la lingua inglese delle istituzioni europee: standardizzazione, armonizzazione o approssimazione?

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In copertina: BRUEGHEL P., 1563, La Grande Torre di Babele, Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum.

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LINDA BARONE

La lingua inglese delle istituzioni europee: standardizzazione, armonizzazione o

approssimazione?

Presentazione di Bruna Di Sabato e Gianfranco Porcelli

Laveglia editore

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2005 by Pietro Laveglia Editore s.a.s. casella postale 207 - 84100 Salerno

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A Matteo con amore Ai miei genitori con affetto e gratitudine

A mia sorella Mariagrazia A mio fratello Angelo e alla sua bella famiglia

A chiunque si senta vicino a me

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Ringraziamenti A Bruna Di Sabato, competente, forte, sensibile, che è stata la mia guida e mi ha sostenuta e soccorsa in diverse occasioni mostrandosi sempre disponibile e mettendo a mia disposizione la sua profonda conoscenza dei temi da me trattati in questo lavoro. A Gianfranco Porcelli, presenza costante e paziente, che con i suoi pregiati suggerimenti ha concorso alla realizzazione e alla sistemazione del mio lavoro. A tutti coloro che, anche con una semplice parola o uno sguardo, mi hanno incoraggiata e confortata sempre.

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PRESENTAZIONE

L’attuale utilizzo della lingua inglese in contesti non di lingua madre e, in particolare, in contesti professionali è al centro di molte indagini e ricerche promosse dal Dipartimento di Studi Linguistici e Letterari dell’Università degli Studi di Salerno.

Il ruolo della lingua inglese in Europa e le possibili interferenze tra la prima e le altre lingue europee sono l’oggetto della ricerca “La comunicazione linguistica nell’Europa del futuro”.

Linda Barone, assegnista presso il Dipartimento ora menzionato, ha condotto con entusiasmo e dedizione un lavoro di raccolta e di analisi dei dati, concentrandosi in particolare sull’inglese ‘europeo’ a livello istituzionale. Si tratta di un approccio data-driven ed è pertanto partita isolando il campo di indagine, per poi passare alla creazione di un corpus di un milione di occorrenze e circa 28.000 tipi e procedere infine alla disamina dello stesso, onde trarre delle conclusioni che possano chiarire un po’ meglio analogie e discrepanze tra l’inglese britannico e l’inglese utilizzato all’interno dell’Unione.

Linda Barone ha individuato nei comunicati stampa ufficiali dell’Unione Europea un tipo di testo particolarmente adatto a fornire dati utili alla ricerca scelta: questi sono infatti scritti da addetti stampa non necessariamente di madrelingua inglese e contengono una terminologia e delle caratteristiche sintattiche evidentemente peculiari di un certo genere testuale ma ancor più peculiari del tipo di linguaggio utilizzato a livello istituzionale in un contesto multilingue.

Ecco allora che un’analisi attenta del corpus ha portato all’individuazione di una serie di costanti che si sono rivelate significative per numero di occorrenze, e quindi degne di essere menzionate.

Ne è risultato un saggio di gradevole lettura che rivela occorrenze interessanti e anche inaspettate, per esempio nella presenza di latinismi o di figure retoriche. Il cuore del lavoro è rappresentato dalla presentazione e dal commento delle rilevazioni.

Una serie di dati utili sulla politica linguistica dell’Unione e sul funzionamento del servizio linguistico interno a quest’ultima vengono forniti nei capitoli iniziali.

Il libro è completato da una molto ampia serie di appendici che raccolgono schede di concordanze e documenti scorporati dal testo per non appesantire il lavoro ma significativi dell’accurato lavoro di documentazione e di raccolta dati.

L’autrice ha intenzione di proseguire in questa sua ricerca sull’inglese istituzionale con la formazione di un corpus analogo di inglese britannico per effettuare poi un raffronto tra i due tipi di lingua.

Gianfranco Porcelli

Bruna Di Sabato

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INTRODUZIONE

[1]Tutta la terra aveva una sola lingua e le stesse parole. [2]Emigrando dall'oriente gli uomini capitarono in una pianura nel paese di Sennaar e vi si stabilirono. [3]Si dissero l'un l'altro: «Venite, facciamoci mattoni e cuociamoli al fuoco». Il mattone servì loro da pietra e il bitume da cemento. [4]Poi dissero: «Venite, costruiamoci una città e una torre, la cui cima tocchi il cielo e facciamoci un nome, per non disperderci su tutta la terra». [5]Ma il Signore scese a vedere la città e la torre che gli uomini stavano costruendo. [6]Il Signore disse: «Ecco, essi sono un solo popolo e hanno tutti una lingua sola; questo è l'inizio della loro opera e ora quanto avranno in progetto di fare non sarà loro impossibile. [7]Scendiamo dunque e confondiamo la loro lingua, perché non comprendano più l'uno la lingua dell'altro». [8]Il Signore li disperse di là su tutta la terra ed essi cessarono di costruire la città. [9]Per questo la si chiamò Babele, perché là il Signore confuse la lingua di tutta la terra e di là il Signore li disperse su tutta la terra. (Genesi, capitolo 11, La Torre di Babele)

Questi antichi versi della Genesi potrebbero contenere un messaggio attuale.

Se da un lato il mondo sembra volere fortemente un mezzo di comunicazione globale, ruolo che spetta di diritto alla lingua inglese oggi, dall’altro pare che questo processo venga a volte rallentato in alcuni settori che, pur adeguandosi all’uso di uno strumento di comunicazione comune, lo rendono poco intelligibile forse per prevenire la catastrofe paventata da Dio nell’Antico Testamento: se le persone di tutto il mondo avessero una lingua comune, cosa le fermerebbe dal sollevarsi in massa compatta contro disastri, distruzioni, dolori causati da errate decisioni? Esagerazioni e facezie a parte, resta vero però che in alcuni ambiti la lingua usata pare, secondo l’opinione di tanti, risultare a volte misteriosa, appesantita, resa di difficile comprensione di proposito perché non si desidera che le persone abbiano una cognizione/conoscenza esatta di ciò che avviene o semplicemente perché ciò che si comunica non ha molto senso. Il mondo delle comunicazioni istituzionali internazionali ne è un esempio lampante (di cui si discuterà diffusamente più avanti, riferendoci in particolare all’uso della lingua inglese nell’Unione Europea) e tanti altri mondi, di cui non ci occuperemo in questa sede, ne sono affetti…

Perché l’inglese è la lingua straniera più appresa, insegnata, ambita? Perché è divenuta negli anni così potente da essere ovunque nel mondo la prima lingua richiesta, e quasi sempre la lingua dei lavori, in tutti i settori professionali, negli scambi internazionali, nella ricerca a tutti i livelli, nel mondo accademico?

Oggi ci si chiede perché e come sia avvenuta questa ‘colonizzazione’ linguistica da parte dell’inglese e diverse sono le risposte possibili tra le quali le

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più frequenti imputano tale processo al potere dell’impero britannico nel passato, al potere economico degli Stati Uniti nel presente, ma anche e semplicemente alla struttura di questa lingua da molti (erroneamente) ritenuta ‘facile’ da apprendere. David Crystal1 individua ben sette motivi per i quali la lingua inglese ha acquisito uno status speciale in tutto il mondo: ragioni storiche dovute all’imperialismo britannico e statunitense; ragioni politiche interne per cui l’inglese è diventato “a neutral means of communication between its different ethnic groups”; ragioni economiche esterne dovute alla posizione economica dominante degli Stati Uniti; ragioni pratiche poiché l’inglese è la lingua ufficiale del controllo del traffico aereo internazionale ed è la lingua più utilizzata nelle conferenze accademiche, nel turismo e nel mondo del lavoro a livello planetario; ragioni intellettuali (che secoli fa potevano riferirsi al predominio della lingua latina) dal momento che la maggior parte delle comunicazioni / informazioni tecnologiche, accademiche, scientifiche sono diffuse in inglese e “over 80 per cent of all the information stored in electronic retrieval systems is in English”; Crystal individua poi ragioni legate all’intrattenimento, l’egemonia della musica pop britannica e statunitense, la pubblicità sempre più spesso in inglese, la diffusione dei sistemi satellitari, il mondo dei personal computer e dei videogiochi; infine lo studioso identifica anche delle ragioni erronee legate al pensiero di molti che la lingua inglese sia più bella, più facile da pronunciare, più semplice nelle strutture grammaticali e che permetta una più ampia scelta lessicale e conclude scrivendo:

this kind of reasoning is the consequence of unthinking chauvinism or naive linguistic thinking; there are no objective standards of logic or beauty to compare different languages and questions of phonetic, grammatical or lexical complexity are never capable of simple answers. Oggi questa supremazia è una realtà, ma ieri era addirittura impensabile se

Richard Mulcaster2, insegnante, pedagogista e primo preside della Scuola Merchant – Taylor, nel 1582 scriveva che “the English tongue is of small reach, stretching no further than this island of ours, nay not there over all” e se, in tempi relativamente più recenti, Edward Sapir3 sosteneva che “the English language itself is spreading because the English have colonized immense territories. But there is nothing to show that it is anywhere entering into the lexical heart of other languages”.

1 Crystal D., 1995, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, p. 106 2 Jespersen O., 1945, Growth and Structure of the English Language, Oxford, Blackwell, p. 232 3 Sapir E., 1921, Language, New York, Harcourt Brace & Co., p.207

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Capitolo primo

1.1 Il mondo (in generale)

Il lungo cammino della lingua inglese nella storia è una chiave per capire come questa lingua, nata nel continente europeo si sia poi diffusa e affermata così tanto da divenire, soprattutto a partire dal secolo scorso, la lingua delle comunicazioni internazionali. Qual è la relazione che oggi lega l’inglese all’Europa e quale tipo di inglese viene effettivamente considerato come lingua franca4 in Europa, in particolare nell’ambito istituzionale? l’inglese britannico, l’inglese americano, una miscela di entrambi, o in realtà diversi tipi di inglese legati, ad esempio, alla provenienza dei parlanti non-nativi? Se, come spesso si pensa, globalizzazione è sinonimo di americanizzazione5 nel modo di pensare, negli stili di vita, è possibile ritenere che anche all’interno dell’Unione Europea, la lingua dei lavori non sia in realtà affatto europea?

La lingua inglese ha incontrato, sul suo lungo cammino, innumerevoli lingue con le quali è entrata in contatto e questi idiomi hanno tutti concorso alla formazione dell’inglese di oggi e ciò potrebbe essere già una valida spiegazione, non l’unica naturalmente, del perché la lingua inglese sia così di peso nel nostro tempo.

Qui si può anche cogliere uno dei fattori della diffusione dell’inglese, idioma proteiforme: nel suo lessico sono ben rappresentate le lingue classiche, fondamento culturale dell’Occidente; ed è attraverso l’inglese che il latino continua a rifornire di termini tecnici un gran numero di lingue del mondo moderno.6

1.2 Inglese lingua globale

“Una lingua strettamente universale, qualunque ella mai si fosse, dovrebbe certamente essere di necessità e per sua natura, la più schiava, povera, timida, monotona, uniforme, arida e brutta lingua, la più incapace di qualsivoglia genere di bellezza, la più impropria all’immaginazione, […], la più esangue ed

4 La “lingua franca”, nota anche come Sabir, ha avuto origine nel Medio Evo, nei porti del Mediterraneo, tra commercianti provenienti da diversi background linguistici. L’unico modo per comunicare fu quello di usare un patchwork comune con parti di italiano miste a greco, francese, spagnolo e arabo. 5 Si pensi che già nel 1912 G. B. Shaw scriveva: “What has been happening in my lifetime is the Amricanization of the world”. (In Holroyd M., 1997, Bernard Shaw. The one-volume definitive edition, London, Chatto & Windus, p. 660) 6 Hagège C., 1995, Storie e destini delle lingue d’Europa, Firenze, La Nuova Italia, p. 28

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inanimata e morta, che mai si possa concepire; uno scheletro, un’ombra di lingua […] non viva, quando pur fosse da tutti scritta e universalmente intesa, anzi più morta assai di qualsivoglia lingua che più non si parli né scriva.” Giacomo Leopardi, Zibaldone – 1831

La comunicazione a livello planetario è oggi una realtà, non solo perché si ha la possibilità di trasmettere e ricevere messaggi in tempi molto brevi grazie ai continui avanzamenti tecnologici, ma perché la lingua usata è quasi ovunque la stessa. L’inglese, da prima e seconda lingua di tanti paesi, è divenuta lingua internazionale, globale, franca o in definitiva, come suggerisce Tom McArthur, “the universalizing language of the human race”7. Per definire con esattezza i significati delle varie ‘etichette’ attribuite all’inglese è bene citare ancora lo stesso McArthur che descrive i tre label comunemente affiancati alla lingua inglese:

The first of these is world English (with or without a capital W and perhaps first used in the 1920s) which covers every kind of usage and user. It takes in everything from the most polished diplomatic, academic and media practice to the broadest of vernaculars and the most fractured of foreignisms. The second is international English (with or without a capital I) which, depending on context, covers both standard English (with or without capital S) worldwide and the kind of common-denominator business English (with or without a capital B) used by natives with non-natives and by non-natives with one-another. The third and most recent is global English (usually with a small g) which runs parallel with economic globalization. It has an MBA quality about it: the medium (and part maybe of the message) of a fast-moving deal-making globe-girdling élite8.

McArthur prosegue precisando anche il significato di un’altra espressione usata per l’inglese, ossia lingua franca che assume oggi un valore diverso da quello che aveva in passato, poiché tradizionalmente una lingua franca era uno strumento rough-and-ready di poco valore usato all’occorrenza da parlanti non nativi mentre oggi il senso è mutato notevolmente perché sta ad indicare una lingua ‘alta’ pienamente sviluppata che serve da mezzo di comunicazione tra parlanti non nativi.

1.3 Lingua globale, cultura globale?

I motivi per i quali proprio l’inglese è diventato la lingua passepartout nel mondo sono già stati menzionati in apertura, ma, assodati i perché, restano da

7 McArthur T., 2002, The Oxford Guide to World English, Oxford, Oxford University Press, p. 2. 8 McArthur T., op. cit., p.2

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chiarire alcuni punti relativi alla diffusione dell’inglese. Cercheremo di rispondere a domande del tipo: la lingua inglese è una minaccia per gli altri e per sé? Oltre a permetterci di comunicare con tutto il mondo essa influenza anche il nostro modo di vedere il mondo? Conoscere una lingua ed usarla sempre più spesso, può influire sulla nostra cultura?

Navigando in rete alla ricerca di riferimenti bibliografici, informazioni, materiali connessi alla questione global English (con la g minuscola, come insegna McArthur) ci si rende conto che non soltanto gli specialisti sono interessati al tema, ma che esistono tante iniziative rivolte alla gente comune cui viene richiesto un parere sulla posizione dell’inglese nel mondo. E’ chiaro che la gente comune e gli esperti hanno un approccio diverso alla questione dibattuta, ma le opinioni, i timori, le previsioni di tutti, specialisti e non, hanno un valore enorme perché fanno riflettere e possono aiutare a trovare risposte. Tra le numerose iniziative in cui ci si è imbattuti, due sono sembrate degne di nota e verranno illustrate qui di seguito.

La prima è un’esperienza di chat con un esperto di lingua inglese globale e la seconda è un’iniziativa della BBC News.

http://wordsmith.org è un sito che organizza delle discussioni on line ospitando personaggi legati a particolari ambiti di ricerca e studio. Chiunque lo desideri, può partecipare iscrivendosi alla chat che più interessa e discutere, chiedere informazioni, confrontarsi, su diversi temi, con esperti. Il 26 febbraio 2001 il tema scelto è stato English as a Global Language e l’ospite d’onore, David Crystal, si è impegnato a rispondere a domande poste da persone di tutto il mondo desiderose di saperne qualcosa in più sulla globalizzazione della lingua inglese e argomenti affini. Ecco alcuni stralci di questa interessante conversazione on line.

Gillian Scotland Hello David. Do you think the globalization of English diminishes language as a 'cultural tool'? David Crystal (Guest Speaker) Hi, Gillian. Yes and no. On the one hand, the impact of English on other languages has been pretty disastrous in places - like all major languages which have travelled around the world. On the other hand, as we see English spreading, we see it beginning to reflect local cultural practices. When people adopt English they immediately adapt it. So there is a case for saying that cultural variation is being maintained, but in new ways. pasargada usa English is the new universal Lingua Franca. Isn't that an awesome burden? David Crystal (Guest Speaker) Absolutely. And there are no real precedents to go on. We just don't know what happens to a language when it is spoken by so many people in so many places. A

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quarter of the world's population use English now. On the other hand, that means the burden is shared, to some extent. No-one 'owns' English now. What happens to it is on the shoulders of all of us. sooz David, what do you feel is the success/impact of groups like France's Academie Francaise which struggles mightily to keep out mutations to French from English influence? David Crystal (Guest Speaker) Very limited, I feel. Academies can never control a language. All they can do is identify trends and set up distinctions which people may then follow if they wish. A limited legal influence is sometimes possible - banning the occasional word, and so on. But the silliness of it is well illustrated by the fact that many of the words which the French are currently trying to ban are words that actually came from French into English in the first place!! English has borrowed tends of thousands of words from French over the centuries. And a word like computer, which the Academy does not like, is not an Anglo-Saxon word - it is from Latin. majika What do you think about the trend of accepting faults of international English? David Crystal (Guest Speaker) Depends what you mean by a fault. When English settles in a new part of the world, local people adapt it, and may speak it with errors. Some of these errors then come to be used by everyone, including the most influential people in the country. At that point, even the native speakers in that country start using those 'errors' - and they cease to be errors anymore. For instance, 'gotten' was thought of as an error a long time ago - but not any more. And when I was in Egypt last year, I found everyone said 'Welcome in Egypt' - a usage which is now recognised in one of the English grammars published there. I would be cautious about accepting a change until there is clear evidence that it is really widespread - including its arrival in the written language. But such changes will always happen. Atnes - Slovenia Professor Crystal, do you think that a 'lingua franca' of such an impact as is the case with English today can seriously threaten languages of limited diffusion - languages spoken by a relatively small number of people? David Crystal (Guest Speaker) Yes - this has already happened in Australia and North America, where most of the indigenous languages have gone down under the English steamroller. But it isn't just English. In South America, Spanish and Portuguese have been the steamrollers. Any powerful language is a danger. Which is why smaller languages need our respect and often protection.

La seconda esperienza che si vuole qui riportare risale sempre al 2001: la

BBC News, in uno dei suoi talking points9 pone all’attenzione di tutti una

9 Per Talking point si intende un programma radiofonico della BBC World Service Radio che è in contatto telefonico con chiunque volesse partecipare ai dibattiti, anche proposto in modalità online dalla BBC News Online che è la nostra fonte.

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domanda: Should Europe speak English? Dopo una breve introduzione all’argomento con cenni al ruolo oggi dominante dell’inglese nell’Unione Europea che, a partire dagli anni 90, sceglie di redigere la maggior parte dei documenti in inglese e poi tradurli nelle altre lingue, la BBC lancia il quesito: Is English good for Europe?

Come nel caso precedente, si riportano di seguito alcune delle testimonianze considerate più significative.

The official language will not be English, but global English. Local English expressions and slang will not be integrated into the European global English. Whereas most of European people will be able to speak and understand European English, most of English people will find it difficult to understand and to be understood in global English. English people should learn about global English. Thomas, France I find the idea really strange, if not dangerous. From the whole story, it is the English language which will draw enormous advantages and no one else! English as a world language is very widespread and it does not need a new push. The commission should concentrate rather on promoting the linguistic diversity of the EU instead of promoting English! And why English and not French? A lot of the EU bureaucrats speak excellent French. I am totally against this suggestion and I am afraid it can be taken as an alarming sign of the anti-democratic spirit of the EU. Juan de Sades, Cordoba, Spain Well, I always find it quite embarrassing when the cash clerk in Amsterdam can speak three different languages fluently whilst the majority of 'professional' British people can barely order a beer in Dutch, or German, or French - terrible situation. Let's face it, folks, our language ability in the UK is appalling. Garry Brown, Scotland, UK In Brussels, English is widely spoken especially by lobbyists and it tends to be the common language when you get a group of people together from all corners of Europe either socially or in a work environment. But so what? If you take the time to learn other languages, this whole debate is irrelevant. Incidentally, much of the English spoken on the 'Continent' is of the American style, we Brits may not like that, but c'est la vie! Nolan Quigley, Belgium (from UK) Language is the great divider of people on this planet. If we wish be as one then we need to speak as one. George Hamilton, Virginia Beach, VA One thing you haven't discussed yet in your programme on the English language is the effect of the globalisation of English on the viability of other languages. We need to think of ways of helping smaller indigenous languages to survive before they reach the point of disappearing. One reason to try and preserve languages is that language and culture are closely related, and it would be a great pity if these cultures were lost for ever. David, St. Petersburg, Russia Equality of all European citizens requires that they have access to all official documents in their own language, even if they have good knowledge of english of as a second language. It may be costly and irritating to have to translate all documents, but it is necessary to realise democratic rights. I'm surprised by the Europhobia of many english contributors, just try to imagine the outcry in

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England if the EU wouldn't translate everything in english. Wim, Brussels, Belgium The reason why English has become the international language is because those in the USA which, like it or not, dominate the world in business and culture can not speak a second language. This is a product of chauvinism, geographic isolation, and an education system that does not strongly promote the learning of different tongues by its youth. Dr. Russell Trahan, USA Being active myself within a European political youth organisation, I have first hand experience of what English monolingualism for Europe could mean: the end of British or Irish English as we know it and the grand emergence of Euro-English. In our meetings it's the British who often have difficulty expressing themselves and being understood by the other - non-native - English speakers, as the Brits do this in their mother tongue on a (too high) level which most of the other second language users simply do not understand. Once we may have one working language in the EU, I hope the British and Irish are prepared for this. Daniel, Fryslân, Netherlands Let me clarify exactly what is being proposed: The idea is to cut down on translation of working documents inside the European Commission. EC officials are all multi-lingual, and most of us can work happily on a document in either English or French, without needing a translation. So many documents don't need to be translated at all, and others can be translated only once, when the final draft is agreed. That is how we hope to make savings. However, once a legal text has been approved, people outside the Commission have a right to read it in their own language. That's a basic principle of the EU, and nobody is suggesting it should change. So most translations will still be done as they are today. Likewise, if people write to the Commission in French, German, Danish or Greek, they will continue to get an answer in their own language. The proposed changes would only affect us "eurocrats". Steve Morris, Official Spokesman for Neil Kinnock Pur trovandoci di fronte ad opinioni personali, di ‘non addetti ai lavori’, che

non hanno alcun fondamento scientifico, si deve riconoscere ad una parte di questi interventi una certa corrispondenza con quanto si legge in tanti testi che sono considerati ‘scientifici’ a tutti gli effetti. Sono tanti gli studiosi che (si) affrontano (su) questi temi, tanti i dibattiti accesi e profondo è il disaccordo su eventuali risposte da dare ai quesiti posti all’inizio di questo paragrafo.

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Alcuni sostengono che la lingua porti inevitabilmente cultura10, altri che l’inglese farà scomparire gli idiomi minori e più ‘deboli’11 (che Manfred Görlach12 definisce ‘underdeveloped languages’), altri ancora, più ottimisti, sostengono che l’inglese sia usato solo per comunicare e che si sia spogliato della cultura e infine c’è chi crede che l’inglese, come il latino, sia destinato al dissolvimento e che da esso si formeranno altre lingue. Corsi e ricorsi? Come se la condanna di Babele tornasse a fare capolino: quando ci si avvicinerà al momento in cui il mondo parrà sul punto di parlare un’unica lingua, allora ecco di nuovo lo sgretolamento e così all’infinito?

Bruna Di Sabato13 riassume i punti appena illustrati: Dietro una lingua dominante si cela un popolo che per motivazioni per lo più militari, politiche o economiche, prima che culturali, detiene una posizione egemonica in un determinato periodo storico. La lingua diviene così uno strumento per esercitare un influsso, per esprimere potere e appartenenza e la cultura trasmessa da questa lingua diviene modello da imitare. Fenomeni del genere comportano l’assorbimento da parte di altri sistemi culturali di innovazioni

10 John Swales descrive l’inglese come un Tyrannosaurus Rex che è libero nel mondo di divorare le lingue e le culture che incontra sul suo cammino. Lo scrittore keniano Ngugi wa Thiong’o ha osservato che l’erosione di una lingua risulta sempre nella perdita di percezione esatta della cultura corrispondente: "Language carries culture, and culture carries . . . the entire body of values by which we perceive ourselves and our place in the world." Swales J., 1997, «English as Tyrannosaurus Rex» in World Englishes n. 16, 373-382 e Ngugi wa Thiong'o, 1986, Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature, London, Heinemann, 15-16.

11 A proposito della ‘debolezza’ o ‘inferiorità’ di alcune lingue, sembra giusto citare un ottimo testo di George Steiner sugli aspetti del linguaggio e della traduzione dove si legge nella prefazione: “Ogni lingua umana traccia una planimetria diversa del mondo. C’è una compensazione vitale nell’estrema complessità grammaticale di quelle lingue parlate da uomini che vivono in contesti materiali e sociali di privazione e di sterilità. Ogni lingua – e non esistono lingue ‘minori’ o ‘inferiori’ – forma una serie di mondi possibili e di geografie della memoria. Sono i tempi del passato, con la loro sconcertante varietà, a costituire la storia… Quando muore una lingua, muore con essa un mondo possibile. In questo non c’è sopravvivenza dei più forti”. L’autore prosegue sostenendo che l’accelerazione della scomparsa di lingue sulla terra è dovuta all’egemonia distruttiva di quelle lingue denominate ‘maggiori’ la cui efficacia è solo una conseguenza della diffusione planetaria del marketing di massa, della tecnocrazia e dei media. Steiner G., 1992, Dopo Babele, Milano, Garzanti. 14-15. 12 Görlach individua alcuni fattori per i quali parole straniere vengono assorbite da una lingua e uno di questi è: “The degree of ausbau (functional range) of the receptor language is important because speakers as well as governmental and educational authorities of an ‘underdeveloped’ language may be tempted to borrow terminologies wholesale from English for reasons of international comprehensibility”. Görlach M., 1994, «A Usage Dictionary of Anglicisms in Selected European Languages», in International Journal of Lexicography, vol. 7, n. 3. 13 Di Sabato B., 2000, Una Lingua in Viaggio, Napoli, Liguori Editore, p. 65

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e stereotipi propri della cultura dominante, così come l’assimilazione dei neologismi e modi di dire, che si tratti dell’influsso del latino sull’inglese durante la dominazione romana o dell’influsso dell’inglese sull’italiano e su altri idiomi europei, in epoca contemporanea. Il parallelismo tra inglese e latino accompagna spesso le riflessioni sul ruolo dell’inglese oggi e spinge di volta in volta a previsioni confortanti o apocalittiche sulla sorte della nuova lingua franca, che potrebbe diffondersi ancor più oppure scomparire seminando parti di sé in una miriade di altre lingue, come capitò al latino in un periodo di massima espansione.

Infatti, se è vero che già oggi esistono differenze significative tra gli inglesi parlati in Gran Bretagna e quelli di altre parti del mondo, e che con il passare del tempo queste differenze possono acuirsi, allora si può ipotizzare che in futuro tali varietà siano così distanti dall’idioma d’origine che non potranno essere più considerate figlie della stessa lingua. Laurie Bauer14, scrive a questo proposito:

If we look back into European history, we have an apparent precedent in the case of Latin. Latin changed so much in the course of a millennium that it was no longer called ‘Latin’ in the places where it was used, and the various ‘dialects’ of Latin became so different that speakers of one could not understand speakers of another. Today we don’t talk about people speaking modern Latin in Europe, but about them speaking French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian and so on. Perhaps in another few hundred years, we will similarly say that people talk ‘American’, ‘Australian’ and ‘South African’ instead of saying that they talk English.

La studiosa prosegue affermando che tale destino sembra inevitabile poiché, se lasciate a sé stesse, le varietà di qualsiasi lingua, con il passare del tempo, tendono a divergere e mai a convergere e, andando nello specifico di alcune differenze, Bauer porta come esempio le vocali dell’inglese americano, che, soprattutto in città come Detroit a causa del cosiddetto “northern cities shift”, sono pronunciate in un modo molto diverso rispetto al passato: “the vowel in bat has become closer that the vowel in bet (and thus rather more like the vowel in bit) in the course of a single generation”.

Per concludere la sezione dedicata all’inglese lingua globale, si riporta il pensiero di un altro eminente studioso che ha una diversa opinione sia sull’inglese come lingua che assolve ai bisogni comunicativi mondiali sia sul destino che la attende. Henry Widdowson15 sostiene, infatti, che una lingua che

14 Bauer L., 2002, An Introduction to International Varieties of English, Edimburgo, Edinburgh University Press, p. 100. 15 Widdowson H., 1993, «Who Owns English Today?», citato in Jenkins J., 2003, World Englishes. A resource book for students, London, Routledge, p. 168.

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serva da strumento di comunicazione tra diversi paesi, debba per forza di cose essere diversa e indipendente dall’idea di standard o meglio l’uso che se ne fa a livello mondiale la renderà naturalmente standardizzata, sarà una varietà distinta che, proprio per questo, non rischierà di frammentarsi in tante altre varietà mutuamente inintelligibili.

As soon as you accept that English serves the communicative and communal needs of different communities, it follows logically that it must be diverse. An international language has to be an independent language. It does not follow, logically, however, that the language will disperse into mutually unintelligible varieties. For it will naturally stabilise into a standard form to the extent required to meet the needs of the communities concerned. Thus it is clearly vital to the interests of the international communities of, for example, scientists or business people, whatever their primary language, that they should preserve a common standard of English in order to keep up standards of communicative effectiveness.

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Capitolo secondo

2.1 L’Europa (in particolare)

In seguito al recente allargamento, l’Unione Europea è costituita da 25 Stati ed ha 20 lingue ufficiali, tutte con gli stessi diritti e tutte considerate lingue di lavoro. Le lingue in questione sono: ceco, danese, estone, finlandese, francese, greco, inglese, italiano, lettone, lituano, maltese, olandese, polacco, portoghese, slovacco, sloveno, spagnolo, svedese, tedesco e ungherese.

Tutte le lingue hanno pari dignità e valore da un punto di vista culturale è la premessa fatta in apertura dell’anno europeo delle lingue nel 2001 e i messaggi principali comunicati possono essere riassunti nei seguenti punti:

L’Europa è, e sarà sempre, multilingue; L’apprendimento delle lingue è foriero di opportunità di lavoro per i cittadini; Tutti possono apprendere una o più lingue straniere. L’impegno di diffondere l’abitudine a studiare le lingue è dunque legato in

particolare alle opportunità che esse offrono, ma, proprio per questo, pur sostenendo che tutti gli idiomi sono uguali, si ha la netta impressione, o meglio la certezza, che alcuni siano più uguali di altri, e questo è normale se si ragiona in termini occupazionali a livello internazionale. Quella che segue è una tabella, che si può leggere nel sito ufficiale dell’Unione Europea, relativa ad uno studio effettuato sulle lingue d’Europa16. Le "due" lingue più utili da conoscere Alla domanda di quale lingua considerino essere la più utile al di là della loro lingua madre, la maggior parte delle persone ha risposto l'inglese. Seguono il francese e il tedesco.

16 Lo studio sulle lingue d’Europa si può consultare al sito: http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/lang/languages/index_it.html

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I quesiti che qui si vogliono porre sono i seguenti: 1) considerando che in Europa e nel mondo la lingua più importante da

conoscere ed essenziale per comunicare soprattutto in contesti lavorativi internazionali è la lingua inglese, pur considerando le altre lingue pari in importanza e valore, non sarebbe il caso di usare l’inglese come lingua di lavoro dell’UE, come strumento unico di scambio sopranazionale ed internazionale se lo si spoglia di qualsiasi implicazione culturale?

2) Cosi facendo non si risparmierebbero somme enormi che ora sono impiegate per sostenere la mole immensa di lavoro di traduttori ed interpreti?

3) Ma, d’altro canto, i cittadini europei non hanno il diritto di leggere normative e documenti ufficiali dell’UE nella propria lingua madre?

4) La convivenza di tutte le lingue comunitarie non potrebbe causare problemi di comunicazione, dovuti ad imprecisioni di carattere traduttivo?

5) Rispettare ed usare le venti lingue dell’UE non potrebbe risultare in una approssimazione linguistica causata da banche dati terminologiche e formule standardizzate che rischiano di appiattire gli idiomi rendendoli meri strumenti di comunicazione istituzionale senza anima?

E per concludere e tornare al punto di partenza: 6) Se le lingue usate si impoveriscono perdendo i propri caratteri distintivi,

non converrebbe usarle solo per i documenti più importanti lasciando all’inglese, lingua già globalizzata e spersonalizzata, gli altri ingrati compiti?

Accesi sono i dibattiti su questi punti e diverse le scuole di pensiero.

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Un interessante sito Web interamente dedicato al futuro delle lingue in Europa17 e che contiene diversi ed utili rimandi ad altri siti sullo stesso argomento, esordisce con le seguenti considerazioni:

Language policy ideals are usually associated with geopolitical visions. Nationalists support national languages, regionalists in Europe support regional languages, supporters of a cosmopolitan ethic often hope for a universal language. The desired language future corresponds to the desired geopolitical future. In Europe, there is an emerging division of language futures: - neo-Atlanticists support English as European language of contact - defensive national language activists seek a limited multilingualism, of national languages - regionalists and separatists want all languages to get equal status, with hundreds of official languages in Europe - technological optimists believe full automatic translation will be available "soon", so the political issues will disappear Two other positions have less impact. Traditional defensive linguistic nationalism, to defend one language in one country only, has almost disappeared, although it is still popular with anti-immigrant parties. And there is almost no support for a new artificial language (either neo-Latin or neo-Germanic), or for a revival of Latin or Greek. Some fundamental attitudes can be traced in most language policy debates, regardless of which specific languages are at issue... "the multiplicity of languages is an evil, and a source of conflict. It should be overcome by a universal language, or at least a global auxiliary language" "linguistic standardisation in modernity is inhuman and evil, like Newspeak in Orwell's 1984" "diversity of languages is a value in itself, similar to biodiversity" "each language has value in itself, and it should be preserved, perhaps like a work of art" "languages are essential to peoples and nations. Language is related to identity, culture, and memory. Language erosion is cultural genocide" "one specific language is superior to all others because it expresses truth, or value, or the Word of God. It should become universal, perhaps for religious purposes only" "one specific language is associated with a superior political philosophy, or social system. It should become the universal language" "a universal or near-universal language, which existed in the past, should be restored"

17 Language Futures Europe, sito curato da Paul Treanor, è consultabile all’indirizzo http://web.inter.nl.net/users/Paul. Treanor/eulang.html . L’URL raccoglie un elevato numero di link che rimandano a siti sul multilinguismo, sulle politiche linguistiche europee, sulla lingua globale e il dominio della lingua inglese. L’ultimo aggiornamento risale a febbraio 2004.

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Qual è la posizione migliore se esiste? Quella che qui si sostiene è che, a prescindere da eventuali scelte di ‘elevare’ una lingua piuttosto che un’altra a lingua unica ed ufficiale dell’Unione Europea o ‘elevare’ tutte le lingue in modo equo, è che qualsiasi decisione si prenda deve preservare la bellezza, l’eleganza e l’originalità (nel senso di singolarità) di qualsiasi idioma perché ci sembra che cercando di accontentare tutti si corra il rischio di trasformare tutte le lingue in un unico orribile orwelliano Newspeak.

2.2 La lingua inglese nell’Unione Europea

All’interno dell’Europa, le politiche linguistiche e il ruolo della lingua inglese variano di nazione in nazione acquisendo significati e caratteristiche diversi a seconda di circostanze storiche, socio-politiche e composizione demografica, ma ciò che sembra unire tutti i paesi dell’Unione Europea è uno sforzo verso il multilinguismo, inteso anche come apprendimento di lingue diverse dall’inglese. Questo impegno è testimoniato ad esempio dai vari programmi esistenti e organizzati dalla Commissione Europea, dal Consiglio d’Europa e dal Consiglio per la Cooperazione Culturale, quali Erasmus, Lingua, Eurydice, Petra, Mercator, Arion che prevedono periodi di soggiorno nei diversi Stati membri per motivi di studio, di specializzazione o di tirocinio professionale. Tali iniziative hanno come scopo quello di favorire la comunicazione e migliorare l’integrazione tra i diversi Stati rendendo più semplice la mobilità professionale una volta acquisita un’alta competenza nella lingua del paese ospitante. Ma quello che spesso accade è che, per comunicare in paesi stranieri, molti ricorrono alla lingua inglese e questo potrebbe in qualche modo frenare se non bloccare il suddetto processo. Tuttavia quello che si vuole qui sottolineare, al di là dei risultati, è che l’Europa vuole essere una ‘comunità’, vuole tendere alla collaborazione, alla partecipazione, al rispetto di culture e lingue e di conseguenza, qualsiasi idea di dominio da parte di una lingua – cultura, risulterebbe completamente estranea alle politiche europee.

Il ruolo della lingua inglese in Europa ha subito un’evoluzione marcata in un arco di tempo abbastanza ristretto. Probabilmente è negli ultimi venti anni che l’inglese è diventata la lingua più appresa nelle scuole europee a discapito del francese che precedentemente ricopriva il ruolo di prima lingua europea sia in ambito scolastico che in ambito istituzionale. Si è già discusso sul perché l’inglese sia diventato la lingua franca delle comunicazioni mondiali, ma quali sono esattamente la sua presenza, la sua forza e la sua diffusione in Europa?

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Sin dalla fine della Seconda Guerra Mondiale quasi tutti gli europei hanno avuto l’opportunità di studiare una lingua straniera a scuola e con il passare del tempo tutte le istituzioni scolastiche si sono attrezzate per fare in modo che più lingue potessero essere apprese da ogni studente. Quasi in modo naturale negli ultimi venti anni la prima lingua insegnata è divenuta l’inglese per motivi legati alla sua spendibilità nel mercato del lavoro a livello locale, nazionale ed internazionale.

There is evidently a growing demand for English in Europe, and this demand is being met in various ways. For a relatively small but significant and influential minority of Europeans who are finding the habitual use of English either necessary or potentially necessary, bilingualism (or multilingualism) is becoming a fact of life. … The irony is that the language that has acquired such wide currency is the tongue which originated in what is now Europe’s most reluctant, and linguistically least adventurous, member18.

Secondo uno studio sulle lingue d’Europa effettuato dalla divisione Education and Training dell’Unione Europea, aggiornato al novembre 2004, la lingua più insegnata negli Stati membri è l’inglese, seguito quasi sempre dal francese. Si è accertato che l’89 % degli alunni studia l’inglese e il 32 % studia il francese, mentre il tedesco e lo spagnolo seguono con percentuali rispettivamente del 18 % e dell’8 %. Inoltre i paesi nei quali l’inglese è la lingua più appresa sono la Danimarca, la Germania, la Francia, la Finlandia, l’Austria, la Spagna, la Svezia e i Paesi Bassi.

E’ chiaro che, poiché l’inglese è la lingua maggiormente studiata e usata in Europa, la Gran Bretagna sia facilitata negli scambi internazionali, ma questo non giustifica la pigrizia verso le lingue da parte dei britannici che risultano essere gli europei che conoscono meno le lingue come risulta dalla tabella che segue19.

18 Hoffmann C., 2000, «The Spread of English and the Growth of Multilingualism with English in Europe» in Cenoz J., Jessner U., English in Europe: The Acquisition of a Third Language, Multilingual Matters Ltd., p. 20.

19 La tabella mostrata è estratta dal sito sopra menzionato. Alla fine del prospetto si trovano le seguenti considerazioni: “Nei Paesi Bassi, in Danimarca (77%) e in Svezia (75%) circa 3 persone su 4 hanno una conoscenza dell'inglese sufficiente per poter sostenere una conversazione. In Lussemburgo si è più portati a parlare il francese, con l'86% della popolazione che lo conosce abbastanza bene per poter partecipare ad una conversazione, percentuale che in Belgio scende al 38%. In entrambi i paesi il francese è una delle lingue ufficiali. In Lussemburgo il 77% delle persone che non si considerano di madrelingua tedesca sono in grado di sostenere una conversazione in tedesco. Altri paesi dove il tedesco è molto diffuso sono i Paesi Bassi (59%) e la Danimarca (49%). Rispetto al 1990, la percentuale delle persone che hanno una conoscenza dell'inglese sufficiente per poter

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2.3 Politica linguistica dell’Unione Europea

Nel 2003 la Commissione Europea ha varato un Piano d’Azione20 per le lingue con lo scopo di migliorare l’apprendimento linguistico e salvaguardare la

sostenere una conversazione è aumentata nella maggior parte degli Stati membri. Gli incrementi più marcati si rilevano nei Paesi Bassi (+15%), in Grecia (+13%), Belgio, Danimarca e Italia (+9%)”.

20 Per leggere l’intero testo del Piano d’Azione consultare la pagina Internet http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/doc/official/keydoc/actlang/act_lang_en.pdf

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diversità linguistica e culturale. Negli anni passati, tante sono state le iniziative in questa direzione intraprese dalle istituzioni europee che hanno sempre avvertito l’urgenza e l’importanza di mettere le lingue in primo piano sia in termini di apprendimento che in termini di protezione nei confronti di tutti gli idiomi. La Costituzione Europea, firmata di recente, recita all’articolo I-5: "The Union shall respect the equality of Member States before the Constitution as well as their national identities..." e questo concetto basilare compare anche nel Trattato di Maastricht del 1992, dove si legge : "The Union shall respect the national identities of its Member States...". Tutte le lingue saranno rispettate, protette ed avranno soprattutto pari dignità ed importanza.

Competitività e consapevolezza reciproca sono i concetti alla base del piano d’azione prima citato, che mira al potenziamento delle strutture educative esistenti in Europa, ma anche ad una uniformazione delle competenze in uscita che permetta ai cittadini della nuova Europa allargata di competere alla pari in casa e fuori casa. Si avverte l’esigenza di migliorare le condizioni esistenti perché in realtà l’Europa è ancora indietro; gli europei dovrebbero sforzarsi ed impegnarsi maggiormente ad apprendere le lingue. L’anno europeo delle lingue (2001) e il consiglio europeo di Barcellona (2002) hanno mostrato la necessità e la voglia di agire. Queste sono le idee introduttive espresse in occasione della presentazione del Piano d’Azione da Viviane Reding, commissario europeo per l’istruzione e la cultura. Ci sembra interessante proporre qualche estratto della presentazione del Piano per capire quali siano le intenzioni dell’Europa rispetto all’insegnamento e apprendimento delle lingue. Ci sembra interessante anche perché si avverte nettamente una disparità di competenze linguistiche in Europa. Sarà mai possibile che i cittadini italiani siano messi nelle condizioni di raggiungere (o anche solo di sfiorare) la competenza dei cittadini danesi per quanto riguarda soprattutto la lingua inglese?

Brussels, 24 luglio 2003:

The resources: existing education and training programmes. The two major Community education and training programmes, Socrates (general education) and Leonardo da Vinci (vocational training), already provide support for language teaching and learning projects to the tune of some EUR 30 million per year. To take an example, the EU provided funding between 2000 and 2002 for more than 16 000 in-service training grants for language teachers. In addition to these two programmes, the Structural Funds and the European Investment Bank likewise provide backing for specific language-related projects. And finally, the Community programme for the audiovisual industry, MEDIA Plus, can also play its part in terms of language learning. (Film subtitles can in themselves be a useful way of learning languages.)

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In other words, in putting the action plan into effect, the important thing is to make more and better use of existing financial resources. Shared objectives for the Member States and the EU For the Member States and for the EU as a whole, various lessons have been learnt from the 2001 European Year of Languages and from the recent public consultation exercise: Language learning is a lifelong activity. Teaching should start as early as possible (even at pre-school level) and quickly cover two languages in addition to the child's mother tongue, and should continue into higher education and adult education. Schools must pay more attention to languages by offering as wide a range of languages as possible, and by adopting a broader approach than just specific lessons devoted to language learning. Recruiting and training language teachers (border regions could usefully cooperate on this matter) are crucial aspects. It is also vital to have access to reliable techniques for assessing language skills. The Commission is in favour of a European indicator for language skills. Europeans must have more opportunities to learn and use their language skills. The range of policies will include schemes to promote all languages, including regional and minority ones, making better use of bilingual or trilingual people's and temporary residents' skills for the good of the community at large, increased use of the Internet for language teaching and learning, more venues for learning languages, and more widespread use of subtitles on television and in the cinema. Measures targeted under the action plan To provide a Community-level response to these objectives, the Commission's action plan makes provision for a range of measures, e.g.: Funding for a study on teaching languages to the very young (publication scheduled for 2005). More use of language assistants, especially in primary schools. Funding for transnational projects on language teaching material for primary schools and pre-school groups. Support for school projects based on a more integrated approach to learning not just the language, but also a particular subject; in other words, taking languages out of the strict language-learning context. Using the EU's Europa website as an Internet information portal for professionals and the general public on the range of training opportunities and the advantages of speaking more than one language. This portal will become operational in 2006. Providing more information for language teachers on European mobility schemes funded by Socrates and Leonardo. Organising a European conference on the recruitment of foreign language teachers in 2006. Support for the publication in 2004 of an updated version of the “Euromosaic” report, which takes stock of regional and minority languages' status in the EU. Work on a European language skills indicator in 2005 and 2006. Introduction, from 2004, of multilingualism as one of the subjects eligible for EU funding under town twinning arrangements.

