, pp. 25-40.

45. See Steven J. LIVESEY, «Lombardus electronicus: A Biographical Database of Medieval Commentarors on Peter Lombard's Sentences» (cited in note 3 above).

NEW INTEREST IN PETER LOMBARD 147

called, is «an electronic database of medieval commentators on Aris­totle and Peter Lombard's Sentences», and can be downloaded from the lnternet46. The emphasis of CommBase lies upon biographical and bibliographical data:

At present, there are approximately 45 ,000 records in the database describ­ing the lives of nearly 1,600 commentators. The greatest number of these (nearly 20,000) comprises the table that stores information about the texts composed by commentators. In addition, there are more than 8,000 records pertaining to the educational careers of commentators, approximately 3, 100 ecclesiastical positions, and 4,600 records indicating relationships to masters, students, patrons, and the like47 .

Unlike Friedrich Stegmiiller's 1947 Repertorium commentariorum in Sententias Petri Lombardi, mentioned at the beginning of the present article, CommBase does not attempt to list all the known manuscripts containing Sentences commentaries. An updated version of che Reper­torium, then, constitutes another desideratum of Lombard studies.

Although it is true that, to cite words of Russell Friedman, «progress in our study of medieval philosophy and theology will require a determined effort to investigate and edit a great number of Sentences commentaries» 48, meaningful research concerning the tra­dition of Peter Lombard is possible without «the editing and pub­lishing of all known Sentence{s] commentaries» 49 of which Marcia Colish spoke - only half-seriously - in the preface of her book. Indeed, such comprehensiveness would not be desirable, given the fact chat not every Sentences commentator produced a work worth reading.

Methodologically, a number of different approaches co the tradi­tion of the Sentences appear promising. Some of chem have already been put into practice; for example, in contributions co Evans's col­lective volume. In what follows, I should like co provide an overview of avenues for future research chat should prove particularly worth­while.

46. CommBase can currently be downloaded at http://www.ou.edu/class/med­sci/Commbase.htm), upon request of a free password. Professor Livesey recently signed a contract with the publishing house Brepols, which is planning to incorporate the data from Comm Base into its online International Encyclopedia far the Middle Ages.

47. LrVESEY, «Lombardus electronicus», pp. 5f. 48. FRIEDMAN, «Conclusion» (see note 43), p. 514. 49. COLISH, Peter Lombard, p. 2.

148 P. W ROSEMANN

(1) Professor Livesey's CommBase offers an excellent starting point for prosopographical and socio-historical research. Using CommBase it is possible to ascertain the national, social, and educa­

tional backgrounds, as well as the affiliation with particular religious orders, of medieval commentators upon Aristotle and Peter Lom­bard. Patterns of the geographical diffusion of ideas can be estab­lished through an analysis of master-student relationships. Beyond such socio-historical questions, Livesey's database also provides tools for research upon patterns of literary production, allowing one to see in what kinds of other literary activiry a medieval Sentences commen­tators was likely to engage, such as the composition of homilies or of commentaries upon the Bible or Aristotle50•

(2) Further insight into literary structures could be gained by an analysis of the development of the genre of the Sentences commentary as such. I have offered some preliminary hypotheses on this issue in the final chapter of my book on Peter Lombard51 and am presently studying these questions in greater depth. Briefly stated, over the course of just a couple of centuries the Sentences commentaries developed from very germinal forms, such as marginal glosses, to massive multi-volume works in which the text of Peter Lombard was increasingly overshadowed by theological arguments that bore little or no relation to the original intent of the Book of Sentences.

The earliest approaches to the work, in the twelfth century and beginning of the thirteenth, occurred in literary genres that, still defining themselves closely in relation to the authoritative text, served propaedeutic and ancillary functions: abbreviations and glosses belong in this category52• Just like the slightly later indices

50. For a fuller account of these avenues of investigation, see Livesey, «Lombardus electronicus».

51. See ROSEMANN, Peter Lombard, Conclusion. Also see the section entitled, «The unity and evolution of the Sentences commentary as a genre», in FRIEDMAN, «Conclusion», pp. 523- 27. Still indispensable is the classical article by Paul GLORIEUX, «Sentences (commentaires sur les)», in: Dictionnaire de theologie catholique, vol. 14/2 (1941), cols. 1860- 84.

52. On abbreviations and glosses of the Sentences, also see the remarks in Marcia L. COLJSH, «From the Sentence Collection to the Sentence Commentary and the Summa: Parisian Scholastic Theology, 1130-1215», in: Jacqueline HAMESSE (ed.), Manuels, pro­grammes de cours et techniques d'emeignement dans les universites medievales (Publications de l'Institut d'etudes medievales: Textes, Ecudes, Congres 16), Louvain-la-Neuve 1994, pp. 9- 29, esp. pp. 17- 21.