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Il precedente estratto, dopo una riflessione sulla situazione e sulle risorse presenti, propone in sintesi gli obiettivi relativi al piano di azione per le lingue cui si è fatto cenno in apertura di paragrafo e le misure che si intende adottare per far sì che tali obiettivi siano raggiunti.

2.4 Lingue (e)strane(e): politica di standardizzazione linguistica all’interno della Unione Europea?

Leggendo i diversi documenti relativi alle politiche linguistiche e al multilinguismo, si avverte da un lato una preoccupazione forte di dare spazio e importanza a tutte le lingue dell’UE, ma ciò comporta spese di traduzione molto elevate, se si considera soprattutto l’allargamento recente dell’UE e quello futuro che pare non sia così di là da venire; ne deriva una considerazione fondamentale: il rispetto e la propensione al multilinguismo a tutti i costi potrebbe provocare una standardizzazione linguistica per la quale si adottano un numero finito di strutture / parole già pronte all’uso, facilmente traducibili da una lingua all’altra, magari immagazzinate in un database così da diminuire i costi.

Dare spazio a tutti, dunque, implica impoverire tutti? Ciò che viene effettivamente usato come lingua “sopranazionale”

dell’Unione risulterà un calderone di tutte le lingue nel quale ognuna dà qualcosa, ma allo stesso tempo perde un pezzo della propria identità?

Un altro aspetto da considerare è la percezione che si ha delle lingue in questione dall’esterno. Di che tipo di ‘rispetto’ parliamo se dall’esterno le lingue dell’UE vengono percepite come (e)strane(e), diverse, a volte impenetrabili (persino l’inglese viene percepito dai madrelingua come diverso, distorto da parole nuove o vecchie, ma usate in modo differente).

A questo proposito va fatta una distinzione fondamentale tra ciò che è interno e ciò che è esterno all’Unione Europea. Le campagne linguistiche intraprese fino ad oggi mirano a permettere ai cittadini di raggiungere un grado di competenza linguistica che consenta loro di competere nel mercato del lavoro mondiale; quindi tutte le azioni vanno interpretate come uno sforzo verso l’esterno, ma cosa succede all’interno? Nei procedimenti delle istituzioni europee, nell’uso effettivo che si fa delle lingue all’interno dell’UE esiste lo stesso impegno?

Le venti lingue dell’Unione sono considerate ufficialmente di pari importanza e dignità e infatti qui non si vuole insinuare che esistano delle lingue bistrattate o accantonate, ma si tende a pensare che lo siano tutte perché

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sottoposte al processo di armonizzazione (o approssimazione) che è uno dei cardini dell’UE. I due termini appena citati riassumono quanto detto fino a questo momento: nell’Unione i due sostantivi sono sinonimi, ma sembrano essere contraddittori in quanto armonizzare dà immediatamente l’idea di mettere d’accordo mentre approssimare, pur significando avvicinare, è un verbo ambiguo poiché rimanda anche all’idea di superficialità e imprecisione.

2.5 Servizi linguistici dell’Unione Europea

Per concludere il discorso relativo alla situazione linguistica dell’Unione Europea, si è deciso di fornire dei dati21 sui servizi di traduzione e interpretariato dell’UE per dare un’idea di massima sulla mole di lavoro svolto da traduttori e interpreti.

Quando, negli anni cinquanta, i sei stati fondatori decisero che le lingue ufficiali sarebbero state le rispettive lingue nazionali, il concetto di multilinguismo e protezionismo nei confronti delle lingue comunitarie, sembrava un problema di poco conto e di facile gestione. A distanza di circa cinquanta anni la situazione è mutata radicalmente se si considera che, ad oggi, le lingue ufficiali sono venti e potrebbero aumentare.

L’Unione Europea, con lo scopo di preservare tutti gli idiomi, si è attrezzata negli anni, costruendo il servizio di traduzione ed interpretariato più imponente del mondo.

Ogni istituzione dell’Unione Europea dispone di un servizio di traduzione e interpretariato: il servizio di traduzione della Commissione Europea, il servizio di traduzione del Parlamento Europeo, il servizio di traduzione della Corte di Giustizia, il servizio terminologico del Consiglio dell’Unione Europea e due enti autonomi, il servizio comune interpretazione-conferenze e il centro di traduzione degli organismi dell’Unione Europea, di cui non discuteremo in questa sede.

Il servizio di traduzione della Commissione Europea impiega circa 1250 traduttori, il cui lavoro totalizza circa 1,2 milioni di pagine all’anno relative a proposte di legge, testi normativi da pubblicare nella Gazzetta Ufficiale, relazioni e comunicati stampa. Tutti i testi riguardano ambiti molto differenti ed ogni traduttore è specializzato in un dato numero di settori ed ha la possibilità di consultare banche dati terminologiche ed esperti esterni. Non tutti i documenti della Commissione sono tradotti nelle venti lingue perché ad esempio alcuni 21 Tutti i dati e le informazioni contenuti in questo paragrafo sono reperibili presso il sito ufficiale dell’Unione Europea. In particolare si sono consultate le seguenti pagine: http://europa.eu.int/comm/translation/index_it.htm http://www.europarl.eu.int/trans/career_it.htm. Le pagine consultate risultano aggiornate al mese di novembre 2004.

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testi, in particolare i comunicati stampa, sono disponibili soprattutto in inglese e francese, seguiti dal tedesco e solo alcuni sono tradotti in tutte le lingue comunitarie. E’ importante anche segnalare che circa il 20 % delle traduzioni è affidato a traduttori esterni, la cui qualità è assicurata attraverso procedure concorsuali.

I traduttori impiegati dalla Commissione Europea sono divisi in sei sezioni tematiche: 1. affari giuridici, economici e finanze, concorrenza e informazione; 2. agricoltura, pesca, politica regionale e coesione; 3. relazioni esterne, unione doganale, sviluppo, allargamento e aiuti Umanitari; 4. ricerca, telecomunicazioni, energia, industria, ambiente e trasporti; 5. affari sociali, risorse umane e protezione del consumatore; 6. statistica, mercato interno, politica economica, mercato dell’informazione e innovazione.

Per quanto riguarda il Parlamento Europeo, la situazione organizzativa è simile a quella della Commissione; importante caratteristica che differenzia, però, il Parlamento da tutte le altre isitituzioni europee, è che qui può esistere un assoluto plurilinguismo, in quanto il Parlamento non esige che i suoi membri, eletti dai cittadini dell’Unione, parlino altre lingue oltre la propria ed ognuno ha il diritto di partecipare alle sedute usando la propria lingua madre, come sancisce anche il regolamento del Parlamento Europeo. Da qui l’importanza che assume il servizio di interpretazione di questa istituzione con circa 250 interpreti fissi e con circa 1.000 unità di personale di riserva, da impiegare durante le conferenze.

La situazione presso la Corte di Giustizia dell’Unione Europea prevede che qualsiasi documento possa essere, se richiesto, tradotto in tutte le lingue comunitarie, ma per non sovraccaricare il servizio di traduzione si è deciso di adoperare una sola lingua di lavoro, in questo caso il francese. Ma ciò non elimina la possibilità di dover tradurre alcuni documenti in tutte le lingue richieste, per cui il servizio di traduzione della Corte di Giustizia deve avere un personale fisso il cui numero si aggira intorno alle 300 unità. In questo contesto si fa scarso ricorso a traduttori esterni per ovvi motivi di riservatezza, potendo alcuni documenti contenere informazioni non ancora ufficiali e segreti di vario genere (commerciale o industriale ad esempio).

Il servizio terminologico del Consiglio dell’Unione Europea, per concludere, è molto diverso rispetto ai precedenti, in quanto più limitato nei mezzi. Esso consiste soprattutto in un servizio di terminologia. Anche se il Consiglio è un organo importante dell’Unione per quanto riguarda questioni legislative, esso delibera su questioni e proposte che vengono da altri enti; tali proposte arrivano al Consiglio già tradotte per cui un servizio di traduzioni in questo caso sarebbe inutile; quindi per questioni pratiche traduttive o di interpretazione, tale istituzione si rivolge soprattutto alla Commissione Europea che ospita il maggiore organismo mondiale di servizi di traduzione ed interpretariato.

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Capitolo terzo

La ricerca

When I use a word," Humpty Dumpty said in rather a scornful tone, "it means just what I choose it to mean - neither more or less." "The question is," said Alice, "whether you can make words mean so many different things." "The question is," said Humpty Dumpty, "which is to be master - that's all." Lewis Carroll – Through the Looking Glass (And What Alice found there) - 1871

3.1 ECPREC (European Commission Press Releases English Corpus): Caratteristiche salienti dell’inglese istituzionale dell’Unione Europea.

“L’inglese e la comunicazione linguistica nell’Europa del futuro” è il titolo di un progetto di ricerca in corso presso l’Università degli Studi di Salerno. Argomento vasto che apre la strada a diversi percorsi possibili: uno di questi riguarda la lingua inglese delle comunicazioni istituzionali all’interno dell’Unione Europea, in particolare quella utilizzata da chi si occupa di redigere i comunicati stampa, che consistono in riassunti delle decisioni prese durante le giornate di lavoro, in presentazioni di qualsiasi evento relativo all’Unione e ai suoi rapporti con l’esterno e anche in trascrizioni fedeli dei discorsi tenuti dai commissari degli Stati membri.

L’ipotesi alla base di questa ricerca è che l’inglese adoperato nei comunicati, ma anche nell’UE in generale, risulterebbe, per molti aspetti, ‘particolare’, distante dalle varietà ‘ufficiali’ esistenti e, se non altro, intriso di tutte quelle caratteristiche che rendono una lingua ‘speciale’; per cui lo scopo della ricerca è quello di tentare di verificare tale singolarità per poter affermare che ci troviamo di fronte ad una lingua per scopi specifici che non è ancora stata considerata tale e che ha bisogno di essere ‘legittimata’ e ‘normalizzata’.

La scelta di analizzare i comunicati stampa deriva dal fatto che essi sono redatti o tradotti in inglese principalmente da parlanti non-nativi per cui l’osservazione delle loro caratteristiche linguistiche può essere una chiave per comprendere fino a che punto, quello che viene spesso definito ‘inglese per scopi europei’22 si discosti dagli standard riconosciuti.

I comunicati stampa dell’Unione Europea sono stati raccolti allo scopo di creare un corpus, chiamato ECPREC (European Commission Press Releases 22 ‘Inglese per scopi europei’ è solo uno dei tanti modi usati per ‘etichettare’ la lingua inglese istituzionale d’Europa; Euro-English, EU-English, Mid Atlantic English (MAE) e i più generici (e spesso dispregiativi) Eurospeak e Eurojargon, sono altri esempi. Si vedano: Modiano M., 2002, Spichtinger D., 2000, Berns M., 1995).

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English Corpus), di circa 1.000.000 di occorrenze e 28.000 tipi; i documenti che compongono il corpus risalgono ad un periodo di tempo che va da gennaio 2003 a febbraio 2004 e sono tuttora reperibili e consultabili collegandosi al sito Internet ufficiale dell’Unione Europea23.

Per cominciare a studiare approfonditamente il corpus così formato e, senza avere un quadro preciso di cosa cercare nello specifico, si è deciso di procedere ad una cosiddetta data-driven analysis, cioè ad una lettura attenta, che ha richiesto molto tempo, della lista delle frequenze del corpus, alla ricerca di tratti distintivi e si è giunti alla conclusione che esistono effettivamente delle peculiarità di tipo lessicale e morfo-sintattico in questo campione di inglese europeo.

Le riflessioni connesse al lessico hanno portato all’identificazione di quattro punti distintivi: 1) la creazione di nuovi termini e l’uso di elementi lessicali già esistenti che acquisiscono nuovi significati, 2) l’influenza di altre lingue, 3) un largo uso di acronimi, 4) un numero alquanto elevato di metonimie e metafore.

La produttività terminologica dell’inglese istituzionale europeo deriva spesso dalla necessità di dare un nome a nuove misure politiche, a procedure legislative, a concetti che si vuole siano collegati immediatamente all’Unione Europea come insieme sopranazionale, distinto da altre realtà nazionali24. Nelle pagine seguenti si troveranno riferimenti a termini come harmonisation, subsidiarity, convergence e tanti altri che assumono dei significati particolari all’interno dell’Unione Europea e, a volte, sono considerati vere e proprie ‘creazioni’ dell’Unione.

Nel paragrafo relativo agli scambi tra le lingue dell’Unione, e in particolare alle influenze subite dalla lingua inglese, si vedrà come una delle fonti preferite di quest’ultima sia il francese per i motivi che illustreremo; inoltre ci si soffermerà sull’influsso e sulla presenza della lingua latina principalmente in contesti finanziari e legali.

Proseguendo nella lettura si troverà un paragrafo dedicato all’uso di acronimi, caratteristica frequente in qualsiasi testo specialistico; in particolare si discuterà della ‘liceità’ di usare sigle non sciolte nei comunicati stampa, che sono il mezzo di comunicazione con il mondo esterno, formato da un pubblico più o meno informato.

L’ultimo paragrafo sugli aspetti lessicali dell’Euroinglese esaminato propone alcune riflessioni sull’abbondante impiego di figure retoriche, nello specifico metonimie e metafore che, pur essendo tratti caratteristici di una lingua, più o meno specifica, a volte possono creare impedimenti alla comprensione di un testo, considerando sempre che tali espedienti del discorso sono presenti in documenti che portano le informazioni verso l’esterno.

23 Il sito web dell’UE, European Union Online, è: www.eu.int . 24 Si pensi al Trattato di Maastricht, firmato nel 1992, che ha dato alla luce alcuni termini mai usati prima di allora, come subsdiarity, e che adesso sono considerati comuni e propri dell’UE.

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Oltre a presentare specificità relative al lessico, si è proceduto a compiere un’analisi delle caratteristiche morfo-sintattiche del corpus; l’esito dell’esame svolto ha rilevato la presenza di strutture grammaticali ricorrenti che spesso si incontrano in testi specialistici; in particolare si è registrata un’occorrenza regolare di strutture impersonali, forme passive, strutture premodificate e nominalizzazioni di cui verranno fornite diverse prove attraverso esempi dal corpus e schede di concordanze in formato KWIC.

Le osservazioni conclusive riguardano altri due aspetti: da un lato la parafrasi, generalmente usata per spiegare un concetto superando così eventuali ostacoli interpretativi e, dall’altro la percezione che tanti hanno dello Euro-English come lingua dubbia e ridondante; si tenterà di capire se le lamentele (esterne ed interne) che hanno sferzato questa lingua negli anni scorsi, siano servite da sprone per un miglioramento che mantenga intatto lo stile e preservi l’eleganza di una lingua, che, seppur spogliata della presenza di una cultura dominante di stampo britannico o americano e mero strumento di comunicazione globale, è pur sempre il modo per eccellenza di comunicare qualsiasi cosa a qualsiasi livello.

3.2 Produttività terminologica

La terminologia ‘speciale’ rintracciata in ECPREC comprende termini (relativamente) nuovi25, ossia introdotti dall’Unione Europea e mai usati prima o termini già esistenti nel lessico inglese, ma che qui vengono utilizzati con un significato particolare che i dizionari non indicano e, se lo indicano, fanno riferimento specifico all’Unione Europea. E’ parso interessante consultare alcuni dizionari alla ricerca di quei termini, ritrovati in ECPREC, che sembravano peculiari all’UE. Qui di seguito se ne troveranno alcuni esempi che poi verranno raggruppati, insieme ad altri esempi, in uno schema riassuntivo in cui è indicato il numero di occorrenze nel corpus e i significati di ogni espressione. In più si forniranno le liste di concordanze in formato KWIC, per ogni item, in modo da mostrare il significato prettamente ‘europeo’ che assumono nel ‘gergo’ dell’Unione e laddove necessario le collocazioni ricorrenti.

Se si considera, ad esempio, il sostantivo ‘applicant’ all’interno dell’UE, esso viene messo in relazione immediatamente con il sostantivo ‘country’, intendendo con ‘applicant countries’ (che nel corpus ha 7 occorrenze) quegli

25 Va specificato che, in questa sede, consideriamo ‘nuovo’ un termine che, prima di un certo momento, non era presente nei dizionari, oppure un termine già esistente che ha acquisito un nuovo significato con riferimento all’UE, o un termine che ancora oggi non compare nei dizionari da noi consultati, ma che appare con una certa frequenza d’uso nel corpus, oppure il cui significato appare non rendibile con altro significante.

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stati che richiedono di entrare a far parte dell’Unione. Tale significato, però, è strettamente legato alla realtà dell’UE poiché, consultando alcuni dizionari di uso corrente, nello specifico il Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1) e il MacMillan English Dictionary26 (2), si legge:

(1) Applicant: noun. Someone who has formally asked, usually in writing, for a job, university, place, etc.: (for) He was one of the 30 applicants for the manager’s job / successful/unsuccessful applicant (=someone who is accepted or not accepted for a job etc.). Successful applicants will be expected to travel extensively.

(2) Applicant: noun. Someone who applies for something, such as a job, or a loan of money: successful applicants will be notified by telephone.

I dizionari consultati indicano chiaramente che il sostantivo in esame è esclusivamente riferibile a persona che richiede formalmente, soprattutto per iscritto, un lavoro o un prestito e non c’è riferimento alcuno alla possibilità di collocarlo prima di ‘country’ ad indicare uno stato che chiede di unirsi ad una coalizione di altri stati.

Un altro esempio degno di attenzione si può rintracciare nel sostantivo ‘harmonisation’ (74 occorrenze) o ‘harmonization’ (2 occorrenze) che sta ad indicare il processo di standardizzazione e coordinazione delle politiche nazionali e degli standard tecnici all’interno dell’UE per garantire una comunicazione più spedita tra i diversi stati membri. Rispetto all’esempio precedente qui c’è una differenza, poiché in entrambi i dizionari consultati il termine esiste, ma in forma di verbo ‘harmonize’27 e alcuni esempi riportati riguardano proprio l’Unione Europea.

(1) Harmonize v 1. if two or more things harmonize, they work well together or look good together: we want to make sure that the new offices harmonize with the other buildings in the area. 2. to make two or more sets of rules, taxes etc. the same: the proposal to harmonize tax levels throughout the EU. 3. to sing or play music in harmony.

(2) Harmonize verb 1. if things harmonize, they combine in a pleasant way: + with Curtains should harmonize with the overall interior décor. 2. to make laws or policies similar to those of a different country, organization etc.: The UK wants an international agreement to harmonize practices

26 La scelta di due dizionari ‘commerciali’ è dettata dal fatto che, se Euro-English viene considerata una lingua per scopi specifici e quindi potenzialmente studiata in diversi ambiti (da studenti universitari, da chi ha intenzione di lavorare presso l’UE, da studiosi o semplici curiosi) allora è bene che ciò che la rende specifica sia reperibile nei dizionari maggiormente consultati, e pur sempre validi. 27 Si noti che nei due dizionari si trova il verbo scritto con la z (harmonize) e non con la s, anche se in ECPREC si preferisce l’uso della s rispetto alla z (74 contro 2 occorrenze).

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throughout the EU. 3. to sing or play different notes at the same time, producing a pleasant combination of sounds.

Va specificato che non si vuole dare la maternità ufficiale di questo termine all’UE, ma, visti gli esempi portati dai dizionari, si può ipotizzare che uno dei significati abbia preso origine dalle pratiche dell’Unione.

Un sinonimo di ‘harmonisation’ (sempre per l’UE) è il sostantivo ‘appro-ximation’ (7 occorrenze) che invece nei dizionari sta ad indicare quanto segue:

(1) Approximation n 1. a number, amount etc.that is not exact, but it is almost correct; = estimate: (of) an approximation of the total number / a rough/crude approximation (=one that is not very exact) Could you give us a rough approximation of the likely cost? / a good/close/reasonable approximation 2. something that is similar to another thing, but not exactly the same: (of/to) It was the nearest approximation to a crisis she’d ever experienced.

(2) Approximation noun 1. a nearly exact calculation, amount, number, time etc. +of I can only give you an approximation of the cost 2. something that is similar to something else, but is not exactly the same: +of That’s a reasonable approximation of what happened.

Per concludere portiamo altri tre esempi interessanti e sono i sostantivi ‘convergence’ (65 occorrenze), ‘scoreboard’ (30 occorrenze) e ‘subsidiarity’ (22 occorrenze). Il primo è presente nel Longman come verbo ‘converge’ e nel MacMillan come sostantivo ‘convergence’:

(1) Converge v 1. to come from different directions and meet at the same point to become one thing. ≠ diverge: The two rivers converge into one near Pittsburgh. 2. if groups or people converge in a particular place, they come there from many different places and meet together to form a large crowd: (+on) Reporters converged on the scene. 3. if different ideas or aims converge, they become the same; ≠ diverge: Cultural beliefs about the role of women converge with government policies. Convergent adj: The member states should start to have more convergent policies.

(2) Convergence noun (singular / U) a situation in which people or things gradually become the same or very similar: a convergence of views / beliefs ♦ a policy favouring the convergence of tax rates within Europe.

Il sostantivo ‘convergence’ nell’UE si riferisce a cinque criteri, senza il rispetto dei quali è impossibile entrare a far parte dell’EMU (Economic and Monetary Union); la Commissione Europea e la Banca Centrale Europea si occupano di verificare che tutti i criteri siano osservati in modo da assicurare che lo sviluppo economico, interno all’EMU, sia bilanciato e non origini tensioni tra gli stati membri.

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Degno di nota è anche il sostantivo ‘scoreboard’, parola che indica semplicemente:

(1) Scoreboard n: a board on which the points won in a game are recorded. (2) Scoreboard noun: a large board that shows the scores in a game or sports

event.

Ma nell’UE il sostantivo si ‘complica’ poiché si riferisce ad un quadro generale degli aiuti di Stato nell’Unione, che prevede cinque parti: 1) tabella generale relativa alla situazione degli aiuti di Stato; 2) analisi della destinazione degli aiuti di Stato; 3) informazione sulle procedure di controllo degli aiuti di Stato; 4) gli effetti delle procedure applicate sul mercato interno; 5) previsione di un forum destinato a permettere agli Stati membri di presentare la loro politica in materia.

Un discorso a parte merita il termine ‘subsidiarity’ (22 occorrenze) poiché, sebbene tutti concordino sul fatto che esso sia stato introdotto nell’Unione Europea dal Trattato di Maastricht28, in realtà il concetto non è affatto nuovo e ha origine nel pensiero sociale cattolico romano per il quale il governo può prendere decisioni o iniziative solo quando gli individui non ne sono in grado; quindi l’individuo è messo al primo posto e tutte le altre forme di società esistenti, dalla famiglia allo stato sono al suo completo servizio29.

Giuditta Caliendo30 scrive:

As Wagner et al.31 interestingly remark, although some novel concepts may already be expressed in one of the national languages, the use of a European neologism is convenient not only to avoid confusion, but also because it distinguishes between a specific local framework and a supranational one. In this case, although subsidiarity and the English term devolution cover the same meaning, the use of the new word is to be preferred, since devolution is used in the UK to refer to relations with Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland and in Italy to describe the current path towards federalism (the word in Italian is in turn a borrowing originating from the devolutionary process in Scotland).

28 Il Trattato di Maastricht (1992), art. 5 (ex art.3b) recita: “Nei settori che non sono di sua esclusiva competenza la Comunità interviene, secondo il principio della sussidiarietà, soltanto se e nella misura in cui gli obiettivi dell'azione prevista non possono essere sufficientemente realizzati dagli Stati membri e possono dunque, a motivo delle dimensioni o degli effetti dell'azione in questione, essere realizzati meglio a livello comunitario”. 29 Il principio di ‘subsidiarity’ fu sviluppato nell’Enciclica Rerum Novarum nel 1891 da Papa Leone XIII. 30 Caliendo G., 2004, «EU Language in Cross-Boundary Communication», in Textus XVII, pp. 168-169. 31 Wagner E., Bech S., Martinez J. M., 2002, Translating for the European Union Institutions, Manchester, St. Jerome Publishing.

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Quindi, il termine viene considerato un neologismo europeo, una parola nuova, ma vediamo quali sono le definizioni del sostantivo nei due dizionari consultati:

(1) Subsidiarity n (U) a word meaning a political policy in which power to make decisions, is given to a smaller group, used especially about the European Community giving power to its member countries.

(2) Subsidiarity noun (U) the principle that decision should be made at the lowest possible level of a government or organization, rather than always being made at a high level.

Ciò che sorprende alla lettura delle definizioni appena riportate è che la parola sembra sia sempre esistita con questo significato e non si fa riferimento alcuno alla sua introduzione da parte dell’Unione Europea, sebbene in realtà sia così. E’ interessante citare, a questo proposito, George MacDonald Ross32, Senior Lecturer in Filosofia all’Università di Leeds, che scrive:

I believe that the meaning of a word depends as much on its etymology as on its use. We can often gain important philosophical insights through understanding how words have acquired their present meaning. The abstract noun subsidiarity comes from the adjective subsidiary, which in turn comes from the concrete noun subsidy. The English word subsidy is a direct borrowing of the Latin subsidium, meaning ‘support’ or ‘assistance’ (though it has subsequently been confined to a financial sense); and the adjective subsidiary originally meant ‘providing assistance’ or ‘supportive’; but it gradually changed its meaning, via ‘auxiliary’ or ‘tributary’, to ‘subordinate’. The change in meaning of the word subsidiary can cause difficulties for speakers of modern English, since one might expect subsidiarity to mean ‘the quality of being subordinate’. This is perhaps why The Times of 18.9.82 described ‘the principle of subsidiarity’ as ‘a meaningless or even misleading phrase in English’, since it would seem nonsense to describe a body high in the hierarchy as ‘subsidiary’ to a subordinate body. But the second edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (yes, you will find the word if you look it up) records no use of the word to mean ‘the quality of being subordinate’. Its only meaning is ‘the quality of being subsidiary’, in the original sense of ‘supportive’; and this is broadly the sense in which it is used by Eurocrats. But where did they get it from?

E l’ultimo quesito posto da MacDonald Ross riassume con semplicità ed incisività la confusione che a volte regna nel mondo delle parole: da dove vengono? dove vanno? e perché a volte la stessa parola sembra contenere, come in questo caso, due significati diametralmente opposti?

32 MacDonald Ross G., 1993, «In Defence of Subsidiarity», in Philosophy Now no. 6, pp. 22-23.

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Per tornare ad un discorso più generale sulla (iper) produttività terminologica europea, si fornisce qui di seguito uno schema riepilogativo di tutti i summenzionati item lessicali e di altri (ordinati per numero di occorrenze in ECPREC) che possiamo riunire sotto la categoria “terminologia specifica dell’Unione Europea” e a seguire le schede di concordanze di tutte le espressioni, in formato KWIC, per mostrare come esse vengono utilizzate nel corpus.

Si tiene a precisare, ancora una volta, che tutte le espressioni sotto indicate non sono esclusive dell’UE, ma acquisiscono un significato speciale, scontato per chi lavora all’interno, ma poco chiaro se decontestualizzato. Uno dei casi che seguono è, ad esempio, ‘codecision’ che è senz’altro una parola comune nel lessico inglese, ma nell’ambito UE, essa sta ad indicare una procedura particolare che può sfuggire ai non addetti ai lavori, come si vedrà negli esempi di concordanze delle pagine seguenti.

Esempi di terminologia speciale dell’Unione Europea

Harmonisation 74 / Harmonization 2: principio che mira a coordinare gli standard tecnici e le politiche nazionali in modo da far sì che i prodotti e i servizi possano essere scambiati liberamente tra tutti gli stati membri; (simile a ‘approximation’);

Convergence 65: il Trattato dell’Unione Europea fissa 5 criteri di ‘convergenza’ che tutti gli Stati Membri devono osservare, se vogliono prendere parte al terzo livello dell’EMU.

Common Position Principle 62: Il principio tende a rendere la cooperazione e la coordinazione tra gli Stati membri più sistematica. Agli Stati è richiesto di mantenere tutte le posizioni adottate all’unanimità durante le riunioni del Consiglio d’Europa.

Intergovernmental 53 / Inter-governmental 6 : l’aggettivo sta per ‘tra i governi degli stati membri dell’UE’ e non ‘tra governi’ in generale;

Roadmap 35 / road map 20 : il sostantivo, che troviamo scritto in due modi diversi, è diventato un sinonimo di ‘strategia’, ‘programma politico’ e viene usato in tutte le lingue degli Stati membri come prestito integrale dall’inglese ‘road map’, che prima indicava semplicemente ‘mappa stradale’ ed era scritto sempre con uno spazio tra i due sostantivi;

Own resources 30: con una decisione adottata il 21 aprile 1970, i contributi versati dagli Stati Membri all’UE sono stati rimpiazzati dalle cosiddette own resources che sono cessioni di denaro effettuate dagli Stati Membri per coprire le spese affrontate dall’Unione Europea;

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Scoreboard 30: lo ‘State Aid Scoreboard’, ossia il quadro di valutazione degli aiuti di stato (forma di intervento pubblico utilizzata per promuovere una determinata attività economica) ha lo scopo di monitorare tali aiuti per evitare discriminazioni tra i diversi settori e i diversi Stati membri;

Co-decision 16/ codecision 11: ‘co-decision’ è una procedura introdotta dal Trattato di Maastricht che dà potere al Parlamento Europeo di intraprendere azioni congiuntamente con il Consiglio Europeo;

Subsidiarity 22: il principio di ‘sussidiarietà’ assicura che tutte le decisioni dell’Unione Europea sono prese nel rispetto assoluto del cittadino: l’UE non intraprende iniziative a meno che esse non siano necessarie e più efficaci di quelle prese a livello nazionale, regionale o locale;

Early Warning 20: “avviso tempestivo’, operato dall’Ecofin, un organismo dell’UE, ai Paesi membri che non rispettano gli accordi con i partner di Bruxelles.

Hardcore 12 / hard core 1: generalmente ‘hardcore’ nell’UE si riferisce ad un gruppo/federazione di stati che tendono ad una stretta collaborazione. Ma nel corpus troviamo 8 occorrenze di ‘hardcore list’ che invece riguarda le regole di concorrenza tra imprese ed è una lista di restrizioni ‘gravi’ che impediscono di godere di alcuni benefici nel corso di gare di appalto;

Precautionary Principle 9: nel febbraio 2000 la Commissione appronta un documento sul precautionary principle, che completa due documenti precedenti: il White Paper sulla sicurezza dei cibi e il Cartagena Protocol sulla bio-sicurezza. Il principio prevede tre regole fondamentali: una valutazione scientifica completa, una valutazione dei rischi potenziali e la partecipazione, in massima trasparenza, di tutte le parti interessate, nello studio di possibili misure;

Single Undertaking 8: disposizione secondo la quale si richiede agli Stati di accettare in blocco tutti gli accordi presi durante gli incontri del WTO. Non c’è accordo su niente se non c’è accordo su tutto;

Approximation 7: il sostantivo sta ad indicare un concetto molto simile al già citato ‘harmonisation’; la differenza sta nel fatto che ‘approximation’ è uno stadio immediatamente precedente a quello di ‘armonizzazione’;

Universal Service 7: Universal service è un concetto sviluppato dalle istituzioni europee, nell’ambito dei servizi offerti dalle

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telecomunicazioni e dalle Poste, con lo scopo di assicurare a tutti gli utenti servizi di qualità a prezzi abbordabili;

Applicant Countries 6: sono gli Stati che hanno inoltrato richiesta ufficiale di entrare a far parte dell’Unione Europea;

Four freedoms 6: uno dei maggiori successi dell’UE è stato quello di creare un’area senza frontiere all’interno della quale le persone, le merci, i servizi e il denaro possano muoversi liberamente. Questa libertà di movimento a quattro livelli, viene spesso denominata ‘the four freedoms’;

One stop shop 5 / One-stop-shop 1: termine usato per descrivere una compagnia che mette a disposizione dei clienti numerosi servizi in modo da offrire convenienza e ottenere una fidelizzazione della clientela;

Polluter Pays principle 4 / Polluter-pays principle 1: è il principio secondo il quale una compagnia che causi inquinamento è tenuta a pagare per eliminarlo o risarcire chi ne è stato colpito;

Flag-link (principle) 3 : il flag-link è l’obbligo da parte delle navi di esibire la bandiera di uno Stato membro per beneficiare di aiuti e sussidi di Stato e riduzione di tasse.

Lista di concordanze in formato KWIC

Harmonisation in the directive. And the harmonisation achieved by the proposal to maintain the degree of harmonisation already achieved (daily n er States and the level of harmonisation already achieved should b maintaining the degree of harmonisation already achieved through n scope, identification of harmonisation and certification needs, tion products). There too, harmonisation appears to be the most ap itiative will complete the harmonisation at Community level of the lso boost transparency and harmonisation at international level. T additional efforts towards harmonisation can then be made. Finally ring that opting for total harmonisation does not lead to a potent first stage of legislative harmonisation establishing the European . This proposal for a full harmonisation framework at EU level aim Nevertheless, legislative harmonisation has played an important r orward a proposal for such harmonisation in 1998), they have to ac e: Regulation (ensuring harmonisation in all Member States). ecommendation for European harmonisation in the construction indus oser towards international harmonisation in the field of waste shi se C-191/01 P Office for Harmonisation in the Internal Market (T

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continue its programme of harmonisation in this area, as there re is would lead to a lack of harmonisation in VAT rates, whereas it nt to safeguard clauses in harmonisation instruments. (6)Spain, Ir es to the extent that such harmonisation is necessary to ensure th ulation-free Europe. Where harmonisation is needed, it should be c des mutual recognition and harmonisation, it facilitates trading i edies, to ensure effective harmonisation. Let me say, in answe The way in which the total harmonisation method is used without gu ell as the Coordinator for Harmonisation Mr Hadjidemetriou. In his ction of measures based on harmonisation, mutual recognition, and man health. Completing the harmonisation of active substances allo 2008, thus completing the harmonisation of active substances allo to emphasise the need for harmonisation of approaches to overcome ive on the European Patent harmonisation of asylum procedures st ciety The Directive on the harmonisation of certain aspects of cop enhanced approximation, or harmonisation, of commercial diesel tax elop standards and improve harmonisation of communications technol significant reduction and harmonisation of customs duties to enha deliver. Together with the harmonisation of data protection to 10 hould address the issue of harmonisation of export rules. Common ommon agricultural policy, harmonisation of legislation and of sta tion of provisions for the harmonisation of legislation concerning of supply in the region; Harmonisation of legislative and regula cond proposal concerns the harmonisation of measures concerning th cer', the relevance of any harmonisation of media chronology (time 04. The ISD would increase harmonisation of national rules and mee sport, while promoting the harmonisation of penalties across Europ egislation and through the harmonisation of penalties, through ini opment. Simplification and harmonisation of planning and certifica ordination of policies and harmonisation of procedures, and the un market as a whole. Growing harmonisation of public services and le n and CEPT in the field of harmonisation of spectrum is a key fact , deeper cuts and downward harmonisation of tariffs for the textil on other issues including harmonisation of tariffs, congestion ma al for a directive for the harmonisation of taxation of commercial dopted a Regulation on the harmonisation of technical requirements ective of the project for "Harmonisation of Technical Standards, T n the Council result in an harmonisation of the data protection to cerning other products, an harmonisation of the different existing imation, and in due course harmonisation, of the laws of the Medit etter definition of tasks; harmonisation of the role of control se policy should also include harmonisation of the rules for civil av e not reached agreement on harmonisation of the rules governing re ssaloniki conclusions, the harmonisation of the security features as reference for future EU harmonisation of this sector. Howeve e 93 of the Treaty pursues harmonisation of turnover taxes: the in red to move towards closer harmonisation of VAT rates, it is unlik

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ards greater international harmonisation of waste shipments, as it s and procedures, and this harmonisation process will mean we will fere with the objective of harmonisation pursued by the Directive. ition of a second stage of harmonisation that will be more ambitio ncerning co-ordination and harmonisation, the Commission will, in ectricity market. Tariff harmonisation. The majority of particip ft out of the scope of any harmonisation. This should contribute t tant result to achieve; an harmonisation which will go to 10 years ontext of enlargement this harmonisation will certainly be benefit itutional support, customs harmonization, technical norms and stan and standards, statistical harmonization, the involvement of civil

Convergence ntive reports to enhance convergence among the laws, processes, an of legislation based on convergence and aimed at stimulating comp rther progress in global convergence and co-operation through a re ctly to promote regional convergence and employment. For example, the past: it is based on convergence and technological neutrality. t progress on regulatory convergence and would ensure mutual bene blished a Green paper on convergence as a starting point for the n policy is not just about convergence, because it cuts across the w xample of the increasing convergence between EU and US competition t an important degree of convergence between EU and US competition ies really have fostered convergence between European regions at d olkestein will say that convergence between IAS and US GAAP, base Mr Bolkestein says that convergence between IAS and US GAAP, base l allow for much greater convergence between national codes, makin s to take account of the convergence between telecommunications, i t respect the continuous convergence between the audio-visual, IT ir transport: Similarly, convergence between the laws of the Medit on policy and to further convergence between us and the United Sta nt, promoting regulatory convergence, connecting transport, energy d to compliance with the convergence criteria set out in the Treat achieve real and nominal convergence. Flexibility is an essential segments Overall, price convergence for the most popular car mode wth, competitiveness and convergence, helping the whole of the Uni ies for the sector. This convergence highlights the need for inter al Committee. Apart from convergence in development, the Structura d trade, we have to seek convergence in our approaches to the nego economic development and convergence in the enlarged Europe. I men urage nature of economic convergence in the knowledge economy. We could lead to a greater convergence in the Price of Medicinal Pro enhance co-operation and convergence in the years ahead. We are aw est growing new markets. Convergence is about to become a reality ess my longer-term view: Convergence is happening. Therefore each bstantial, although some convergence is taking place. The figures

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rket access. Supervisory convergence is the new buzz-word. We must s based on technological convergence, it provides clear, stable an policies favouring real convergence. It will be especially import his. Finally, financial convergence leads to greater risk transfe nstrumental in promoting convergence of labour market policies and mote economic and social convergence of the north with the rest of . We may therefore see a convergence of views in the not-too-dista robarometer surveys show convergence of views on major issues in c e Commission will assess convergence on the basis of equal treatme about significant price convergence. Pre-tax car prices are lowes amount would be for the "convergence" priority, some 18% for "regi he 2003 update of the UK convergence programme (2002-03 to 2008-0 pinion on the updated UK convergence programme on 10 February. tria and Finland and the convergence programme updates of Sweden a remain very low. The UK Convergence Programme's central objective he 2003 update of the UK convergence programme, which was presente essment of stability and convergence programmes (GT) The Council w e submitted stability or convergence programmes and the Commission he 2003 and 2002 updated convergence programmes of United Kingdom esent, annually, updated convergence programmes to the Council and to prepare multi-annual convergence programmes. The forecast is a ive instrument fostering convergence rather than managing divergen re, later in the year, a convergence report to assess the state of ries will have to submit convergence reports by mid-May 2004. The rmine price stability in Convergence reports of 1998 and 2000 by t ed and as the process of convergence started, it has become increa d three main priorities: Convergence: supporting growth and job cr blished a year ago. This convergence takes place in the context of gh degree of sustainable convergence. This is in the interest of b ilitate co-operation and convergence. This should help to make our lso allow the more rapid convergence towards a close to balance bu

Common position ified, as provided by: - a Common Position (2003/482/CFSP) updatin t Member States to agree a common position in times of internation ich is expected to adopt a Common Position in May 2004. Internatio cts. The Council adopted a common position on this proposal on 17 of 22 May. It adopted: a Common Position on Iraq, repealing Comm d, however, not to adopt a common position on all the details of t nst. The Council adopted a common position on this proposal on 20 arch the Council reached a common position on the Prospectus Direc ity. The Council adopted a common position on this proposal on 17 he Council adopted today a Common Position on restrictive measures y the formal adoption of a Common Position, which the Parliament h y the formal adoption of a Common Position, which the Parliament a sters will seek to reach a common position. Under the co-decision

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the objectives of Council Common Position 2003/482/CFSP of 27 Jun NS Re-evaluation of the EU Common Position on Cuba - Council concl he re-evaluation of the EU common position. The Acceding Countries 20 June 2003 implementing Common Position 2003/297/CFSP concernin ncil Decision implementing Common Position 2003/297/CFSP on Burma/ Decision, which implements Common Position 1999/533/CFSP, provides he visa ban, as set out in Common Position 2003/280/CFSP. This req sanctions, provided for in Common Position 2003/297/CFSP, follows and Fisheries) adopted its common position on 20 February 2003. 3 The Council adopte its common position concerning a proposal f il adopted unanimously its common position concerning the amended (Agriculture) adopted its common position on 17-18 March 2003 and ouncil will soon adopt its Common Position so that the proposal ca European Parliament to its common position on a proposal for a Dir y the freezing measures of Common Position 2001/931/CFSP and Regul ey share the objectives of Common Position 2004/31/CFSP of 9 Janua ) and 6160/03 (adoption of common position) on the Council's Newsr at terrorism and repealing Common Position 2003/402/CFSP (doc. 108 at terrorism and repealing Common Position 2003/402/CFSP. They wil riminal Court, its revised Common Position of 16 June 2003 and its lign itself on the Union's Common Position and back the authority EU to evaluate the Union's Common Position on Cuba, six months in mendments to the Council's common position. The common position, t reading, to the Council's common position. The Directive aims to nt in the Utilities Sector Common Position (EC) No 33/2003 adopted l policies conform to that common position. The European Union tak l policies conform to that Common Position. The European Union tak yanmar. For details of the Common Position of the EU see Burma is g. Three amendments to the common position were adopted by the Par yanmar. For details of the Common Position of the EU see Burma i Council reaffirms that the Common Position is still valid anconstr pursuit of the aims of the Common Position the Council considers t man tissues and cells. The common position will be forwarded to th ng. Nine amendments to the common position were adopted by the Par measuring instruments. The common position will be sent to the Eur ban. Adopted in April, the common position applies for an initial some clarification of the Common Position and can be supported by ndment was included in the Common Position via reference to the fu ected in Article 12 of the Common Position and further requirement e Framework Agreement. The Common Position will apply for a 12-mon their daily business. The common position adopted by the Council in Africa according to the Common Position of 14 May 2001 and conf cil's common position. The common position, thus amended, stresses ssed this amendment in the Common Position, as supported by the Co ishment of the aims of the Common Position, but the human rights s ncil). For the text of the common position, please consult 10133/0 statement accompanying the Common Position. CONCLUSIONS To conclud

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ovide clarification of the Common Position. These include: Amend pted by the Council in the Common Position. To re-open such diffic ding up to adoption of the Common Position. The gap between the di g were introduced into the Common Position. As was to be expect ted nine amendments to the common position. Those amendments were n (2003/482/CFSP) updating Common Position 2001/931/CFSP on specif

Intergovernmental / Inter-governmental in the course of 2004, an intergovernmental agency in the field of il's request to create an intergovernmental agency in the field of networks. In 2000, these intergovernmental agreements made it pos ctical example of how the intergovernmental and Community dimensio le combination of today's intergovernmental and Community mechanis rum where governments and intergovernmental and non-governmental o tion'. Based on voluntary intergovernmental co-operation, it allow rom the Convention to the Intergovernmental Conference Bologna, before the launch of the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC). More ency's programme are: the Intergovernmental Conference and agreeme paring the ground for the Intergovernmental Conference as broadly view that finalising this Intergovernmental Conference is one of t issues in particular. The Intergovernmental Conference must be sen participate fully in the Intergovernmental Conference on an equal ll. In September when the Intergovernmental Conference opens, the at the discussions at the Intergovernmental Conference remain disc ld form the basis for the Intergovernmental Conference starting in had a sort of preliminary Intergovernmental Conference superimpose ussion in the forthcoming Intergovernmental Conference that will b basis for the work of the Intergovernmental Conference that will h se, it is natural for the Intergovernmental Conference to go into ve forward, that the next Intergovernmental Conference to which th uffer as a result. At the Intergovernmental Conference we will con lly to be successful, the Intergovernmental Conference which opene ble after 1 May 2004. The Intergovernmental Conference will be con ved, there is no hope the Intergovernmental Conference will be cap know, throughout the last Intergovernmental Conference, I backed t and issues related to the Intergovernmental Conference, in which M ch should come out of the Intergovernmental Conference, is vital f al issues are left to the Intergovernmental Conference, we will ri ion on the opening of the Intergovernmental Conference, which is p basis for the work of the Intergovernmental Conference. All the wish to report on is the Intergovernmental Conference. As you k de with the launch of the Intergovernmental Conference. Brussels ls on this subject to the Intergovernmental Conference. Brussels e Constitution within the Intergovernmental Conference. Let me sta ty on these points at the Intergovernmental Conference. The Commis annot be ruled out in the Intergovernmental Conference. But this i

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basis for starting in the Intergovernmental Conference. It request will see the start of the Intergovernmental Conference. It will wo y a -- hopefully short -- Intergovernmental Conference; positive aken part in the last two Intergovernmental Conferences, in Amster ing what cannot go beyond intergovernmental cooperation today and link up the Community and intergovernmental dimensions more harmon ssion participates in the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemicals Saf for all their uses. IFCS: Intergovernmental Forum on Chemicals Saf to utilise Community and intergovernmental instruments effectivel clusively at national and intergovernmental levels. The European S shing for a return to the intergovernmental method while the latte ealised the limits of the intergovernmental method, a method where t we must not ignore. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Chang Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Chang oration of seven European Intergovernmental scientific Research Or diterranean. The upcoming Inter-governmental Conference no doubt the Convention and in the Inter-Governmental Conference, and comme iculties. The work of the Inter-Governmental Conference, following prepare the basis for the Inter-governmental Conference, starting k now lying ahead for the inter-governmental conference, starting ches during the Amsterdam Inter-governmental conference. Mr Major'

Road map / Roadmap antly to the drafting of the Road Map, alongside the United States wing the presentation of the road map and the Sharm-el-Sheikh and gently in the context of the road map and together with the US: th ards peace as set out in the Road Map. Brussels, 20 August 2003 C ork Committee and develop a "road map" detailing the future action provement and (iii) to set a road map for discussions the member s f implementing the Quartet's Road Map for peace in the Middle East rt the implementation of the Road Map for Peace. A ¬30 million eme se priorities, the following road map has emerged including: Three alogue; The preparation of a road map in order to facilitate dialo ting renewable energy, and a road map outlining the Coalition's ac weekend, that we regard the road map process as absolutely crucia he end of the phase 1 of the road map. The Commission has done a l ith by the two sides, of the road map. The European Union urges al gainst hope. Hoping that the road map, the Sharm el Sheikh and Aqa s, in the elaboration of the Road Map - the step-by-step route tha begin implementation of the Road Map. This delicate process now n ic and Financial Affairs The Road map to growth in Germany Inter der the path outlined in the road map towards peace. The Acceding ll, that's for sure. If the road map works, and peace returns, th n, the so-called _LeaderSHIP Roadmap_. A High Level Advisory Group ir commitment to the Quartet roadmap and hoped that quick progress ever it is crucial that the Roadmap be implemented without being

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essful implementation of the roadmap by the parties and also in vi nian Authority to accept the Roadmap developed by the Quartet, wit efforts: the request of the roadmap for all Arab states to cut of drogen and fuel cells with a roadmap for expanding the share of re ration of a dynamic European Roadmap for hydrogen and fuel cells t fore we need to complement a roadmap for hydrogen and fuel cells w Europe_ proposes a detailed roadmap for increasing research-relat e launched eEurope 2005 as a roadmap for stimulating effective par ree on the structure and the roadmap for the negotiations. Further oduction of hydrogen and the roadmap for transition. Due to their 2002 gave a clear political roadmap for Turkey. In October this y urkey with a clear political roadmap. In October this year, my Com tified. On IT architecture a roadmap is in place. Two advisory boa we should contribute to the Roadmap's monitoring process, put pre These objectives support the roadmap set out in the 2001 Bonn Agre ity for peace created by the Roadmap, small though it may be. No US: National Hydrogen Energy Roadmap SPEECH/03/307 Mr Erkki Liika Council by summer 2004. The roadmap The Commission will prepare b ith by the two sides, of the roadmap. The Council will oppose vigo n the second half of 2003 to roadmap the final phase of the negoti er the implementation of the Roadmap. There remains no alternative he deadline set in the 'Rio' roadmap. Therefore no discussion of g ment strategy and a European Roadmap. This policy-making effort wi cal commitment and set out a roadmap to accelerate eGovernment imp pproach in the use of funds. Roadmap To deliver on these prioritie ernment agreed on a detailed roadmap to establish an area of Freed eed on a clear and ambitious roadmap to prepare for the final stag ive proposals and a concrete roadmap to reach the objectives. This of the implementation of the roadmap towards a lasting, just and p cial Policy Agenda, the EU's roadmap translating the Lisbon strare se of the negotiations. This roadmap was agreed in Brussels on 12 he two sides, of the Quartet roadmap which contains clear timeline

Own resources ructuring effort from its own resources and whether the distortion (10 000 € for traditional own resources), some of which give rise which concern traditional own resources (25% for agriculture and f he figure rose by 13% for own resources, and 36% for agriculture. enditure. For traditional own resources and agriculture, this incr long-term loans from its own resources over the next five years. or the calculation of the own resources and the UK rebate. The Com s, (Advisory Committee on Own Resources (ACOR)) which was held on ubject to the ceilings on own resources assigned to the EU, maximu s creates a link with the own resources ceiling, which too is set e of Community GNI by the own resources decision. A margin for unf iture is left between the own resources ceiling and the payment ap

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t on the operation of the own resources system. The main component each country has over its own resources and development” . A vast a o surplus cash or surplus own resources that it could have misused uropean Central Bank, the own resources of the European Investment ail in the context of an 'Own Resources' Report, which will be sub uropean Community has its own resources to finance its expenditure VAT based resources. The own resources system is laid down by Cou urther information on the own resources system : http://europa.eu Community is endowed with own resources, there are not strictly sp udget? The ceiling of the own resources, the maximum that member s ncome. It is fixed in the Own Resources Decision which can only be ubject to the ceilings on own resources assigned to the EU, maximu t on the operation of the own resources system. The main component s creates a link with the own resources ceiling, which too is set e of Community GNI by the own resources decision. This own resourc resources decision. This own resources ceiling is currently fixed ent limits of the Union's own resources, i.e. 1.24% of Europe's gr g the ceiling on the EU's own resources to 1%, as some Member Stat

Scoreboard e nature, waste and water. A Scoreboard per sector and per Member les. The publicly accessible scoreboard is part of the new, more t 2003 update of the State aid scoreboard focuses on the overall amo test update of the State aid Scoreboard, published in April, shows latest Commission State aid Scoreboard, that the Member States ar ted version of the State aid Scoreboard, which can be found on pro ing to the latest _State Aid Scoreboard_, an instrument of transpa g the State aid register and scoreboard. In this context we notabl n launches public compliance scoreboard on the internet Today, the s, 29 October 2003 Latest EU Scoreboard on State aid less than hal ion's latest Internal Market Scoreboard, published in May 2003, (s Commission launched a public scoreboard on compliance with EU fish id The European Commission's Scoreboard indicates that while some Netherlands and Germany. The scoreboard also provides information tive types of State aid. The Scoreboard also focuses on the action to cases of overfishing. The scoreboard also shows weaknesses in M rther harm to resources. The scoreboard is based on on official da information provided in the scoreboard relates to compliance with ables in the scoreboard. The scoreboard shows that the majority of nt by the Member States. The scoreboard shows that the data provid r reporting obligations. The scoreboard shows that out of a total aid. The next update of the Scoreboard with State aid expenditure verfishing. According to the scoreboard, 76% of all infringement p the reform. According to the scoreboard, only Denmark, Finland, Ir scoreboard. According to the scoreboard, the majority of the infri

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s steps are described in the scoreboard. According to the scoreboa n the relevant tables in the scoreboard. The scoreboard shows that e online publication of this scoreboard is part of the drive under in danger of collapse. "This scoreboard will improve transparency ment issued last March. This scoreboard will be updated annually a

Co-decision / Codecision It will be adopted through co-decision and could enter into force uncil for adoption through co-decision and could enter into force and emphasised during the co-decision period in the Council and P the European Parliament's co-decision powers to new areas and wil c legitimacy by making the co-decision procedure almost universal. programmes adopted by the co-decision procedure for the internal four Treaties) to 460. The co-decision procedure has become the no e Prospectus Directive the co-decision procedure has contributed t will now, under the EU's "co-decision procedure", be debated by t ion and adoption under the co-decision procedure, having regard to common position. Under the co-decision procedure, in order to be a ts. In accordance with the co-decision procedure, the act was thus to majority voting and the co-decision procedure. At last European proval under the so-called co-decision procedure. Brussels, 2nd Ju option under the so-called co-decision procedure. Enterprise Commi oposals are subject to the co-decision procedure. Once adopted by Constitution; The scope of codecision has been extended; And it is t and the Council. And the codecision procedure must apply general ed. In accordance with the codecision procedure the act was thus d texts, all subject to the codecision procedure with the European e). In accordance with the codecision procedure, a first meeting o on. In accordance with the codecision procedure, the act was thus ng, in accordance with the codecision procedure. The proposal is a ment and Council under the codecision procedure. Only once the Reg ee in the framework of the codecision procedure. The official open r the general extension of codecision; The Court of Justice must h t Treaty become subject to codecision with the Parliament. On this

Subsidiarity in light of the principle of subsidiarity, and it is our declared principles. It ensures that subsidiarity and proportionality are s given to the importance of subsidiarity and synergy, ensuring th nce the problems to resolve, subsidiarity became the keyword in ru s democratic accountability, subsidiarity, defining where Europe r issue and the calls for more subsidiarity for Member States to all lication of the principle of subsidiarity. Half a century of succe he light of the principle of subsidiarity. III. Legal certainty an

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egions. This gesture towards subsidiarity is by no means a step to arrangements for monitoring subsidiarity. Perhaps more could have ence, in accordance with the subsidiarity principle (see IP/03/314 he Directive is based on the subsidiarity principle so it does not ity, with due respect of the subsidiarity principle, in order to m law. In accordance with the subsidiarity principle, the European tes, with due regard for the subsidiarity principle, to give econo velopment Policy is based on subsidiarity. The EU provides the fra ccording to the principle of subsidiarity, the Hungarian authoriti rdance with the principle of subsidiarity, the Member States remai if applying the principle of subsidiarity to reduced VAT rates. Th Market, and the principle of subsidiarity. VAT: two-year extension s of VAT on the principle of subsidiarity was not a panacea and co n line with the principle of subsidiarity while taking into accoun

Hardcore (list) / Hard core omers, most comments on this hardcore concern the treatment of fie ing a blocking position. The hardcore list. It is generally accept ond revision proposed to the hardcore list for licensing between c tomer. Where it concerns the hardcore list for licensing between n nclusion of the licence, the hardcore list for non-competitors rem rocal licensing and that the hardcore list should reflect this. Mo that suddenly the applicable hardcore list would change we will ap take account of a different hardcore list, different from the one tween competitors: a similar hardcore list, the same 20% safe harb fied criticism and limit the hardcore treatment to running royalti e Topps group, constitutes a hardcore violation of Article 81 of kets and customers should be hardcore when licensing between compe ve a clear and short list of hard core restrictions that are norma

Early Warning ase emergency preparedness, early warning and disaster mitigation crobiological laboratories. Early Warning and Response To be effec pillar of the network is an early warning and response system (EWR the EU on 15 March 2003 the Early Warning and Response System bega esponse To be effective the early warning and response system (EWR cable diseases network, the Early Warning and Response system and have found the Community's Early Warning and Response System to b r States is ensured via the Early Warning and Response System of t ble disease network and its Early Warning and Response System, to d environmental damage. The early warning mechanisms to detect the ajor flood risk mapping and early warning plan. In August 2002, re Influenza later this year. Early Warning Response System On human t of the EU budget. The new Early Warning System decision puts int

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s to bring the Commission's early warning system into line with th Commission reinforces its early warning system on recipients of asy to handle system." The early warning system was set up at the nternal information system (early warning system) in order to ensu (47%), food information and early warning systems (20%), forestry isk mapping, development of early warning systems and land-use pla l strengthening, developing early warning systems, research, risk

Precautionary Principle ent of sound regulation. Precautionary principle Sometimes decisio n of devices, use of the precautionary principle and safeguard cla ts 5 and 29 refer to the precautionary principle. I would point ou d by the Commission. The precautionary principle relates to risk a esented are based on the precautionary principle, and they promote such as these where the precautionary principle comes into play. standing. In essence the precautionary principle is the applicatio standing surrounding the precautionary principle stems from its un onmental protection. The precautionary principle (Article 174.2 of Single Undertaking of 2004, the DDA being a single undertaking aiming at achieving an ive the principle of the single undertaking. In this regard the Co ed from the scope of the single undertaking. Seventh, the Council n these areas within the single undertaking. Eleventh, the Council under the concept of the Single Undertaking. But I cannot but note ment to push, within the Single Undertaking, for binding multilate to be taken outside the single undertaking, the main body of nego s to be taken out of the Single Undertaking ("unbundling" is the e Approximation ion therefore calls for approximation, and in due course harmonis nts, as well as on legal approximation in a number of key areas su aunch of new work on the approximation of legislation in the field rective 92/79/EEC on the approximation of taxes on cigarettes crea nd of the Council on the approximation of the laws of the Member S table consequence of the approximation of the national rates neede er States. Only enhanced approximation, or harmonisation, of comme Universal Service covering authorisations, universal service, access and interconnec e obligations (such as a universal service). Action plan for Envir sing, in particular, the universal service concept in electricity

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, in accordance with the Universal Service Directive 2002/22/EC (a 25 July 2003, under the Universal Service Directive 2002/22/EC, f e a fund to compensate a universal service provider for the burden lic policy goals such as universal service. 3.1 Transition to infr Applicant Countries ember States, acceding and applicant countries can benefit from th d to the Member States and applicant countries in the event of a m y all EU Member States and applicant countries in central Europe. d to the Member States and applicant countries in the event of a m with the Member States and Applicant Countries at the Pharmaceutic amme measures to train the applicant countries to manage the Struc Four freedoms s internal market, with its four freedoms: free movement of goods, ements covering the Union's Four Freedoms: Free circulation of peo duct. The extension of the 'four freedoms' to the new Member State i.e. the extension of the 'four freedoms', goods, services, capit hnologies should cement the four freedoms of the single market, an stablished what we call the four freedoms_ and granted appropriate One stop shop / one-stop-shop ze, a principle known as the "one stop shop". According to the n, in Europe. It has provided a "one stop shop" for the scrutiny of l emergency can benefit from a "one stop shop" of specialised person ate, however, the use of the "one stop shop" principle (see above) individual EU countries (the "one stop shop" principle). If the co d how this “ citizen-centric ”, one-stop-shop approach helps not onl Polluter pays principle / polluter-pays principle on would infringe the "polluter pays principle", which is the corn ep to put in place the polluter-pays principle and to protect the bility is based on the polluter-pays principle. It establishes a f ary 2002. Based on the polluter-pays principle, it requires operat Flag-link le for tax arrangements. The flag-link is the requirement that shi lexible but more effective « flag-link » principle for tax arrange ents for derogating from the flag-link principle. New specific rul

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Prima di procedere ad illustrare l’influenza e gli scambi che avvengono tra le lingue dell’Unione, è interessante fare alcune riflessioni su un aspetto che ha a che fare ancora con la produttività terminologica europea, in particolare con la presenza elevata nel nostro campione di termini formati da EU-, Europe- e European- più altre parole, a creare composti, che a volte possono sembrare strani. Nelle pagine seguenti riportiamo le liste di concordanze di tutti i composti reperiti nel corpus con primo elemento EU, Europe e European. Si è deciso di proporre anche i termini che non hanno un’alta frequenza d’uso per dare un’idea complessiva del grado di ‘fertilità’ presente nell’Unione Europea.

Termini con primo elemento EU –

EU – wide (59 occorrenze)

irst time, sets out an agreed EU-wide list of items that are not all

lear that the lack of such an EU-wide authorisation process is hampe

easier to raise capital on an EU-wide basis and boost the competitiv

ctive aims at establishing an EU-wide framework for port security. I

ossibility of establishing an EU-wide guarantee fund for pre- and po

two Directives provide for an EU-wide harmonised framework for publi

at needed to be managed at an EU-wide level to ensure that the risks

ight be less than optimal. An EU-wide port security framework should

n, many firms operating on an EU-wide scale have started centralisin

cal conditions. This makes an EU-wide _one-size-fits-all_ approach u

lacklist" of practices banned EU-wide under the Directive (see answe

reast, cervix and colorectal. EU-wide implementation of these progra

n place a framework of common EU-wide principles to address unfair c

ims to put in place a common, EU-wide framework for protecting consu

sufficient to give consumers EU-wide confidence that they will have

ing on - let alone deciding - EU-wide measures to contain it. In tod

enable a rapid and effective EU-wide response. After approval by th

Because the Directive ensures EU-wide standards of protection, busin

ive - which aims to establish EU-wide quality requirements for the d

Some 54% of tobacco farmers EU-wide, or 42% in Italy(2), are over

n line with consistently high EU-wide standards. Ireland is well kno

l all his obligations for his EU-wide activities in the Member State

l all his obligations for his EU-wide activities solely in the Membe

ed in the early 1990s, impose EU-wide competitive tendering for publ

e proposal seeks to introduce EU-wide rules designed to prevent wate

rm Europe Initiative (a large EU-wide consortium lead by Ecofys b.v.

cade of attempts to legislate EU-wide in this sensitive area we fina

fied that needs to be managed EU-wide. The principle of restricting

56

on in Europe, in order to map EU-wide migration data, immigration an

r there should be one or more EU-wide direct debit schemes. These ar

ntially dangerous products of EU-wide concern, with a view to Member

ch could lead to outbreaks of EU-wide significance should be reporte

or a long time now, worked on EU-wide payment services. With a view

purely regional, national or EU-wide potential providers of the ser

of practices to be prohibited EU-wide and lays down principles for r

s it describes are prohibited EU-wide in all circumstances. All Memb

actices" which are prohibited EU-wide. This leaves room for business

e capacity to rapidly propose EU-wide measures to contain the virus.

traders: Commission proposes EU-wide ban on unfair commercial pract

traders: Commission proposes EU-wide network of national watchdogs

ndards of consumer protection EU-wide, can help give consumers and h

laws for product recalls EU-wide rules applicable from today ar

e application of IPP requires EU-wide action as products can move fr

urt judgements with a single, EU-wide regime. Business will be able

erve in Europe in Spring 2001 EU-wide, one woman in six aged 25-54 i

control strategy and targets EU-wide 36.2 million young people betw

rom the research predict that EU-wide real GDP will directly increas

ative estimates indicate that EU-wide, each year over 1 million emer

rld Cup and the launch of the EU-wide anti-smoking campaign "Feel fr

chanism (CDM) projects to the EU-wide greenhouse gas emissions tradi

lower rates of duty than the EU-wide minimum rates normally require

aunched today in Athens. This EU-wide campaign, aimed specifically a

bling an effective and timely EU-wide response to emerging threats.

be placed progressively under EU-wide surveillance. (See Annex 1).

security: Commission draws up EU-wide list of prohibited articles on

ve three factors, visibility, EU-wide approach and specificity of ru

atent rights were judged with EU-wide effect by a single centralised

that disputes are judged with EU-wide effect. I am confident the Cou

the key aims of a new 5-year EU-wide campaign to combat discriminat

EU – 15 (33 occorrenze) re weightings in ECU/euros in EU-15 to the national currency indic from ten Asian countries, the EU-15 and the European Commission in y know more than those in the EU-15. One area where the two grou the European Union for 2004 ( EU-15). At the same time the Counc ncil will vote on amounts for EU-15, while agreeing politically al the volume of expenditure for EU-15 is expected to drop by 2%. The 3 budget (1.04% of the GNI of EU-15). The PDB is far lower - by €1 n Focus "Fall in FDI in 2001: EU-15 as main actor", Theme 2 - 12/2 of women researchers for the EU-15 increased slightly by 2 percen 1 and has discovered that the EU-15 average for women graduates fr e CAP reform decision, in the EU-15 a de-coupled Single Payment Sc ities as the farmers from the EU-15 under the new compliance and i

57

ference period as used in the EU-15 (2000-2002). Consequently, the ded in the CAP reform for the EU-15. This means that uniform per-h griculture ministers from the EU-15 and twelve acceding and candid 2002/03), the total quota in EU-15 has gone up from 116 to 117.7 ct payments applicable to the EU-15 is reached. The estimated fina ared with the 2003 Budget for EU-15. About € 6.7 billion - of whic (a much higher share than for EU-15) - is planned for the new Memb higher than was the case for EU-15) plus 2% of the average yearly ile the respective figure for EU-15 was only 22 %. For the current mple, Poland's exports to the EU-15 in 2000 were 54% of what would r States (8% and 11%, whereas EU-15 levels are 18% and 13% respect ment rate of older workers in EU-15 [Graphic in PDF & Word for twice as fast as it is in the EU-15 experts anticipate a sustained ontributed to the increase in EU-15 exports of pigmeat to the acce ity, livestock farmers in the EU-15 have a distinct advantage. Whi his is a sector in which many EU-15 countries - Germany, Denmark, that pigmeat producers in the EU-15 are facing other specific prob al problems to farmers in the EU-15. Yes, the number of producers ive, and their exports to the EU-15 have risen from 78 000 tonnes( positive. I believe that EU-15 producers farm a highly compet owing twice as fast as in the EU-15. This means great market oppor

EU – 25 (18 occorrenze) half a billion citizens of an EU-25 that inspires confidence in th alf a billion occupants of an EU-25 that inspires confidence in th l agreement on a position for EU-25. The Council also gave a man the gross national income of EU-25. Despite enlargement, the volu ate on Objective 1 regions in EU-25. Reducing emphasis on the fi ght budgetary ceiling for the EU-25 until 2013, ministers agreed t s facing rural areas in the EU-25 Mr John BRYDEN Co-director me of the Budget 2004 for the EU-25 after enlargement The tota benefits to the EU: The EU-25 will continue to speak with on e GNP is less than 75% of the EU-25 average (Objective 1), as well use today to explain what an EU-25 means for Europe's farmers, an ingle market, under which the EU-25's eleven million farmers will small percentage of the total EU-25 production in 2001 for example llion bovine livestock in the EU-25 group, of which only 10.4 mill ctives for agriculture in the EU-25. And, having an EU of 25, and, as a result, covered the EU-25 and provides for the necessary rade perspectives between the EU-25 and our new neighbours. If trade negotiations between an EU-25 and its neighbours, the first EU – level (12 occorrenze) ng information activities. An EU-level advisory group (composed of lly enforce cooperation at an EU-level. The EU and Member States h ed notions whether or not any EU-level action is necessary. Looki

58

tting a structure in place at EU-level to assist Member States and rapid, coordinated action at EU-level to protect our citizens. Th e to the current situation at EU-level where security has become a e creation of a Regulation at EU-level will enable operators to co tions on the need for further EU-level actions. This process start identify areas where further EU-level legislative action is not n nal action plan, while at the EU-level we encourage and undertake both the Member State and the EU-level. Despite good progress in ay also help to clarify where EU-level action is not necessary, co

EU – led (11 occorrenze) ternational organisation; A EU-led operation with some component ns are fully addressed in all EU-led crisis management operations, ration _Concordia_, the first EU-led military operation with recou experts will be available for EU-led crisis management missions, a t: protection of civilians in EU-led crisis management operations sms for personnel deployed in EU-led crisis management operations, to protect forces deployed in EU-led crisis management operations rights law and refugee law in EU-led crisis management operations. f civilians in the conduct of EU-led crisis management operations. g the positive effects of the EU-led operations in Bosnia-Herzegov ARTEMIS in Bunia, DRC. The EU-led operations EUPM and ARTEMIS h EU – funded (7 occorrenze) d a selection of cutting-edge EU-funded projects for flexible and issioner will visit the first EU-funded Peace Laboratory in Magdal a proposal for guidelines on EU-funded human embryonic stem cell withdrawing staff working on EU-funded humanitarian operations in wing the launch of the second EU-funded (euro 33 m) Peace Laborato n Magdalena Medio, the second EU-funded (¬ 33 million) peace labor O, nine are involved with the EU-funded MACH21 project. Addition EU – sponsored (3 occorrenze) ners have participated in 612 EU-sponsored research projects, of w ientists have participated in EU-sponsored agricultural and water- hazards. Another example of EU-sponsored space projects concerns

EU – compatible (2 occorrenze) se of the STM is to ensure EU-compatible reforms in these are s to support Kosovo in its EU-compatible structural reforms th

EU – member (1 occorrenza) this holds for the present 15 EU-Member States. And even much more EU – flagged (1 occorrenza) it of the measure for any non EU-flagged vessel added to their fle EU – legislation (1 occorrenza)

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and improve implementation of EU-legislation; fourthly, meet the c EU – context (1 occorrenza) levant policies in an overall EU-context. More detailed discussion EU – project (1 occorrenza) first crucial outcomes of the EU-project POSEIDON in preventing an EU – presidency (1 occorrenza) special interest of the Irish EU-presidency in the European Road S EU – based (1 occorenza) ver, since the early 90s, the EU-based industry has slowly lost gr EU – regime (1 occorrenza) It is also desirable that any EU-regime be implemented within the Termini con primo elemento EUROPE – Europe – wide (19 occorrenze) s of the first in a series of Europe-wide air quality studies was s degree should be recognised Europe-wide! As regards mobility, I ode draws on the results of a Europe-wide consultation process, wh ews and desires and spark off Europe-wide debates. Honourable Memb technology exploitation. A Europe-wide education and training p h the EU has a system for the Europe-wide epidemiological surveill e outbreak Europe-wide. The Europe-wide expertise the Centre bri inst health emergencies The Europe-wide expertise the ECDC bring V generation are aware of our Europe-wide _feel free to say no_ ca is why I am today launching a Europe-wide information campaign pro , and has helped to create a Europe-wide network of Roma women. T ive special attention to the Europe-wide recognition of joint deg es. We are also supporting Europe-wide smoking prevention and c oducts complying with certain Europe-wide standards will be deemed ed on telephony. Examples are Europe-wide tele-shopping, customer for the supply of heating. No Europe-wide tender procedure was car y the municipality, without a Europe-wide tender procedure. In Ire riesland without the required Europe-wide tendering procedure as p e containment of the outbreak Europe-wide. The Europe-wide experti

Termini con primo elemento EUROPEAN- European-based (8 occorrenze) Developing a competitive European-based industry. This takes us b Developing a Competitive European-based industry: improving acces ion Society _A Stronger European-based Pharmaceutical Industry f

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ion pushes for a stronger European-based pharmaceutical industry f he competitiveness of the European-based pharmaceutical industry i t we believe can help the European-based pharmaceutical industry r growing evidence that the European-based pharmaceutical industry w ive is to ensure that the European-based pharmaceutical industry c

European-wide (7 occorrenze)

ributes to the development of European-wide capacity to respon pact of those occurrences._ European-wide collaboration Th highlights the importance of European-wide exchange of inform The Commission proposed a new European-wide framework to enhan -stop job mobility portal for European-wide job-search, alread is and purposes. There are no European-wide rules on definitio ean port areas benefit from a European-wide security scheme. I

European-level (3 occorrenze) rapidly deliver authoritative European-level advice to the EU and States. Moreover, in blocking European-level recognition of profes rship will require a coherent European-level strategy, encompassin European-minded (1 occorrenza) it is to have an independent, European-minded Commission which is European-run (1 occorrenza) happen then? The only really European-run policy would revert to t European-scale (1 occorrenza) to encourage the emergence of European-scale audiovisual projects:

3.3 Influenze e scambi linguistici

Dalla terminologia speciale adoperata in ambito istituzionale europeo, ci muoviamo ad un altro interessante e delicato argomento che riguarda il rapporto tra le lingue dell’Unione e l’inglese. Un esame attento di ECPREC ha mostrato che l’inglese analizzato è spesso influenzato da altre lingue e che il francese in particolare, come ex lingua principale dell’UE, sembra una fonte preziosa di prestiti.

Va detto, a questo proposito, che non sempre è facile determinare quale sia la direzione presa dagli elementi lessicali che passano da una lingua ad un’altra, ad esempio se un item o un significato siano usati prima in inglese per poi passare ad

61

un’altra lingua o viceversa. Le lingue si influenzano vicendevolmente di continuo e, in un ‘luogo’ come l’Unione Europea, in cui convivono tante lingue, è naturale che simili scambi si accrescano. E, come già detto in precedenza, la scelta di prendere in prestito un elemento lessicale potrebbe derivare da un’esigenza di chiarezza e velocità di trasmissione/ricezione di messaggi all’interno dell’UE, dove, ad oggi, venticinque stati e venti lingue ‘coesistono’. Il fatto che si mantengano delle forme francesi, di cui si vedranno degli esempi, pur esistendo forme inglesi corrispondenti, dipende proprio da questioni pratiche, di chiarezza e velocità di comprensione da parte di tutti gli operatori del settore (ed è per questo motivo che si può e si deve considerare l’inglese istituzionale dell’UE una lingua speciale). Per un lettore esterno, poniamo il caso di un parlante nativo inglese, alcune scelte lessicali in Euro-English, parranno probabilmente inspiegabili, errate, influenze ‘nocive’ da parte di lingue vicine (in senso comunitario) e questa è la ragione per la quale la lingua inglese dell’UE è stata, ed è ancora, considerata scorretta, a tratti disastrosa; ma, più che imputare tale catastrofe linguistica all’incompetenza dei traduttori (umani ed automatici), si potrebbe pensare ad una volontà precisa di facilitare la comunicazione interna attraverso scelte di ‘standardizzazione’ linguistica. Se un’espressione linguistica, prima della prepotente ascesa dell’inglese a lingua numero uno dell’UE, era conosciuta (e riconosciuta) da tutti in francese, che male c’è se viene mantenuta come prestito integrale o calco semantico ecc., anche se il corrispondente inglese esiste o se la traduzione risulta errata per i puristi?

Avendo accennato a prestiti integrali e calchi semantici, sembra opportuno fornire alcuni esempi, tratti da ECPREC, che si riferiscono, in particolare, all’influenza della lingua francese su quella inglese; per ogni elemento lessicale si mostrano le occorrenze totali nel corpus.

Un caso di prestito integrale è la parola acquis (28 occorrenze in ECPREC) che sta ad indicare l’insieme delle leggi dell’Unione Europea. L’espressione completa in francese è acquis communautaire e il corrispondente inglese è body/set of EU laws o semplicemente EU laws / EU legislation. La presenza di acquis nei comunicati stampa inglesi confermerebbe quanto detto prima e cioè, che l’abitudine a chiamare la legislazione europea con il sostantivo acquis è radicata e ‘normale’, per cui il termine è adottato anche da altre lingue dell’Unione33, sebbene, per eventuali lettori esterni, tale scelta potrebbe sembrare opinabile, non chiara e addirittura superflua.

33 In seguito ad una lettura di alcuni comunicati stampa redatti in tutte le lingue dell’UE, si è rilevata la presenza di acquis anche in altre lingue comunitarie, sebbene non in tutte (in particolare pare che il tedesco e lo spagnolo tendano a tradurre il termine nella propria lingua).

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Acquis (28 occorrenze) nal Plan for the Adoption of the Acquis adopted by the government elines on LEADER+ recognise this acquis and encourage the rural ar e implementation of the Schengen acquis and external border contro om compliance with the Community acquis and from the need for furt e implementation of the consumer acquis. And we are planning infor vital to safeguard the Community acquis by maintaining the degree ol must also be carried out. The acquis comes to about 85 000 page en : information seminars on the acquis communautaire (i.e. the en reneurial decision making. The acquis communautaire has been lar uation of the translation of the acquis communautaire into Turkish of adopting and implementing the acquis communautaire is enormous, in implementing EU legislation ("acquis communautaire") in the are on adopted up to 30 April 2004), acquis communautaire, into the la de range of areas related to the Acquis communautaire. While of co structures aimed at adopting the acquis communautaire. Brussels, the Commission to implement the acquis from the first day of acce hat we call the consumer policy _acquis_ into their legislation. A e all know that the existing WTO acquis is a complex mixture of ma tion within the framework of the acquis. It also welcomes the Comm ity to implement and enforce the acquis. Justice and Home Affairs bours there is a large specific 'acquis' of relations, which will ty-year-period. Building on the "acquis" of twenty-five years of E es significant changes to the EU acquis on which the accession neg approchement with the community "acquis", or body of law. The EC i ct application of the EU' social acquis playing a crucial role. Th Statute would become part of the acquis that they are required to tiation results fit with the new acquis. (this is necessary where ary translation of the Community acquis. With a view to making a s

Differente, e più complesso, è il discorso che riguarda il prossimo caso, third countries (146 occorrenze), che potrebbe essere definito un calco semantico.

Pur ribadendo la difficoltà di asserire con certezza quali siano i passaggi effettivi da una lingua ad un’altra e dove esattamente nasca un elemento lessicale, sembra abbastanza evidente che l’espressione inglese third countries derivi dal composto francese pays tiers, che esiste anche in lingua italiana come paesi terzi, in cui terzi sta per ‘estranei’ o ‘non appartenenti’ ad un gruppo. In lingua inglese l’aggettivo third non può essere inteso in questo modo.

Questo è quanto si legge nell’Oxford English Dictionary:

Third adj: 1. the ordinal number corresponding to the cardinal three; 2. additional to and distinct from two other already known or mentioned: third person (in law); 3. the last of each successive group of three, i.e. one third of the whole.

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Third sb.: 1. a third part of anything; any of three equal parts into which a whole may be divided; 2. law. The third of the personal property of a deceased husband allowed to his widow. Also the third of his real property to which his widow might be legally entitled for her life; 3. a third of the proceeds of captures, or of certain fines, forfeitures, etc., of which two thirds were due to the king, obs.; 4. the sum paid by an incoming freshman for the furniture, etc., of his college rooms, usually assessed at two thirds of the amount paid by the preceding tenant; 5. mus. A note three diatonic degrees above or below a given note (both notes being reckoned); also (usually) the interval between this and the given note, equivalent either to two tones or to one tone and one diatonic semitone; 6. goods of the third degree of quality. In più nella sezione special collocations & combinations si legge: third

country = a Third-World Country. Per fare un confronto equo si è cercata la stessa parola nei dizionari più

accreditati di lingua francese, in particolare il Grand Larousse de la Langue Française (1) e in due Robert, il Dictionnaire Historique de la Langue Française (2) e il Dictionnaire Alphabétique et Analogique de la Langue Française (3).

(1) Tiers, tierce adj. (lat. tertius, troisième, de ter, trois fois, dér. de tres, trois). 1. Class. et littér. Qui vient en troisième position, au troisième rang, après deux autres personnes ou choses ; 2. Tierce personne une personne qui s’ajoute à deux autres, et, par extens., une personne étrangère à un groupe (famille, intimes etc.) Oui, Peytel a soustrait et déposè en mains tierces deux lettres (Balzac) ; 3. Tiers état ou, substantiv., le tiers, nom donné en France, sous l’Ancien Régime, à la partie de la population qui n’appartenait ni à la noblesse ni au clergé, et a ses représentants aux états généraux et à certains états provinciaux. Tiers n. m. Troisième personne, par rapport à deux autres et généralement en tant qu’elle s’en distingue ; par extens. toute personne qui ne fait pas partie d’un groupe, qui est étrangère à un contrat, une affaire: Je connus alors (....) que personne ne juge d’un tiers avec moins de passion que vous jugiez de vous-même (Voltaire). (2) Tiers, tierce adj et n. m. D’abord attesté sous les formes terce (v. 980) au féminin, terz (fin XI s.), tierce (1119), puis tierz au masculin (v. 1160) enfin tiers (XIII s.) est issu du latin tertius troisième de ter (trois). L’adjectif, remplacé par troisième est sorti d’usage après le XVII s., tout en se maintenant dans un certain nombre de locutions figées, dont certaines sont à l’origine de noms composés : c’est ainsi qu’on parle encore de tiers état avec un sens ancien de état, de là, le tiers (1789) et aussi de tierce personne personne étrangère. Ed infine al secondo significato del sostantivo maschile tiers nel Robert,

Dictionnaire alphabétique et analogique leggiamo:

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(3) Tiers n. m. Personne que n’est et n’a pas été partie à un contrat, à un jugement. Par extens. Personne étrangère (à une affaire, à un groupe). V. Étranger, inconnu.

Sembra abbastanza chiaro che il termine in questione può avere il significato

di “estraneo, non appartenente ad un gruppo” in francese, ma non in inglese in cui la definizione che più si può avvicinare è “aggiuntivo e distinto da altri due già menzionati” che però non ha niente a che fare con estraneo o non appartenente a.

L’espressione inglese corrispondente a pays tiers è non-member countries (8 occorrenze in ECPREC), come tra l’altro si legge nella guida ufficiale all’uso dell’inglese, reperibile sul sito Internet dell’UE34. Ma, considerando che third countries ricorre ben 146 volte rispetto alle 8 di non-member countries, si può affermare, senza tema di smentite, che la prima espressione sia quella prevalente oggi (anche se qualcuno esterno all’UE potrebbe, a ragione, obiettare che third countries, come si è visto anche nell’Oxford, possa essere facilmente identificato con Third-World countries ossia Paesi appartenenti al Terzo Mondo).

Qui di seguito si forniscono, come esempi, degli estratti da due comunicati stampa in versione inglese, francese ed italiana per dare prova di come l’elemento lessicale fisso francese ed italiano venga tradotto in modi differenti in lingua inglese.

27/03/2003

Trade And Enlargement - Why is enlargement good news for third countries?

... Third countries will benefit from an increased single market, and a simplified and enhanced access to the current acceding countries' markets.

Commerce et élargissement - Pourquoi l'élargissement est-il une bonne nouvelle pour les pays tiers?

... Les pays tiers profiteront d'un marché unique plus vaste ainsi que de la simplification et de l'amélioration de l'accès aux marchés des actuels pays adhérents. Commercio e ampliamento Vantaggi dell'ampliamento per i paesi terzi

34 La English Style Guide dell’Unione Europea è reperibile consultando il sito http://europa.eu.int/comm/translation/ writing/style_guides/english/frame_index_en.htm. Alcuni estratti della guida sono riportati in appendice.

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…L'ampliamento del mercato unico risulterà vantaggioso per i paesi terzi, che potranno accedere più agevolmente ai mercati dei paesi in fase di adesione.

23/09/2003 … The case eventually came before the Immigration Appeal Tribunal, which requested the Court of Justice of the EC whether, in such circumstances, the Member State of origin may refuse the spouse who is a national of a non-member country the right to enter and may take into account the fact that the couple's motive was to claim the benefit of Community rights on returning to the Member State of origin. ... L’«Immigration Appeal Tribunal», finalement saisi de l’affaire, a demandé à la Cour de Justice des CE si, dans telles circonstances, l’État membre d’origine peut refuser au conjoint de nationalité d’un pays tiers un droit d’entrée et prendre en compte l’intention du couple de réclamer le bénéfice de droits communautaires à leur retour dans l’État membre d’origine. … Infine, l’«Immigration Appeal Tribunal», investito della causa, ha chiesto alla Corte di giustizia se, in tali circostanze, lo Stato membro d'origine possa rifiutare al coniuge cittadino di un paese terzo il diritto di entrare e possa prendere in considerazione l'intenzione dei coniugi di reclamare il beneficio di diritti derivanti dal diritto comunitario al loro ritorno nello Stato membro d'origine.

Per offrire un quadro più chiaro e completo del caso trattato, si forniscono di

seguito le concordanze relative a third countries e non- member countries.

co-operation policy with third countries. In Asia and Latin Americ t that Member States and third countries faced with an emergency c istered as trademarks in third countries cannot be attacked. This t have become generic in third countries or have been used in good as Norway and Israel, or third countries(2): Russia and China. For as Iceland, and 10 from third countries such as Australia, Canada ts of farm products from third countries and especially from devel and goats imported from third countries will have to fulfil more technical assistance to third countries. It would coordinate thes th the Member States and third countries. In 2002, this took the f ability to compete with third countries; stepping up its effort h Organisation (WHO) and third countries. On 23 July 2003, the Com ments between the EU and third countries. Scope of the co-operat sks; co-operation with third countries; cost-effectiveness stu ents to researchers from third countries. EU mobility portal, mo

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h within the EU and with third countries, will be essential for an o make sure that also in third countries there is legislation in p in the EU for export to third countries can be given a further pe pervisory authorities of third countries only if professional secr th Switzerland and other third countries on savings taxation and t promote human rights in third countries and to our protests when nises the need to assist third countries to meet their obligations this assistance to help third countries meet their international This measure will enable third countries such as Ireland and Luxem es can be informed about third countries' drafts relating to on-li a fruitful dialogue with third countries on cross-border legal iss d companies operating in third countries. The EU's participation tnership agreements with third countries (see IP/02/1970). This ne tnership agreements with third countries, which are mutually benef furthermore encouraging third countries to adopt similar measures count certain links with third countries when making use of the st en the Community and the third countries concerned. Put in place ts of food and feed from third countries including the provision o nes to EU policy towards third countries on torture and other crue , the EU pledges to urge third countries to take a wide range of m ems. Control plans for third countries and audits in third count countries and audits in third countries The European Union impo nsure that supplies from third countries are of an equivalent safe to controls under which third countries would be audited on the b that the requirement for third countries to have a control plan av that a system requiring third countries to have a control plan ma d training programmes to third countries in order to provide guida assist Member States and third countries to draw up control plans. ectrum of relations with third countries including the prompt conc sion agreements with key third countries of origin as well as the nts and cooperation with third countries Visas Referring to th ficers (ILOs) network in third countries, at the earliest possible 2003. Partnership with third countries In the context of integ r Union's relations with third countries, the European Council rea ialogue and actions with third countries in the field of migration o monitor relations with third countries which do not cooperate wi etc.), cooperation of third countries in readmission/return of between Member States in third countries. The European Council i toring of cooperation of third countries, and to make proposals or ed. A. EU RELATIONS TO THIRD COUNTRIES 1. Threat Analyses Th spects of relations with Third countries The European Union has spects of relations with Third countries which are related to the itical dialogue with the Third countries, and regional or subregio ey tool for conveying to Third countries the importance which the TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO THIRD COUNTRIES 1. EU Technical assista Technical assistance to third countries (under UNSCR 1373) In o ecific actions to assist third countries in implementing their com

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ssistance to a number of third countries facilitating the implemen ance by Member States to third countries To foster co-ordination the EU and together with Third countries, in particular the USA, t eduction programmes with third countries, targetted at support for elopment assistance with third countries should take account of WM ate safe food trade with third countries. The guidelines are based national authorities of third countries wishing to export live an ng system of approval of third countries for import of live animal nsiderable assistance to third countries, especially developing co our producers. Abuses in third countries undermine the reputation f the fact that, in many third countries, they are claimed to be g as been focused on those third countries where these kinds of abus o other Member States or third countries and, with some derogation tes and, where required, third countries. Specific rules are laid U trade and imports from third countries of susceptible animals an ountries and a number of third countries. Express is an UK publi technical assistance to third countries in the field of migration technical assistance to third countries in the area of migration d that co-operation with third countries in the area of migration operation programme with third countries complementing others in t by the Community for the third countries concerned. As announced ial and technical aid to third countries in order to support their ticular intended for the third countries actively engaged in the p the EU's solidarity with third countries that are resolutely commi ects in association with third countries and regions for which the with relevant parties in third countries. US activities In the nce of the policy toward third countries. Country Strategy Papers arket open to trade with third countries. With enlargement now i f fishing protocols with third countries and, as announced in the k at creating links with third countries in order for European con o open negotiations with third countries on the replacement of cer etween member States and third countries. Mandate for negotiatin ransport agreements with third countries Q&A Why was this packa een EU Member States and third countries, it was essential to esta ntinue to negotiate with third countries on an individual basis an operation policy towards third countries that have co-operation or urns. Partnership with third countries The conclusions of the eria). Agreements with third countries The Commission is condu otiations with the other third countries on savings taxation so th o other Member States or third countries and, with some derogation o other Member States or third countries and, with some derogation acts with Member States, third countries, industry and non-governm vided position papers. Third countries: Position papers, informa ighlighting the views of third countries or third country associat ced inside the EU and in third countries; concerns about the imp a lot of concern amongst third countries as to whether the EU had de the EU, checking with third countries what they are ready to do

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gration cooperation with third countries; Cooperation programme operation programme with third countries: measures taken regardi operation programme with third countries/migration Rapporteur: M cept of partnership with third countries in the field of migration peration instrument with third countries (2004-2008) in the area o both internally, and in third countries. This can only be good ne rned from investments in third countries (e.g. JI projects in coun clude quality control in third countries. The intention is to ensu from the above-mentioned third countries could be accepted. As reg agreements with European third countries, as well as with British iority over workers from third countries. Some jobs in the public Fisheries Agreement with third countries. It proposed that EU fish l not disrupt trade with third countries. The adoption of EU n nd enhance the access by third countries to the EU market. For exa standard of treatment of third countries: the adoption by the new will therefore meet with third countries in order to establish arr he great gain enjoyed by third countries automatically due to the r into negotiations with third countries having negotiating rights ance with the procedure, third countries will now make claims for ation of EC concessions, third countries can withdraw substantiall ee trade agreements with third countries. This work is ongoing and national agreements with third countries and eliminate any trade o eplaced by EU rules, the third countries concerned will maintain t ing agencies, as well as third countries managing Community funds ments between the EU and third countries in this area. In the ricultural products from third countries, importing more than the rective on the safety of third countries' aircraft. Unfortunately, ating both in the EU and third countries. This is not a proble nd will be valid for all third countries (except the 12 acceding a mber States' missions in third countries and better use of our col consumption and trade in third countries; of promoting, not le o standards and logos in third countries as well. Indeed, a gr of similar quality from third countries. The reduction in the vol competitive producers in third countries. Quality, and added value sing the agreements with third countries on savings taxation. He w exported from the EU to third countries. The new GPSD require e possibility of linking third countries to the RAPEX system is al ope". The data for the non-member countries of the Council of Eu ), and would involve the non-member countries of the Mediterranean operation programme with non-member countries over the period 2004 amme of cooperation with non-member countries proposed by the Comm ce of the policy towards non-member countries, and above all ensur special cooperation with non-member countries. The Commission is uro for cooperation with non-member countries. Legislation must ate internationally. Non-member countries should also be invit

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Rimanendo ancora nell’ambito delle influenze di altre lingue sull’inglese dell’Unione, sembra interessante fornire alcuni esempi della notevole presenza del latino nel campione di Euro-English analizzato. Va immediatamente precisato che le espressioni latine incontrate fanno parte del lessico inglese, ma soprattutto di quello relativo ad ‘inglesi’ di specialità, in particolare legati al mondo legale ed economico-finanziario. Da qui l’esigenza di specificare che la presenza latina non è caratteristica peculiare dell’UE, ma caratteristica peculiare di alcuni linguaggi settoriali, e ciò sembra confermare quanto già detto, cioè che l’inglese istituzionale dell’Unione sia da considerarsi una lingua per scopi specifici, sia pure di tipo ‘trasversale’ poiché fa uso di un lessico che ritroviamo generalmente in diverse microlingue.