NEW INTEREST IN PETER LOMBARD 149

and arbores ramificatae53, these were mainly designed to help the reader come to a better grasp of Peter Lombard's thought. But the mere «explanations» of Peter Lombard's project - if such ever existed, since every reading is a rewriting - were quickly supple­mented by critical questions and discussions, which eventually grew into the exhaustive commentaries of the mid-thirteenth century (exemplified by the works of Bonaventure and Thomas Aquinas). Such commentaries typically de-emphasized the minute analysis of individual passages, already exhibiting a firm grasp of the larger ques­tions at issue, and indeed of the Lombard's theological project as a whole. At the same time, they used the Sentences as a foil for the development of their own visions of theological knowledge, its method, structure, and contents.

This state of affairs quickly changed, however. In the fourteenth century, theologians such as Duns Scotus and William of Ockham exploded the boundaries of the Sentences commentary in runaway discussions of ever increasing detail that completely submerged the structure of the original work - so much so that one may wonder whether Sentences commentaries of this period still had anything to do with Peter Lombard's Sentences! As a consequence, the tradition lost interest in the genre, which by 1400 seems to have exhausted its usefulness as a vehicle for theological discussion.

The fifteenth century witnessed a fascinating reversal of this trend. It is almost as though, once the textual tradition of the Sentences had expanded to its extreme limits and moved further and further away from its center, it contracted again, returning to the text of the Lom­bard's work in a renaissance of interest in the Master himself John Van Dyk has remarked that « [t]he spirit of 'back-to-the sources', so characteristic of the humanists, may well have pervaded the minds and hearts of the fifteenth-century Sentence[s] commentators» 54.

Thus, the commentaries of this period once again covered the whole of the Lombard's book. In a centripetal move balancing the centrifu-

53. Such as the ones that are to be found in the copy of Robert Kilwardby's Tabula in Sententias which is preserved in MS. London, British Library, Royal 9.B.VI, fols. 2r-24v. Clearly, the arbores ramificatae were designed to further an understanding of the structures of theology as a unified branch of knowledge, una scientia.

54. John VAN DYK, «The Sentence Commentary: a Vehicle in the Intellectual Tran­sition of the Fifteenth Century», in: G. P. MERMIER & E. E. Du BRUCK (edd.) , Fifteenth­Century Studies, vol. 8, Detroit 1983, pp. 227-38, at p. 230.

150 P. W ROSEMANN

gal tendencies of the innovators of the fourteenth century, their fif­teenth-century successors frequently contented themselves with the task of recording and cataloging the positions of their predecessors, taking stock, as it were, of the tradition. Nonetheless, the great Sen­tences commentaries of this time were not devoid of individual flavor and orientation. Denis the Carthusian combined the two tendencies in his commentary, composed between 1459 and 1464, which illus­trated and expounded the Master's ideas by means of extensive refer­ences to the great authorities of the tradition, while giving the whole work a mystical bent55 . Martin Luther, who lectured on the Sentences at the beginning of the sixteenth century and was one of the last great theologians to do so, still seems to be part of this movement of back­to-the-Sentences. His marginal glosses followed the text very closely.

I would submit the hypothesis that the pattern of expansion and contraction, of moving away from the original text and returning to it once again, might be a more general structure of the reception of authoritative texts in the Western tradition. The history of attitudes towards Scripture, for example, could be characterized in very similar terms.

(3) From considerations of the Sentences commentary as a literary genre, I turn to research concerning the content of these commen­taries. There are almost unlimited opportunities for promising future study in this field. In 1935, Paul Vignaux was struck by the sympa­thy that Martin Luther expressed for Peter Lombard's teaching on charity - a teaching which, as we have seen, later Scholasticism came to reject - and devoted a short book to the history of the problem in the Sentences literature: Luther, commentateur des Sen­tences56. Luther's positive opinion on Peter Lombard could open some very interesting ecumenical perspectives; for Peter Lombard's thought is central to the Catholic tradition, having shaped it in ways that are comparable to the influence of Augustine and Thomas Aquinas. Apart from the question of charity, however, there are innu­merable theological issues the development of which in later medieval thought could be traced through a study of the Sentences literature. In the Evans volume, Russell Friedman and Chris Schabel

55. See ibid., p. 234. 56. Cited in note 4 above.

NEW INTEREST IN PETER LOMBARD 151

have sketched the development of debates concerning predestination in Sentences commentaries between around 1250 and 134557. Above all perhaps, throughout the period under consideration the prologues to the Sentences commentaries served as the locus classicus for a defin­ition of the theological project as such and the methods to be fol­lowed in theological studies. I am myself currently engaged in research on the changing conceptions of theology as seen in a selec­tion of representative Sentences prologues.