Alcune delle espressioni latine ritrovate in ECPREC sono molto comuni e pochi avrebbero difficoltà a capirle, ma altre risultano molto tecniche e probabilmente sconosciute ai più. Inoltre va sottolineato che buona parte del lessico latino di ECPREC non è presente nei dizionari più consultati e, di conseguenza, per comprendere a fondo quanto si legge, si dovrebbero avere a disposizione dizionari di diversi ‘inglesi’ settoriali.

Anche in questo caso si è deciso di fornire le liste di concordanze degli elementi lessicali ordinati per numero di occorrenze e di mostrare tutti i termini reperiti, perché, sebbene alcuni di essi siano presenti solo una volta, hanno tutti un chiaro significato e si possono incontrare facilmente nell’ambito istituzionale europeo e non europeo. Pur se superfluo in alcuni casi, si fornirà una spiegazione / traduzione di ciascun termine o espressione presentati.

Inter alia (45 occorrenze): among other things.

antitrust area, specify, inter alia, (a) the minimum elements acilities. The Committee inter alia also proposes: Promotio , the Courts underlined, inter alia: Although OLAF was esta to non-negligible risks, inter alia because steps to curb pen xclusively descriptive", inter alia, because the combination malleable fittings from, inter alia, Brazil. Following an inv ctices and tools should, inter alia, build on the fundamental tiveness to be fostered, inter alia, by a substantial cut in ntation and enforcement, inter alia by developing networks of ment reached on 26 June, inter alia by finalising the regulat erman company and driven inter alia by Mr Abatay and Others. n Communication, include inter alia Community support in the review and will address, inter alia, developments in national

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ng session will feature, inter alia, Erkki Liikanen, European gion. This will provide, inter alia, for exploring ways of in an in-depth assessment, inter alia for the purposes of submi Commission, which calls, inter alia, for the repeal of the IS essed foods derived from inter alia 7 GM oilseed rape, 4 GM m nt Task Force will look, inter alia, in the 'dual use' of spa dated and reinforced by, inter alia, introducing the possibil ture (JIS) on the basis, inter alia, of a Community Fisheries Canada Summit, referred, inter alia, on the Convention for th Today's forum discussed, inter alia, partnerships for impleme s with a view to enhance inter alia safety and security. _The multilateralism and is, inter alia, supporting a common fram . This Article specifies inter alia that cigarettes include " he long term which means inter alia that they will have to ta human use which contain, inter alia, the anorectics referred ns, was withdrawn after, inter alia, the Commission expressed a more consolidated work inter alia the consideration of the the agreement includes, inter alia, the definition of the pa Programmes will include, inter alia, the following key featur as possible encompassing inter alia the following questions: contributed to financing inter alia the metro and tramway sys es. This should include, inter alia, the operation of the sha ally important role that inter alia the subregional organisat 434/EEC, which concerns, inter alia, the taxation of exchange rnational organisations, inter alia the UN, OSCE and CoE, has ot limited, to security, inter alia through the European Secu presented in March, will inter alia tighten the oversight of programme, which seeks, inter alia, to put a human on Mars w rders, which contributes inter alia to the fight against traf ese actions during 2004, inter alia via the informal group on The EU should promote, inter alia within the ILO, the exist Directive. These include inter alia: _screening_ (determining

Interim (37 occorrenze): intended to last only until someone or something permanent is available, provisional. appointment of an Iraqi interim administration will be an he formation of an Iraqi interim administration, and exp al support for the Ituri Interim Administration; support tion Agreement (SAA) and Interim Agreement, to demonstrate nalised in line with the interim approach agreed on 12 Jul ress since 2000 The "interim approach" on GMOs The Commission agreed on an 'interim approach' for relaunching Implementation of the 'interim approach' since 2000

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However, despite the 'interim approach': no autho making better use of the Interim Association Agreement. ut it will operate on an interim basis from today. These hing had happened in the interim. Cancun was a major failu ined in the Commission's interim Communication on the urba he EU is set to miss the interim employment rate targets f stopped in 2003 and the interim employment targets set fo ste cannot be left at an interim facility untreated and un ll become evident in the interim. For the first time the he possibility of taking interim measures (such as suspens ission has withdrawn its interim measures decision adopted ation of the Sea (ICES). Interim measures had subsequently ordering IMS, by way of interim measures, to license the t privatisation. The interim mechanism The interim nterim mechanism The interim mechanism procedure is th cording to the so-called interim mechanism procedure provi ording to the so-called "interim mechanism" provided for i hin the framework of the interim mechanism. Vice h industry. During the interim period by which I mean th by the Government in its interim poverty reduction strateg he second is the initial interim report drawn up by the In ent of the ASEM process; Interim Report of the Task Force Council took note of an interim report on the proposal fo frequency and content of interim reporting (in particular r FP6 first calls, as an interim solution pending the sign New responsibilities at interim stops (assembly centres, y and business dynamism. Interim target dates are less tha and) had already met the interim target of 0.33% of gross n Parliament time in the interim to react to today's bluep Per capita (28 occorrenze), Per – capita (1 occorrenza): by the head, for each person, individually. ad to lower regional GDP per capita. &and one fifth of th ons are defined by a GDP per capita below 75% of the EU avera in Belgium recorded GDP per capita below 75% of the EU15 ave of the difference in GDP per capita between the EU and the US . The result is that GDP per capita can be overestimated in t chasing Power Standard), per capita expenditure also varied w Member States. In 2000, per capita expenditure was under 500 average In 2001, GDP per capita1, expressed in terms of p erage per year much less per capita FDI (EUR 80) than the acc in some regions the GDP per capita figures can be significan moment Turkey's average per capita GDP is 20% of the EU aver ncern those regions with per capita GDP less than 75% of the

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oposed for regions where per capita GDP would have been below ranking of regional GDP per capita in 2001 were Inner London of this average. GDP per capita in the 41 level-2 regions . Regional GDP per capita in the EU and the Accedin verage. Regional GDP per capita in the EU in 2001 The has quadrupled and world per capita income has more than doub the vast gains in world per capita income, over 50 countries the Accession countries. Per capita incomes are around 60% be GDP absolute, sadly, not per capita is roughly level with tha ed Union will have a GDP per capita of only 31% of the total ural employment, and GDP per capita of the country. Wales h ean countries with a GDP per capita one quarter that of the c valent to around EUR 130 per capita or 5.4% of regional GDP, e lowest R&D expenditure per capita (the Baltic States, Bulga y 31% of the average GDP per capita. The most prosperous regi atin America three times per capita what we provide in Asian

Ad hoc (17 occorrenze), ad-hoc (4 occorrenze): for this specific purpose sider the presentation of an 'ad hoc' legislative proposal aimed a comed the establishment of an ad hoc Human Rights Tribunal on East 2002, the Commission approved ad hoc rescue and restructuring aid rtive of competition, such as ad hoc aid for individual companies by the French authorities as ad hoc aid that has been assessed in t the UN (CTC, 6th Committee, Ad Hoc Committee, UNODC, and the UN ntinue in a newly established ad hoc group of the Pharmaceutical C ontrolling disease is largely ad hoc. For example, the small EU te y the Commission and based on ad hoc cooperation between Member St alf of the European Union on ad hoc Human Rights Tribunal for cri used by the UK has relied on ad hoc reports announcing the design ntion to organise periodical ad hoc evaluations of developments i nd has a leading role in the ad hoc Group on Earth Observation (G ast verdict delivered by the ad hoc tribunal on August the 5th, h e was not brought before the ad hoc tribunal, and reiterates once her meetings. However, these ad hoc meetings do not necessarily c iland) are conducted through ad hoc arrangements for Senior Offic to continue to consider also ad-hoc assistance to ongoing African erring beyond bi-lateral and ad-hoc arrangements. The recent re g. This may take the form of ad-hoc funding, subsidies for co-pro cts were provided to the TSE Ad-hoc group to serve as input for t Per annum (14 occorrenze): each year desk visitors by about 16,000 per annum. The design of a Danish ci d increased from about 28 500 per annum to about 58 500. The appli ly between 1991 and 1998 (10% per annum), but its share of total E

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t growth is estimated at 0.2% per annum. HICP inflation is forecas account for over ¬25 billion per annum (599 cases with full finan 002. A maximum of ¬ 1 billion per annum can be made available thro ts holders of over ¬2 billion per annum. Some 85 million counterfe my, with a turnover of ¬250bn per annum. It is a vital component o de available through the EUSF per annum. To qualify for aid unde ,averaging some ¬130 million per annum over the past ten years. T average growth rate of 1,8% per annum for the period 2000-2030 f real GDP growth rates of 6% per annum, by developing sustainable s the two million passengers per annum threshold laid down in Dir one quarter percentage point per annum lower. The central macro-e Ex ante (7 occorrenze), ex-ante (3 occorrenze): before the event s under merger control are ex ante by definition, and offer a wid legislation will roll back ex ante regulation as competition beco r operators are faced with ex ante regulation or find themselves latory process by limiting ex ante regulation to what is strictly limiting thus the scope of ex ante regulation to areas where comp latory process by limiting ex ante regulation to what is strictly tion is, by definition, an ex ante type of intervention. Remedies budgetary constraints, for ex-ante and ex-post evaluation of thei d change we will apply an "ex-ante" approach. The revised draft r e to _develop the use of _ex-ante_ and _ex-post_ evaluations of Status quo (8 occorrenze): the existing condition or state of affairs. those who are unable to admit that status quo equals paralysis fo especially against maintaining the status quo as regards resource no option including maintaining the status quo has yet been exclud hing our farmers by sticking to the status quo in circumstances wh er. All options from preserving the status quo to a complete repea nd it. Should we continue with the status quo, or should we bring several scenarios: Maintaining the status quo, which would mean o tive. He was against preserving the status quo. "Experience in rec Ex-post (4 occorrenze), ex post (3 occorrenze): after the event, from a deed afterwards. ion or find themselves involved in ex post antitrust proceedings, monitoring will take place through ex post reporting obligations. for management and subject only to ex post control by the Commissi etary constraints, for ex-ante and ex-post evaluation of their aid _develop the use of _ex-ante_ and _ex-post_ evaluations of individ shall finalise our analysis of the ex-post evaluation of structura he block exemption strengthens the ex-post reporting obligations o De-facto (3 occorrenze), de facto (1 occorrenza): really existing, although not legally stated to exist. pproval and was maintaining a de-facto _moratorium_ on new GM vari

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etween Cyprus and the EC. The de-facto division of the island has e Cuban authorities broke the de-facto moratorium on the death pen h they have been allocated. A de facto market has developed in the De minimis (3 occorrenze): minimal, kept within defined minimal levels (in particular in EU Competition Law, companies which indulge in anti-competitive practices, but which have a market share of under 5% often escape censure by the European Commission because such activities are regarded as de minimis). onal food. It introduces a 1% de minimis threshold for the adventi l. Although we already have a de minimis rule, I would like us to umping margin would have been de minimis or even negative and, the Prosecutor (3 occorrenze): a lawyer whose job is to prove in court that someone accused of a crime is guilty. Pavol Hrusovsky and the General Prosecutor, Mr. Dobroslav Trnka. A e creation of a European Public Prosecutor was widely debated thre result provisions on the public prosecutor were integrated into th Sine qua non (2 occorrenze): without which not, something absolutely indispensable. and competitive industry is a sine qua non condition to achieve th 's prudential regulation is a sine qua non to improving bilateral Res Judicata (2 occorrenze): an issue already adjudged upon. of the finality of judgments (res judicata) cannot be applied as a e ground that the doctrine of res judicata precluded the upholding Sine die (2 occorrenze): without any fixed date. 2003 in Lisbon was postponed sine die by the Council. This does n er Iraq, and the postponement sine die of any decision over entry Prima facie (2 occorrenze): at first appearance, apparent, self-evident, legally sufficient to establish a fact unless disproved. n considered that there was a prima facie case of behaviour consti nd there are no grounds which prima facie preclude the Community l Ad valorem (1 occorrenza): according to value, ‘ad valorem’ tax is a tax levied in proportion to the thing being taxed. fic amount per cigarette, plus an ad valorem component in proporti Amicus curiae (1 occorrenza): a friend of the court, a person assisting the court (in EU terminology, Amicus curiae briefs, known also as “friend of the court submissions”, permit interested non-parties who believe that they can contribute to a court’s understanding of a problem, to make submissions directly to a tribunal.) initiative, observations ("amicus curiae" submissions). These mean

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Ante-mortem (1 occorrenza): occurring or done before death. TSEs. All sheep also undergo ante-mortem inspection by a veterinar A posteriori (1 occorrenza): using knowledge, evidence or experience to make a judgement or decision about something that has already happened. of goods who have reimbursed a posteriori money-off vouchers used Caveat (1 occorrenza): an explanation to prevent misinterpretation; a legal warning to a judicial officer to suspend a proceeding until the opposition has a hearing. of the Revised TACA, with the caveat that some aspects of the Revi Habeas data (1 occorrenza): The literal translation from Latin of ‘Habeas Data’ is 'you should have the data' and it describes its nature very accurately. Habeas Data is a constitutional right granted in several countries in Latin America. It is designed to protect, by means of an individual complaint presented to a constitutional court, the image, privacy, honour, information self-determination and freedom of information of a person. itutional recognition of the "habeas data" right, legal norms regu Non bis in idem (1 occorrenza): it is a principle according to which a person who has already been tried may not be prosecuted or fined for the same conduct. e finds that the principle of non bis in idem, according to which Pro forma (1 occorrenza): made or carried out in a perfunctory manner or as a formality; a standard document with questions or information on it. (a pro forma invoice is a quotation that tells a customer how much a particular piece of work would cost). authorities and, in some cases, pro forma registration. Under the Pro rata (1 occorrenza): proportionate division according to interest. nt of the award of a French pension pro rata. Again in 1988, the Pro-tempore (1 occorrenza): for the time being or temporarily. currently holding the Presidency pro-tempore of the Andean Communi

3.4 Acronimi

Un’altra caratteristica comune a tutte le lingue speciali è l’uso frequente di acronimi e di abbreviazioni. Un’analisi del corpus ha mostrato che il sample di Euro-English non ne è esente; al contrario si nota una presenza massiccia di acronimi che in molti casi non sono sciolti e ciò potrebbe rivelarsi come un

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ostacolo alla comprensione da parte di lettori esterni, magari appartenenti ad un pubblico non esperto.

Lo schema che segue, mostra una lista di acronimi e di abbreviazioni presenti in ECPREC, ordinati per numero di occorrenze.

GDP 428: Gross Domestic Product; EIB 330: European Investment Bank; CAP 198: Common Agricultural Policy; ACP 126: African Caribbean and Pacific (countries); EUROSTAT 122: European Statistical Office; ECHO 105: European Commission Humanitarian Office; EDF 78: European Development Fund; ICT 75: Information and Communication Technology; R&D 72: Research and Development; OECD 68: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; EFTA 57: European Free Trade Association; ASEAN 53: Associated South Asian Nations; ESA 53: European Space Agency; GSP 41: General System of Preferences; CFP 38: Common Fisheries Policy; JRC 31: Joint Research Centre; ESF 30: European Social Fund; CFSP 28: Common Foreign and Security Policy; TRIPs 24: Trade-Related Intellectual Property Issues; EP 20: European Parliament; ERASMUS 20: European Action Scheme for the Mobility of University

Students; EAGGF 18: European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund; BSCA 17 : Brussels South Charleroi Airport ; INTERREG 16 : Interregional (co-operation) ; TACIS 15 : Technical Assistance to CIS, that is Commonwealth of

Independent States; BIOBIZ 12: Bio Business (it is a specific support action and aims at

providing European scientists with the knowledge and tools to create new companies in the life science and biotechnology sector);

GATT 10: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade; ERDF 8: European Regional Development Fund; TAC 8: Total Allowable Catch (Fisheries); EURATOM 7: European Atomic Energy;

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UNHCR 7: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees; SAPARD 6: Special Accession Programme for Agricultural and Rural

Development; UNCTAD 5: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development; FADN 4: Farming Accountancy Data Network; MEP 4: Member of the European Parliament; ECSC 3: European Coal and Steel Community; CSCE 2: Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe; ECAC 2: European Civil Aviation Conference; CEA 2: Confederation of European Agriculture; UNRWA 2: United Nations Relief and Work Agency; ESC 2: Economic and Social Committee; ESO 1: European Southern Observatory.

Si è deciso di riportare di seguito alcuni stralci di comunicati stampa per provare quanto possa essere difficile comprendere notizie in cui si leggono acronimi non sciolti. Gli esempi mostrati riguardano in particolare tre sigle, tra le più frequenti in ECPREC: CAP(198 occorrenze), ACP(126 occorrenze) e R&D(72 occorrenze).

CAP (Common Agricultural Policy)

Brussels, 23 September 2003

Commission opens discussion to reform the EU sugar regime

… Franz Fischler, Commissioner for Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries, said: “Following the June 2003 CAP reform for major agricultural sectors, the time has come to consider how we can make the present EU sugar sector more market orientated and economically, environmentally and socially more sustainable.” …

… To soften the effects of the reduction in the EU sugar prices, this scenario also looked at the possibility of allowing sugar producers to benefit from the single farm payment, in line with the June 2003 CAP reform. …

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… The Communication "Accomplishing a sustainable agricultural model for Europe through the reformed CAP - the tobacco, olive oil, cotton and sugar sectors", adopted by the Commission today, will be available on the internet. …

ACP (African Caribbean and Pacific)

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 17 February 2004

ACP EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly

… The proposal reflects burden sharing among African ACP States who contributed from their national programmes and the solidarity of the ACP Group which contributed unallocated funds for regional co-operation. …

… The Council is still considering the Commission's proposal to fully integrate the EDF into the Community budget. €700.000 million are already being spent annually in the ACP countries from the EU budget. If this proposal is accepted, we will wish to make a series of changes to Cotonou to reflect the management practices of the Community budget. It is our intention to maintain the strengths of Cotonou, the poverty focus, ownership and an inclusive dialogue. At the same time we want to establish parliamentary accountability, the principle that aid for the ACP is an integral part of the Union's development policy and the management benefits of a single aid administration system. …

… In the long term, the best protection for ACP funding is using the money quickly and well. …

… This is no time to ease off, but the EDF has a better record on certain measures than a number of other geographical programmes managed by the Commission. We are getting to a point where aid to ACP could hold its own in a fully integrated Community budget. …

R&D (Research and Development)

Brussels, 16 March 2004

Commission approves R&D aid for Altis Semiconductor in France

… The aid is intended to promote R&D activities. It was therefore assessed in the light of the criteria in the Community framework for state aid for research and development.

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The work programme notified by the French authorities comprises activities forming part of each of the three stages of research as defined in Annex I to the R&D framework …

… The independent expert considers, moreover, that 90 nm MRAM technology and copper interconnects suited to that technology have yet to reach the market place. Pursuant to point 6.2 of the R&D framework, it must be shown that the state aid will induce the company to pursue more research than it would otherwise have pursued:

First of all, the aid granted by the authorities is decisive to the carrying out of the project within Altis inasmuch as Altis's own resources would not have been sufficient to fund such an ambitious R&D project. …

… Fourthly, the independent expert has confirmed that the decision by IBM and Infineon to set up the research centre in question could not have been taken without state aid. In relation to this investment, Altis has submitted a comprehensive R&D project which includes the creation of a think tank based on its research laboratory. …

3.5 Figure retoriche

“The EU is like an orchestra in which the violins must play in perfect unison while maintaining a dialogue with the wind instruments and even interacting with the percussionists, who occasionally burst in loudly as they do in Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. At the same time, they are occasionally overshadowed by the violas, but play a key role in creating the power and beauty of that piece of music, which was played splendidly in front of the Brandenburg Gate, in Berlin, when the Wall was taken down”. (Giugno 2003 - Da un discorso di Romano Prodi)

L’ultimo aspetto che si è deciso di indagare, relativo al lessico dei comunicati stampa dell’UE, riguarda la presenza forte in ECPREC di figure retoriche, in particolare metonimie e metafore, che hanno lo scopo di legare concetti/provvedimenti/decisioni ad immagini precise o a nomi in modo da essere sintetici e soprattutto attenti a rispettare una delle regole fondamentali di qualsiasi lingua speciale, ossia la monoreferenzialità.

Il brano che segue è tratto da un discorso tenuto a Londra dal Commissario Europeo per il Commercio in data 28 ottobre 2003:

The EU, Cancun and the Future of the Doha Development Agenda.

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“…at a time when we all frankly thought that Cancun would work. But it did not. And now that we are officially in the "post Cancun" period, I rather thought it would be more interesting for this audience to set out my own reflections on where matters stand, and where they should move to next. As I hope you will see, the connection with issues of governance is by no means negligible. Who killed Cancun ? Although the statute of limitations for analysis of what happened in Cancun has nearly expired, it remains the starting point. It is impossible to start to tackle the basic choices about what to do next unless we understand that the explanations about what happened in Cancun fall into two broad groups. The first group of explanations suggests that Cancun was an accident. Two cars, or three cars, or indeed 148 cars, collided on the way to a wedding. Casualty levels still not clear. Road currently blocked, but the police are on the way with heavy lifting equipment. And when the road is clear, providing everyone can still remember the way to the wedding, and providing that everyone is still in the mood, well, then maybe we can still go, there'll still be plenty to eat and drink. Of course, rather than my own rather clumsy, indeed tawdry, metaphor, there are plenty of good historical antecedents for this theory that accidents can have major impacts on history. … In Cancun terms, this sort of "explanation of the fates" suggests that we were sort of on track, we might have made it, and we were just a long night's negotiation away from success. The second set of explanations play down the sense of Cancun as an accident, except in the sense of an accident waiting to happen”. Chiunque leggesse questi estratti, da persona ‘esterna’, avrebbe di certo molta

difficoltà a capire di cosa si stia parlando, considerato che il testo è saturo di strani riferimenti (metonimici) alla città di Cancun (segnalati in grassetto) e che contiene una lunga metafora (in corsivo) che racconta di un incidente stradale che coinvolge ben 148 autovetture dirette ad un matrimonio. Al contrario, un ascoltatore o lettore ‘interno’ non avrebbe nessun problema ad interpretare le parole del Commissario, poiché saprebbe che Cancun in Messico è stata la sede di un importante meeting ministeriale (settembre 2003) del WTO (World Trade Organisation) la cui questione centrale riguardava i Paesi in via di sviluppo.

Un’obiezione scontata da parte di un ‘extra – UE’ potrebbe essere che, se si decide di inserire un discorso del genere tra i comunicati stampa, i quali dovrebbero tendere a ‘raccontare’ i fatti dell’Unione a chi ne è fuori, allora bisognerebbe fornire delle spiegazioni, delle note che offrano chiarimenti sul tema dibattuto per non lasciare il lettore a domandarsi cosa c’entrino matrimoni, incidenti e assassini con l’Unione Europea, soprattutto se si considera che le metafore e le metonimie presenti nel campione sono di numero molto elevato.

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Le metonimie rintracciate nel corpus si riferiscono soprattutto a nomi di luoghi in cui si sono prese importanti decisioni e se ne prendono ancora35. Gli esempi che si pongono qui all’attenzione sono: Brussels (707 occorrenze), Cancun (150 occorrenze), Doha (114), Kyoto (112 occorrenze), Bologna (27 occorrenze), Singapore (24) e Schengen (9 occorrenze) e di ognuno si mostreranno due esempi significativi dai comunicati stampa del corpus.

Brussels:

Giugno 2004 “… I am currently giving all my energy and commitment to Europe. From Brussels, you can both love Europe and love and better understand your own country of origin. Italy founded Europe, planned it and shaped it. And it is about to preside over it at a crucial period for its future. …”. Gennaio 2004 “… Vice-President Loyola de Palacio launched the European Road Safety Charter on 29 January 2004 in presence of the President of the Transport Council of Ministers, Seamus Brennan, and with the personal support of Ari Vatanen, MEP. Announced in 2003 in the European Road Safety Action Programme, the purpose of the Charter is to integrate civil society in the endeavour to reach the EU target of halving the number of road deaths by 2010. "I would like to call on all stakeholders to join our efforts and contribute to saving 20 000 lives on European roads. Road safety is a shared responsibility." said Loyola de Palacio to an audience of approximately 150 representatives of the major Brussels-based road transport stakeholders. …” Cancun: Gennaio 2004 Multilateral Trade Regime in post-Cancun Perspective “…And received wisdom number three: that Europe, shell-shocked by the disaster in Cancun, hasn't moved, won't move and can't move. First of all, Cancun, while a severe disappointment to virtually all the members of the WTO, need not be a disaster. …” Settembre 2003 “… The Council also underlined the desirability of deciding at Cancun specific measures to assist the least developed countries, as a concrete response to the proposals made by the least developed countries at their Ministerial meeting in Dhaka in June 2003, including the elimination of all tariffs and quantitative restrictions by all developed countries on all products from the least developed

35 E’ chiaro che il numero delle occorrenze di questi nomi non sempre coincide con il numero di metonimie, per la ragione che gli elementi selezionati non sono sempre usati in maniera metonimica. Ad esempio, ‘Cancun’ può essere usato anche nel senso semplice di città del Messico.

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countries. … Sixth, the Council noted that Cancun also needed to establish the modalities for the Singapore issues, thus ensuring the prompt formal launch of the negotiations agreed at Doha. The Council stressed that the launch of negotiations on all four of the Singapore issues at Cancun was necessary in order to preserve the principle of the single undertaking. …” Doha: Gennaio 2004 “The Doha Development Agenda … The trend towards bilateral trade deals was in fact apparent already before Cancun. For our part, the EU has launched no new FTA negotiations since Doha, although we have continued to work hard on our existing mandates, such as on Mercosur. … The question we posed was whether the EU should switch to the bilateral road as a priority: the conclusion we drew is that in order not to undermine progress in the DDA we should be careful not to shift the balance significantly further towards bilateralism. … The third issue concerned the best means to further the developmental objectives of the WTO and the Doha agenda. … Of course, it is all very well for the EU to be flexible, but we all know that the EU cannot achieve the success of the DDA alone. …” Gennaio 2004 “… The current on-again, offagain phase in the negotiations of the Doha Round seems to be moving back to an 'on again' stage. … Secondly, we need to measure the effort we are ready to put into the negotiations against what we all committed ourselves to in the first place the Doha Declaration. Re-opening a discussion on the Doha agenda has seemed totally counterproductive. … And since the Americans are rightly concerned about the developing countries, I assume that they wish to talk about ALL forms of export competition, not just Europe's. This is after all the clear Doha mandate, explicit in the inclusion of all forms of support for exports. Less clear is the timetable for making reductions and whether complete elimination is the aim. The Doha mandate is also about export credits and surplus disposal in the guise of "food aid", as well as export monopolies and the use of export taxes. …” Kyoto: Luglio 2003 “…Under the Kyoto Protocol, Joint Implementation (JI) and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) will allow industrialised countries to achieve part of their emission reduction commitments by conducting emission-reducing

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projects abroad and counting the reductions achieved toward their own commitments. JI will allow for projects in other industrialised countries with Kyoto targets, while CDM will take place in countries without targets, i.e. developing countries. … The Commission's proposal takes into account the obligation for Parties to the Kyoto Protocol to achieve a significant part of their Kyoto targets through emission reductions in the European Union, so that the use of the Kyoto flexible mechanisms is supplementary to domestic efforts. …”. Luglio 2003 "… After a painful period of restructuring, European steel is now better, cheaper and cleaner stated Commissioner Busquin. However, the sector now needs an additional effort to become even more efficient and competitive, particularly in the face of the challenges of international competition and the Kyoto commitments. … The European steel industry will have to face up to a number of challenges in the decades to come, including: continuing progress on environmental protection, conservation of raw materials (recycling, use of by-products, reduction of emissions), greater energy efficiency and in particular the massive reduction of CO2 emissions through the development of new revolutionary technologies to meet post Kyoto commitments. …” . Bologna: Maggio 2003 “… The Bologna process is an attempt to coordinate these responses through a package of structural reforms, notably the introduction of the two cycle system, credit transfer and quality assurance. … The Bologna Declaration adopted by the Higher Education Ministers in June 1999 has set in motion a series of reforms badly needed to make European higher education more coherent, more competitive and more attractive for European citizens and for students and scholars from abroad. … The Bologna reforms are supported enthusiastically by the Commission. In fact, the Bologna agenda coincides with Commission policy in higher education, supported consistently over the years through programmes such as Socrates-Erasmus. In our Action Plan 'From Prague to Berlin, the EU Contribution', you will find a series of concrete measures to bring the Bologna process further, and to help modernise European higher education. Let's have a look at some of the key issues of Bologna. … Bologna cannot be implemented à la carte, it has to be done across the board and wholeheartedly. If not, the process will leave European higher education even less united than before. …”

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Maggio 2003 “ … I have read with great interest the Commission supported 'TRENDS III Report' and I congratulate the EUA and the authors with this work. The draft report describes, in all honesty, the level of awareness or lack of awareness of Bologna reforms and the degree of their implementation. It shows that Bologna is gaining ground and that some countries and institutions have made remarkable progress. In too many cases, however, reforms are so far only plans or promises, without real steps to implement them. … It also means that the signatory states should do their 'Bologna homework' and set clear targets. For example: all signatory states should have started implementing the two cycles by 2005 (six years after Bologna). …” Singapore: Luglio 2003 EU Member States have adopted a set of conclusions setting out the EU's views on the upcoming WTO Ministerial Conference in Cancun in September 2003, a half-way point in the negotiations under the Doha Development Agenda. … The conclusions highlight: … Singapore issues: stresses the need to launch negotiations on all four issues, ie competition, investment, trade facilitation and transparency in public procurement. …”. Gennaio 2004 … “Most of the time, I hear scepticism over here as to rules-making. But animal welfare? Environment? And of course, then there are the Singapore issues: should the EU retain its commitment to push, within the Single Undertaking, for binding multilateral negotiations on the four Singapore issues: investment, competition, trade facilitation and transparency in government procurement. I cannot yet answer this question. Should we continue to insist on negotiations on all four? On the face of it, this would be quite reasonable as a matter of principle. Despite the commitment to negotiate all WTO members made at Doha, we in the EU offered to drop two of the Singapore issues in Cancun. Some other Member States, [including Malaysia], showed some interest in such an approach, but others did not. Ultimately, given that the whole Cancun package fell flat, we would be perfectly justified in holding on to our existing position. Alternatively, we might recognise that full political support for Singapore issues remains elusive. …”

Schengen:

Febbraio 2004

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“… A so-called Schengen Facility of 858 M € for 2004-2006 has also been established to help seven of the new Member States to finance actions at the new external borders of the Union for the implementation of the Schengen acquis and external border control. We are in the process of establishing guidelines to help the beneficiary countries to identify eligible actions. …” . Gennaio 2004 “ … The Memorandum of Understanding on Approved Destination Status, which was initialled during the 30 October 2003 EU-China Summit in Beijing, is the largest ADS agreement ever concluded by China and will facilitate Chinese tourist group's access to most Member States of the European Union. With the visas given by the consular offices of these Member States, Chinese tourist groups will be allowed to freely travel within these countries. Schengen visas will be delivered by the current Schengen countries and national visas by the acceding countries until the date they are allowed to join the Schengen area. …”

Se da un lato le metonimie possono essere considerate delle ‘scorciatoie’ funzionali, nel senso che permettono di capire immediatamente di cosa si stia parlando anche con l’uso di una sola parola (Cancun, Brussels ecc.), dall’altro le metafore sembrerebbero non avere molto a che fare con le lingue speciali, di cui si dice spesso che debbano avere come caratteristiche principali monoreferenzialità e mancanza di stile, proprio per essere considerate scientifiche e non lasciare spazio a dubbi interpretativi. Gianfranco Porcelli36 scrive a questo proposito:

One characteristic trait often attributed to ESP is ‘lack of style’, in the sense that the writer’s37 personality should not reveal itself through peculiar, idiosyincratic choices in vocabulary, phraseology, word order and so on.

Ma le metafore sembrano essere molto legate al mondo politico ed

economico internazionale. E’ molto facile, infatti, che dibattiti e discorsi di carattere politico siano intrisi di metafore e la ragione che spiegherebbe questo fenomeno in apparenza contraddittorio è che la metafora è uno strumento pragmatico particolarmente efficace che sostiene la comunicazione, o meglio:

Metaphors are a very powerful and efficient device both for cognition, i.e. to understand a phenomenon, and for communicative interaction, i.e. to

36 Porcelli G., 1998, The English of Communication and Information Sciences, Milano, Sugarco, p. 10 37 Con il sostantivo writer Porcelli intende chiunque produca lingua, sia in modo scritto che orale.

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communicate an idea and to structure an argument. Metaphors are in fact basic models for thought processes in human society38.

E’ bene qui aprire una piccola parentesi riguardo alla pragmatica per

ricordarne uno dei principi basilari, introdotto da Paul Grice39, il quale individua delle massime che sono alla base di una comunicazione collaborativa che andrebbe incontro a fallimento se anche uno dei quattro sotto principi venisse meno. Il principio generale, detto di cooperazione, recita: “Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”. E, a seguire, citiamo le quattro massime che compongono tale principio:

Quantity Give the right amount of information i.e. 1. Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchanhe); 2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. Quality Try to make your contribution one that is true i.e. 1. Do not say what you believe to be false. 2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Relation Be relevant. Manner Be perspicuous i.e. 1. Avoid obscurity of expression. 2. Avoid ambiguity. 3. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). 4. Be orderly. Dando anche una rapida occhiata alle massime di Grice, verrebbe subito da

pensare che l’Eurolingua che si sta esaminando non ne rispetti neanche una! Ma ciò non corrisponde al vero in quanto dobbiamo sempre distinguere tra

comunicazione interna e comunicazione esterna; qualsiasi microlingua si rivolge ad un pubblico ‘selezionato’: un testo altamente specialistico potrà essere compreso appieno da un tecnico del settore, ma lasciare molti dubbi ad un lettore estraneo. Da qui la conferma che la lingua istituzionale d’Europa rispetta il principio di cooperazione se la consideriamo ad un livello ‘intra-europeo’ e ‘inter-europeo’, dove per ‘europeo’ si intende relativo agli Stati Membri dell’UE.

Ritornando al discorso sulle metafore, però, ci sembra che, sebbene alcune di esse possano essere considerate funzionali ed utili a capire meglio un concetto, altre paiono essere complicate e superflue. Un’analisi di ECPREC in questa direzione ha mostrato una presenza molto elevata di metafore e similitudini che appartengono a campi semantici specifici, quali la famiglia, i sentimenti, la

38 Schäffner C., 1996, «Building a European House? Or at Two Speeds into a Dead End? Metaphors in the Debate on the United Europe», in Musolff A., Schäffner C., Townson M., Conceiving of Europe: Diversity in Unity, Vermont, Dartmouth Publishing Company, p. 31 39 Grice P., 1989, Study in the Way of Words, Harvard, Harvard University Press.

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musica, il mito, la religione, gli animali, l’architettura, il mare, i motori, lo sport, il gioco, le parti del corpo umano ecc.

Si è deciso di raggruppare tutte le metafore e similitudini incontrate, nei campi semantici su indicati e, per ogni ambito si forniranno di seguito degli estratti dal corpus per dare prova della quantità ‘industriale’ di tali figure retoriche in ECPREC. Famiglia / Parentela / Sentimenti / Persone / Casa

“I hope that welcoming the countries of the former Soviet Empire, cut off from us for forty years by walls and tanks and barbed wire, back into the European family will have as much appeal to hearts at least in those countries that are coming home”.

“If the mother of the G20 is agriculture, the father is clearly geopolitics”. “It is for you to “set a good example” and show that the goal can be reached if

the political will is there and you are ready to follow in the footsteps of Europe's founding fathers”.

“The Commission's investigation indicated that the creation of the Joint venture will in no way disadvantage the parties' aggregates customers (ready-mixed concrete competitors) or lead to co-ordination between its parents”.

“He said: Protect the world so that I, a child of our times, can see the things you saw when you were children. Don't take away from me the wonders of the Earth!”.

“It is of curse a longstanding topic of debate in economic and legal circles how to marry the innovation bride and the competition groom. In the past some have argued that such a marriage will unavoidably lead to divorce because of conflicting aims of IPR law and competition law. But I think that by now most will agree that for a dynamic and prosperous society we need both innovation and competition. I therefore firmly belief in this marriage and, like in all good marriages, the real question is how to achieve a good balance between both policies”.

I suppose we could call the character issue effete Europe versus virile America. There are, of course, differences between us. We are at once cousins and strangers.

“So it is non surprise that we have become experts in finding sustainable, long-term solutions to complex situations involving a multitude of players. We are born multilateralists.

- “It guarantees that the use of a name will remain attached to a region and to the community that saw its birth”.

“OK: our mothers are probably disappointed that "we went into trade" rather than diplomacy. But indeed our own mothers would be forced to admit, perhaps, that neither of us is a natural diplomat. But never mind. Perhaps even Donald Rumsfeld's mum feels the same way”.

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“We weren’t trying just to ram through more of the same, and dress it up in fine development clothing. And the risk was and is that we thereby increase the cynicism which inevitably surrounds multilateral negotiations.

“Unless corruption is stamped out at all levels, the reform process is doomed to stumble steadily from failure to collapse”.

This package in other words will lead, and that is my strong conviction, to a happy marriage also in Europe of innovation and competition policy and to further convergence between us and the United States.

But it is also a Union of diversity. In culture, language, and ethnic origin. A Community which seeks to embrace all its peoples in its common goals.

“If America recognises that mighty as she is, she cannot cope alone with the threats to her prosperity and security drugs, organised crime, terrorism, epidemic disease, terror technology, collapsing and already failed states, dispossession and alienation then it should be pretty clear that Europe is the best partner in fashioning responses to these threats, not least through the United Nations. The most neophyte of neo-conservatives should surely by now understand that America cannot think first of itself and only if strictly necessary of others. As President Kennedy once argued, "The United States is neither omnipotent nor omniscient… there cannot be an American solution to every world problem".

Salute / Parti del corpo

“The European Union also suffers from being thought to be the political product of an elite, something foisted on the hewers of wood and the drawers of water. This is not a uniquely British feeling”.

I have decided that, after ten years, it is time for new blood and new ideas in agricultural policy”.

“The transatlantic relationship is alive and kicking, it is stronger than some would have us believe, and -- last but not least -- there is no attractive alternative”.

“If that is achieved, the European project and, with it, the benefits of the internal market - will gain the vigorous impetus that is needed to close the social and economic gaps that exist among regions in Europe by advance across the whole Union”.

“If they are, Europe's potential can be realised and apart from other benefits multinationals here will put down deeper roots and other capital will be magnetised by the available skills and the evident vitality. Delay or dithering in pursuit of the Lisbon objectives will have the opposite effect”.

“In other areas where Mr Brown's speeches might have left the impression that we are blazing a trail, we in fact lag behind some of our allegedly sclerotic neighbours. Thus, four member states have a lower unemployment rate than Britain's admirably modest level”.

“Simone de Beauvoir returned from a visit to the United States in 1946 horrified that Americans appeared to approve "of all Truman's speeches. Their anti-Communism bordered on neurosis; their attitude towards Europe, towards France, was one of arrogant condescension”.

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“More than 2/3 of people expect a paralysis of European institutions in the absence of a Constitution. 62% want their country to make concessions to secure an agreement. 59% agree that Member States who wish to deepen their cooperation can do so without waiting for all other Member States”.

“International trade of coffee is almost liberalised, but the excess of production has led to a worldwide collapse of prices”.

“But, as I said last week before the European Parliament, if efforts in this direction were to become bogged down, it would clearly be impossible to remain passive, simply looking at the complete paralysis of the European Institutions”.

“I want to say this as a wake-up call for the members of the Convention. We cannot let ourselves become victims or hostages of a text that fails to propose solutions, that threatens to paralyse Europe”.

“After a poor performance in 2002, the weakness of economic activity continued throughout the first half of 2003”.

“Yet a half-hearted reform, one which will continue to attract criticism in Europe and internationally and see the CAP further picked to pieces, would help neither the farmers, nor the taxpayers, nor the consumers. The only outcome of a mini-reform would be to trigger another round of discussions a few more years down the road. This is why I am throwing all my weight behind a comprehensive reform now, one which repairs the defects of the CAP and thereby strengthens it", Fischler maintained”.

“But we cannot rest on our laurels. Important measures remain on the table. Time is short. We only have 9 months before the European Parliament gears up for its elections. A 9-month gestation period in which to prove that Europe can get its act together and agree the remaining Action Plan measures”.

“The first group of explanations suggests that Cancun was an accident. Two cars, or three cars, or indeed 148 cars, collided on the way to a wedding. Casualty levels still not clear. Road currently blocked, but the police are on the way with heavy lifting equipment. And when the road is clear, providing everyone can still remember the way to the wedding, and providing that everyone is still in the mood, well, then maybe we can still go, there'll still be plenty to eat and drink”.

“The pattern of recovery is still uneven: the robust growth of Argentina and Costa Rica, contrasts with less dynamic conditions in Brazil and Mexico. Much needs to be done to transform hesitant recovery into sustainable growth, in particular by building on the substantial economic and regulatory reforms of the 1990s. Obstacles to trade especially by small and medium enterprises still remain in many sectors”.

“The cry of pain from the poorest countries in the South is becoming ever more deafening. The South is also the mirror of our policy. And the image it is reflecting should set us thinking and acting in different ways”.

“After a painful period of restructuring, European steel is now better, cheaper and cleaner" stated Commissioner Busquin. "However, the sector now needs an additional effort to become even more efficient and competitive,

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particularly in the face of the challenges of international competition and the Kyoto commitments”.

“Here in the heart of the Community institutions, you all contribute to enriching the diversity of experience, languages and cultures that is our great asset. Indeed, diversity is one of Europe's distinctive features of which I am proudest”.

“The main objectives of the PF will be to: (i) promote African solutions to African crises by providing the African Union with the “financial muscle” to back up its political resolve with concrete acts; (ii) encourage African solidarity”.

“The UK has already acted recently and I was delighted to see shareholders in the UK flexing their newly acquired muscles as regards, to borrow Patricia Hewitt's words, "rewards for failure", in GSK”.

“Consumers and businesses in the EU benefit from the opportunity of buying and selling for the best price and quality. They should not be forced to pay more or settle for lower service quality only because the payment leg for the Internal Market is less developed”.

“Simply pointing the finger at EU export refunds as the way to revive the agricultural part of the DDA is rather biased, when you realise as my examples show that other forms of export promotion are also on the increase rather than declining”.

“Europe wonders whether it will be able to keep its hand on the levers of change and continue to shape this globalisation or whether it will confine itself to accepting the situation and protecting itself against the dangers. We need only to listen to the questions on our citizens' lips”.

“If we cannot create the competitive, liquid market that investors need and demand, will they not vote with their feet and look elsewhere?”.

Animali “I have raised the issue on numerous occasions with the SEC, including my last

visit in February this year when I even put my head into the lion's den by visiting the New York Stock Exchange and debating the issue there”.

“The abuse on which the Commission has taken action was designed to take the lion's share of a booming market, at the expense of other competitors”.

“America did not wish to see its recent sacrifice and present involvement negated by another explosion of xenophobic nationalism, by dog-eat-dog protectionism, by continental rivalry and war. So America chivvied and encouraged Europe to tear down its frontier posts, to establish its Coal and Steel Community and its Common Market”.

“Local groups often act as environmental watch-dogs”. “Received wisdom number one: that 2004 is a year for the dogs. No reason for

this to be the case”. “Given the cat's cradle of economic, trading, environmental and other

relationships with Europe, we would fetch up with all the enhanced liberty that

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would accompany absenting ourselves from making the decisions that intimately affect our lives”.

“In the WTO it takes 146 to tango, not just the two big elephants”.

“It suggests that we simply have to get up, brush ourselves down, remount the horse and press ahead regardless with the negotiations, perhaps with a decent down-payment of early concessions up-front to stress our bonne volonté, our determination to bring the Round, come what may, to an early conclusion”.

“The second theory suggests that hard thinking is needed before you jump back on the horse, lest you fall off again, or ride off in the wrong direction. In all honesty, I suggest to you that some serious thinking is needed post-Cancun, and that all sides would benefit from some reflection”.

“All players in the same arena must be able to play by the same ground rules”. “The payments infrastructure should like a well-organised forest be planned,

seeded and maintained carefully together in order not to become a jungle”.

Mito / Religione / Storia / Magia “The strongest appeal to the heart has probably stemmed from the historic act

of reconciliation between France and Germany which was the Union's real genesis”.

“I will start with a real-life example on EIA that may sound like a political fairy tale in which everybody ends up happy. It is about the extension of the Billund airport in the West of Denmark”.

“No, let me rephrase that. We do not have one choice. We can quit Europe. It is not impossible; it would not unleash Biblical plagues on our island; we could doubtless survive”.

“Of course, rather than my own rather clumsy, indeed tawdry, metaphor, there are plenty of good historical antecedents for this theory that accidents can have major impacts on history. The accident of Cleopatra's nose was just too elegant, driving Julius Caesar to madness and war. At least that is what I recall from my careful study of Asterix battling the Romans. Or the accident of the beauty of Helen of Troy was such that it alone could launch a ten year war. Had it not been for her beauty, Odysseus could have stayed at home with his dog, and indeed his wife, thus ruining the basic plot of not one but two rather good books”.

“The battle between Big Tobacco and those whose freedom and well-being they seek to furtively deny, is now a global battle. It is also a battle for the future of the developing world”.

“The Parma Ham denomination dates back to Roman times and has been used in Italy for almost 2000 years. The EU adheres to the “let the best cheese or ham win” but… how can you win the battle if you can't even call your ham “Parma Ham”!

“This is mainly a "domestic" US myth, since for the rest of the world, when it comes to farm policy, the US and the EU have more in common than the average US observer is led to believe”.

“President Bush called America "a nation with the soul of a church", a nation of believers. 95% of Americans proclaim their faith in God. They

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venerate their nation and its symbols with a religious fervour. America the beautiful. They are passionately self-confident, energetic and optimistic one of many reasons why I like them so much. They are self-reliant, too, and largely self-sufficient. They have faith in science, and in the benefits of progress. Their founding myth is almost of Paradise Regained”.

“Much has been made of the planetary aspects of our relationship in the last few months. I believe this story about Venus and Mars is a galactic misunderstanding. And even if you think we live on different planets, don't we orbit the same sun? And aren't we bound by the same principles? In short, as the neo-conservative Robert Kagan argued, Europe is Venus and America Mars. We mistrust science and we doubt progress. We tend towards pessimism. We are cautious and ironic. But surely we are not Venus, more likely the children of Mars. "Is it not possible", asked Anatol Lieven, "that Europe has learned some useful lessons from its terrible history before 1945". And is it not also possible that the United States may learn some useful lessons from its recent martial exploits in the sands of Mesopotamia”.

“And so we must perhaps confront a systemic question: was Cancun really about a north-south confrontation, long coming, barely visible beforehand, a tidal wave of trade resentment blown on the winds of political schism following the Iraq crisis of the last year?”

“Our experience in Europe confirms that draconian measures are necessary to successfully address an ongoing avian flu epidemic in poultry”.

“It is neither "the end of 1,000 years of an independent Britain" nor "a blueprint for tyranny", as some in the UK press would have you believe”.

“From tyrants hiding behind the cloak of sovereign immunity, we have come to an increased willingness to bring even heads of state to justice for their crimes witness the decision last month by the Special Court for Sierra Leone to indict Charles Taylor”.

“We will strengthen our standpoint and be able to support our arguments with clear evidence that we are continuing to practise what we preach, with a policy that meets society's broader needs, while keeping our market open to trade with third countries”.

“Right now, the European aerospace industry is consolidating, setting up major companies to meet the challenge of US giants”.

“The events of the last few months have taught us one thing: until we put an end to our divisions, we will continue to be an economic giant and a political dwarf on the world stage”.

“I am left to wonder, rather, what magic dust has been shaken over a text so roundly rejected in September, to find it so roundly endorsed in October”.

“The problems faced by many commodity dependent developing countries today are acute and potentially very damaging. They can be reduced but there is no magic formula”.

“Even India, once the Jewel in our Crown, has an economy 1.7 times the size of the UK's, with considerably more impressive growth rates”.

“The European Commission has given its blessing to a plan by the UK government to back the transformation of contaminated or brownfield land into clean vacant sites”.

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Gioco / Sport “So it is just as well that I have a strong personal admiration and affection for

Bob, even if his personal best for the marathon is rather better than my own. But then again, I am still running marathons…”.

“It would be the first time in a millennium that we would have chosen to demote ourselves to a lower league”.

“Much progress has been made. Several Member States are in the world top league”.

“Back in 1976, in the midst of the first oil crisis, the Club of Rome was considering that “at the eve of the 21st century, we should consider the juxtaposition of two networks of equal importance: electricity and hydrogen.”

“And the WTO, with its mandatory dispute settlement mechanism, has added a new and more dramatic angle to these stories. It provides winners and losers, and it dishes out fines and censures to those guilty of trade protectionism”.

“The Commission had in March 2002 proposed that temporary agency workers and other staff doing the same job in a user company should, in principle, be given equal treatment - including for pay. The main hurdles to agreement today were : the length of a 'grace period' during which the principle of equal treatment of temps on the question of pay - would not apply”.

“Commenting on today's decision, EU Farm Commissioner Franz Fischler said: "This Unilateral disarmament is not on. The ball is now in the camp of other countries, such as the US, whose agricultural policies continue to be highly trade-distorting and have even become increasingly so”.

“The details need to be worked out but the ball is firmly in the US court”. “So overall a very busy start to the new year, in some ways a bit like a tour

with the Indian cricket team: racing through airports, carrying large bags around, people asking whether you can beat Australia…! Though there the parallel must end. It is a bit less glamorous, the press is somewhat less interested, and if I can extend the metaphor briefly, and honestly, thus far in the Doha Development Agenda, we in the WTO have collectively put rather fewer runs on the board than Sachin Tendulkar and the rest of the gang. But the good news is that the WTO's second innings is yet to come, and we are ready to tame the bowling !”.

“The secret of course to progress is to explain the laws of cricket to the Americans and the French. At that point, the whole DDA will suddenly appear much less complex”.

“The European Union has been a key player in the international negotiations from the very beginning, and we are now sending a clear signal that we are able to honour our commitments”.

“If others had made a similar effort, these negotiations would now be over. But if we are ready to go further than that 55% figure, what is the US ready to put on the table? This isn't a game of poker. But all the same, they need to be ready to show us, and more importantly, to developing countries, the colour of their money, notably in domestic support”.

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“Hence, the new regulatory framework involves forward-looking analysis and periodic reviews. It is not a one-shot game”.

“The EU adheres to the policy of “let the best cheese win” or “let the best wine win”. Yet the EU would like that the game takes place according to fair rules”.

“We cannot claim victory yet, but there is no denying that the picture is no longer the same as it was just three years ago”.

“The recently adopted feed hygiene proposal is a key piece in the puzzle to complete the legislative framework of our 'farm to fork' approach to food safety”.

“A kick-start for the rural economy by providing 57,000 metric tons of improved seed, vaccinating 200,000 animals and rehabilitating 633 irrigation structures”.

Motori / Velocità / Mare “I will not add fuel to that debate except to point out one simple and basic truth

that underlies it”. “The "car crash" theory suggests Cancun was little more than a "small local

difficulty" to quote from an episode - alas, I have forgotten which - from the UK's imperial past”.

To provide an anchor for commitments from civil society, Loyola de Palacio presented for the first time the Commission label which signatories of the Charter may use to promote their actions”.

“And so we must perhaps confront a systemic question: was Cancun really about a north-south confrontation, long coming, barely visible beforehand, a tidal wave of trade resentment blown on the winds of political schism following the Iraq crisis of the last year?”.

“They will take on board the EU openness in external trade: overall, tariffs will decrease from 9% to 4%”.

“Success in Cancun will only happen if all WTO members come on board”. I have to say - and I hope this does not sound too much like the leader of a Boy

Scout troop - that you cannot halt the democratic process in Iran indefinitely. It is like trying to stop the tide coming in”.

“It confirms that on tobacco control, the tide is turning”. “Entrepreneurship has an important economic role as a driver for job creation

and economic growth”. “Yet, efforts to compete on quality would be futile if the main vehicle of our

quality products, GIs, are not adequately protected in international markets. The EU Commission can hardly ask EU farmers to invest in promoting GIs, if anyone would be allowed to use them!”

“The multilateral trading system, which, through its combination of market access provisions and rules and disciplines, is a powerful engine to contribute to economic growth, job creation, development opportunities, poverty reduction, predictability, sustainable development and the management of the challenges of globalisation”.

“Perhaps it took Suez as well as the remarkable speed at which the German economy overtook our own to convince us that the Fellowship of the three

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Rings was not going to provide us with an adequate infrastructure for our diplomacy, our economic prosperity and our security”.

“Support for this is, on average, higher in acceding countries than in the current 15 Member States. Opposition to a multi-speed Europe is around 32%, with a relatively lower opposition in Spain and all candidate countries, and a relatively higher opposition in the Netherlands (46%)”.

“In conclusion, I have tried to explain, I fear at some length, that Cancun was not just an accidental collision, but was rather a deep-seated problem, which we have had to address in rather a methodical way, consulting other players inside the EU, checking with third countries what they are ready to do”.

“This EC/US joint paper is just what is required to enable the WTO negotiations to change gear and move us into the final phase”.

“Our goal is for sustainable and clean energy to be the inheritance of all the world's people by the middle of this century. By achieving that goal we shall contribute to quality of life, peace and stability the world over. And in order to achieve it we must move into higher gear now”.

“The Journal of Common Market Studies, it seems to me, has always rather revelled, in a very British way, in having an out of date title. As they used to say, a well dressed man is always at least ten years behind the latest fashion. But you are lucky you are not called the "Journal of Iron and Steel Community Studies", frankly speaking, or the "Journal of European Defence Community Studies", although that wheel may yet come full circle”.

“It is important to be selective - in order to be useful. We should therefore not reinvent the wheel - or the existing strategy every year. But we need to include the ten new Member States in the BEPGs this year and we probably need to take up useful suggestions made by Wim Kok in his recent report”.

”We might run across a busy road for example, drive too fast if we are late or even just impatient, or our dietary habits may expose us to the risk of disease”.

“Consider, for example, the Middle East and the positive role played by the European Union, alongside the United States, Russia and the United Nations, in the elaboration of the Road Map - the step-by-step route that is intended to lead to peace between Israelis and Palestinians”.

“This contributed to the remarkable economic take-off of the rural economy in 2003”.

Cibo “Our appetite for negotiation, for soft not hard power, and our contention that

this approach is morally superior to the American, is a flight from responsibility, only available as a political option because we can always count on Uncle Sam to keep us safe and to bear the civilised world's burden”.

“Market-based approaches would be the most efficient way of starting a "waste production diet" and moving towards a recycling economy”.

“Even though the Committee is satisfied with the result that total decoupling has not been introduced, it still has some concerns about the à la carte system that has eventually been chosen”.

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“Bologna cannot be implemented à la carte, it has to be done across the board and wholeheartedly”.

“So there is a large menu of options to explore, and we want to get down to this in Geneva”.

“We have not had many opportunities to exchange trans-Atlantic views about this subject, at least if we compare with the deep discussions that we have on our daily bread and butter activities, i.e. cartels and mergers, in bilateral relations or in fora like the International Competition Network, the OCDE or recent ABA and Fordham conferences”.

“First, on market access, the bread and butter of the Round, but the heart of the Round”.

“Peace as the fruit of justice and the product of new relations between men, peoples and civilisations”.

“This market is characterised by the so-called 'chicken-and-egg problem', whereby funding more advanced multimedia services depends on the availability of broadband for these services to run on, while funding broadband infrastructure depends on the availability of new content to run on it”.

“This should lead to a virtuous cycle and overcome the chicken-and-egg dilemma, that is, the situation where better content is waiting for faster Internet and vice-versa”.

Letteratura / Musica / Cinema “The suspicion that we are somehow semi-detached from Europe, that we are

ambivalent about its success, that to quote Joschka Fischler we do not know what we want, is deeply damaging to the achievement of our goals and to our ability to play a leading role in shaping the agenda”.

“We will play our part and contribute our ideas to ensure that the European Parliament has a suitable part to play”.

“Had it not been for her beauty, Odysseus could have stayed at home with his dog, and indeed his wife, thus ruining the basic plot of not one but two rather good books”.

“From the point of view of journalists, trade disputes are good sport, good drama, and quite accessible. At least compared to some of the things we do. Try getting a snappy story out of rules of origin, for example”.

”What is surprising is not that we lurch from drama to drama, but that we move forward so fast and, for most of the time, so effectively. When eventually we in Britain join the euro-zone, as most of our public seem to think inevitable, we will doubtless bemoan the fact once again that we have not been around for longer shaping the rules and leading the economic debate, and we will also I suspect ask ourselves what all the fuss was about”.

“Backed by a radical farm reform at home, the EU has jumped from the bandwagon into the driving seat of these farm talks”.

“A few years ago there was talk of a "new European concert". I would like to use this image again today. The EU is like an orchestra in which the violins must play in perfect unison while maintaining a dialogue with the wind instruments and even interacting with the percussionists, who

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occasionally burst in loudly as they do in Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. At the same time, they are occasionally overshadowed by the violas, but play a key role in creating the power and beauty of that piece of music, which was played splendidly in front of the Brandenburg Gate, in Berlin, when the Wall was taken down”.

“The WTO, with now 148 members, is a pretty big orchestra. There have been plenty of solos from the EU, some dramatic playing of G20 trumpets or from G90 cellos. Not so much from the Japanese flute, and recent good noises from the US drums. But certainly not enough ensemble playing, and the absence of a clear conductor hurts”.

“But after the WTO General Council meeting in Geneva on 15 December, it seems that at least everyone agrees on the hymn sheet we should play from: there was a clear expression by all WTO members of their political will to continue the DDA negotiations”.

“But we know perfectly well that it is not good enough if the two biggies dance the waltz, in the WTO it takes 146 to tango. That's why we conducted our talks with the US in a fully transparent way, so that the other WTO members do not feel left out”.

“In the WTO it takes 146 to tango, not just the two big elephants”.

Architettura / Costruzioni / Geometria The Commission proposes a new architecture for EU cohesion policy, which

is organised around three main priorities”. “The EU's institutional architecture needs to be redesigned, so that our

institutions can function more transparently and more effectively”. “Willy Brandt has a sure place in history as the architect of "Ostpolitik" --

the policy that paved the way to peaceful coexistence between the eastern and western blocs in Europe”.

“Nevertheless, legislative harmonisation has played an important role in the past and may serve us well in the future: where a solid case can be made for targeted legislative action to overcome clearly identified legal or regulatory barriers, it should remain an option for the architects of the single financial market”.

“In short : the paper deals with the « three pillars » of domestic support, market access and export competition, while making it clear that a number of other elements remain to be addressed. For each of the three pillars the paper provides an outline of how to carry the negotiations forward, while leaving the details, and in particular the extent of the future commitments, to be negotiated”.

“June's reform has also allowed for a key shift in policy from market measures to rural development, enabling us to make an additional €1.2 billion available a year for the second pillar from 2005 onwards”.

“A judgment from the Frankfurt Higher Regional Court, while recognising that IMS Health's 1860 brick structure was protected by national copyright, now allows NDC Health (NDC) to market a brick structure which meets

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customers' needs. Therefore there is no longer an urgency requiring the Commission's intervention”.

“When disagreements threaten, our own country is always encouraged to dust down the time-honoured idea of "the special relationship' and the much-celebrated proposition that we can act as a bridge between old Europe and the new super-power”.

“The Regulation establishes a “one door one key” procedure for the scientific assessment and authorisation of GMOs and GM food and feed resulting in a centralised, clear and transparent EU procedure where an operator is able to file a single application”.

“But there are plenty of would be members still hammering at the door, including some quite sizeable economies, such as Russia and Ukraine”.

“This opens the door to a vast new field of applications and services”. “I hope that welcoming the countries of the former Soviet Empire, cut off from

us for forty years by walls and tanks and barbed wire, back into the European family will have as much appeal to hearts at least in those countries that are coming home”.

“But forty years on, the same sense that we are not really at home with Europeans, that our place lies pre-eminently with our friends to the West, that we can cut a global dash on our own and should avoid being tied down by European entanglements, infuses discussion about our role in the world”.

“We do not want another 'Blair House', at the end we need a 'Full House' where all 146 countries are on board”.

“Our new house will be built on the cultural diversity which is our great strength. It will have a multicultural design”.

“Non-member countries should also be invited to implement effective legislation. Every country should start by cleaning up its own house”.

“What are you doing about pyramid selling? How will multi-level marketing be affected?”.

“The distinguishing characteristic of pyramid schemes is that they are marketed to consumers on the false premise that the network can continue to expand indefinitely. This is clearly a misleading claim and so setting up, operating or promoting a pyramid scheme is banned”.

“Fostering peace and security is essential if Africa is to break the vicious circle of poverty and war and failing socio-economic structures”.

“Of course, the JCMS does not need to worry about that - everyone knows who you are. But you are lucky you are not called the "Journal of Iron and Steel Community Studies", frankly speaking, or the "Journal of European Defence Community Studies", although that wheel may yet come full circle”.

“Of course, it is all very well for the EU to be flexible, but we all know that the EU cannot achieve the success of the DDA alone. Real flexibility from all WTO members - and the Commission has made this clear since Cancun - is indispensable”.

“The EU is proposing a formula of mixed partnerships whereby the public sector and the whole industrial chain of manufacturers and users come together in operational projects”.

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“There is however no “one-size-fits” all formula leading to good governance. The analysis of governance - and the mix of instruments chosen to promote it must be made on a country-specific basis. This will involve a process that requires pragmatism and that relies on dialogue and capacity building.

“The first phase of talks on the all-ACP EU level led on 2nd October 2003 to a preliminary understanding on horizontal issues in key areas such as market access, trade-related areas, services and the development dimension of EPAs”.

“This integrated project (33 participants) aims to lead to new technologies and systems for organic and low input production systems. One of its major strengths is a matrix structure whereby the research will consider the whole food chain from fork to farm for a number of sectors including protected crops (tomato), field vegetables (lettuce), fruit (apple), cereal (wheat), pork, dairy and poultry”.

“Contrary to economic theories that for a long time considered inequality as a peripheral topic, or glossed over the awkward conflict between equity and growth, recent studies demonstrate the clear negative relationship between inequality and growth, while asserting that more equal distribution of assets corresponds to higher growth rates”.

“The financial and technical assistance issues, on the other hand, should be addressed through the appropriate international forums outside the WTO, either as part of bilateral development cooperation or through international bodies like the World Bank”.

“The short plenary session was followed by trilateral meetings (Commission, Presidency and individual Member States) where Member States could give their reaction on the compromise proposal and identify their priorities. After the trilateral meetings the Presidency and Commission met the Agriculture ministers of the candidate countries”.

“That was the thrust of our White Paper on European Governance of summer 2001. It laid the foundations for tripartite agreements between the Commission, national governments and regional authorities”.

Scuola “The EU has done its homework. Now it is up to our partners”. “It also means that the signatory states should do their 'Bologna homework'

and set clear targets”. “The European Commission has been one of the "model pupils" of the ICN”

3.6 Caratteristiche morfo-sintattiche

Tutte le considerazioni fatte finora sono connesse al lessico dell’inglese istituzionale europeo, ma, per affermare che l’Eurolingua in questione sia effettivamente ‘speciale’ o ‘specifica’, è bene anche riflettere sulle sue caratteristiche morfo-sintattiche, in particolare relative ai processi di spersonalizzazione, premodificazione, e nominalizzazione che solitamente caratterizzano la grammatica delle lingue speciali in cui: “There may be

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distinctly different frequencies in the use of individual syntactic and morphological constructions as well as of word formation processes”40. Anche se, come affermano sempre Gramley e Pätzold nel testo citato, tutta la grammatica dell’inglese generale appartiene alle lingue speciali e tutti i processi morfologici o di word-formation dell’inglese generale si applicano anche alle lingue per scopi specifici, le lingue speciali fanno uso maggiore di alcuni espedienti per sintetizzare il messaggio e non appesantire quanto si comunica.

Un’analisi in questa direzione ha mostrato che di fatto esistono delle caratteristiche ricorrenti di tipo grammaticale nel sample di Euro-English esaminato. In particolare si è notata un’occorrenza regolare di: forme impersonali e passive, pre-modificazione e nominalizzazione. 3.6.1. Spersonalizzazione e personificazione

Come nel caso di tutti i linguaggi specialistici, anche l’inglese per scopi europei tende ad usare forme passive e soggetti impersonali che fanno risaltare le decisioni prese e gli eventi accaduti nascondendo gli agenti, ma si nota anche una sorta di processo opposto per cui spesso istituzioni come l’Unione Europea, la Commissione Europea o in generale l’Europa, vengono personificate divenendo agenti, organismi vivi che compiono azioni e ‘provano sensazioni e sentimenti’ di solito riferibili esclusivamente ad esseri umani.

Tornando al fenomeno di spersonalizzazione, si propongono di seguito alcuni esempi relativi all’uso della forma passiva in generale e in particolare della forma passiva con soggetto impersonale it e di diversi soggetti impersonali quali ‘you’, ‘we’ e ‘one’.

40 Gramley S., Pätzold K., A Survey of Modern English, London, Routledge, p. 246.

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Forme passive

“Following the floods, which hit central Europe in August 2002, it was decided to create a new European instrument for granting emergency aid to the Member States and applicant countries in the event of a major disaster. Based on Commission proposals for a Council Regulation establishing a European Union Solidarity Fund (EUSF) and an inter-institutional agreement between the European Parliament, the Council and the Commission, the legal and budgetary instruments were decided in November 2002. A maximum of € 1 billion per annum can be made available through the EUSF. To qualify for aid under the Solidarity Fund, countries hit by a major disaster must provide an estimate of the damage and meet specific criteria, ensuring that EU funds are used to meet the most urgent needs. Under exceptional circumstances a region can also benefit from assistance from the fund where it has been affected by an extraordinary disaster affecting the major part of its population with serious lasting repercussions on living conditions and the economic stability of the region”.

The European Commission has launched a pan-European campaign to help

small and medium-sized enterprises take advantage of EU enlargement business opportunities. The campaign is run by the Euro Info Centres, the largest business support network of the European Commission. Over the next year, 200 Euro Info Centres, from 26 countries (EU Member States, Norway, Iceland and candidate countries) will organise about 400 activities such as business clubs, workshops, information days and enlargement clinics, to provide access to practical information and tailor assistance to individual circumstances. Information will be supplied on national markets (legislation, export guides) and on specific industry sectors most affected by enlargement. This campaign is in line with the overall Commission strategy to assist entrepreneurship within the framework of EU enlargement”.

“This legislation also known as the Byrd amendment was definitively

condemned by the WTO in January 2003 and the United States was given until 27 December 2003 to bring its legislation into conformity with its obligations. This deadline passed without action from Congress to repeal the measure”.

“As a result of the timely adoption of this decision, it is expected that all the

heating needs of the 247 collective centres currently in operation will be covered during the 2003-2004 winter. The funds will be allocated via the European Commission's Humanitarian Aid Office, ECHO, under the responsibility of Commissioner Poul Nielson, to an international NGO operating in the country.

After a decade of conflict and humanitarian crisis there has been progress

towards stabilisation and economic reform in Serbia and the Balkans over the past two years. Since the transition process was triggered by the fall of the

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Milosevic regime in 2000, humanitarian agencies have been gradually scaling back their relief operations in the region. ECHO is currently phasing out its humanitarian interventions in the Balkans, opening the way for other Commission services to provide longer-term assistance. Between 2000 and 2003, ECHO finalised its interventions in Croatia, Bosnia Herzegovina, Kosovo, Montenegro, Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. In March this year, ECHO allocated €6.6 million to help provide food and support for durable solutions for refugees and IDPs in Serbia (see IP/03/395). This €1m decision is expected to be the last humanitarian decision for Serbia, as the process of reconstruction and development is underway”.

“Funded by the European Social Fund, EQUAL is part of the European

Union's strategy for more and better jobs which are open to all. EQUAL tests new ways of tackling discrimination and inequality experienced by those in work and those looking for a job. The European Union's contribution of € 3 026 million over the 2000-2006 period will be matched by national funding. The new ideas will be tested with a view to using the results to influence the design of future policy and practice”.

Uso di it in strutture impersonali passive

“It is believed that the ban will not prevent the bottom trawlers operating off the north-west coast of Scotland from catching their quotas of deep-waters species outside the Darwin Mounds area”.

“It is hoped that members will react positively to the fact that the EU and the

US took the leadership to stimulate the negotiation process”.

“It is estimated that passive smoking may account for between 30 and 50 thousand deaths every year in the European Union”.

“The second relates to inspections by the Commission and involves the

recovery of all or part of the expenditure claimed for the previous 24 months if it is found that payments do not conform to the EU rules”.

“It has been known for almost three centuries. It is assumed that scrapie can be transmitted horizontally, from one animal to another or via environmental routes, or vertically, from ewe to lamb”.

“It is also proposed to require undertakings to include in their communication

of new nuclear investment information regarding public financial support. Detailed data on the financing of the project will enable the Commission to co-ordinate development of investment”.

“Since the case was notified in 2002, it is being assessed under the state aid

framework for motor vehicles in force at the time”.

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“It is recalled that, the Council (Agriculture) adopted its common position on

17-18 March 2003 and reached political agreement on 9 December 2002”.

“It is proposed that the scope of reduced rates be reviewed every five years rather than every two years: experience has shown that a period of two years is too short for genuinely new factors to emerge”.

“The Regulation will have to be approved by the Council of Ministers after

consultation of the European Parliament. It is expected to be in force by the end of 2005”.

“Health claims refer to what a food or a food component does to the consumer.

It is currently prohibited to make any claims that are misleading to consumers”.

“The draft Regulation will need the approval of the European Parliament and

the Council of Ministers. It is foreseen to come gradually into force by 2005”.

“In order to rationalise this complex and chaotic situation and improve the functioning of the internal market, it is proposed to add a category to Annex H which will allow reduced rates to be applied to the following operations”.

“The loss in productivity for EU businesses has been estimated at 2.5 billion €

for 2002. Also, it is estimated that before the end of the summer, over 50 percent of global e-mail traffic will be spam”.

“There is currently a debate underway within the EU about the role of civil

society within the context of the EU's development policy. It is becoming increasingly recognised that civil society should be acknowledged as a key actor”.

“It is generally accepted that a sector-wide programme approach to

development co-operation activities can offer certain advantages over a project-based approach”.

“Users in the new Member States can of course already submit questions to

EUROPE DIRECT, either by e-mail or via the normal telephone number (+32.2.299.96.96 normal telephone charges apply for this number). It is however foreseen to give citizens and businesses in the new Member States full access (including the toll-free telephone number 00800 6 7 8 9 10 11 as well as coverage in 8 additional languages) as of the end of 2003”.

“It is hoped that this new tool will allow fast data processing and accelerate

considerably the entire selection process, as far as administrative procedures within the Office are concerned”.

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“The new Athens Protocol satisfies all requirements set out last year by the Commission. It is now proposed that all EU Member States become parties to the new Protocol before the end of 2005”.

“It is now known that over 50% of all hearing impairments is caused by

genetic factors. The European Commission has channelled more than €10 million into research on different aspects of deafness over the last 7 years”.

Uso di you, one, we in strutture impersonali:

“Similarly, Iceland also benefits from the so-called “Pan-European Cumulation”. This means that you can buy raw material from all other parties in the EEA (including the European Union), the Baltic States and Central and Eastern European countries, and, having worked on it, export the processed product to the European Union at a preferential zero duty rate”.

“I begin from the assumption that you cannot win a debate unless you take

part in it. There are various forms of Euro-scepticism some simply reflect misunderstandings about what is happening in Europe; some reflect gut instincts; some reflect deep hostility to the whole enterprise; some reflect opinions on what Europe would be like if only the Europeans would understand the error of their present ways; and so on. Whatever the brand of scepticism, you cannot deal with it by lying doggo, by keeping your head down and trying to avoid antagonising those newspapers edited by Paul Dacre, or owned by Rupert Murdoch or at least until recently by Lord Black, that well-known British peer”.

“From Brussels, you can both love Europe and love and better understand your own country of origin”.

“First, as Mr Tannock said, Iran is a great pre-Islamic civilisation; one in which we in the West have occasionally meddled in ways that were not always - to put it mildly - very well judged. Second, Iran is an enormously important regional player. One only has to look at its neighbourhood to see how important it is and to recognise that we cannot have a credible policy for the wider Middle East that does not embrace and include Iran. Thirdly - and I feel this very strongly - we see in Iran, in my judgment, the first stirrings of genuine Islamic democracy. Indeed, for the hard-line conservatives, that is the problem”.

“One can but hope that a valuable lesson is thereby being learned that

multilateral negotiations need to be pushed along by everyone in the system, and cannot be "sponsored" by just one of the players”.

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“Ireland has, as last year, excellent bathing water quality, with compliance rates

of 97.5% for coastal water and 100% for fresh waters. In the 2002 season, all fresh waters were also in conformity with the Guide standard. In this respect one can only regret that Ireland has only 9 fresh water bathing sites”.

“One can legitimately wonder whether one option for a workable combination

of today's intergovernmental and Community mechanisms would not be for the Commissioner for economic and monetary affairs to chair the Eurogroup and represent the euro area externally in international institutions”.

“The Americans say they want to abolish export subsidies. We should not

forget that the EU tabled a proposal months ago to abolish export subsidies on products which interest the developing countries. But we are still waiting for the developing countries to tell us exactly what these are”.

“And Europeans tend to exhibit an adversity towards risk-taking. To the

question in the Eurobarometer survey (November 2002), whether one should not start a business when there was a risk of failure: half of the Europeans questions replied positively; against only one quarter of US citizens”.

“We would therefore have to reflect on how best to meet these challenges.

We did the same when we embarked on negotiations with the Member States that will join in May this year”.

“We have also shown additional flexibility on geographical indications and

on trade and environment where we are looking for a more political and less technical approach. And we have shown real interest and flexibility on area where India is looking to change the balance of rules, namely on Special and Differential Treatment. We have for instance, suggested special transitional periods for developing countries for implementing new rules, so DCs are better able to apply any new rules that will be negotiated in the Round, and to better integrate into the global economy as a result. But we have, of course, made clear that this also requires some degree of differentiation between developing countries and we make no apology for that”.

Personificazione

“The EU vigorously condemns the cowardly murder in Abidjan of Radio France Internationale journalist, Jean Hélène, and presents its sincerest condolences to his family and to the editorial staff of RFI.

The EU appreciates the efforts made by the Ivorian authorities to bring the

author of this crime to justice and calls for a swift, full and effective investigation into the circumstances surrounding the journalist's murder so that

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justice can be seen to be done. The EU considers it a matter of urgency that the authorities re-establish control over the security forces, in compliance with the rule of law. The Presidency urges the Ivorian authorities to take all appropriate steps to ensure the safety and physical integrity of foreign nationals and to protect Ivorian and foreign journalists. The EU renews the calls made in its Declaration of 22 September 2003 and appeals to all the political forces, the institutions, the media and the people of Côte d'Ivoire to oppose every form of violence and the use of force and to return to the path of peaceful dialogue, cooperation and social reconciliation. The EU hopes that the tragic death of a journalist while doing his job will not cause further divisions but that on the contrary it may be an opportunity for Côte d'Ivoire to unite in the process of national reconciliation based on the Linas-Marcoussis Agreements”.

“The EU is profoundly concerned that the Cuban authorities have returned to

apply that penalty. It expects Cuban authorities to resume the de-facto moratorium on the death penalty, calls once again on the Cuban authorities to release all political prisoners immediately, and appeals to them that, in the meantime, the prisoners do not suffer unduly and are not exposed to inhumane treatment”.

“The European Council looks forward to the EUUS summit in Washington

on 25 June 2003 to set priorities in their relations, aiming at intensified cooperation to achieve concrete results, building on progress already achieved in many fields and developing new areas of cooperation. Furthermore, the EU is determined to develop transatlantic dialogue at all levels between the institutions of the societies of the two sides and to continue discussions with the US on proposals for strengthening relations including ideas that could emerge from the elaboration of the European security strategy”.

“Europe is a great political and human undertaking which must now equip

itself with the institutional and political instruments to take on all its responsibilities”.

“Commenting on today's decision, EU Farm Commissioner Franz Fischler said:

"This decision marks the beginning of a new era. Our farm policy will fundamentally change. Today, Europe has given itself a new and effective farm policy. The bulk of our direct payments will no longer be linked to production. Today's decision will give Europe a strong hand in the negotiations on the Doha Development Agenda. The EU has done its homework, now it's up to others to move to make the WTO trade talks a success. But let there be no mistake. At the Cancún Ministerial Meeting, the EU will be ready to use its increased negotiating capital only if we get something in exchange. Unilateral disarmament is not on. The ball is now in the camp of other countries, such as the US, whose agricultural policies continue to be highly trade-distorting and have even become increasingly so”.

“But Europe has shown itself in a very poor light during the Iraq crisis.

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We must address the problem and take action, because the EU has not lived up to expectations; it has failed to respond to the call for "more Europe" coming from millions of European citizens. Europe failed to respond because it did not have the tools for the job”.

Gli estratti sopra riportati mettono in evidenza l’altro fenomeno cui si è fatto

cenno in apertura di paragrafo, ossia la presenza elevata di esempi di personificazione relativi in particolare alle seguenti espressioni: Europe, the EU, the European Union, the European Commission o semplicemente the Commission.

Per dare prova di un uso maggiore di forme attive rispetto a quelle passive quando il soggetto è, ad esempio, the Commission, si sono cercate in ECPREC le seguenti frasi: ‘The Commission decided / The Commission has decided’ e ‘decided by the Commission’ e quanto segue è il risultato di tale indagine.

to European legislation, the Commission decided on 13 May 2003 to l as from 31st August. The Commission decided to further investi ed compensation measure, the Commission decided today to open the by European Union law. The Commission decided therefore to send . On 11 November 2002, the Commission decided not to raise objec Directive. In July 2001, the Commission decided to refer Belgium t thorough investigation, the Commission decided that the tax arran ration in Europe (OSCE), the Commission decided to finance a progr 27). In December 2002, the Commission decided to request officia ment proceedings Today the Commission decided to send Austria a nd and Luxembourg Today the Commission decided to start proceedin wever, in February 2003, the Commission decided that certain speci view of these elements, the Commission decided that the aid invol ed according to the MSF, the Commission decided to approve the aid a separate development, the Commission decided on 15 October 2003 (in accordance with what the Commission decided) justifies an incr rejudge the consultation the Commission decided not to propose in glasshouses in Italy The Commission decided today to open an i the European Parliament, the Commission decided to propose in Dec rmal notice to Greece The Commission decided today to send a le ns for cabotage Today the Commission decided to raise no object meeting of 5 March 2003 the Commission decided that it should be by the Thai authorities, the Commission decided to stop imports of to its last two mines The Commission decided today not to raise s. This is why last year the Commission decided to set up a high l U waters and shores ». The Commission has decided to initiate lega 228 of the EC Treaty. The Commission has decided to refer the Uni ve. United Kingdom The Commission has decided to refer the Uni pected them. Spain The Commission has decided to refer Spain t

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irective. Portugal The Commission has decided to refer Portuga r nuisance. Greece The Commission has decided to refer Greece ontrolled. Finland The Commission has decided to refer Finland r States. In addition, the Commission has decided to refer the fol equirements. Spain The Commission has decided to refer Spain t the area. Ireland The Commission has decided to refer Ireland Treaty. Luxembourg The Commission has decided to send Luxembou been taken. Greece The Commission has decided to refer Greece breach. Consequently, the Commission has decided to send a reason o change its analysis, the Commission has decided to refer the mat persons to deduct VAT The Commission has decided to initiate infr nt finding against it, the Commission has decided to initiate new onitoring procedure. The Commission has decided furthermore to m ted to ABX Logistics The Commission has decided to look into Sta n of VUP by Lagardère The Commission has decided to carry out its . " United Kingdom The Commission has decided to refer the UK respected. Ireland The Commission has decided to make two refe gislation. Germany The Commission has decided to refer Germany tion of the Directive, the Commission has decided to issue a final ation of the Directive the Commission has decided to issue a final of food supplements The Commission has decided to ask the Court n these circumstances, the Commission has decided to refer the ma of car bicycle rack The Commission has decided to send a reason t Ireland and Austria. The Commission has decided to refer Austria Italy - architecture The Commission has decided to send Italy a list doctor diplomas The Commission has decided to send a letter land - patent agents The Commission has decided to take Ireland of traffic accidents The Commission has decided to bring Portuga r money for taxpayers. The Commission has decided to refer Ireland are payment services The Commission has decided to refer Ireland 2003 (see IP/03/486), the Commission has decided to bring an acti tic weather stations The Commission has decided to send Greece a agement of motorways The Commission has decided to send Italy a containers in Assen The Commission has decided to send the Net works in Eskilstuna The Commission has decided to issue a reaso enge Council decision The Commission has decided to bring an acti sed Directive on GMOs, the Commission has decided to refer them to Justice. In addition, the Commission has decided, under Article 2 n to do so. Therefore, the Commission has decided to send reasoned Defective products The Commission has decided to send France a o their national laws. The Commission has decided to bring this ma e Court for a ruling The Commission has decided to bring before photomasks in Dresden The Commission has decided to approve inves reated by the project, the Commission has decided to approve the n Commission's analysis, the Commission has decided to refer the mat States. That is why the Commission has decided to react. In con ency of the situation, the Commission has decided to give the Aust

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e was not a state aid, the Commission has decided not to seek the ism Committee (CTC). The Commission has decided to give priority communications sector The Commission has decided to consult all i ng to implement IPP? The Commission has decided that the best wa sal. At the same time, the Commission has decided to propose a Reg and supply in Germany, the Commission has decided not to oppose th neral encyclopaedias). The Commission has decided that a detailed West African States), the Commission has decided (through its Rap iple of Community law, the Commission has decided not to request t extended. In addition, the Commission has decided that, for the sh st has been postponed, the Commission has decided to prolong the t at the end of 2003. The Commission has decided that regional in ce. In this context, the Commission has decided to propose to Me nomic interest. Today, the Commission has decided to begin consult nal representation The Commission has decided to pursue its po ine, one-month review, the Commission has decided to investigate w c procurement code The Commission has decided to take France t ilian use in Italy The Commission has decided to send Italy a exemption is expired, the Commission has decided to start immedia ed this. Spain The Commission has decided to refer Spain t ation. Ireland The Commission has decided to refer Ireland eland. Austria The Commission has decided to refer Austria ecided. Greece The Commission has decided to refer Greece ched by the Committee, the Commission has decided today to submit ve still not complied, the Commission has decided to refer them to ece are yet to comply. The Commission has decided to refer both Me ve still not complied. The Commission has decided to refer all of r failed to comply, so the Commission has decided to refer them al ainst this background, the Commission has decided to publish a not in the European Union, the Commission has decided to send a letter mmercial rental right, the Commission has decided to open a separa mbardy). Spain The Commission has decided to refer Spain t mbourg. France The Commission has decided to refer France gation of a complaint, the Commission has decided to refer Greece

ars, non-renewable, as decided by the Commission in December 2002 of emergency measures decided by the Commission. So far, Member S

In un corpus di un milione di parole estratte dalla press room della Commissione Europea, solo in due casi si trova la forma passiva ‘deciso dalla Commissione’ contro le 109 occorrenze della forma attiva ‘la Commissione ha deciso’.

Si riporta integralmente anche il testo di un comunicato stampa che prova quanto sia maggiore l’uso di forme attive (sottolineate) rispetto a quelle passive (in grassetto) quando le azioni sono ‘compiute’ dalle istituzioni europee.

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The European Commission outlined in its communication "A Community aviation policy towards its neighbours" the economic and political benefits of closer aviation relations between the European Union and its neighbouring countries. To launch this initiative, the Commission will ask for a mandate to negotiate with the countries of the Western Balkans and Morocco, Jordan, and Lebanon. In a step by step strategy, the Commission will ask first for a mandate to negotiate with the countries of the Western Balkans, an agreement which would lead to their inclusion into the Single Aviation Market. Such a "European Common Aviation Area" (ECAA) should, according to the Commission, also include Romania and Bulgaria. In addition, the Commission will immediately start preliminary discussions with Turkey to see whether it would be possible to involve Turkey in such negotiations as well. In the longer term ECAA could span the whole of Europe. For the countries on the southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean, the Commission envisages "Euro-Mediterranean aviation agreements". Such agreements would not only open the aviation market between the Community and Mediterranean countries, but would equally enhance co-operation in such fields as aviation safety, aviation security and environmental protection. The Commission has selected Morocco, Lebanon and Jordan as its first targets for the conclusion of such Euro-Mediterranean aviation agreements, and has asked the Council for a mandate to negotiate with them. The present Communication, and the negotiations it proposes, build on the recent developments with regard to the enhancement of the Community's role in international aviation. These developments were triggered by a series of landmark judgements from the European Court of Justice in the so-called "Open skies" cases, in which the Court recognised exclusive Community competences with regard to important aspects of external aviation.

3.6.2. Premodificazione Un’analisi del corpus ha rivelato una frequenza altissima di strutture

premodificate e ciò non deve sorprendere. La ricerca è stata fatta cercando in ECPREC il segno grafico “ - ” e la lettura dei dati ha mostrato che il corpus contiene un numero elevatissimo di stringhe formate da tre elementi, un numero elevato di stringhe formate da quattro elementi, ma anche molti esempi di strutture premodificate a cinque e sei elementi che difficilmente si incontrano nei testi specialistici poiché potrebbero creare ostacoli alla comprensione41.

Gli esempi che seguono si riferiscono alle strutture da quattro elementi in su e, considerando che l’indagine è stata fatta soltanto per le premodificazioni in

41 Di Sabato B., Porcelli G, 2004 L’Inglese della New Economy – Analisi e Didattica Napoli, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, p. 107.

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presenza di trattino, è facile immaginare che nel corpus esistano stringhe altrettanto complesse che non ci è possibile presentare: acceding countries' medium-term economic policy framework ADSL-based Internet access services African-led peace keeping operations all-embracing pay-as-you-go way all-important small start-ups big centre-piece events bi-regional free trade area close-to-balance medium-term budgetary objective Commission-driven strategic initiative Community-wide minimum rates competitive European research-based pharmaceutical industry context-aware summarising tools country-owned poverty reduction strategies cross-border business-to-consumer sales cross-border economic activity cross-border public procurement opportunities cyclically-adjusted budgetary position Danish-based dairy products company dynamic knowledge-based economy Earth-based in-situ monitoring capacities EC macro-financial assistance finances effective satellite-based environmental screening systems employment-friendly wage-setting energy-saving car engines environmentally-friendly production methods environmentally-sound production methods EU farm policy reforms EU high-level expert group EU-funded human embryonic stem cell research EU-led crisis management operations EUR 30 million post-crisis emergency rehabilitation programme Euro-Mediterranean free-trade area European development co-operation policy European Union-based audit firms EU-wide anti-smoking campaign exempt non-reciprocal output restrictions existing Euro-Mediterranean mandates

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famous pre-war Jewish teacher's academy farm-level management measures far-reaching constitutional reforms. female-to-male gender reassignment surgery focused business-driven process developing policy free-market orientated agriculture French anti-friction bearings maker fully-fledged political Union German-based diversified industrial corporation higher quality cross-border mail services high-level Expert Group high-quality commercial road transport high-quality competitive European clinical trial Human tissue-engineered products incoming cross-border mail items increasing trade-related assistance individual on-the-spot local risk assessment innovation-based West/East production networks innovative market-based implementation mechanisms irresponsibly single-minded WTO Italian state-owned railway operator large-scale distributed mobile interoperability testing large-scale energy conversion plants Latin American intra-regional research networking infrastructure legally-binding review timetable long-existing bilateral relations long-standing humanitarian commitment long-term climate change benefits long-term financing institution mainly publicly-owned telecommunications company major Brussels-based road transport stakeholders major law-enforcement information systems major-accident prevention policy mandatory post-market monitoring requirements market parallel-imported medicinal products more market-oriented CAP most rigorous pre-marketing assessment much fewer trade-distorting agricultural subsidies multi-annual financial planning framework multi-annual management plan

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multi-faceted fraudulent operations new Pre-accession Economic Programmes non-accompanying rural development measures non-confined evaporative cooling systems one on-the-spot fact-finding other significant non-financial incentives other up-and-coming space players our own "most-favoured-nation" treatment over-arching public policy goals pan-European financial business pay-related sex discrimination portable fuel-cell applications possible anti-competitive commercial arrangements potentially trade-distorting aid pre-established observation programme project-based Kyoto mechanisms promising high-technology market region-specific epidemiological studies rigid, production-oriented subsidy policy. rules-based multilateral trade opening satellite-based environmental screening systems satellite-based vessel monitoring system secured long-term sustainability so-called "first pillar" pension obligations soft-alloy extruded aluminium products space-based Earth observation tools stability-oriented macroeconomic policies stability-oriented macro-economic policy framework stable long-term framework state-of-the-art newsprint production capacity streamlined decision-making structure strict post-import quarantine measures strong knowledge-based EU economy substantially increased pre-accession financial assistance sustainable socio-economic development sweeping farm policy reform third market-based flexible mechanism top-class small business support toxic mercury-containing amalgam trade-distorting production-based subsidies

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tri-national plant genomics programme United Kingdom's post-war geo-strategic ambitions well-functioning democratic institutions wide-ranging trade preferences

Anche se la premodificazione è considerata uno degli elementi che più spesso si rintracciano nei testi contemporanei e specialistici, è da tenere presente che l’abuso di strutture premodificate, può, non solo, appesantire il messaggio, ma rendere quest’ultimo incomprensibile. A questo proposito si offre il saggio pensiero di Larry Trask42:

Among national tabloid journalists, it has become commonplace to fill headlines with enormously bulky preposed modifiers, usually without any hyphens to guide the perplexed reader, as in Railway Station Murder Inquiry Shock, which presumably designates a shock coming out of an inquiry into a murder which took place in a railway station. … But very many writers, and not just journalists, fall into the bad habit of writing long and bulky preposed modifiers, often containing Greek and Latin prefixes like pre-, post-, pro- and anti-, in front of nouns. This is bad style, and it results from shoving words down onto the page without careful planning or editing. Why write something cumbersome like anti-seal-killing campaigners when you can write instead the far more elegant campaigners against seal-killing?