( 4) The great interest of such sweeping studies should, however, not make us oblivious to the dangers of generalization. It is clear, therefore, that future research on the tradition of the Sentences requires a healthy balance between overviews bringing to light broader structures and what Professor Livesey has termed «microhis­tories of single cases or the peculiar characteristics of local or regional educational institutions» 58. In other words, we must not neglect the careful reading of the Sentences commentaries of individual authors. Even the commentary on Peter Lombard by an author as thoroughly studied as Thomas Aquinas has not yet been sufficiently explored. There is not even a translation of this crucial text! We know too lit­tle about the differences between Aquinas's teachings in the Sentences commentary and in the Summa theologiae, although it is well known that the latter grew directly out of the former. Yet the microhistory of the Sentences tradition should also include research on regional or national differences : in what manner, and why, did the commentaries composed at Oxford differ from those originating in Paris? Did the Dominicans approach the Sentences differently from the Franciscans? Was there a particular way of reading Peter Lombard in Spain?

4. Conclusion

I conclude. Research on Peter Lombard has entered a new phase. We now know why the Book of Sentences became so successful: its author

57. See FRIEDMAN, «The Sentences Commenrary, 1250- 1320» (cited in note 43 above); and Chris SCHABEL, «Parisian Commenraries from Peter Auriol to Gregory of Rimini, and the Problem of Predestination», in: M edieval Commentaries on the «Sen­tences» of Peter Lombard, pp. 221-65.

58. LIVESEY, «Lombardus electronicus», p. 4.

152 P. W. ROSEMANN

provided the sketch of a theological system that was deeply faithful to Scripture and the Fathers; slow in offering definitive solutions and judgmems; and organized loosely enough to survive several shifts of paradigm in theological discourse. We still need to work harder, however, in taking the Lombard seriously as a thinker in his own right. His tentative and profoundly humble theology certainly has gaps and shortcomings; but it is also attractive in making it very clear that human beings will never be able to speak the last word on God.

Research on the tradition of the Book of Sentences is only just beginning. This is a vast and promising field that will require inten­sive collaboration among editors, philosophers, theologians, histori­ans of ideas and of science. In a way, to write the history of the Book of Sentences is to write the history of the Christian tradition between 1150 and the Council of Trent - approached from the point of view of one fascinating literary genre. One generation will not be able to complete this work. The tradition of the Sentences contains material for scores of truly original dissertation projects and for many impressive books and articles. We are dealing here with one of the most promising and fruitful areas of research in Western intellectual history59.

59. This paper represents the revised text of the presidential address that I delivered to the Fourteenth Annual Conference of the Texas Medieval Association, University of Dallas, September 17- 18, 2004. I am grateful to Marcia Colish and Russell Friedman for comments that have helped me improve the paper.

Projets et publications scientifiques du:

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PUBLICATIONS: A.Ph. SEGONDS et C. STEEL (edd.), Proclus et la theologie platonicienne. Actes du Colloque Inter­national de Louvain (13-16 mai 1998). En l'honneur de HD. Sajfrey et LG. Wester/ink (f), Leuven-Paris 2000. S. PERFETII, Aristotle's zoology and its Renaissance Commentators (1521-1601), Leuven 2000. Averroes. La beatitude de l ame. Editions, traductions et etudes par M. GEOFFROY et c. STEEL, Paris 2001. HENRI CVS BATE, Speculum divinorum et quorundam naturalium. Parts XIII-XVI: On Thinking and Happiness (ed. G . GULDENTOPS, Leuven 2002). G. GuLDENTOPS, C. STEEL (edd.), Henry of Ghent and the Transformation of Scholastic Thought. Studies in Memory of jos Decorte, Leuven 2003. PETER OF AUVERGNE, Questions on Aristotle's De Caelo. A Critical Edition with an Interpreta­tive Essay (ed. G. GALLE, Leuven 2003). G. VAN RIEL, C. MACE and L. VANCAM P£ (edd.), Platonic Ideas and Concept Formation in Ancient and Medieval Thought, Leuven 2004. HENRICUS DE GANDAVO, Summa (Quaestiones ordinariae) art. I-IV (ed. G .A. WILSON, Opera omnia 21, Leuven 2005).

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PUBLICATIONS: J.A. AERTSEN et al. (edd.), Nach der Verurteilung von 1277. Philosophie und Theologie an der Universitat von Paris im letzten Viertel des 13. jahrhunderts (Miscellanea Mediaevalia 28), Berlin-New York 2001. ].A. AERTSEN et M . PICKAVE (edd.), Ende und Vollendung. Eschatologische Perspektiven im Mittelalter (Miscellanea Mediaevalia 29), Berlin-New York 2002. M. PICKAVE (ed.), Die Logik des Transzendentalen. Festschrift for Jan A . Aertsen (Miscellanea Mediaevalia 30), Berlin-New York 2003. ].A. AERTSEN et M. PICKAVE (edd.), «Herbst des Mittelaltem>? Fragen zur Bewertung des 14. und 15. jahrhunderts (Miscellanea Mediaevalia 31), Berlin - New York 2004. A. SPEER et G. BINDING (edd.), Abt Suger von Saint-Denis Ausgewahlte Schriften: Ordinatio, De consecratione, De administratione, Darmstadt 2005.

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