3.6.3. Nominalizzazione

Insieme alla premodificazione, la nominalizzazione è un altro espediente utile a condensare un’informazione. Per verificarne la presenza nel corpus, si è deciso di cercare le occorrenze relative ad alcuni verbi e ai rispettivi sostantivi in modo da capire quali risultassero più frequenti. La scelta dei verbi e sostantivi è stata dettata dal ‘campo di azione’ della Commissione Europea, si è pensato cioè di interrogare il concordancer su elementi che ci si aspetterebbe di trovare in tale ambito: development – develop, decision – decide, investment – invest, , assessment – assess, enforcement – enforce e treatment – treat. Si è stabilito di ricercare non solo la forma verbale all’infinito, ma anche alla terza persona del presente (develops, decides, invests, treats, enforces, assesses), al passato (developed, decided, invested, treated, enforced, assessed) e al gerundio (developing, deciding, investing, treating, enforcing, assessing). I risultati dell’indagine hanno mostrato che, senza ombra di dubbio, il campione di inglese

42 Trask R.L., 2002, Mind the Gaffe, The Penguin Guide to Common Errors in English, Penguin Books, p. 53.

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esaminato fa spesso ricorso ai sostantivi a discapito dei verbi in quanto in tutti i casi esaminati il numero di occorrenze dei sostantivi eccede quello dei verbi (in tutte le forme). In particolare si è visto che: il sostantivo development appare ben 1639 volte rispetto alle 286 di develop, alle 9 di develops, alle 249 di developed e alle 519 di developing43 (per un totale delle forme verbali di 1063); il sostantivo decision ricorre 739 volte rispetto alle 109 di decide, alle 23 di decides, alle 373 di decided e alle 12 di deciding (per un totale delle forme verbali di 517); il sostantivo investment è presente con 62544 occorrenze contro le 35 di invest, le 4 di invests, le 23 di invested e le 27 di investing (per un totale delle forme verbali di 89); il sostantivo assessment compare 310 volte rispetto alle 65 di assess, alle 20 di assesses, alle 45 di assessed e alle 48 di assessing (per un totale delle forme verbali di 178); enforcement ha 218 occorrenze, enforce 22, enforces 1, enforced 18 e enforcing 3 (le forme verbali hanno un totale di 44 occorrenze); infine il sostantivo treatment appare 193 volte rispetto alle 17 di treat, alle 0 di treats, alle 52 di treated e alle 6 di treating (per un totale delle forme verbali di 75).

Per dare un’idea più precisa di come siano usati questi elementi lessicali nel contesto di ECPREC, si riportano di seguito le schede di concordanze relative all’ultimo dei casi prima menzionati45

43 Va precisato che l’alta frequenza di ‘developing’ è dovuta alla sua collocazione con ‘countries’ . Infatti ‘developing countries’ appare 320 volte nel corpus. 44 Di queste 625 occorrenze, 66 sono relative a European Investment Bank, ma questo dato non influisce sulla generale supremazia del sostantivo rispetto a tutte le forme verbali. 45 Si riporta il sostantivo treatment con tutte le forme verbali, poiché è quello che ricorre di meno. Altri esempi saranno reperibili nell’appendice 1.

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procedures for seeking health treatment across the EU. The health les on smoking prevention and treatment, advertising and promotion t; this leads to disparity of treatment among beneficiaries; the tly sent to the processor for treatment and analysis, through the in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) treatment and are donated by parents risks that may arise from the treatment and disposal of such waste the extension of production, treatment and distribution facilitie ough Special and Differential Treatment, and in this area, we are ciples of transparency, equal treatment and non-discrimination bet erve that they receive a fair treatment and proper compensation: h egory concerning sewer, waste treatment and recycling services and ervices, including wastewater treatment, and the application of EU not amount to discriminatory treatment and the Directive is fully as non-discrimination, equal treatment and transparency and by t for water supply, waste-water treatment and waste management. In b hich formally breach national treatment. And we have made clear to s on special and differential treatment and, following up from the tion. Such differences in tax treatment are a normal feature of an pounds through the wastewater treatment are variable, and some sta ves non-EU nationals the same treatment as granted to EU nationals with a view to a zootechnical treatment, as long as it is not like eir territory less favourable treatment as regards access to first the field of urban wastewater treatment as well a s in mastering t ries special and differential treatment, as well as flexibility to ries special and differential treatment as well as the so-called S ergence on the basis of equal treatment between current and prospe ough there are differences in treatment between different categori principle helps ensure equal treatment between public-sector oper ating the fines ensures equal treatment between the various undert , on special and differential treatment, but I am out of time. es not involve discriminatory treatment, but rather acting in resp known to and receive the same treatment by all Commission services agreement on fair commercial treatment by the Canadian Provincial pipe approach (drinking water treatment) can be reduced. One of th ere separate and differential treatment comes in. On internal the cost-effectiveness of the treatment compared to conventional a es regarding effectiveness or treatment costs. Alternative convent Treaty concerning equality of treatment deriving from the principl eadline under the Waste Water Treatment Directive expired back in s under the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive is inadequate. I pecting the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive or the Framework sion of the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive regarding minimu of the EU's Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive(2) in this case. tions. The Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive(4) addresses nut e under the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive. The areas in qu re is a specific decadmiation treatment during the manufacturing o toring campaign of wastewater treatment effluents, carried out in

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rastructure (water supply and treatment, electricity, gas, public f diseases for which no other treatment exists. Several significan of wastewater collection and treatment facilities of the Abu Rawa iciary and is to receive such treatment for a period of 15 years. utional expenditure. Fair treatment for all Member States value, transparency and equal treatment for all tenderers to ensur for wastewater collection and treatment for Cairo's West Bank area important principle: special treatment for developing countries, uestion can be used for a new treatment. For medicines authorised er farm policies, and special treatment for the developing countri her farm policies and special treatment for the developing countri very attached to preferential treatment for the less-favoured area very attached to preferential treatment for the less-favoured area , initiatives to ensure equal treatment for third country national lear framework based on equal treatment for this rapidly growing g ding for Most Favoured Nation treatment for trade between the two ding for Most Favoured Nation treatment for trade between the two EU rules on urban waste water treatment. France has received a req d are not exposed to inhumane treatment." Furthermore and vis-à- nefited from the preferential treatment granted by the Cotonou Agr . Improvement of wastewater treatment guarantees that the contam e unalienable right of all to treatment. I expect other world deci at the new Directive on equal treatment in employment and occupati The second directive on equal treatment in employment and occupati mproving efficiency and equal treatment. In Europe, the current rnment deficit/surplus. The treatment in national accounts, for le soon. CMFB opinion on the treatment in national accounts of ca ormat] CMFB opinion On the treatment in national accounts of th nventionally activated sludge treatment, in order to remove pharma Member State. Equality of treatment, in particular access by t te to justify less favourable treatment in tax matters given to re reated and unmonitored. Final treatment in terms of final recovery stralia refuses to allow heat treatment in the country of origin o , unless they receive similar treatment in the third country. nefit from preferential trade treatment in the whole Pan-Euro-Medi them special and preferential treatment in trade. In my own fiel States are calling for equal treatment, including for pay, to app in principle, be given equal treatment - including for pay. The m enterprises, water supply and treatment, industrial pollution abat ion. The directive on equal treatment irrespective of racial or hat separate and differential treatment is a major topic and that effect of this discriminatory treatment is not only to encourage F t, despite the fact that such treatment is recognised and guarante everyday life in which unfair treatment might occur, either direct e range of areas where unfair treatment might occur, including acc and Greece (urban waste water treatment near Athens). The UK, Port undergo stringent waste water treatment. Netherlands The Commi

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their future and about their treatment. Not reaching a decision w ty Hospital (Netherlands) for treatment of a post-traumatic dystro EU must ensure more equitable treatment of all Member States, both ield and the Agreement on the treatment of any claims to repayment hould cover medicines for the treatment of cancer, aids, neuro-deg a decision on the accounting treatment of capital injections unde n the legality of Australia's treatment of certain agricultural pr the main reasons for hospital treatment of children. Also less com approach to the analysis and treatment of competition problems, a ages to adopt a notice on the treatment of complaints in antitrust n of Article 81(3) EU and the treatment of complaints. In reform tion of the duty of care, the treatment of confidential data, exem effectiveness or allowing the treatment of diseases for which no o on this hardcore concern the treatment of field of use restrictio (dealing with the accounting treatment of financial derivative in s solution for the accounting treatment of financial instruments f s solution for the accounting treatment of financial instruments f an end to discriminatory tax treatment of foreign investment fund elating to the discriminatory treatment of former foreign language aid down for the confidential treatment of information on the quan his point concerns mainly the treatment of intermediates and poly emns the apprehension and ill-treatment of Mr. Lovemore Madhuku, C l decommissioning and for the treatment of nuclear waste from the States for many years in the treatment of obesity. In 1996, fol tchwork gives rise to unequal treatment of operators on the variou ing because of unsatisfactory treatment of sewage sludge from a wa seen around the world, making treatment of some diseases difficult rent national regimes for the treatment of spam. I think we will ver. Losec revolutionised the treatment of stomach ulcers and othe ssion on priorities regarding treatment of substances and on issue which the principle of equal treatment of temps on the question o ding Eurostat decision on the treatment of the Belgacom Fund trans a decision on the accounting treatment of the liquidation in 2002 of the EU's open standard of treatment of third countries: the ad European asylum policy fair treatment of third country national dolescent health-care and the treatment of traumatic pathology and sures must be taken regarding treatment of waste water which is re ion resulting from inadequate treatment of waste waters or animal g great opportunities for the treatment of yet incurable diseases. adequately upgrade wastewater treatment operations in the area. operly, and ensure that waste treatment operations receive a permi operly, and ensure that waste treatment operations will have a per fectiveness relative to other treatment options is increasingly be prices of the different waste treatment options right. Despite str r cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, adopted by r Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment_, which the primarily through appropriate treatment or specific production con

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with a new directive on equal treatment outside the labour market I, Employees, Italy) Health treatment (own initiative opinion) n in Braunschweig waste water treatment plant (DE). Poseidon: <htt ly be serviced by a major new treatment plant at Psittalia (capabl performed in the waste water treatment plant in Braunschweig (DE age sludge from a waste water treatment plant on the island of Psi of the Abu Rawash Wastewater Treatment Plant, Northwest of Cairo. dinavia's largest waste-water treatment plant. Antibiotics can fin in all effluents from Sewage Treatment Plants (STP). More than 20 re product residues in sewage treatment plants (STPs) and waterwor have been detected in sewage treatment plants and raw water resou rastructure, in getting water treatment plants back into operation entering all urban wastewater treatment plants in the Netherlands not submit urban waste water treatment plants to the system of pe maceutical residues in sewage treatment plants. More information: relation to urban waste water treatment plants. More specifically, echnology is connected to new treatment possibilities, better qual can be eliminated during the treatment process in order to preven aste-water and drinking water treatment processes. ERAVMIS: Addr in another, from preferential treatment regarding EU market access tates have only enjoyed equal treatment regarding working conditio eople). However, the stricter treatment requirements foreseen to p try, such as water supply and treatment schemes, irrigation, the E d are not exposed to inhumane treatment. Since the beginning of um waste water collection and treatment standards within deadlines ed system for the collection, treatment, storage and disposal of w adiz, where there is no waste treatment system, and where water fi the special and differential treatment that developing countries waste or not, and the type of treatment that will be applied to t ries special and preferential treatment. The Council also stresses unjustifiable differences in treatment; the project selection c , provide the most favourable treatment; the special arrangements the "special and differential treatment", the trade regime granted Member States the same trade treatment they give to the current o ries special and differential treatment to help them better integ s, the EU grants preferential treatment to imports from these coun fordable prevention, care and treatment to poor people in the deve ticism and limit the hardcore treatment to running royalties used ever, it applied differential treatment to them, taking the view, energy and water, waste water treatment, transport (including the ring medical or even clinical treatment. Two cases of death after from the customs preferential treatment under the Association Agre or organs and improve disease treatment (urinary bladder, kidney, y on Special and Differential Treatment. We have for instance, sug or ensuring this preferential treatment were negotiated and agreed by granting them preferential treatment when an insurance undertak he WTO ("most favoured nation treatment"), which only covers in pr

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es". The changes in their tax treatment will eliminate a long-stan benefiting from preferential treatment will rise to 62%. Before e d to other animal waste (heat treatment with 133/3 bar/20 minutes ur own "most-favoured-nation" treatment, with an overall average t be liberalised (preferential treatment with or without quotas). B es are reluctant to reimburse treatment with tissue-engineered pro help its employees fight and treat AIDS to the _Responsible Care s-resistance to drugs used to treat bacterial infections) should b ainkillers, medicines used to treat cardiovascular and heart disea ally intended to alleviate or treat disability will be extended to widely used across Europe to treat farm animals. Once administere at I know that many among you treat fishing effort as if it made n hnology and thus the right to treat GMOs in a cautious way. Many ch are feed additives used to treat infections caused by a micro-o t has been made to gather and treat information that can better su y injuries or diseases and to treat serious chronic diseases such eristics of sport We do not treat sport the same as any other se erging consensus in Geneva to treat the trade-related issues conce ions! It won't be possible to treat them all in my short address b parage those institutions, to treat them like the enemy, to celebr electronic communications; treat them within a two-month deadli he TOM(ato) project will help treat tomato leftovers in a cleaner than it will be acceptable to treat young boys and girls as adults tion from customers should be treated and how it should be verifi this transaction is generally treated as a capital transfer that i ent) the capital injection is treated as a financial transaction f ble, the capital injection is treated as a financial transaction f e: the capital injection is treated as a financial transaction f ity. The capital injection is treated as a non-financial transacti tal injection is in this case treated as a non-financial transact ase, the capital injection is treated as a non-financial transacti ing, the capital injection is treated as a non-financial transacti power standards. The MUICP is treated as a single entity within th power standards. The MUICP is treated as a single entity within th non-financial transaction is treated as government expenditure an ecially, amalgam waste is not treated as hazardous waste, as EU ru adheres to the muscles, to be treated as meat, subject to the maxi internal market. They will be treated as national transactions and e capital injection should be treated as non-financial transaction rtuguese Government should be treated as the liquidation of a fina of government, but has to be treated as the realisation of a fina products in manufacturing are treated as waste. Instead of simply ard and can be understood and treated automatically without human l. It requires that sludge be treated before being used in agricul

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ndividuals and households are treated by Eurostat in the same fash yment and social inclusion is treated differently across Member St umanitarian aid. Themes to be treated during the day include: (i) on the way the issue could be treated during the Irish Presidency, ry of that Member State to be treated equally. EU-US agreement ished in a Member State to be treated equally. This means that any conclude that they have been treated fairly. Success in Cancun wi stems; health risks from heat-treated foods; biological crop prote for human consumption and non treated game trophies from all birds us on how consumers should be treated. Help to ensure that the b r diseases which could not be treated in a satisfactory manner so m Denmark, which must be heat treated in Australia. Without any ap accident, Mr van der Duin was treated in France for about a year. ntee that all GM products are treated in the same way all through e IBAN and BIC codes is to be treated in the same way as a domesti first of the four areas to be treated is the rather interesting ph internal market. They will be treated like national transactions a would prevent them from being treated like start-up aid, as descri that Italian universities had treated non-Italian nationals differ ed when Roma issues are being treated, not just with specific prog ent). These issues need to be treated on a case by case basis. e in place, he or she must be treated on the same basis as any dom ule is the new voters will be treated similarly to existing Commun e imports of poultry products treated to a temperature of maximum orts of poultry meat products treated to a temperature of at least worry about the risk of being treated unfairly by businesses in ot as not previously reported in treated wastewater. Based on these stablishment of ozonation for treated wastewater. It showed that o per day and with inadequately treated water. The Programme will sp concerned. Figures should be treated with caution, in particular genetically modified feed or treated with genetically modified me t is to be admired as well as treated with wary respect. Edmund Bu easures that it has taken for treating Athens's urban waste water. se policy The Commission is treating Corporate Social Responsibi products open up a new way of treating diseases. The hope is that that have a role to play and treating issues at the level where i lant at Psittalia (capable of treating the waste water of five mil nal value which would justify treating them, like food and medicin

3.6.4. Parafrasi Le seguenti considerazioni sul campione di inglese istituzionale analizzato

sono relative al fenomeno della riformulazione parafrastica che è spesso presente

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nei testi, scritti e parlati, di lingua specialistica, in quanto mira alla chiarezza espositiva.

L’uso della parafrasi, infatti, serve spesso a spiegare concetti che potrebbero presentare delle difficoltà interpretative. Considerate tutte le caratteristiche dell’inglese finora esaminato si è deciso di verificare se all’interno di ECPREC si ricorra all’espediente parafrastico per aiutare la comprensione degli utenti. E’ chiaro che i meccanismi della parafrasi agiscono in modi differenti, attraverso vari tipi di marcatori, ma anche in assenza di marcatori espliciti. Prendendo spunto da un articolo di Silvia Bruti46 che analizza un corpus di inglese scientifico, si è proceduto a verificare la presenza, nel nostro corpus, di segmenti riformulati introdotti da due marcatori in particolare, i.e. e that is (to say), entrambi molto usati per spiegare meglio un concetto o una parola. Il primo è di solito considerato più formale e tecnico, mentre il secondo, pur avendo un grado formale minore, assolve ad una funzione importante, in quanto l’analisi di Bruti mette in luce che esso è usato, anche in contesti tecnici, per introdurre segmenti riformulati più ampi rispetto a i.e.:

La maggior parte delle parafrasi introdotte da i.e., è di natura locale, volta a definire un termine tecnico o a specificare l’accezione di un termine comune. Si tratta in ogni caso di una necessità di stabilire una piattaforma lessicale comune tra autore/emittente, depositario delle conoscenze disciplinari e il ricevente/studente, conoscitore alle prime armi, per designare referenti e nozioni della materia di studio. Di contro abbiamo visto, in parte con i.e., ma in maniera ben più evidente con that is, parafrasi di portata più ampia, intersecanti più segmenti testuali e contenenti reiterazioni dl contenuto dei vari antecedenti, utilizzate per fornire al destinatario un secondo tentativo interpretativo o rinforzare eventualmente un’interpretazione di esito positivo, favorendone, così l’attività ritentiva.47. E’ chiaro che Bruti si riferisce ad un ambito formativo, ma le considerazioni

fatte su i.e. e that is possono essere applicate a qualsiasi contesto. Abbiamo interrogato il concordancer per vedere come i due marcatori siano

utilizzati in ECPREC.

46 Bruti S., 2004, «La voce dell’autore: alcuni tipi di parafrasi in un corpus di inglese scientifico» in Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica Applicata, anno XXXVI, n. 1, pp. 89-109. 47 Bruti S. op. cit. pp. 105-106.

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i.e. è presente 133 volte contro le 265 di that is, ma andando a leggere le concordanze in formato KWIC è risultato immediatamente chiaro, ed era ovvio, che that is viene usato per scopi diversi; ci sono molte occorrenze di that is why, e altrettante strutture del tipo “the range of opinions that is typical of a democratic society”. Ad una lettura delle 265 occorrenze si è verificato che that is (to say) ricorre solo 19 volte.

La prevalenza di i.e. testimonia del grado di formalità dei testi in esame, ma l’uso che si fa di entrambi i marcatori sembrerebbe non corrispondere alle considerazioni fatte in precedenza perché i due espedienti parafrastici risultano essere intercambiabili, introducendo entrambi segmenti riformulati più o meno ampi.

Di seguito si mostrano alcuni esempi dell’uso di that is, sottolineati nel testo.

“The pity about the current row on GM foods is that we are actually doing pretty well in terms of our co-operation on the number one priority right now, that is to say, the Round”.

“The new Financial Regulation lays down an accounting framework based on a "dual" system, by which the general accounts are based on accrual accounting, whereas the budget implementation remains "cash-based", that is to say records expenditure and revenue”. “This should lead to a virtuous cycle and overcome the chicken-and-egg dilemma, that is, the situation where better content is waiting for faster Internet and vice-versa”.

I tre esempi riportati, ma anche gli altri in nostro possesso, mostrano che that is introduce brevi segmenti esplicativi; non risultano casi di ampie riformulazioni che usino la locuzione avverbiale introduttiva analizzata.

Per quanto riguarda il più formale i.e., pur introducendo in alcuni casi, brevi segmenti testuali, a volte anche una sola parola, è molto usato nel corpus per introdurre più ampie riformulazioni come le seguenti:

“Refusals to grant access to gas pipelines are not only incompatible with the European gas directives of 1998 and 2003, which provide for a so-called Third Party Access (TPA) regime, i.e. a regime allowing gas suppliers and shippers to use the gas pipelines owned by the other operators”.

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“Many of the SMEs that will be affected by the present legislative proposal are 'downstream users', i.e. companies that buy chemicals and use them as ingredients in their own products or use chemicals in an industrial or professional way”.

“Only in those cases where it is compulsory, for VAT purposes, to issue an invoice, i.e. where there is a taxable supply of goods or services from one trader to another trader, in addition to a few other cases like distance selling from one Member State to private consumers in another Member State and sales of new cars”.

L’analisi effettuata su i.e. ha evidenziato un altro aspetto interessante: si è

notato in alcuni casi un uso errato dell’abbreviazione latina. Si è riscontrato, in particolare, che nel campione analizzato essa viene a volte confusa con e.g. e viceversa.

i.e. (id est) introduce, come abbiamo visto, una spiegazione o un altro modo di presentare qualcosa (in other words), mentre e.g. (exempli gratia) presenta un esempio di quanto detto (for example).

I due casi che seguono mettono in evidenza lo scambio tra le due abbreviazioni.

“In relation to the pending national safeguard measures, decisions(11) aimed at repealing the safeguard measure invoked both under Novel Food regulation (i.e. Italy) and under environmental legislation (i.e. Austria, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Greece and UK) should be finalised and submitted to the vote in absence of reaction of the Member States concerned”.

“As to price fixing, some comment that the description in the guidelines of reciprocal running royalties (e.g. royalties calculated on the basis of individual product sales) as a potential means of price fixing between competitors is too harsh”.

3.6.5. Strutture ridondanti

Per concludere il discorso sulla lingua inglese istituzionale europea, si vogliono presentare alcuni esempi di strutture che appesantiscono i contenuti, i quali potrebbero essere espressi in maniera più naturale e spedita. Si è deciso di tenere queste considerazioni da parte, nel senso che ovviamente non le si ritiene caratteristiche peculiari di un linguaggio specialistico, ma caratteristiche, ci sembra, peculiari del campione di inglese esaminato.

L’inglese dell’Unione Europea è stato spesso criticato aspramente a causa della sua ampollosità e fumosità. E’ stato definito euro-speak, euro-jargon e

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eurobabble in senso dispregativo e anche plain bad English e foggy English. Forse stupirà il fatto che le ‘etichette’ appena menzionate sono state attribuite da persone interne all’Unione, in particolare da chi lavora nel servizio di traduzione delle istituzioni europee.

“Fight the Fog” è il nome dato ad una campagna contro l’inglese poco chiaro e ridondante che si incontra in alcuni documenti dell’Unione Europea. Il servizio di traduzione dell’UE ha aperto una sezione nel suo sito ufficiale intitolata appunto Fight the Fog – Write clearly48. Nella pagina di benvenuto del sito si legge:

The European Commission's Translation Service is running a campaign called "Fight the FOG" to encourage authors and translators to write more clearly. This light-hearted campaign draws attention to the dangers of FOG - that vague grey pall that descends on EU documents, obscuring meanings and messages, causing delays and irritation.

Le pagine del sito contengono, tra le altre cose, un booklet che fornisce consigli su come scrivere in un inglese chiaro e conciso che eviti ogni tipo di prolissità. Nel sito si può leggere anche un articolo di Emma Wagner49, che lavora per il servizio di traduzione della Commissione Europea e che esordisce scrivendo:

In a bid to stem the tide of Eurojargon, Euro-waffle and plain bad English in European Commission documents, a group of Commission translators started the “Fight the FOG” campaign in 1998. We wanted to encourage Commission authors and translators to write clearly, in the language of the real world, and to close the gap between the EU institutions and the public. In what follows I explain why translators organised the campaign, what we did and what we have achieved. We don't claim that the problem of obscure Eurofog has gone away — but it is getting more attention. Linguistic clarity is just one component of the general “transparency and accountability” package so urgently needed in the EU institutions.

E poco dopo, aggiunge:

There are two main reasons why translators were the prime movers behind this campaign. Firstly, because fog is demoralising to translate. Many EU documents are written in Euro-English and then have to be translated into the ten other official languages, so that 11 official “equivalent” versions can be published. For a linguist who cares about language, translating bad English on a routine basis is

48 http://europa.eu.int/comm/translation/en/ftfog/ 49 http://europa.eu.int/comm/translation/en/ftfog/fog_history.htm

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like asking a top chef to spend his working day frying up cut-price frozen fish fingers instead of devoting his talents to prime seafood, succulent steak and fresh vegetables... The effort is not worth it, and the results will be indigestible. Secondly, translators hate fog because they are blamed for producing it. Often it is assumed that documents written in “Euro-English” are themselves translations. But in the EU institutions, all the English translators are native speakers of English and they would never write anything less than perfect... or would they? How much exposure to Gallicisms can you take before you start using them yourself? Can you keep your head, when all about you are using the word “delay” as if it meant the same as the French “délai” and forgetting that “dispose of” means the opposite of “disposer de”?

L’articolo citato è stato scritto nel 2002 e ci si domanda se qualcosa sia cambiato nel frattempo. I documenti della Commissione sono più comprensibili e meno macchinosi?

In particolare, i comunicati stampa, che sono un ponte di comunicazione con l’esterno, dovrebbero essere i testi più chiari e concisi. Già dalle considerazioni fatte in precedenza verrebbe da pensare che poco sia effettivamente cambiato (si considerino i discorsi fatti sull’uso di figure retoriche, abbreviazioni e premodificazione).

Per capire se il nostro campione di Eurolingua fosse affetto da ridondanze e annebbiamenti si è deciso di consultare il booklet cui si è fatto poc’anzi riferimento ed interrogare di conseguenza il concordancer per controllare se le espressioni che la campagna anti-nebbia invita ad evitare50, fossero o meno presenti in ECPREC.

In particolare in una sezione del libretto si invitano i redattori a fare uso di parole semplici che rendano qualsiasi testo più credibile rispetto ad espressioni più complesse ed eleganti che però potrebbero risultare ridondanti. Nello specifico si offre la seguente lista di elementi (colonna di sinistra) da sostituire con altri più semplici (colonna di destra):

• •

in view of tha fact that as

with respect to on

50 Gli autori dell’opuscolo tengono a precisare che nel testo si troveranno consigli, e non regole, che potrebbero aiutare a rendere i documenti redatti più chiari e di conseguenza facilitare la comprensione da parte dei lettori che sono composti da operatori interni all’UE, da specialisti esterni, ma anche da un pubblico generale.

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a certain number of some

the majority of most

pursuant to under

within the framework of under

accordingly, consequently so

for the pur pose of, in order to to

in the event of if

if this is not the case if not

if this is the case if so

concerning, regarding about

with reference to, with regard to about

La ricerca di questi elementi in ECPREC ha mostrato che le espressioni nella colonna di sinistra sono presenti nel modo seguente nel corpus:

- In view of the fact that: 2 occorrenze; - With respect to: 59 occorrenze; - A certain number of: 7 occorrenze; - The majority of: 38 occorrenze; - Pursuant to: 18 occorrenze; - Within the framework of: 33 occorrenze; - Accordingly: 46 occorrenze / Consequently: 49 occorrenze; - For the purpose of: 19 occorrenze / In order to: 526 occorrenze; - In the event of: 32 occorrenze; - If this is not the case: 1 occorrenza;

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- If this is the case: 1 occorrenza; - Concerning: 243 occorrenze / Regarding: 138 occorrenze; - With reference to: 3 occorrenze / With regard to: 115

occorrenze;

Pur considerando che le espressioni ricercate sono presenti in modo più o meno frequente, dalle 526 occorrenze di in order to alla singola occorrenza di if this is the case e if this is not the case, va detto però che ogni interrogazione del corpus ha dato esito positivo. Tutti gli elementi lessicali da evitare, o comunque da usare con cautela, sono reperibili nel campione.

Abbiamo pensato di fornire di seguito alcuni esempi tratti dai comunicati stampa in cui compaiono alcune delle parole da evitare per verificare se le sostituzioni consigliate renderebbero la lettura più spedita.

“This is seen as being particularly important in view of the fact that the transplantation of tissues and cells is a strongly expanding field of medicine, offering great opportunities for the treatment of yet incurable diseases”.

“If various analytical elements may show that, after a normal period of losses (as usually observed for similar investment) the corporation should be structurally profitable, the capital injection is treated as a financial transaction for its full amount. If this is not the case, the capital injection is treated as a non-financial transaction for its full amount”. “The full granting of the single farm payment and other direct payments will be linked to the respect of a certain number of statutory environmental, food safety, animal and plant health as well as animal welfare standards. Cross-compliance will also contribute to the maintenance of rural landscapes. In the case of non-respect of cross-compliance requirements, direct payments would be reduced while maintaining proportionality with respect to the risk or damage concerned”.

Leggendo questi esempi, tra i tanti disponibili, ci pare di poter affermare che

seguire i consigli anti-nebbia sarebbe una buona idea, perché le frasi sono già appesantite da costruzioni ricche di nominalizzazioni e premodficazioni che rendono la lettura più complicata, per cui usare forme linguistiche semplici, anche se meno eleganti e formali, permetterebbe di comunicare il messaggio in maniera più svelta e concisa, grande pregio, ci sembra, che un comunicato stampa dovrebbe avere.

Al di là dei suggerimenti forniti dal libretto citato, ci si è imbattuti in altri casi che si vogliono segnalare di seguito con degli esempi che mostrano un uso

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pleonastico della lingua e anche a volte discutibile. All’interno delle citazioni si troveranno, tra parentesi e sottolineate, le forme che potrebbero essere preferite o semplicemente delle considerazioni sull’uso della lingua.

“Economic output and income per labour unit, although steadily improving, remain very low, largely due to the fact that (si può usare un semplice because) Portuguese agricultural labour is poorly equipped with land and capital and because there is serious underlying underemployment in the sector”.

“And the draft proposal for a Framework Directive on the Eco-design of Energy-Using Products (the responsibility of the Directorates-General Energy and Transport and Enterprise) should set a flexible legislative framework for product-specific measures to improve eco-design. These would have to be taken bearing in mind (considering) the likely effects of such measures on other phases of the product's life-cycle”.

“If and when (if basterebbe) dangerous products are identified, the EU's powers to order a recall or an emergency ban have been simplified and reinforced. The Commission can also for the first time act on its own initiative (sintassi confusa) to suspend a product up to now it could only initiate EU action after a Member States request”.

“There was a consensus in the working group that capacity building must take the prevalent local legal, institutional and socio-economical (socio-economic) conditions as its point of departure”.

“Due to (due è un aggettivo e non potrebbe essere usato qui, ma dovrebbe essere sostituito da owing to) the transitional and short-term nature of their mandate, new Commissioners will not hold a specific portfolio”.

“And whilst the means are relatively modest by comparison with the budgets of Member State Governments, the end results (uso pleonastico) have the potential to attract multiplier capital and to inspire other projects”.

“A total of (uso pleonastico) 113 European companies are now active in tissue engineering in Europe (EU25), with 54 companies engaging in in vitro production of tissues. The European structure is similar to that of the USA, regarding the number and size of companies”.

“I started with a section on SARS an area where it is clear that international co-operation is absolutely essential (uso pleonastico)”.

“Where absolutely necessary (uso pleonastico) the Commission can present to the Council a proposal for a directive amending the rules applicable to rates before expiry of the five-year period”.

“However, whilst quality might be the new news that you take away from today, I would like to begin today with old, and briefly summarise (uso pleonastico) the key achievements of the reform package agreed in June”.

“The Union welcomes the formation of the Council as a concrete demonstration (uso pleonastico) by Egypt of its willingness to promote and protect human rights and is convinced that the independence and the high qualification of its members will contribute to the credibility of Egypt's human rights policy”.

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“The marketing of a medicinal product having been authorised, it would be unnecessary, disproportionate, time consuming and costly to apply exactly the same (uso pleonastico) procedure often involving extensive clinical tests - all over again to a product imported in parallel which is exactly the same (uso pleonastico) or sufficiently similar to the one already authorised”.

“Member States contribute to the Bathing Water report and web site by specifying which actions have been taken both in the field of (uso pleonastico) urban wastewater treatment as well a s in mastering the effects of diffuse pollution”.

“With regard to public participation, all EU institutions and bodies will have to identify the public likely to be affected by future plans and programmes (uso pleonastico) relating to the environment, and invite them, at an early stage, to participate in the decision-making process and submit their comments and views”.

“There are already joint co-operation (uso pleonastico) actions between the national programmes of France and Germany which, with Spain, have also launched a tri-national plant genomics programme with joint funding”.

“It is a threat to us all and we need to address it through mutual co-operation” (uso pleonastico).

“In the first chapter of our report we have tried to present a number of arguments on how their concerns may possibly (uso pleonastico) be addressed which, in most cases, are rather straight-forward questions of common sense”.

“Altogether, about €68 million will be spent in the period of (uso pleonastico) 5 years”.

Si vuole fare una breve onsiderazione conclusiva su quanto appena detto e

che va oltre ogni valutazione di tipo linguistico: i contenuti dei comunicati stampa che compongono il corpus sono spesso difficili da comprendere perché trattano di argomenti tecnici, ma se questi contenuti sono comunicati, come spesso avviene, in una forma altrettanto complicata e contorta, la comprensione può diventare addirittura impossibile.

Se dall’interno delle istituzioni europee si è avvertito un disagio e un’urgenza di semplificare i messaggi, si può immaginare che dall’esterno questo bisogno sia anche maggiore e ci si augura che tutto ciò che, non solo l’Unione Europea, ma tutte le istituzioni hanno da comunicare lo facciano con semplicità per apparire più vere ed accessibili e per accrescere l’interesse e la condivisione da parte dei cittadini.

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Appendice 1

Schede di concordanze relative alla nominalizzazione

Decision renewed once by a Commission decision. A call for applications for

ake a fully informed purchase decision. A consumer who buys a car at

nity GNI by the own resources decision. A margin for unforeseen expen

the future) and takes then a decision. A total of 18 GMOs(1) and a t

telna, a.s. In its second decision according to the so-called int

into account in the exemption decision adopted by the Commission toda

n Commission has welcomed the Decision, adopted by the Council of the

be claimed back, following a decision adopted by the European Commis

ithdrawn its interim measures decision adopted on 3 July 2001 against

31 March 2005 according to a decision adopted today by the Commissio

t Asia. The situation and the decision adopted will be reviewed at th

the immediate reasons for any decision adversely affecting him adopte

The Commission has adopted a decision against Wanadoo Interactive, a

reaty The Council adopted a Decision aimed at accelerating the proc

s progressing in finalising a decision aiming at repealing the nation

tion. The proposed Commission decision aims at exempting smaller publ

esenting a new proposal for a Decision allowing the Council to review

Development Fund. The new Decision also aims to bring the Commiss

se commitments are met. The Decision also benefits the public by in

Italians. As you know, June's decision also included a commitment to

ational feeding programme.The decision also provides funding for co-o

through KfW, the Commission's decision also reflects its intention to

Both the proposed Commission decision and Commission framework for t

It will be adopted through co-decision and could enter into force in

uncil for adoption through co-decision and could enter into force beg

not understand the Icelandic decision and I find it very regrettable

tes. But the process of joint decision- and law-making, and the shari

ng possessed when it took its decision and risks inherent in the oper

nform the public of the final decision and the underlying reasons, in

ranted to him to reverse this decision and thus to uphold the current

amount. Consequences of the decision Any capital injection that,

ussia The Council adopted a Decision approving an Agreement negotia

he Commission is to prepare a decision. Artegodan and 15 other phar

res tax regime, and to take a decision as soon as possible. Taxatio

o allow the right and fastest decision as what type of action should

ns for a software package for decision assistance and management of t

ons by other Member States, a decision at EU level is required. The C

n or revision of the judicial decision at issue. NB. The judges of

al press conference after the decision at the Council on agriculture

The panel will announce its decision at the end of September, and a

opean Commission would make a decision. Authorisation: Substances o

her scientific purposes. This Decision authorises the President of th

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the facts and take its final decision authorising or prohibiting the

ducts The Council adopted a Decision authorising the Commission to

econd Railway Package and the decision authorising the Commission to

d, the Council also adopted a Decision authorising the Commission to

sment by EFSA submits a draft Decision authorising the product for ad

decision, submit a draft decision authorizing GM maize NK603 to

of air transport. a Council decision authorizing the Commission to

-suspension arrangements. The Decision, based on a proposal put forwa

islative proposals: a Council Decision based on Article 23 of the Act

requirement to make a taxing decision based on customer location is

ir transport. 8. Will the decision be good for regional developme

ommission proposes a European decision be submitted to a committee of

felt it important to adopt a decision because of the risk of the abu

action for annulment of that decision before the Court of First Inst

to review the September 2000 Decision by 31 December 2004, as provid

on The EU deeply regrets the decision by Brazil, Australia and Thail

be used. To enable a quick decision by Council and Parliament, the

Commission. To enable a quick decision by Council and Parliament, the

be used. To enable a quick decision by Council and Parliament, the

irective. She commented: "The decision by Council today on a greenhou

sly concerned over the recent decision by His Majesty's Government of

of the entity concerned ; a decision by OLAF's Director to open an

Zahra Kazemi. It welcomed the decision by President Khatami to order

economic development. Today's decision by the Commission helps to cla

stry by these countries. This decision by the Commission ties in full

nion. Commenting on today's decision by the Commission, Günter Verh

y until adoption of the final decision by the Council and Parliament

rably a Belgian request for a Decision by the Council of Ministers, u

e. The formal approval of the decision by the Council was required in

istrative matter requiring a decision by the Court; - an increa

nt Roger Briesch welcomes the decision by the Czech people to enter t

EU Council in view of a final decision by the EU-ACP Council of Minis

their sector. Turning to the decision by the European Council to sit

form the basis for a possible decision by the European Parliament and

me Safety Agency welcomes the decision, by the European Parliament, o

The acquisition arises from a decision by the Federal Cartel Office,

n against Sweden concerning a decision by the municipality of Eskilst

European Union has noted the decision by the Russian authorities to

of these decisions. In its decision, C-11/00 and C-15/00, the Cour

mpliance. The Ombudsman's decision can be found on his website, a

asons of confidentiality. The decision can be found under the aid num

2/CFSP (doc. 10832/03); - a Decision (2003/480/CE) aimed at impleme

by Kühne & Heitz against that decision challenging the reimbursement

ecember in 1999. The Helsinki decision clarified Turkey's eligibility

o-operation with Africa. This decision clearly shows the importance w

ace Process. The Commission's decision comes as one of the parties ha

businesses and citizens. This Decision comes one day after the Europe

133

he date of publication of the decision. Commission assesses the up

isions. Commenting on the decision, Commissioner for Enlargement

dividually. Commenting on the decision, Competition Commissioner Mari

epidemics. The new funding decision complements the resumed "Oil f

03) The Council adopted the Decision concerning the application to

Chile The Council adopted a Decision concerning the conclusion of t

DD 1) The Council adopted a Decision concerning the conclusion of t

he municipal council took the decision concerning the electoral rolls

lly confirms the Commission's decision concerning the existence of an

ustry The Council adopted a Decision confirming that the restructur

mobile network sharing. This decision confirms that site sharing in

mes in Jammu and Kashmir, the decision continues to address the basic

hether they want parts of the decision deleted for reasons of confide

stor as criteria for taking a decision. 4. Did BSCA take the pruden

ment in Hoechst/Rhône-Poulenc decision DN: IP/04/135 Date:

We have to make a fundamental decision: Do we want to give our farmer

e finds that the Commission's decision does not contain sufficient pr

Moreover, the Commission's decision does not deprive HB of its rig

will continue to do. Today's decision does not have an impact on mar

lopment? The Commission's decision does not prevent agreements be

ese reasons. This Framework Decision does not prevent any Member St

ght to an end. The Commission Decision does not require the recovery

competitive globally, today's decision does show that the Commission

competitive globally, today's decision does show that the Commission

the Commission can adopt the decision. During the notification p

89/662/EEC and 92/118/EEC and Decision 95/408/EC (11502/03 + ADD 1 +

s and entities, and repealing Decision 2002/974/EC (doc. 10836/03).

including Russia. 4 Council Decision 2002/358/EC of 25 April 2002

in the EU was established by Decision 2119/98/EC of the European Par

(1)COM (2003) 440 final (2)Decision 2850/2000/EC of the European P

2/358/EC of 25 April 2002 5 Decision 1600/2002/EC of the European P

n may be required. Commission Decision 2000/57/EC on the EWRS makes i

EU poultry flocks (Commission Decision 2000/666/EC). No bird can leav

th related issues. Commission Decision 2000/96/EC, as updated on 17 J

of the Council and by Council Decision 2001/792/EC. (3)COM (2003) 2

n 1998. Including this latest decision, ECHO has contributed more tha

replaces the existing Council Decision 93/389/EEC on the monitoring o

anced by the EU under Council Decision 90/424/EEC. The first national

bstances. Commenting on the decision, Environment Commissioner, Mar

osnia and Herzegovina, theThe Decision establishes a new list of pers

. In November 2002, a Council Decision establishing a mechanism for e

pted a proposal for a Council Decision establishing the European Refu

test. Commenting on today's decision, EU Farm Commissioner Franz Fi

een Paper. The Commission decision exempting small scale public f

Commission has taken a final decision exempting the new joint sellin

nd friends. He said: _Today's decision expresses the Union's financia

the European Union adopted a Decision extending the list of persons

134

nger services into Italy. The decision finds that FS has prevented Ge

room/>; link: Council). The Decision focuses on 10 result-oriented

rates. This latest funding decision focuses on providing food and

he EU, mostly by a Commission Decision following a qualified majority

urostat is expected to make a decision following consultation of the

res the Commission to adopt a Decision following consultation of the

r particular vigilance. The decision follows on from the decision o

inenbau GmbH in 1998. Today's decision follows the judgment of the Co

ay - by written procedure - a Decision for an Agreement between the E

sector. "This is a landmark decision for competition in European ra

a fine. This is a landmark decision for competition in European ra

ual directly concerned by the decision, for example in competition ca

d to be the last humanitarian decision for Serbia, as the process of

Commission adopted a proposed Decision for the European Union to sign

respectively. 3 A negative decision for the period beyond 14 Septe

n applied in the Commission's decision, for the periods before and af

he funds. Commenting on the decision, Franz Fischler, Commissioner

mpanies to obtain an explicit decision from the authorities before co

ke six years to implement the Decision from the date of its adoption.

is likely to take a different decision from the one they would have m

rrections Under the present decision, funds are recovered from Fran

coming cross-border mail. The decision furthermore ensures that new e

he existing rules. Eurostat decision General case Government in

or the environment. Today's decision gives Europe a solid and stron

European Commission adopted a decision granting 17 European postal op

gular meeting of 24 June.This decision has been taken further to the

er States. The Commission's decision has been taken in line with th

the Lebanese authorities, the decision has been taken to carry out on

er to participate. Once the decision has been taken, the Commission

vestigation is complete and a decision has been taken. For the Counci

are raised and maintained, a decision has to be taken at EU level. T

institutions and bodies. This decision has validated OLAF's legal bas

ee is therefore happy that no decision has yet been taken about furth

irst Instance annulled OHIM's decision, holding that the word "Double

rations played a role in that decision. However, regardless of the re

the end, be its own political decision. I am personally convinced tha

ties. And as a result of this decision, Iceland found it necessary to

ion, the Agency will take the decision. If not, the Commission decide

on, the Commission adopts the Decision. If not, the draft Decisio

er railway operators too. The decision illustrates the Commission's d

opean Union. 9. Will this decision impact on fares? No. A low

Area, concerning the Council Decision implementing Common Position 2

owever, following the Council decision in December 2003 on cod fisher

the bulk of an earlier panel decision in favour of the EU. The Appel

pean Commission proposed this Decision in February 2003 .The European

d of the Member States, for a decision in February. Furthermore t

already conceded by the panel decision in March. The report will be

135

tt to discuss the UK's recent decision in more depth. I also know

tion annulling that dismissal decision in order to obtain reexaminati

nce confirms the Commission's decision in regard to Van den Bergh Foo

already adopted a favourable decision in relation to the UK Agreemen

der suspending the Commission decision in so far as it prohibited the

% etc.). ith the CAP reform decision, in the EU-15 a de-coupled Sin

medy attached to the original decision in the first transaction, the

problems. The present funding decision includes the provision of spec

k on the implemention of this decision into Community legislation. Th

r Pascal Lamy added: "Today's decision is a clear signal that we are

a pan-European level. Today's decision is a good example of concrete

he present cases because that decision is aimed at the integration of

European rail transport. The decision is also in line with EU legisl

Solidarity Fund, said: "This decision is an expression of the Union'

do so. The full text of the Decision is available on the Europa web

alnutrition and disease. This decision is designed to help combat mal

A further component of the decision is designed to help protect co

n-confidential version of the decision is expected to be published at

bia (see IP/03/395). This ¬1m decision is expected to be the last hum

er Extractive Industries. The Decision is expected to enter into forc

e definitive even though that decision is founded on an interpretatio

ation is very good news. This decision is fully consistent with the p

State aid. The Commission's decision is fully in line with its comm

", she explained. Today's decision is good for regional developme

reenhouse gas emissions. This Decision is important because it implem

alvitie to this position. The decision is in line with the Council's

rnment deficit/surplus. The decision is in line with the European S

Procedure notification. The decision is in line with the European S

r. The aim of the Framework Decision is in particular to ensure tha

the next three months. The decision is intended to respond to need

ith the common market if this decision is justified by exceptional ci

h the common market if such a decision is justified by exceptional ci

ffect, and will stand until a decision is made on complete abolition

uation in Eastern Congo. This decision is managed by the Commission's

Usually, when the Commission Decision is negative in such cases, the

ed, with the result that each decision is now based on detailed infor

. The emphasis of the new aid decision is on supporting internally di

and noise reduction. Today's decision is only related to the last of

the national origin. This decision is part of a set of aid scheme

cision. If not, the draft Decision is submitted to the Council of

t its comments before a final decision is taken and, if that remains

valuations are complete and a decision is taken as regards the safety

meeting. Before the clearance decision is taken, the procedure provid

s available on the moment the decision is taken. 4 Measured in p

s available on the moment the decision is taken. 5 Since 1990, t

ation to be funded under this decision is to alleviate the impact of

that the reason behind such a decision is to avoid the risk of farms

136

The purpose of the Framework Decision is to establish the rules unde

e principal objectives of the decision is to strengthen the capacity

considers that the Council's decision is unlawful, because it came a

fit of consumers. "This legal decision is well balanced: it brings gr

doubt that you too feel this decision is well-earned and long overdu

orwarded to the Council for a decision. It also agreed to submit

lly confirms the Commission's decision. It considers, however, that t

ically three reasons for this decision: it is a choice for coherence,

f the timely adoption of this decision, it is expected that all the h

led to take a negative final decision, it may also decide that any a

ast. With this latest funding decision, its support for victims of th

mber 2004, as provided in the Decision itself. The Commission is acco

international level with the decision last May to create a supplemen

for their crimes witness the decision last month by the Special Cour

which is why the EU took the decision last year to open negotiations

ssure the impartiality of the decision maker, and they all operate at

ter synergy between political decision makers and civil society playe

o communicate to politicians, decision makers and civil society, the

stry, financial institutions, decision-makers and other relevant stak

r and anxiety amongst Turkish decision-makers and population. Last ye

ional nature to help national decision-makers at the various stages o

include high level policy and decision-makers from public administrat

t humanitarian information to decision makers in aid, UN and donor ag

policy to bring together the decision makers of tomorrow to share an

and targets is left to local decision makers since they best know th

, the greater the ability for decision-makers to act effectively," sa

eatment. I expect other world decision-makers to agree with this prin

s include relevant policy and decision-makers, as well as industry an

s PEOPLE are key to providing decision-makers, environment and health

ions to guide EU and national decision makers. A small but effect

ons, with relevant policy and decision makers. The aims of the conf

lly forms a new generation of decision-makers. Examples like Billund

ll as for EU and Member State decision-makers. The ECDC will communic

¬1.8 billion the Commission's decision makes clear that the authorisa

all islands. The Commission's decision makes it possible to guarantee

mental impact study- EIS) and decision-making (authorising the projec

articipation in environmental decision-making (Directive 2003/35/EC)

tion, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice i

articipation in environmental decision-making and access to justice i

tion, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice r

nd our programme of devolving decision-making and implementation of c

gthen the Community Method of decision-making and provide Europe with

ensure maximum efficiency in decision-making and resource allocation

participate in environmental decision-making and to take violations

articipation in environmental decision-making at EU level? The Euro

gh level of support for joint decision-making at European level on is

al for a Regulation addresses decision-making at European level: Wher

137

articipation in environmental decision-making at national level.(5)

tutions and bodies remain the decision-making authority. In other wor

ardly function effectively if decision-making calls for unanimity amo

ajor objectives and principal decision-making criteria, in particular



plication procedure and joint decision making for project selection c

s, in order to support better decision-making for the environment and

good information Accurate decision-making for the environment and

n turn, will facilitate rapid decision making if the EU or its Member

information, participation in decision-making in environmental matter

of the drought and to support decision making in European Agricultura

a double simple majority for decision-making in the Council. Such

rance and Germany and placing decision-making in the hands of a supra

pting unanimity as a rule for decision-making means no decisions will

The lack of women in senior, decision-making positions in science me

to go further, e.g., into the decision making principle of consensus,

es. Our aim is to improve the decision-making procedure and to make t

o improve the documentary and decision-making procedures. Neverth

s and the improvements to the decision-making process (notably as reg

should contribute to a better decision making process and guarantee t

ll also support the Community decision-making process and help busine

omplete, which slows down the decision making process and makes inves

stage, to participate in the decision-making process and submit thei

ntribute to the environmental decision-making process and so works ag

and when improvements to the decision-making process are still being

ividual cases. An appropriate decision making process at the Commissi

o argue that the Convention's decision-making process could any longe

ths is not very common in the decision-making process of the European

ion agreed at the time of the decision-making process on FP6 that fur

ey role in speeding up the EU decision making process on key pieces o

that it excludes much of the decision making process on potential en

experts in the field. In the decision-making process on the Specific

ere unable to apply them in a decision-making process that satisfies

ly undermine the Convention's decision-making process". The Ombudsman

ssible stage in the political decision-making process, but it does no

an overhaul of the political decision making process, in particular

sparent the investigation and decision-making process, ranging from i

y Bulgaria and Romania in the decision-making process, similar to wha

nd structured approach to the decision-making process. However, thi

rated to the Civil Protection decision-making process. In the Medit

y stage, in the environmental decision-making process. And of course

increase participation in the decision-making process. Policy formula

s of WTO negotiations and the decision-making process. The areas for

concerns and take part in the decision making process. These Member S

being closely involved in the decision-making process. Which is why I

a full and active role in the decision-making process. While they wil

138

concerns and take part in the decision making process._ The report

o the Global Fund? The EU's decision-making processes are complex b

in the policy definition and decision-making processes of government

our policies and our internal decision-making processes. It means our

opportunity to participate in decision-making processes. States shall

t of a modern and streamlined decision-making structure for financial

uld ensure it is effective in decision-making terms as well as having

ment is and to participate in decision-making that will affect their

articipation in environmental decision-making will enhance the qualit

single EU regulatory system, decision-making with set deadlines, and

been involving the public in decision-making, adhering to a number o

articipation in environmental decision-making, and allows the public

role to the political side of decision-making, both in the Commission

signing] Having authority, decision-making, economic or social pow

igning] Having authority, decision-making, economic or social pow

igning] Having authority, decision-making, economic or social pow

of patients in public health decision-making, reviewing national app

articipation in environmental decision-making, which is fully in line

siness have directly impacted decision-making. During last year's

ticipation and involvement in decision-making. It can help restor

framework for entrepreneurial decision making. The acquis communa

ans to directly influence the decision-making. This afternoon and

ore efficient and streamlined decision-making. I have never hidden

ational methods and tools for decision-making. More information on

ication of majority voting in decision-making. The latest version o

requirement for unanimity in decision-making. What I find most wor

ticipation and involvement in decision-making. eGovernment can help t

participate in environmental decision-making. This means that public

n and public participation in decision making. To support civil socie

le to health policymakers for decision-making." European Research C

of patients in public-health decision-making; reviewing national app

should participate in 'green' decision-making? Decisions likely to

er Franz Fischler said: "This decision marks the beginning of a new e

n months). The Commission's decision marks the end of an investigat

of. Nothing in this Framework Decision may be interpreted as prohibit

year period (2003-2006). This decision means that the full amount wil

April 2003, in the EU's trade decision mechanism. They share the EU's

he Council to adopt a similar decision. Moreover, the Commission has

nity law That administrative decision, motivated by respect for the

ting on this latest financing decision, Mr Nielson said: _Civilians c

Commenting on the new funding decision, Mr Nielson said: _Millions of

ctors. This is why any such decision must be carefully assessed and

ng the original authorisation decision. National measures notified un

is far from clear and a final decision needs to be taken to either ab

s which form the basis of the decision. Nevertheless, Member States h

me of the entry into force of Decision No 1/80 (1.12.1980). However

The Additional Protocol and Decision No 1/80 contain "standstill cl

139

ver, the standstill clause in Decision No 1/80 is not applicable to t

ditional Protocol of 1972 and Decision No 1/80 may be relied on by Tu

72 by an Additional Protocol. Decision No 1/80 of the Association Cou

d to the standstill clause in Decision No 1/80 the same interpretatio

s between the EEC and Turkey. Decision No 1/80, which concerns freedo

n the Additional Protocol and Decision No 1/80. The Bundessozialgeric

nt and the Commission adopted Decision No 1247/2002/EC on the regulat

es. 1 As provided for in Decision No 676/2002/EC of the European

ns; in the dairy sector: no decision now on additional quota increa

es that contribute to it. The Decision obliges Member States to monit

n August 2001. See Commission Decision of 05.07.2201 in case M.2461 (

December 2001. See Commission Decision of 15 September 1999 relating

also referred to a Commission decision of 16 July 2003 on the protect

annulment of the Commission's decision of 17 February. On 26 June, pe

n on various anorectics. By a decision of 1996, in accordance with th

the objectives of the Council Decision of 20 June 2003 implementing C

n the strength of which, by a decision of 2000, it fined Opel Nederla

decision follows on from the decision of 21 May in which the Commiss

Response Centre (1)Council decision of 23 October 2001 establishin

sm, established under Council Decision of 23 October 2001(1) and in f

Background The Council Decision of 28 September 2000 establish

en approved by the Commission decision of 29 May 2002(1). The sch

e of the Commission's earlier decision of 3 February 2003 (see IP/04/

mission therefore adopted the Decision of 3 July 2001 ordering IMS, b

Communities. (1)Commission Decision of 30 April 2003 in Case No. C

ation, in accordance with its decision of 5 June 2003, which establis

meetings of the cartel. By decision of 7 June 2000 the Commission

reminds Commissioners of the decision of 9 July concerning the dialo

the summer break. We hope for decision of European Council in first s

mbers. 21 August 2003 New decision of Eurostat on deficit and deb

Hotel. 21 August 2003 New decision of Eurostat on deficit and deb

European Council welcomes the decision of Israel and the Palestinian

ely for HB products. In its decision of March 1998, the Commission

The EU considers that the decision of President Nazarbayev repres

Commission today took a major decision of significance for the future

eeping; - takes note of the decision of the AU Heads of State reque

minder: An appeal against the decision of the CFI, limited to points

n of ¬ 3 million based on the decision of the Copenhagen Council. The

ents. In exceptional cases, a decision of the Court of First Instance

The Court sets aside the decision of the Court of First Instance

13 and 14 June, I welcome the decision of the Czech people to join th

ffectively started in 1998 by decision of the EFTA Council. It was al

tumn following the early June decision of the EU Council to approve a

. This was followed up by the decision of the EU's Council of Ministe

ocuments are contained in the Decision of the European Central Bank o

ex_en.htm#infractions (1) Decision of the European Council in Göt

s Committee, established by a decision of the February 2003 Council (

140

r closely the case, notes the decision of the Malaysian Court of Appe

opean Parliament to approve a Decision of the Parliament and the Coun

e right to appeal against the decision of the public authority. A f

. It also took account in its decision of the view expressed by the L

y one of the parties, a final decision of the WTO Appellate Body is n

nian Authority as well as our decision of today to create a joint str

arding authorisation, and the decision of whether the licence is gran

er Pascal Lamy said: "Today's decision offers a temporary relief to E

ed political agreement on the Decision on 13 June 2003 (Environment C

f 2005. The Council took this decision on 16 July; the Commission con

-Holland). The Commission's decision on 17 July 2002 to launch a fo

ssion today took a favourable decision on 3rd Generation ("3G") mobil

en. For the Council to take a decision on a case that the Commission

s closely linked to the draft Decision on a monitoring mechanism for

liament and the Council: a _Decision on a Monitoring Mechanism for

me to Turkey in the wake of a decision on a new constitution for the

id basis for taking the right decision on a project. The EIA Directiv

Council adopted the Framework decision on attacks against information

different parts: a Council decision on authorizing the Commission

n 2005. The Commission's decision on Charleroi airport promotes

nd impact of the Commission's decision on Charleroi airport 1. Wh

Council adopted the Framework Decision on combating corruption in the

rgently. The EU Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism establi

ational law. Proposal for a Decision on conclusion by the EU of the

run their course. The Council decision on coordination centres overtu

il appealed against the panel decision on eight out of the more than

for Europe programme and the decision on energy TENs; and on the env

the adoption of the Framework Decision on Freezing Assets and Evidenc

6/03) The Council adopted a Decision on Guidelines for the Employme

es mentioned in the Council's Decision on Guidelines for the Employme

bbean The Council adopted a Decision on implementation of Joint Act

ken into account in the final decision on individual cases. An approp

nitoring The Proposal for a Decision on new greenhouse gas monitori

you. EMSA welcomes decision on new tasks The European M

posed measure is a Commission decision on relatively small-scale publ

e Agency would take the final decision on requests for further inform

ound at Second Commission decision on restructuring of Czech bank

ices. Therefore, the proposed decision on small scale funding seeks t

es in Luxembourg, has taken a decision on the accounting treatment of

es in Luxembourg, has taken a decision on the accounting treatment of

xembourg, aimed at reaching a decision on the CAP reform proposals, C

l enable the latter to give a decision on the cases before it. The

un there was no clear advance decision on the choice of Ministerial f

Council adopted the Framework Decision on the execution in the Europe

e Commission can take a final decision on the exemption of the newly

Congo The Council adopted a Decision on the financing of the common

and the Community. A Council decision on the formal signing of the E

141

uncil and European Parliament Decision on the general framework for f

e the Council fails to take a decision on the GM sweet maize Bt11 wit

and propose a revision of the decision on the guidelines for the deve

and propose a revision of the decision on the guidelines for the deve

ssion will analyse and take a decision on the individual requests for

ithout prejudice to the final decision on the measures under review.

avoided with a clear, advance decision on the meeting schedule to be

ty and take a bold and urgent decision on the mobilisation of the pro

s on the agenda include a new Decision on the monitoring of greenhous

order following a Commission decision on the open procedure C48/2002

oday adopted a positive final decision on the PMPOA (programme to con

ouncil is due to take a final decision on the so-called 'tax package'

has adopted a final negative decision on the tax scheme. In its de

ion will have to take a final decision on the transaction, which invo

y due to the pending Eurostat decision on the treatment of the Belgac

r the Commission will adopt a Decision on the use of colour photograp

ropriate measures for a final decision on the VAT rate applicable to

ropriate measures for a final decision on the VAT rate applicable to

nstitutions agreed to reach a decision on this issue before the end o

herefore constitute the final Decision on this issue. The Environment

the WTO reaching a definitive decision on Trips and Access to Medicin

m to participate. The final decision on which product or products t

DC will be based in Sweden. A decision on which town it will be locat

DC will be based in Sweden. A decision on which town it will be locat

its analysis leading to this decision. Once the parties have ident

ating in closed markets. This decision opens up choice for consumers

l of the prior administrative decision or revision of the judicial de

for the annulment of the 2000 decision, or, in the alternative, for a

postponement sine die of any decision over entry into EMU, could cer

ommission is likely to take a decision over the next few weeks on a f

and emphasised during the co-decision period in the Council and Parl

For further details of this Decision, please consult 10567/03 on th

For further details of this Decision, please consult 10624/03 avail

s. For further details of the Decision, please consult 11011/03 ADD 1

detailed information on this Decision, please consult 11208/03 on th

partners. Commenting on the decision, Poul Nielson said "This repre

the European Parliament's co-decision powers to new areas and will f

d not to propose in its draft decision precise thresholds. The Co

c legitimacy by making the co-decision procedure almost universal.

programmes adopted by the co-decision procedure for the internal pol

ur Treaties) to 460. The co-decision procedure has become the norm.

e Prospectus Directive the co-decision procedure has contributed to m

will now, under the EU's "co-decision procedure", be debated by the

ion and adoption under the co-decision procedure, having regard to th

common position. Under the co-decision procedure, in order to be adop

ts. In accordance with the co-decision procedure, the act was thus de

to majority voting and the co-decision procedure. At last European

142

proval under the so-called co-decision procedure. Brussels, 2nd Jul

option under the so-called co-decision procedure. Enterprise Commis

oposals are subject to the co-decision procedure. Once adopted by the

under the Kyoto Protocol. The Decision promotes compliance with the E

The Council adopted today the decision proposed by the European Commi

e Caribbean (11173/03). The Decision provides for financial support

nce January 1st 2003, today's decision provides for implementation of

Congo The Council adopted a Decision providing for an additional al

Daewoo). Background In a Decision published in the Official Jour

The new Early Warning System decision puts into effect the obligatio

ontinue to be, following this decision, quite capable of offering its

can be settled." Today's decision reflects the Commission's twin

. The recent Appellate Body decision rejects Brazil's claims relate

assessment (EIA). The first decision relates to a complaint concern

rved by cable networks. The decision relates to two ADSL services p

f the Directive. The second decision relates to UK legislation allo

nts such solid action." The Decision replaces the existing Council

le improvement. The funding decision represents a commitment of ¬1.

id action had to follow. This Decision represents such solid action."

)The condition imposed in the decision reproduces the one already imp

allocated to the Agency. The decision requires EMSA to expand its ma

tion. This is because today's decision requires the 17 postal operato

pean Commission has adopted a decision requiring Ferrovie dello Stato

proceedings. This Framework Decision respects fundamental rights an

easing. The present funding decision responds to humanitarian needs

troduced regarding proof of a decision's approval by top management,

joint public statement on the Decision's legal basis. For further det

mmunity. ("the Radio Spectrum Decision"). See also http://europa.eu.i

rther details of the proposed Decision see press releases 6677/03 and

ventions, this latest funding decision seeks to reinforce coordinatio

s agreement, the Commission's decision sets forth the following princ

DD 1) The Council adopted a Decision setting up an Advisory Committ

ty as a whole(3). Today's decision should allow Ryanair to keep s

nity as whole(7). Today's decision should therefore mean that Rya

t and Fisheries said "Today's decision shows that we take our duty to

ons. "The agreement on this Decision shows the EU's determination t

into account. However, the decision specifically provides for the

ion took a partially negative decision, stating that the amount of th

o account in the Commission's decision. Streamlined administration

system. Finally, the new Decision strengthens preventive coordin

e Commission should adopt the decision, submit a draft decision a

hs, without any penalty. This decision supersedes the decision to sus

re management activities. The decision support capabilities will also

and generation of operational decision support information elements

rming the public of the final decision taken and the underlying reaso

We must review the debatable decision taken at Nice and adopt a doub

because it came after a final decision taken by the Commission on 17

143

onal agreement, i.e. a common decision taken by the Commission, the C

11027/03 (Presse 196) Decision taken by written procedure C

n the beef sector following a decision taken on 25 July. Civil Prot

ance on 11 December 2002. The decision taken on Austria on 30 April 2

s could not be withdrawn by a decision taken under the procedure laid

d be maintained. How is the decision taken? The current FP table

terests are at stake". This decision takes place after an in-depth

eople to join the EU. It is a decision that demonstrates the will of

s hazardous waste and an OECD Decision that regulates shipments for r

n Commission yesterday took a Decision that will lead to the removal

fits of this new breakthrough decision ». The 10th meeting of the F

estion a prior administrative decision. The Advocate General conside

ere given in the Commission's decision, the aim of the infringement h

ld the US appeal this Panel's decision, the Co-complainants will cont

an additional cabinet. In its decision the Commission also refused to

1990 to June 1995. In that decision, the Commission applied the me

ssess the measure. In today's decision the Commission finds that the

-cost airlines? With this decision, the Commission gives a clear

decides to challenge Council decision The Commission has decided to

Therefore, under the current decision, the Commission has not ordere

upon the Commission to take a decision. The Commission has referr

aking in the cartel. In its decision, the Commission imposed total

the Commission need to take a decision? The Commission received a

n on the tax scheme. In its decision, the Commission takes the view

on the day of the Commission decision. The Commission will also publ

tres overturns the Commission decision. The Commission will argue in

in Court that by taking this decision the Council is infringing the

ment in Hoechst/Rhône-Poulenc decision The European Commission ha

icies conform to that Council Decision. The European Union takes no

icial notification of today's decision the Italian authorities will h

ystem is laid down by Council decision, the last one dating from 29 S

nt contribution to the reform decision. The political positions expre

t on the deficit). Eurostat decision The Portuguese government ow

execution of the Commission's decision. The President of the Court of

es in the UK. In an earlier decision, the provision of railway mana

nificance of the Revised TACA decision. The Revised TACA decision w

rnment. Consequences of the decision The transfer of the remainin

Portugal. As a result of the decision, the transfer of the remaining

y products are defined in the decision. The UK authorities have given

ally exempted under the above decision. These drafts follow the g

imposed in the 1999 exemption decision. This condition requires the p

making a final classification decision. This is in line with the Code

otification by the Commission decision, this means for the larger pub

nity GNI by the own resources decision. This own resources ceiling is

r Franz Fischler said: "It is decision time. The negotiations will be

, the Commission welcomes the decision to abandon the deal.

Commission welcomes INA/AIG's decision to abandon their planned acqui

144

signatories. Central to the decision to accept liner conferences wi

ok place in the run-up to the decision to adopt a single currency. Th

e. "I welcome the Council's Decision to adopt this computerised sys

demonstrations with his brave decision to allow the United States to

ropean Commission has taken a decision to ask the Court of Justice to

nion with regard to the draft decision to authorise BT11 under the co

the Irish authorities allow a decision to be made before rather than

ation to the public about the decision to be made. This can, for exam

he Council in view of a final decision to be taken by the EU-ACP (Afr

in particular in view of the decision to be taken by the European Co

rt of a unified Europe. The decision to bolster the Stabilisation a

ework? And is the Argentinean decision to build the largest soybean m

that the German government's decision to carry forward by one year t

ing on Lebanon to reverse the decision to carry out 3 executions on S

large, with the Commission's decision to clear the Revised TACA. I c

ciation Council would adopt a decision, to complement the Protocol co

ember 2001 (see IP/01/1804) a decision to computerise the system unde

n proposal of November 2001 a decision to computerise the system unde

o notes the Court of Appeal's decision to deny a request for bail.

8 and 2002 elections, and the decision to deploy an EU EOM in 2003 te

om EDF. It concluded that the decision to do so, which would effectiv

made a proposal for a Council Decision to enable the European Union t

essary steps to implement the decision to extend the operation. The

support of ¬ 207 million. The decision to fund a 3rd reconstruction p

Philippe Busquin said : « The decision to fund human embryonic stem c

uestionably solid basis for a decision to grant an exceedingly genero

ted a ¬1 million humanitarian decision to help meet the needs of vuln

d that he regretted Iceland's decision to increase its quota to over

d Southern Africa's important decision to initiate EPA negotiations w

submit their comments. The decision to initiate the formal investi

ejudge its final outcome. The decision to initiate the procedure will

order to allow for a possible decision to integrate the European Deve

of the new Member States, the decision to join has been backed by ref

erence block exemption. The decision to launch a review By way of

Finance just weeks after the decision to launch the Reform Support I

the Court of Justice France's decision to maintain in force until 1 M

on peace and security with a decision to make available ¬250 million

Financial reporting: The decision to move to a common system for

Constitutional Treaty_. The decision to name 2004 the _European Yea

interested third parties. The decision to open a formal investigation

rly defined and delineated. A decision to open an investigation must

e report shows again that the decision to pool all powers to fight ag

pean Commission has adopted a decision to provide humanitarian suppor

t effective. The Commission Decision to publish in the Official Jou

strongly to the Commission's decision to re-examine the justificatio

as possible._ Austria The decision to refer Austria to the Europe

re reasonable and justify the decision to refuse access". However,

145

e date of the adoption of the decision to refuse inclusion on the lis

ity Regulatory Forum with the decision to remove completely the 0.5 ¬

gret and concern at the PCAOB decision to require registration by EU

most Länder. Ireland The decision to send Ireland a final writte

asoned opinion. Italy The decision to send Italy a Reasoned Opini

ble." The Netherlands The decision to send the Netherlands a Reas

24 and 25 March 1999 took the decision to set aside 195 thousand mill

ssion has announced today its decision to set up a "Group of Experts

ommission has adopted a draft decision to sign Convention 180 of the

today in the framework of the decision to strengthen energy co-operat

n the field.1 Following the decision to strengthen its actions in c

ean Community" as well as the decision to strengthen the co-operation

s ability to take an informed decision to such an extent that he or s

This decision supersedes the decision to suspend the Planistat contr

too. I strongly regret the US decision to take this to the WTO. This

Wrigley appealed against the decision to the Court of First Instance

mission then proposes a draft Decision to the Regulatory Committee co

at the time when our historic decision to unify the continent and sim

Oshima when he notes that the decision to use military and civil defe

end of 2007. The Commission's decision to widen the inquiry will be a

control. "This is an historic decision. Today we have reached a deal

an Parlament. Announcing this decision today, the EU Commissioner for

agreement on a draft Council Decision under Article 88(2) of the EC

ng EDF Trading to take such a decision. Under French law and the Comm

n has adopted a ¬3.27 million decision under its Rapid Reaction Mecha

pean Commission has adopted a decision under its Rapid Reaction Mecha

mines for border control. The decision underscores the EU's commitmen

euros is provided for by the Decision. United Nations General Asse

result of this new approach a decision was already taken in July 2002

decision. The Revised TACA decision was dictated by existing legal

ations by the 1996 Commission decision was not equivalent to an autho

he Commission. A positive decision was possible thanks to adoptio

n Directive. The Commission's decision was taken in the light of advi

ctober 1998(4). no formal decision was taken over the past years

review, we took an important decision: we decided to make the politi

conomic solidity of the final decision. We have already applied this

is the fifth humanitarian aid decision we have taken since March 21 a

ake an informed transactional decision where this information would n

the annulment of the Council decision which authorised Belgium to re

is fixed in the Own Resources Decision which can only be changed by u

The Commission welcomes this decision which demonstrates the commitm

to call into question a prior decision which had become definitive (n

of a national administrative decision which has become definitive wh

estion a prior administrative decision which has become definitive ev

to question an administrative decision which has become definitive be

na on 3 to 5 September. The Decision, which implements Common Posit

focus of this latest funding decision, which includes programmes to

146

ssion's conclusions and final decision, which must be reached in a ma

ill requires such an explicit decision, which the Commission consider

ublished this year. This is a decision which the Court will take once

plainants welcome the Panel's decision which upheld their main argume

by those in power, we have a decision which will enable us to procee

d to begin consultations on a decision which will establish instances

nted a proposal for a Council Decision which will make all EU Member

t to its milk producers. This Decision will allow Italy to itself pay

necessary clarification. The decision will also be published in the

for the most vulnerable. The decision will also fund primary and mot

ed by the Kyoto Protocol. The Decision will also help reduce the unce

arian measures funded by this decision will be implemented by the Int

tschaft). The text of the decision will be made available on the

. A summary of the Commission decision will be published in the Offic

goslavia (doc. 10431/03). The Decision will be published in the Offic

ecrets, the full text of this decision will be published in the Offic

cretes, the full text of this decision will be published in the Offic

t Asia. The situation and the decision will be reviewed at the next m

or) will become possible. The decision will be taken by the College o

portant access barriers, this decision will considerably facilitate e

xt meeting on 27 October. The Decision will enter into force as soon

developing countries. Today's decision will give Europe a strong hand

anitarian aid. This funding decision will help collect and dissemin

d A+ and A++. This Commission decision will help consumers make energ

g under this humanitarian aid decision will help meet the acute healt

t happens next? The draft decision will now be submitted to the E

Tokyo at A1 level, a similar decision will now be taken for the post

conflict. The present funding decision will provide primary and secon

e - 30 September 2003). The decision will shortly be available on t

cation. This latest funding decision will support herders who have

nsidered. The authorisation decision will take into account substit

the Directive. The present decision will thus facilitate the trans

s to finalise the text of the Decision with a view to adopting it bef

adopt or reject the proposed decision with qualified majority. The C

and Parliament to take their decision with the same expediency in or

ll endeavour to adopt a final decision within 18 months of opening th

s comments on this Commission decision within one month. A summary of

emains an important issue for decision within the EU. There is a diff

eir treatment. Not reaching a decision would jeopardise our position

Decide ke the time to analyse it and decide about its further approach and

y when public administrations decide about projects that are likely

147

ty, the Hungarian authorities decide about the projects benefiting

on financial indicators is to decide and prioritise financial polic

e list. Nor is for the WTO to decide by itself on environmental rul

s well. The Commission will decide by the end of July whether con

Treaty allows the Council to decide, by unanimity, that a state ai

Parliament and the Council to decide early in 2004 on an amending b

tiveness. The Court alone may decide, exceptionally, whether to lim

since every Member State must decide for itself on this issue. The

for the acceding countries to decide. From next May, the Commis

General Council in Geneva and decide himself what the agenda of the

thorities in France and Italy decide how to best dispatch their fir

up to the Icelandic people to decide, I am sure that you too would

llow consumers and farmers to decide if they want to buy food or fe

Member States and regions to decide if they wish to take up these

ember States to allow them to decide individually on goods and serv

ority. The Council could also decide not to act. In this case it wi

all the current Member States decide not to impose restrictions.

proposal. It is important to decide now so that we can show our ow

mber States want more time to decide on a time plan. All Member S

on individual learning paths, decide on admission to full courses o

ch an agreement. It will also decide on authorisations and restrict

s. Why should Member States decide on co-existence measures and n

Commission will also have to decide on its conformity with the Tre

t is for each Member State to decide on its level of protection of

work of the Agency, and will decide on proposals following evaluat

be necessary. We must also decide on recovery trajectories. That

at consultation, we will then decide on the appropriate further ste

idual institution or body may decide on the details of the particip

feel able, at this stage, to decide on the geographical dimension

ns up to the Member States to decide on the health benefits to whic

l before 1 March 2004 have to decide on the issues to be raised by

nment procurement, we need to decide on the negotiating modalities.

e is no need at this stage to decide on the request made by the Fre

h products. It will therefore decide on type certificates for aeron

lders, not Government, should decide on whether executive pay is se

ision empowers the Council to decide that an aid measure is to be c

e final decision, it may also decide that any aid already received

spectively for the Council to decide (1) that no effective action h

arming, and next week we will decide the best way forward on this s

largely for Member States to decide the degree to which they want

ciety players will ultimately decide the success or failure of stru

tion. The banks are free to decide their pricing policy. The Comm

Consumers the Information to Decide. This includes encouraging gre

eef sector, Member States may decide to retain up to 100% of the

concerned, the Commission may decide to address a "Reasoned Opinion



148








on-traditional learners, they decide to admit to their degree progr

response, the Commission may decide to ask the Court to impose a d

d opinion, the Commission may decide to bring it before the Court o

d opinion, the Commission may decide to bring it before the Court o

d Opinion, the Commission may decide to bring the case before the C





d Opinion, the Commission may decide to bring the case before the E





factory, the Commission could decide to bring the matter before the

o housing or catering but now decide to do so are likely to forfeit

a group of Member States will decide to enhance their level of inte

rt on the inspections and may decide to extend a ban imposed in one

ngers. the Commission may decide to extend to all the Member St

response, the Commission may decide to formally request France to

al drought. Member States can decide to grant them national aid wit

ecide to take it, and how you decide to implement it. Irish farmers

r countries in the region may decide to launch Human Rights-specifi

ones are possible, if farmers decide to produce without GMOs on a v

wo months, the Commission may decide to refer the cases to the Cour

d opinion, the Commission may decide to refer the cases to the EU's

d opinion, the Commission may decide to refer the matter to the Cou

ublic undertaking cannot also decide to take account of indirect po

rm now depends on how far you decide to take it, and how you decide

d opinion, the Commission may decide to take the matter to the Cour

d opinion, the Commission may decide to take the matter to the Cour

s therefore not consistent to decide two years later that domestic

and competitive forces shall decide upon the best infrastructure t

prevention and recycling and decide what measures to propose for f

curity assessment in order to decide what security measures are req

. It is for the Commission to decide what sort of restrictions can

ut leaves it up to traders to decide what technology they want to u

ft up to each Member State to decide what to do with other animals

level. Our first task is to decide what we want the overall frame

bmitted for its attention, to decide whether a fair balance between

149

ified to the Agency, who will decide whether a registration is need

oposed that Member States may decide whether operations should be r

es, the Commission can freely decide whether or not any action shou

itioning plan is necessary to decide whether or not the landfill fu

still have the flexibility to decide whether or not to grow olives,

l, it is for Member States to decide whether such an approach would

the system, the Council shall decide whether the advisory system sh

factors the Commission would decide whether the substance would be

e. It is for the companies to decide whether they wish to make a pu

This will enable the user to decide which forms of access to his e

have the legitimate right to decide which level of protection they

t on 10 April. Ministers must decide which of Parliament's amendmen

understand how Member States decide which projects have to undergo

Decides

ment of the EU member states) decides at unanimity on the figures, o

Ecopoints: Commission again decides not to apply the 108% clause d

ls, 09 July 2003 Commission decides on further steps to develop it

evaluates the programmes and decides on its eligibility. The full

m applying to them, the Court decides that the decisions should be a

his year the European Council decides that Turkey meets these criter

if at the end of this year it decides that Turkey meets the Copenhag

ve expenditure at 6%. Who decides the annual budget? The Cou

close co-ordination if the US decides to appeal. If the US were to

of the current Member States decides to apply national measures (a

ls, 23 July 2003 Commission decides to carry out itself the inquir

rdination centres: Commission decides to challenge Council decision

23 July 2003 The Commission decides to examine aid granted to ABX

. (IP/04/95) The EU decides to increase inspections of air

n the chip. If a Member State decides to introduce additional inform

ly promptly to Portugal if it decides to launch such a scheme. Fir

and contribution each of you decides to make. Personally I want a s

. If the European Council decides to open negotiations with Turk

Pensions taxation: Commission decides to refer Denmark to Court over

maritime services: Commission decides to send a letter of formal not

ipping industry faces when it decides to transfer ships from one reg

time as the European Council decides where its headquarters will be

ision. If not, the Commission decides whether or not more informatio

150

Decided

he year 2000. The Council has decided a total of 55 recommendations

ommitted in the year they are decided and are gradually being paid o

such as fisheries, which are decided at Community level and directl

ears to complete the projects decided at Essen in 1994. That is wh

on was delivered, the Council decided at its meeting on 3 June 2002

ss domestic product (GDP), as decided at the Barcelona European Coun

. Three new actions have been decided at the European Council in Cop

I am sure we are told what is decided before anyone else learns the

es that have adopted the euro decided by common accord and by the wr

s, and the corrective actions decided by Eurostat management, as wel

by the first of June 2004 as decided by the Barcelona European Coun

rd, the creation of which was decided by the Barcelona European Coun

of 3 years, non-renewable, as decided by the Commission in December

because of emergency measures decided by the Commission. So far, M

because of emergency measures decided by the Commission. So far,

t in line with the amendments decided by the competent Sanctions Com

doption of the Treaty will be decided by the Council acting unanimou

doption of the Treaty will be decided by the Council acting unanimou

h strong price cuts have been decided by the Council. As for the ric

individual Member States are decided by the courts of the respectiv

agricultural expenditure, as decided by the Heads of State and Gove

agricultural expenditure, as decided by the Heads of State and Gove

espite consolidation measures decided by the new government. In subs

espite consolidation measures decided by the new government, the rev

cedures for the expropriation decided by the State of the land to be

9_2000/jol253en.pdf It is decided by unanimity and must be ratif

ocedure. The Commission has decided furthermore to maintain in the

e a referral to the Court was decided. Greece The Commission

t many Member States have not decided how to tackle them. The Commun

n Recommendation, the Council decided in accordance with Article 104

rfeit euro coins. The Council decided, in December 2003, that the Co

urkey relations. The strategy decided in Helsinki has proved success

wing the CAP reform which was decided in June. To name just two exam

in the final reports will be decided in light of the proceedings in

nd budgetary instruments were decided in November 2002. A maximum of



ogress on these issues the EU decided in November 2003 to resume dev

oration has been designed and decided in order to restore profitabil

gional implementation option_ decided in the CAP reform for the EU-1

151

les, worked out in common and decided jointly, are the foundation fo

ance with what the Commission decided) justifies an increase of 7.5%

ch remain fully available, as decided last December." This fourth

necessary changes are neither decided nor formalised with the requis

Port services The Council decided not to adopt the draft Directi

idence The Commission today decided not to apply a cutback in ecop

ommitments offered by FS, has decided not to impose a fine. This i

on concerns and has therefore decided not to oppose it. The fact t

n Germany, the Commission has decided not to oppose the operation.

e consultation the Commission decided not to propose in its draft de

November 2002, the Commission decided not to raise objections with r

The European Commission has decided not to raise objections to a p

unity law, the Commission has decided not to request the recovery of

state aid, the Commission has decided not to seek the reimbursement

cisions and reformed. We have decided, not without difficulty, to re

n legislation, the Commission decided on 13 May 2003 to pursue the i

Middle East peace process, as decided on 14 June (see Press Release

e development, the Commission decided on 15 October 2003 to add Cape

d. The Commission had already decided on 16 July to propose a grant

regional programmes, the last decided on 20 January 2003 (2,5 M¬ for

ised. The Commission also decided on a similar, but shorter, lis

ty; appropriate steps are decided on and implemented to rectify

3. The suspension measure was decided on the basis of findings that

s of State or Government have decided on the candidacy of Jean-Claud

nia (doc 5639/04). It had decided on the principle of such measu

l practices? How was the list decided on? The list of examples of

ions. The Commission has also decided, pursuant to Article 226 of th

mes as one of the parties has decided temporarily to suspend formal

opaedias). The Commission has decided that a detailed investigation

ccession. In December 2002 we decided that by the end of 2004 we wil

February 2003, the Commission decided that certain special tax break

n. The President has also decided that for this period of time s

f 5 March 2003 the Commission decided that it should be left to the

ing to Public Health (SCVMPH) decided that oestradiol 17 â, used to

of 2003. The Commission has decided that regional investment aid t

hese elements, the Commission decided that the aid involved in these

ent IPP? The Commission has decided that the best way to do this i

m applying to them, the Court decided that the decisions should be a

05. The EU summit in December decided that the ECDC will be based in

uncil in Brussels in December decided that the ECDC will be based in

19 December 2000 the Council decided(1) that the EU could assist in

had set for 1992. History decided that the great expectations li

, the Euromed Trade Ministers decided that the system should be exte

investigation, the Commission decided that the tax arrangements appl

atest. The European Council decided that the text of the Draft Con

Member State experts have now decided that the time has come to incr

oday, the European Commission decided that the transfer of pension o

152

r retention. I have therefore decided that there is a need for furth

, the European Commission has decided that these schemes are not com

ture commissioner. I have decided that, after ten years, it is t

addition, the Commission has decided that, for the shipbuilding sec

. In some cases, Eurostat has decided that, under national accounts

nk) was the second case to be decided. The examination of the cases

n Union law. The Commission decided therefore to send a reasoned o

n States), the Commission has decided (through its Rapid Reaction Me

olly-owned subsidiary of EDF, decided to acquire electricity supplie

The European Commission has decided to act in eight cases to enfor

on. The Commission therefore decided to act rapidly to enforce the

reach a deal next week. They decided to adjourn the meeting until n

erms of architecture, we have decided to adopt the 3 pillar approach

(AGRI). The Commission also decided to advertise internally for ca

inal Court, where Croatia has decided to align itself on the Union's

xt four years. We have also decided to allocate more than 450 mill

ters. Finally, the Parliament decided to allocate responsiblities to

n's economic expertise I also decided to appoint a chief economist i

The European Commission today decided to appoint Eneko Landaburu as

August. The Commission also decided to appoint Herve Jouanjean as

Swaziland and Tanzania) have decided to approach the EPA negotiatio

n Dresden The Commission has decided to approve investment aid of ¬

ditions The Commission today decided to approve restructuring aid f

ng to the MSF, the Commission decided to approve the aid. Brussels

e project, the Commission has decided to approve the notified aid of

tations. The EU has therefore decided to ask for a WTO Panel to be e

plements The Commission has decided to ask the Court of Justice to

2003 the European Commission decided to authorise the Basque Govern

st. Today, the Commission has decided to begin consultations on a de

Some African subregions have decided to begin negotiations after th

tive, the Commission has also decided to bring a case against Portug

P/03/486), the Commission has decided to bring an action against Ita

decision The Commission has decided to bring an action before the

a ruling The Commission has decided to bring before the Court of J

ccidents The Commission has decided to bring Portugal before the C

The European Commission has decided to bring proceedings before th

The Commission has therefore decided to bring the matter before the

onal laws. The Commission has decided to bring this matter before th

And remember that when we decided to call for a Development Roun

Lagardère The Commission has decided to carry out itself the inquir

t its meeting on 3 June 2002, decided to change the legal bases of t

The European Commission has decided to clear the proposed acquisit

scheme The Commission today decided to close a formal examination

The Commission has therefore decided to close the case. The lates

e two years. It was therefore decided to close the Marathon case for

GAERC, the Danish Presidency decided to commission a group of Minis

ns sector The Commission has decided to consult all interested part

153

and multiple obligations have decided to contribute to our work toda

d educational front. I have decided to convene a workshop with all

nd reading and, therefore, it decided to convene the Conciliation Co

dian Government just recently decided to cover the latest losses by

Europe in August 2002, it was decided to create a new EU instrument

Europe in August 2002, it was decided to create a new European instr

Europe in August 2002, it was decided to create a new European instr

ncerned, the Commission today decided to create a Wider Europe Task

bership The Commission also decided to create an Inter Service Gro

hip that the two regions have decided to develop together to enable

event is so important, I have decided to devote my whole time to the

The Commission has therefore decided to drop the following four cas

ase The Commission has today decided to end the contractual relatio

tate, the Commission has also decided to examine other funding grant

urope. The Commission today decided to examine the funding granted

ussia energy dialogue, it was decided to explore the possibility of

the Centre's work, the EU may decided to extend the ECDC's remit to

y the European Commission has decided to extend the granting of temp

ansport market if EDF Trading decided to favour the French network o

Europe (OSCE), the Commission decided to finance a programme to cont

The European Commission has decided to formally contest before the

The European Commission has decided to formally request informatio

and Philippe Busquin, I have decided to foster the creation of the

e Member States, just as they decided to fund the majority of other

evel. Most Member States have decided to further delegate their obli

pean Council of December 2003 decided to further enhance its role in

31st August. The Commission decided to further investigate the Ger

e (CTC). The Commission has decided to give priority to Indonesia,

situation, the Commission has decided to give the Austrian authoriti

And, in view of this, I have decided to hold a series of seminars o

hy a number of countries have decided to house both bodies under the

The European Commission has decided to impose a fine of ¬ 2.56 mil

ectives. The Council has just decided to increase funds to support t

2002 the Council had already decided to increase the minimum level

European Commission has today decided to initiate a formal investiga

The European Commission has decided to initiate a formal inquiry i

educt VAT The Commission has decided to initiate infringement proce

shores ». The Commission has decided to initiate legal proceedings

gainst it, the Commission has decided to initiate new infringement p

The European Commission has decided to initiate the formal investi

y arbitrage. We therefore decided to initiate the Solvency II pr

use gas emissions, the EU has decided to introduce an internal emiss

th review, the Commission has decided to investigate whether the dea

Directive, the Commission has decided to issue a final written warni

he Commission has, therefore, decided to issue a final written warni

Directive the Commission has decided to issue a final written warni

The Commission has therefore decided to issue a formal request for

154

The European Commission has decided to issue a formal request to I

kilstuna The Commission has decided to issue a reasoned opinion ag

ctive, the Commission has now decided to issue a second written warn

ctive, the Commission has now decided to issue a second written warn

ntributions. It has therefore decided to issue formal requests to th

le are still on-going and has decided to issue this reasoned opinion

tern and Southern Africa have decided to join forces and promote tra

t the 16 countries which have decided to join the negotiations on th

t coincide with CINEDAYS have decided to join up with it, such as th

t the same time member states decided to keep ¬1 billion in reserve

The European Commission has decided to launch a broad investigatio

sters The Commission today decided to launch a probe into the Dut

The Commission has today decided to launch a sector inquiry reg

to 19,000 tonnes. The Council decided to leave it at 33,000 tonnes s

hnology used. However, it was decided to leave the exact market defi

ogistics The Commission has decided to look into State aid granted

eaty. The Commission has also decided to make a formal request to th

ook an important decision: we decided to make the political dimensio

Ireland The Commission has decided to make two referrals to the C

demnisation, it has also been decided to modify the applicable rules

the new constitution, the EU decided to observe the presidential el

The European Commission has decided to open a full investigation i

tal right, the Commission has decided to open a separate infringemen

of information received, OLAF decided to open an external investigat

The European Commission has decided to open an in-depth inquiry in

Today the European Commission decided to open an infringement proced

The European Commission has decided to open formal proceedings aga

so. The Commission has thus decided to open the formal State aid i

transaction Royal Mail has decided to outsource its IT services t

table to everybody. We have decided to pay most agricultural suppo

the Commission has therefore decided to postpone the adoption of th

16 June, the Council further decided to postpone the Troika visit p

The European Commission has decided to press ahead with infringeme

postponed, the Commission has decided to prolong the transitional ru

same time, the Commission has decided to propose a Regulation to ful

an Parliament, the Commission decided to propose in December 2003 th

s context, the Commission has decided to propose to Member States, a

ackground, the Commission has decided to publish a notice covering a

The European Commission has decided to pursue infringement procedu

tation The Commission has decided to pursue its policy of streng

oday the Commission therefore decided to pursue the infringement pro

cluding over here. But I have decided to put aside my planned remark

nce of 192 countries who have decided to put the health of their cit

otage Today the Commission decided to raise no objections to the

hat is why the Commission has decided to react. In conjunction with

complied. The Commission has decided to refer all of these Member S

ustria The Commission has decided to refer Austria to the Europe

155

d Austria. The Commission has decided to refer Austria to the Europe

The European Commission has decided to refer Austria to the Court

hens The European Commission decided to refer Austria, Belgium, Gre

In July 2001, the Commission decided to refer Belgium to the Court

The European Commission has decided to refer Belgium, Greece, Fran

to comply. The Commission has decided to refer both Member States to

The European Commission has decided to refer Denmark to the Court

Finland The Commission has decided to refer Finland to the Court

ty. The Commission has also decided to refer France to the Court o

France The Commission has decided to refer France to the Court o

The European Commission has decided to refer France, Luxembourg, B

The European Commission has decided to refer Germany to the Court

Germany The Commission has decided to refer Germany to the Court

The European Commission has decided to refer Germany, Austria, Bel

Greece The Commission has decided to refer Greece to the Court o

complaint, the Commission has decided to refer Greece to the Court o

Greece The Commission has decided to refer Greece to the Europea

Greece The Commission has decided to refer Greece to the Court o

he Commission has, therefore, decided to refer Ireland to the Court

services The Commission has decided to refer Ireland to the Europe

Ireland The Commission has decided to refer Ireland to the Court

reland The Commission has decided to refer Ireland to the Europe

taxpayers. The Commission has decided to refer Ireland, Italy and Ge

he Commission has, therefore, decided to refer it to the Court of Ju

he Commission has, therefore, decided to refer Italy to the Court of

written warning. It has also decided to refer Italy to the Court of

The European Commission has decided to refer part of the proposed

Portugal The Commission has decided to refer Portugal to the Court

Spain The Commission has decided to refer Spain to the Court of

tion legislation. It has also decided to refer Spain to the Court du




addition, the Commission has decided to refer the following Member

analysis, the Commission has decided to refer the matter to the Eur

analysis, the Commission has decided to refer the matter to the Eur

umstances, the Commission has decided to refer the matter to the Cou

Kingdom The Commission has decided to refer the UK to the Court o

EC Treaty. The Commission has decided to refer the United Kingdom to

Kingdom The Commission has decided to refer the United Kingdom to

comply, so the Commission has decided to refer them all to the Court

complied, the Commission has decided to refer them to the Court of

e on GMOs, the Commission has decided to refer them to the European

Justice The Commission today decided to refer to the Court of Justi

The European Commission has decided to refer to the Italian compet

The European Commission has decided to remind Italy, Spain and Ire

in May 2004. First, we have decided to reorganise the Competition

156

The European Commission has decided to request formally Germany an

tive. The Commission has also decided to request Greece to amend its

December 2002, the Commission decided to request officially Germany,

The Commission has therefore decided to request that a daily fine o

The Commission has therefore decided to request the Court of Justic

in 1999. The ECB and the EIB decided to reserve power to conduct su

lation did not apply to them, decided to reserve these powers of int

the EU's Council of Ministers decided to resume aid to Fiji without

ince other jurisdictions have decided to retain antitrust immunity o

t a review of the system, and decided to retain prefinancing but lim

oliferation. 3. The Council decided to review future steps of the

reforms, the Council further decided to revise the milk, rice, cere

er farms. The Council further decided to revise the milk, rice, cere

tice. The Commission has also decided to send a formal request for i

ean Union, the Commission has decided to send a letter of formal not

ers The Commission has also decided to send a letter of formal not

diplomas The Commission has decided to send a letter of formal not

cle rack The Commission has decided to send a reasoned opinion to

sts The Commission has also decided to send a reasoned opinion to

sequently, the Commission has decided to send a reasoned opinion to

ed. The Commission has also decided to send a reasoned opinion req

he Commission has, therefore, decided to send Austria a final writte

edings Today the Commission decided to send Austria a reasoned opi

products The Commission has decided to send France a reasoned opin

The European Commission has decided to send Germany a formal reque

mark. The Commission has also decided to send Greece a formal reques

stations The Commission has decided to send Greece a reasoned opin

pean Commission has therefore decided to send Ireland a reasoned opi

ach. The Commission therefore decided to send Ireland a reasoned opi

itecture The Commission has decided to send Italy a letter of form

otorways The Commission has decided to send Italy a reasoned opini

Italy The Commission has decided to send Italy a reasoned opini

he Commission has, therefore, decided to send Italy a second written

he Commission has, therefore, decided to send Italy a second written

xembourg The Commission has decided to send Luxembourg a final wri

The European Commission has decided to send official requests to G

Therefore, the Commission has decided to send reasoned opinions to t

ively. The Commission has now decided to send reasoned opinions to t

The European Commission has decided to send Spain and Italy formal

in Assen The Commission has decided to send the Netherlands a reas

he Commission has, therefore, decided to send to each of these count

he Commission has, therefore, decided to send to each of these count

t the Laeken Summit when they decided to set up a European Conventio

the time included Portugal - decided to set up a Fund to support th

why last year the Commission decided to set up a high level group.

ns, which it was in principle decided to set up at the Valencia Euro

. Due to declining demand KBA decided to shut down GMB's factory in

157

gement proceedings, Italy has decided to significantly modify its le

ated matters. The two sides decided to speed up such discussions b

aunch of the Guidelines and I decided to sponsor their launch here i

he had no work permit. So he decided to start his own business in s

s expired, the Commission has decided to start immediately the legal

embourg Today the Commission decided to start proceedings against I

tensions run high. SARS I decided to start with SARS as this ser

i authorities, the Commission decided to stop imports of fresh meat

ouncil of 12/13 December 2003 decided to strengthen FEMIP in three m

ouncil of 12/13 December 2003 decided to strengthen the EIB's Facili

. activities that States have decided to tackle together. It is more

The European Commission has decided to take Belgium, France, Luxem

The European Commission has decided to take Denmark to the Court o

erned will take some time, it decided to take emergency measures to

The European Commission has decided to take France to the European

t code The Commission has decided to take France to the Court of

, the European Commission has decided to take further legal action a

The European Commission has decided to take Germany, Greece, Irela

t agents The Commission has decided to take Ireland to the Court o

is why the Commission has now decided to take them to the European C

ing parties of the Convention decided to update it in light of new s

te winegrowing area (WAK) has decided to waive part of its outstandi

om case The Commission today decided to widen the formal inquiry pr

th the common market, and has decided to widen the inquiry already i

sions, the Commission has now decided to withdraw about 450 active s

Cuba, the EU has unanimously decided to: - limit the bilateral hi

ation Concordia) The Council decided today - by written procedure -

g Mission (EUMM) The Council decided today - by written procedure -

t two mines The Commission decided today not to raise any objecti

The European Commission has decided today not to raise any objecti

The European Commission has decided today not to raise any objecti

e South Caucasus The Council decided today to appoint a European Un

The European Commission has decided today to close its formal inve

lileo's Joint Undertaking has decided today to design Mr Rainer GROH

O Dispute Settlement Body has decided today to establish this panel.

iers The European Commission decided today to open a formal investi

es in Italy The Commission decided today to open an inquiry into

ation measure, the Commission decided today to open the formal inves

safety The Commission also decided today to recommend to Member S

ters The European Commission decided today to seek the agreement of

ster The European Commission decided today to seek the agreement of

e to Greece The Commission decided today to send a letter of form

Committee, the Commission has decided today to submit the proposal t

ving later whatever cannot be decided today. Belgium challenged ov

, the European Commission has decided, together with the Council of

lk powder. The quota increase decided under Agenda 2000 will be post

addition, the Commission has decided, under Article 228 of the EC T

158

ons. Some of the projects decided under ISPA will continue to be

common policies at EU level, decided upon explicitly by the Member

ious in its scope but swiftly decided upon. I hope that other countr

at the Commission has already decided upsets the institutional balan

Deciding

evaluate it carefully, before deciding about any further steps. Eur

nderlined the desirability of deciding at Cancun specific measures to

m for advising on - let alone deciding - EU-wide measures to contain

ways of protecting funds, by deciding multi-annual financial framewo

ed before the end of 2003 for deciding on and for monitoring the EU f

eveloping. For the most part, deciding tax on the basis of a customer

ual implementation of the law deciding to establish such an instituti

s a matter of political will, deciding we are going to do it, and get

ersities is a vital factor in deciding where to locate businesses. So

ion are taken into account in deciding where to target action; be n

ission must bear in mind when deciding whether a merger must be chall

present have common rules for deciding which law should apply in case

Assessment ied sixteen banking cases for assessment according to the so-called "in

MO(s). The environmental risk assessment also requires evaluation in te

positive one. I maintain that assessment, although we also need to keep

food, but that a single risk assessment and a single authorisation are

are set out in the EU for the assessment and authorisation of GMOs and

procedure for the scientific assessment and authorisation of GMOs and

are set out in the EU for the assessment and authorisation of GMOs and

ady set out in the EU for the assessment and authorisation of GMOs and

procedure for the scientific assessment and authorisation of GMOs and

ogies underpinning the impact assessment and have already scheduled a m

should have in a competition assessment and in line with the general c

programme to extended impact assessment and is systematically consulti

Reforming the appointment, assessment and mobility policy for senior

ment. REMPHARMAWATER: About assessment and removal technologies of an

do their own Chemical Safety Assessment and Report and simply report t

cular responsibility for risk assessment and risk communication. But un

ach and the promotion of risk assessment and risk management methods wi

ate exchange of views on risk assessment and risk management, both of w

owing review of relevant risk assessment and socio-economic analyses.

shing activities and improved assessment and surveillance of cetacean p

159

aims to promote chemical risk assessment and the environmentally sound

background data, the current assessment approaches are very simple and

rder that currently available assessment approaches can be refined or n

vidual on-the-spot local risk assessment, are deemed potentially danger

company in the EU under self-assessment arrangements. For the non-EU

ght, on the basis of the same assessment as that reached by the Produkt

l also have an updated impact assessment at that stage. I would like

Community procedures for the assessment, authorisation and supervision

Full text of the Commission assessment available on : http://euro










Full text of the Commission assessment available on: http://europ

ay be increased if scientific assessment based in particular on the "We

ns are made upon a commercial assessment based on a robust business pla

e received a final scientific assessment before the coming into applica

gh concern. Business impact assessment (BIA): Study carried out for t

eport on Environmental Impact Assessment Brussels, 23 June 2003 Welc

eived a favourable scientific assessment, but which are not yet formall

and are still undergoing risk assessment by a competent authority in a

h and in case of a favourable assessment by EFSA submits a draft Decisi

subject to a scientific risk assessment by the relevant Scientific Com

ffect on human health. Risk assessment can guide us in making such cr

casters have been ended. This assessment comes after a period of monito

ational effectiveness in risk assessment, communication and its role in

h included an extended impact assessment, concluded that a Directive ha

he light of the results of an assessment conducted in accordance with t

opments. On the basis of this assessment, consultation can also take pl

sible for the scientific risk assessment covering both the environmenta

cant. The Commission's Impact Assessment developed an illustrative scen

11 The Environmental Impact Assessment Directive This EIA Directive

the EU's Environmental Impact Assessment Directive requires that, for c

y 2003 Environmental Impact Assessment Directive: Commission pursues

ll also know that this simple assessment doesn't even touch on peak tar

jects. The Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Directive aims to safegu

s of the environmental impact assessment (EIA) regulations in Pakistan,

ncerning environmental impact assessment (EIA). The first decision re

gh further work on the impact assessment, enabled improvements to the p

rictly necessary for a proper assessment; ensure that investigation t

osts: The Commission's Impact Assessment estimates the direct costs of

ustrial standards, conformity assessment, etc. The objective is to use

160

ects, an environmental impact assessment first be carried out before an

ow make a few comments on our assessment for each country. Belgium

inancial Services Action Plan assessment: frequently asked questions (

arrying out a chemical safety assessment. Full compliance with REACH me

mplement Environmental Impact Assessment guidelines and training to inc

res it will follow its Impact Assessment guidelines before it proposes

beet. The scientific risk assessment has been completed for three o

Commission's Extended Impact Assessment has concluded that a Directive

. Only in that case would the assessment have to be made according to t

ope's environment : the third assessment) <http://www.eea.eu.int/>

st. In the case of a positive assessment I will propose to abrogate the

ude a full environmental risk assessment. If the national authority giv

operators to demand a second assessment in case of doubt over the resu

he requirement for a detailed assessment in each case of the effects wh

i.e. withholding taxes) or by assessment, in Member States on interest

i.e. withholding taxes) or by assessment, in Member States on interest

real economic activity or its assessment in opinion surveys and financi

ports carry out a security assessment in order to decide what securi

ves an independent scientific assessment in respect of impact on human,

the case of GMOs or a safety assessment in the case of GM foods. The a

ing a full environmental risk assessment in the case of GMOs or a safet

ained unchanged. The positive assessment in the sector has also led to

. The increasingly positive assessment in the sector has not yet led

e most rigorous pre-marketing assessment in the world.: Consumers will

. The failure to carry out an assessment in this type of case is partly

as having an impact on stock assessment. Increased efforts must theref

sion to carry out an in-depth assessment, inter alia for the purposes o

argot Wallström said: "Impact assessment is a valuable tool for achievi

The methodology of the risk assessment is as follows: Identific

1999, p. 2). The Commission's assessment is based on the following reas

ment. The result of this risk assessment is expected to become availabl

g Water in Member States. The assessment is made on the basis of two mi

52/EEC, an environmental risk assessment is now required on certain vet

h it._ Environmental impact assessment is one of the four sectors of

for joining the Union. If our assessment is positive, negotiations will

in the case of GM foods. The assessment is sent to the European Commis

The Commission's preliminary assessment is that the market for the sup

ive of the environmental risk assessment is to identify and evaluate po

for the full scientific risk assessment. It is circumstances such as t

uman and animal health safety assessment. Its opinion will be made avai

mission plans to make such an assessment later in the Spring at the tim

16. Will IPP make life cycle assessment (LCA) mandatory? No. The Com

best practice with Life-Cycle Assessment,LCA; in 2005, a discussion d

erventions and vaccines, risk assessment, management and communication.

es for the environmental risk assessment; Mandatory post-marketing mo

y be involved in this initial assessment. Maybe in some instances it wo

, in-depth assessment or risk assessment measures are recommended. Se

161

onment to find practical risk assessment measures to combat the problem

nder the reverse charge (self-assessment) mechanism, with no obligation

te and robust on-farm welfare assessment methodologies will be develope

corridor) Establish common assessment methods and examine the possib

operation. Establish common assessment methods and examine the possib

underpinned by new scientific assessment methods, and embedded in a bro

kan peace process, follows an assessment mission conducted by the Commi

Background After an earlier assessment mission in May 2002, the Europ

ds identified during a recent assessment mission led by the Namibian Go

amme was followed by a second assessment mission of the Commission in J

aq. They were part of a needs assessment mission organised by the Unite

2, 2003, a joint UN/AU/ECOWAS assessment mission stated that the presid

efit from this assistance. An assessment mission to the Philippines too

question, and on the basis of assessment mission with participation of

ok place in November 2002 and assessment missions for Indonesia and Pak

concerted approach and needs' assessment missions have identified speci

European Commission financed assessment missions to Central Asia under

in 1 to 4 to develop exposure assessment models and scenarios for use b

but first, a thorough impact assessment must be carried out to ensure

Commission's approach to the assessment of "vertical" and "conglomerat

concluded its analysis of the assessment of a couple of patents per for

s the legal framework for the assessment of aid schemes and individual

authorisation procedure is an assessment of an application to market a

and their involvement in the assessment of and reporting on internal c

a less positive picture; the assessment of both the recent as well as

ng components. For the EU the assessment of business climate and the ex

small positive change in the assessment of business climate and the ex

ding of by-catches and better assessment of cetacean populations are ne

ts forth the criteria for the assessment of compensation which, due to

Commission will carry out an assessment of compliance with the recomme

mprovements are needed in the assessment of conformity of products with

ce studies and socio-economic assessment of critical materials availabi

ies, including socio-economic assessment of critical rare earth materia

employment expectations. The assessment of current order books did not

to a slightly more optimistic assessment of current order books. Constr

prove data collection and the assessment of Europe's forests. Already,

aken (SAFA programme - Safety Assessment of Foreign Aircraft). A databa

rvation satellite data in the assessment of forest fire risk over the M

cessive deficit situation the assessment of France's programme has been

on recommends that a detailed assessment of geographical priorities be

t on the Commission services' assessment of Germany's compliance with t

e most rigorous pre-marketing assessment of GM food and feed in the wor

rators. A strict safety assessment of GMOs will continue to assur

ibility of the project and an assessment of last December's communicati

with stakeholders and impact assessment of major proposals. Both the C

market definition, and of the assessment of market power. At the same t

n high tech sectors, that the assessment of market shares throughout th

162

will be provided following an assessment of material medical needs. The

ge includes guidelines on the assessment of mergers between competing f

raft Commission Notice on the assessment of mergers between competing f

actions including one to one assessment of needs and job search assist

uidance to businesses for the assessment of novel questions. Coming n

ata would allow more accurate assessment of opinions and likely prompt

summer 2003. By contrast, the assessment of order books and the stock o

ary 2004 The study "Global Assessment of Organic Contaminants in Far

ol systems; secondly, the assessment of other auditors' findings;

he basis of a more systematic assessment of performance. Thirdly, the C

out. These include the prior assessment of potentially damaging plans

ards. These include the prior assessment of potentially damaging plans

ium, Finland and Denmark. The assessment of production expectations sta

offset by improvements in the assessment of production trend in the rec

em. Evaluation: Qualitative assessment of registration dossiers and/o

In the public health domain, assessment of risk to humans is carried o

ket on the basis of a careful assessment of risks and proper informatio

eir customers. A report of an assessment of risks for human health and

ket on the basis of a careful assessment of risks, appropriate control

ket on the basis of a careful assessment of risks. It has also stressed

tainable public finances. Assessment of stability and convergence p

cial Affairs Commission's assessment of Stability Programmes for Be

over the last few months. The assessment of stocks of finished products

ged in January. While for the assessment of stocks this is in line with

et out clear criteria for the assessment of such compensation payments

nina.it/~rmarotta> POSEIDON Assessment of Technologies for the Remova

oherent to allow an objective assessment of the agricultural community'

tive development of which the assessment of the business climate was th

employment in the sector. The assessment of the Commission is that the

he euro area. Moreover, the assessment of the current activity trend

the order book situation. The assessment of the current activity compar

reditor. Following an initial assessment of the currently available inf

ies Germany and France, whose assessment of the debacle was that Britai

n of the SEA Directive on the assessment of the effects of certain plan

eld in the internal market. Assessment of the existing guidelines T

ion offset by a more negative assessment of the expected business situa

ponents. Especially managers' assessment of the expected business situa

ss situation as well as their assessment of the expected business situa

) in the area of migration. Assessment of the experiences gathered by

s slightly lower (250 m). The assessment of the extent of burned area i

extenuating circumstances. Assessment of the gravity of an infringem

January 2002 it published "An assessment of the implications for basic

expectations and an unchanged assessment of the order book situation. T

in 2006 reflects a realistic assessment of the pace of the ongoing wor

EU budget. This is because an assessment of the payments relating to th

mponents of the indicator the assessment of the present business situat

changed, with a more positive assessment of the present business situat

163

by all components. Managers' assessment of the present business situat

tion improved strongly. Their assessment of the present business situat

es. Based on the Commission's assessment of the programmes, the Council

Employment Report (JER) is an assessment of the progress in implementat

now conduct a detailed impact assessment of the recommended programme a

reaty. Following a thorough assessment of the relevant facts and in v

longer be available. Our best assessment of the results reported by the

val process on a case by case assessment of the risks to human health a

fuel and safety standards) Assessment of the scope and effectiveness

w very largely share a common assessment of the situation, including in

e the ground for a collective assessment of the state of financial inte

une to undertake a systematic assessment of the state of integration of

ers, is to launch an in-depth assessment of the state of integration of

is to reach an authoritative assessment of the state of integration as

The Groups will prepare an assessment of the state of integration in

t European Environment Agency assessment of the state of the environmen

d not, be complete without an assessment of the trade prospects of Iraq

which to carry out an initial assessment of the transaction; this may b

ected business situation. The assessment of the volume of stock remaine

levant facts but not on legal assessment of these facts. In other words

ntation debate Beyond the assessment of these four programmes, the

formation for a more detailed assessment of this measure. In addition,

difference in the competitive assessment of this transaction. In line

ty to carry out a preliminary assessment of this work. Today's communic

should be no doubts that our assessment of Turkey and our recommendati

e ERAVMIS (Environmental Risk Assessment of Veterinary Medicines in Slu

tructure design, planning and assessment of viability, at the various s

s will have to make their own assessment of whether their intended agre

t the UK Government keeps its assessment of whether to pursue membershi

tober I said that our overall assessment on China's implementation of h

ian Presidency. 2. Thematic Assessment On the basis of a thematic a

ation Centre, has prepared an assessment on the CBRN terrorism threat.

ave been singled out for risk assessment. Only a very limited number ha

inforced environmental impact assessment, or even cancelled an environm

rther investigation, in-depth assessment or risk assessment measures ar

our markets, and signed Joint Assessment Papers with each country to ke

difficulties in environmental assessment practices that need to be take

ission in its Extended Impact Assessment predict that this will boost c

g, awareness raising and risk assessment. Preliminary results of the

etter on Environmental Impact Assessment " Press Briefing - Commision

ory requirement for an impact assessment procedure tailored to help us

w does the environmental risk assessment procedure work? The safety

in the Member States in their assessment procedures and will complement

avoid heavy notification and assessment procedures for State aid measu

al Regulations and Conformity Assessment Procedures", of ¬ 4 million, i

al regulations and conformity assessment procedures. These measures a

ropean financial markets. The assessment process begins as the five-yea

164

of the new Commission? The assessment process is not the prelude to

ment (subheading 1a), the new assessment reduces needs compared to May

information presented in the assessment report is an increasingly impo

ange According to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmenta

ference will consider a Needs Assessment Report prepared by World Bank,

mary notification format, the assessment reports of the competent autho

ew" chemicals", for which the assessment requirements for the public au

ntions and vaccines, and risk assessment. Research projects resulting f

nter-related elements of risk assessment, risk management and risk comm

analysis which comprises risk assessment, risk management and risk comm

s to be promoted. A quality assessment scheme for shipyards at world-

f the Strategic Environmental Assessment, SEA, Directive may also revea

es for the environmental risk assessment (see below); mandatory pos

ed Directive foresees that an assessment should be made at each bathing

llow me to reassure you. This assessment should not be seen as the prec

European Forest Fires Damage Assessment System (EFFDAS) before the end

air pollution monitoring and assessment system more widely in the EU a

mpanied by an extended impact assessment that addresses socio-economic

2004 On the basis of this assessment, the Commission has called on

a harmonised system for risk assessment. The Commission therefore is t

re involves state aid. In its assessment, the Commission's work was fac

ureaucracy. In the new Impact Assessment, the direct costs of REACH to

On the basis of a thematic assessment, the EU has adopted policy rec

ot based on a scientific risk assessment. The EU will continue to use W

vestigating authority's legal assessment. The paper also proposes tha

favourable EU scientific risk assessment. The Parliament has endorsed t

cts without a scientific risk assessment. The products concerned rang

rtheless, in the Commission's assessment the project does not qualify a

mpanied by an extended impact assessment. The proposal will now be forw

currently undertaking a risk assessment. The result of this risk asses

tested the objectivity in our assessment. There should be no doubts tha

ermine which projects require assessment. They can apply thresholds or

ermine which projects require assessment. They can apply thresholds or

ERS Title: Fire events risk assessment through remote sensing Gener

ve prediction, monitoring and assessment to better cope with natural an

ure' but is not based on risk assessment. To go further than the curren

could lead to speeding up of assessment together with greater consiste

ow time to obtain a full risk assessment upon which definitive measures

ms, including a detailed risk assessment using possible accident scenar

he future. The Commission's assessment was fundamentally based on an

will be based on an objective assessment. We will use the same criteria

ed in the Commission's Impact Assessment. What is the legal base of t

Commission will carry out an assessment whether the aid is necessary t

th a more cautious Commission assessment which estimates potential outp

and considered a full impact assessment, which is being prepared by th

ary principle relates to risk assessment, which is why it appears in Di

subject of an extended impact assessment which should be completed by t

165

ments on environmental impact assessment. Why the EIA Directive is im

at all. The scientific risk assessment will be carried out by the Eur

ons that may follow from this assessment will be the object of further

(FSAP) draws to a close. The assessment will be wide-ranging, transpar

udge what the outcome of this assessment will be. What I can say to

opean financial markets. This assessment will draw lessons from the exp

Group will conduct a mid-term assessment with a view to fine-tuning the

ctor. A sustainability impact assessment would be undertaken by the Com

Assess n of the Cotonou agreement to assess and adjust the mechanics of ou

f immigration is difficult to assess, and on the link between the a

sh a Mediterranean network to assess and upgrade monitoring and for

ommon understanding on how to assess, appraise, manage and communic

ct aims to establish means to assess both the prevalence and possib

ting that the Commission will assess by 1 January 2012 the implemen

cited communications. It will assess by the end of 2004 at the late

s before, the Commission will assess convergence on the basis of eq

Nova Ljubljanska Banka d.d., assess each project, assume the credi

ion will take into account to assess efficiencies positively in the

c implications. In order to assess Europe's successes and failure

ndex, which allows experts to assess fire risk on the basis of fore

ders need to sit together and assess how DRMs can contribute to the

ent Communication sets out to assess how the dialogue has progresse

at by the end of 2004 we will assess if it meets the political crit

te aid, the Commission has to assess if the notified intended measu

scheme making it possible to assess its effectiveness. On the ba

expert out to Algeria to help assess needs and coordinate the relie

'welcome centres' where they assess non-traditional learners, give

ities Panel (FIP), which will assess potential breaches of the Fina

and the strategy paper, will assess progress achieved with a view

and thus be in a position to assess progress on the next occasion

omics to nutrition (NuGO); to assess risks from chemicals in food;

. Which makes it difficult to assess situations and to see whether

gramme of Spain Commission assess the 2003 update of the stabili

thorities, which will further assess the competitive impact in the

arify the substantive test to assess the competitive impact of merg

the Commission may no longer assess the competitive impact of the

roposal has been evaluated to assess the costs and benefits to nati

sectors: The Commission will assess the coverage of the scheme in

igation is needed in order to assess the danger that dominant posit

t of VMs in the environment assess the effects of VMs on aquatic

lection Observer Mission will assess the entire process, including

166

c and terrestrial organisms assess the environmental distribution

oss Europe to more accurately assess the environmental impact of ve

e understood as an attempt to assess the extent to which the basic

s that have been performed to assess the fate, behaviour and effect

asurements were also taken to assess the levels and distribution of

FIERS project has the aim to assess the operational feasibility of

nitoring systems, in order to assess the overall environmental impa

ata at this European scale to assess the presence and effects of an

ency of the European Union to assess the progress achieved by the T

sented by Minister Marzano to assess the progress achieved to date

od Safety Authority (EFSA) to assess the results of an experiment i

ack the resources to properly assess the risks and the benefits of

oduce and import chemicals to assess the risks arising from their u

year, a convergence report to assess the state of play with regard

er General Dawn Primarolo, to assess the tax measures that may fall

ection day. The EU EOM will assess the whole election process, in

onitoring network was used to assess the yearly average concentrati

ried a sensor for 12 hours to assess their personal level of exposu

are identified, it is slow to assess them and introduce risk manage

f immigration is difficult to assess. Therefore, current policies a

target groups. The aim is to assess what has been achieved so far

y impact on the outcome. To assess what we have achieved, it must

nitiatives. This is a time to assess what we have managed to build

its own set of indicators to assess whether and to what extent an

ke stock of progress made and assess whether further action at EU l

respect, the main point is to assess whether government may effecti

al impacts of projects and to assess whether prevention or mitigati

al impacts of projects and to assess whether prevention or mitigati

sion's in-depth probe aims to assess whether the plan will lead to

these sectors. The aim is to assess whether there are gains to be

iew, on the other hand, is to assess whether there is a need for ne

e "private creditor test", to assess whether, under the same market

Assesses prehensive permit system that assesses each environmental medium simu

mission Joint Research Centre assesses Portugal's worst forest fire s

The Joint Employment Report assesses progress by Member States in i

s. Every year, the Commission assesses progress towards the Charter's

television and 3G: Commission assesses state of play and charts way f

ammes of Greece Commission assesses the 2003 update of the UK conv

United Kingdom Commission assesses the 2003 update of the stabili

m 9th EDF. Commission assesses the 2003 update of the stabili

to date The fourth report assesses the progress made since 2000 a

The Implementation Report assesses the progress made so far in im

167

which the European Commission assesses the quality of Bathing Water i

ls, 24 June 2003 Commission assesses the revised 2002 update of the

s of Luxembourg Commission assesses the stability programme of the

in Durban. The Communication assesses the state of the EU-Africa dia

amme of Ireland Commission assesses the updated Stability Programm

f the decision. Commission assesses the updated stability programm

gramme of Germany Commission assesses the updated Stability Programm

the Netherlands Commission assesses the updated Stability Programm

rammes of Italy Commission assesses updated stability programme of

ramme of Portugal Commission assesses updated stability programme of

Assessed on. The aid measures were assessed against the three main criteri

egislation do not need to be, assessed, and "new" chemicals", for whi

ch decision must be carefully assessed and should be a last resort op

Codes of conducts should be assessed and these codes should be syst

rio the economic value can be assessed at ¬6.1 billion. Germany notif

SE-like results would then be assessed by a group of experts co-ordin

when the stocks concerned are assessed by the Commission's Scientific

roducts will be independently assessed by the European Food Safety Au

ber of GMOs have already been assessed by the Scientific Committees a

s of the Directive will be re-assessed five years after its entry int

nology must also be carefully assessed. Global competition vs. inte

e of interest rates has to be assessed having regard to the time when

ical and economic aspects, it assessed how they fit in with the Europ

. In this way, mergers can be assessed in a single procedure, and don

rst have been environmentally assessed, in accordance with the EIA Di

ronmental problems need to be assessed in an integrated way, leading

whereby each country must be assessed in terms of its own capacity t

n 0,9%. GMOs scientifically assessed in the EU to be safe Under c

n 0,9%. GMOs scientifically assessed in the EU to be safe Under c

s as ad hoc aid that has been assessed in the light of the Community

e they properly described and assessed? Is the university doing a fai

stance initiative needs to be assessed. Let me give you just one exam

ntents of the package will be assessed more thoroughly and the Europe

s whose level of development, assessed on the basis of neutral macroe

l GMOs applications are being assessed on the basis of the new EU reg

g of GMOs are currently being assessed on the basis of the EU regulat

n 17-18 May 2002. This summit assessed progress made in the framework

t these two groups have to be assessed separately and that OEM/OES ma

more). We have analysed, assessed, taken decisions and reformed.

by the Euratom Treaty will be assessed taking into account the latter

after impacts have been fully assessed. The Commission has also sen

hanol. The Commission has assessed the excise duty reduction on t

g guidelines The Commission assessed the existing guidelines in 200

168

ired by Mr Federico Mayor has assessed the feasibility of the creatio

ant environmental effects are assessed. The objective of an EIA is

impact on the environment are assessed. The objective of an EIA is

ent years. The Commission has assessed the obstacles hindering the de

e company. The Commission assessed the operation's impact in the

all four cases the Commission assessed the programmes against the cri

fuels. The Commission has assessed the total exemption from excis

effect on human health can be assessed through monitoring the concent

er of the investment cost was assessed under the Multisectoral Framew

e amount of aid proposed, was assessed under the rules of the 1998 Mu

notified in 2002, it is being assessed under the state aid framework

notified in 2001, it is being assessed under the state aid framework

Assessing urrently at an early stage of assessing a similar case in the district

Commission is collecting and assessing all necessary information to e

ng. Framework Directive for Assessing and Managing Air Quality In

. Framework Directive for Assessing and Managing Air Quality I

ted a Framework Directive for assessing and managing ambient air quali

ted a Framework Directive for assessing and managing ambient air quali

to the more advanced ways of assessing capital requirements. The Comm

ll be the first real test for assessing China's commitment with the WT

d used by the Netherlands for assessing compliance with these requirem

to develop methodologies for assessing consumer exposure to chemicals

stment aid. A key factor in assessing eligibility for regional inves

ion programme for testing and assessing High Production Volume (HPV) c

have difficulties, such as in assessing how to make their products gre

raft Joint Employment Report, assessing implementation in the Employme

tioning of the Agreement, and assessing international developments. On

nd-users and policy makers. Assessing key factors in animal transpor

ss to reliable techniques for assessing language skills. The Commissio

s lays down clearer rules for assessing major investment projects and

eeing you again next year and assessing progress made thanks to our jo

s to assist the Commission in assessing progress made under the FSAP i

elines have been produced for assessing risk. However, due to a lack

d by downstream users. When assessing risks, manufacturers and impor

ortion of competition. In assessing the compatibility of the propo

m of laminated flooring. In assessing the compatibility of the aid u

lt and adjacent regions. In assessing the compatibility of the aid u

181 jobs in the region. In assessing the compatibility of the aid u

rect jobs in the region. In assessing the compatibility of the aid u

uding the different tests for assessing the competition impact of a me

taken into consideration when assessing the competitive impact of the

cal assistance funds aimed at assessing the degree of risk and ensurin

is to develop approaches for assessing the environmental impact of ve

rban interface, in particular assessing the fire resistance of differe

169

consumer to be considered in assessing the impact of a practice is th

t effectiveness criteria when assessing the impact of medicines. Again

must be taken into account in assessing the impact of the practice.

tool for the Commission when assessing the implementation of Chinese

ministrative enquiry aimed at assessing the personal responsibilities

rovide the best framework for assessing the potential environmental im

adopted today a Communication assessing the progress made by the ten c

ry to take responsibility for assessing the risks of chemicals and for

practitioners to assist us in assessing the strengths and weaknesses o

the Portuguese authorities in assessing the subsequent environmental,

l play a part in devising and assessing these policies. On this basi

t for less-favoured areas. In assessing this type of support, we must

neighbouring countries. In assessing those of the commitments which

ill be taken into account, in assessing what has been achieved so far

mmercial decisions, and begin assessing what innovative steps they can

According to the Court, in assessing whether that obstacle to free

Enforcement wo texts aimed at reinforcing enforcement. A new Directive to ensure

e in delivering effective law enforcement across Afghanistan. In addit

mission will take appropriate enforcement action against Member States

nt. Through its antitrust enforcement action under Articles 81 and

ll of course take appropriate enforcement action. One of the Directi

uest the other party to start enforcement actions against anti-competi

for seat belt use: intensive enforcement actions of a certain duratio

h publicity campaigns on such enforcement actions, is therefore key to

nts, with effective legal and enforcement actions, technical actions,

reciprocal information on the enforcement activities of each authority

rdination and co-operation of enforcement activities to the extent con

is also a key priority in our enforcement activities, as we wish to sa

operate and co-ordinate their enforcement activities, ensuring a high

ommission to better focus its enforcement activities. The antitrust

ntrol national inspection and enforcement activity and who intervene i

approach In addition to an enforcement activity focused on the most

cus. The record of our cartel enforcement activity for the past two ye

the Commission to step up its enforcement activity. With regard to m

go: Strengthening control and enforcement Addressing one of the pi

operation among different law-enforcement agencies at national level m

or the way in which national enforcement agencies exercise the discre

trust among the different law-enforcement agencies in the Member State

riminal activities by the law-enforcement agencies of the Member State

estigators, to police and law-enforcement agencies to follow consisten

nst spam, cooperation between enforcement agencies, self-regulation by

tools need to be available to enforcement agencies. The new leniency p

ruit and surveillance by law- enforcement agents of the EU Member Stat

re in particular, appropriate enforcement and appropriate involvement

170

ly monitoring the Directive's enforcement and by preparing guidance in

place. The third pillar is enforcement and control. I am pleased to

ution building, effective law enforcement and demand reduction. The Co

'pig meat' from 'beef meat'._ Enforcement and possible sanctions arisi

ng that, simply because legal enforcement and regulatory issues on the

ween remedies under antitrust enforcement, and remedies under regulato

, tax and benefit reform, law enforcement and sanctions. More informat

science, clear rules, proper enforcement and transparent communicatio

ateral co-operation in cartel enforcement, and you all know that bilat

that flows from both types of enforcement - antitrust and merger - in

ile legislation and effective enforcement are an essential, first ste

Existing national systems of enforcement are not geared up to the cha

nfringements, and the lack of enforcement at a local level. telecoms

n which will link up national enforcement authorities and enable them

couraging cooperation between enforcement authorities both within a Me

st ensuring that Europe's law enforcement authorities can take action

peration between industry and enforcement authorities should also be p

and cooperation and empowers enforcement authorities to seek and obta

cooperation between national enforcement authorities under the Europe

cooperation between national enforcement authorities when dealing wit

e the check-in procedure. Law-enforcement authorities will of course s

ork of the administrative and enforcement authorities, and should cont

) transmission of data to law enforcement authorities, subject to stri

r State to designate a public enforcement authority to be part of a mu

orcement But without proper enforcement back-up from public authorit

ace definitions allows better enforcement) Better conditions on sea

cross-border co-operation and enforcement between public authorities.

able legal action by national enforcement bodies, competitors and/or

should be a lead coordinating enforcement body within each Member Sta

dvertising. Need for proper enforcement But without proper enforc

ropean culture of control and enforcement by facilitating the integrat

se actions focus on effective enforcement by Member States and public

articular on: effective enforcement by Member States and public

se actions focus on effective enforcement by Member States, technical

lementation: measures include enforcement by public authorities, co-op

rols, anti corruption and law-enforcement capacities. A so-called

. --- Police- and law-enforcement co-operation in the EU is an

the Commission's plans for an Enforcement Co-operation Regulation? T

les are punished. The planned Enforcement Co-operation Regulation will

and repeated violations, the enforcement co-ordination point in every

l level! Other aspects of law-enforcement cooperation at EU level need

proposal for a Regulation on Enforcement Cooperation follows its Gre

ew of the change of antitrust enforcement culture. The new organisatio

ns. Coming now to antitrust enforcement, decentralising the applicat

r business and duplication of enforcement effort, ICN members have ado

to discuss policy issues and enforcement efforts and priorities. Th

e to operate outside the law, enforcement efforts must ensure that thi

171

ternational cooperation. On enforcement for instance, it is good to

ld prioritise their antitrust enforcement goals differently. » I ent

"Communication on forest law enforcement, governance and trade" and t

EU Action Plan on Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT

d in strengthened control and enforcement. He also praised the Galicia

hed by effective and rigorous enforcement. I am pleased to say that

y stakeholders in competition enforcement, i.e. the consumers and the

ast EU history of anti cartel enforcement). In 2002 this level of cart

merger control and antitrust enforcement in directorates responsible

ctively on enforcement. While enforcement in Europe lies with individu

ateral co-operation in merger enforcement, in particular with the US a

r to compensate for a lack of enforcement in parts of the Community.

Cross-border cooperation on enforcement in specific cases; Self-

dy how to improve competition enforcement in telecommunications, energ

he rules. Recommendation on enforcement in the field of road safety

Commission's drive to improve enforcement in the Internal Market (see

plementation, application and enforcement. In the medium to long term,

cy in the area of control and enforcement. 7. In this context, agre

proactive stance in antitrust enforcement. Indeed, the Commission will

ven access to other major law-enforcement information systems, such as

rojects aimed at training law enforcement instructors, improving the c

: common implementation and enforcement, inter alia by developing ne

keys to enhanced road safety. Enforcement is also, as far as professio

ting in the EU. Therefore, no enforcement is carried out and authoriti

National figures suggest that enforcement is one of the keys to enhanc

tion Plan for Co-operation in Enforcement issued last March. This scor

a mechanism for cross-border enforcement. It is currently often diffi

port to the Commission on the enforcement measures and information act

ntrols. It will also define enforcement measures, including sanction

In addition to administrative enforcement measures, the proposal intro

ictions on fishing effort and enforcement measures. Restricting fi

d fishing effort and specific enforcement measures. These recovery pla

best enforcement practices of enforcement measures. They should evalua

protection principles and its enforcement mechanisms meet the standard

stria, France and Portugal. Enforcement, monitoring and control Th

the CFP reform, strengthened enforcement, Mr Fischler welcomed the cr

rnational Consumer Protection Enforcement Network (Europe), face legal

tion would focus on effective enforcement, notably through internation

mplementation and even-handed enforcement of agreed FSAP rules. Ne

with the aim of strengthening enforcement of all consumer protection r

co-operation will help in the enforcement of all EU consumer protectio

ch with determination. Full enforcement of applicable WTO rules to s

ke it more transparent. The enforcement of Article 82 will be partic

e responsible for control and enforcement of CFP measures in all fishe

the Member States to improve enforcement of CFP measures. The Commi

ual confidence in the uniform enforcement of CFP rules. The tasks

n in the field of control and enforcement of CFP rules. Member States

172

rk for the implementation and enforcement of common EU financial legis

eys on the implementation and enforcement of Community environmental l

agencies responsible for the enforcement of competition laws. Antitru

n the past three years as the enforcement of competition policy reinfo

pportunity for more effective enforcement of competition policy across

ure an efficient and coherent enforcement of competition rules. It w

thorities responsible for the enforcement of consumer protection legis

ated to monitoring and to the enforcement of decisions requiring the r

ber States. Hardly any proper enforcement of driving licences is possi

her. These differences hinder enforcement of environmental law. Common

ronmental matters and improve enforcement of environmental law. It gra

ons to play their part in the enforcement of environmental law. It mak

mental legislation and better enforcement of environmental policies. C

being reduced. II. Focused enforcement of EU competition rules Le

costing methodologies for the enforcement of EU tariff principles. The

d control The weaknesses of enforcement of fisheries rules have been

the CFP reform to strengthen enforcement of fisheries rules througho

r rigorous implementation and enforcement of FSAP rules lies in the cr

/32) and the Directive on the enforcement of intellectual property rig

munity Patent and to push the enforcement of intellectual property rig

y for cars and fertilisers. enforcement of intellectual property rig

ction and the recognition and enforcement of judgements in another Mem

ction and the recognition and enforcement of judgements in civil and c

ess my commitment to a strong enforcement of our policy to control Sta

_This is not about the use or enforcement of patent rights which are n

al confidentiality rules. Enforcement of product safety rules will

mendation to Member States on enforcement of road safety measures. Bes

Commission calls for better enforcement of road safety rules The Eu

road safety through a better enforcement of road safety rules. The pa

depends on equal and correct enforcement of the CFP rules. This is wh

o way precludes the effective enforcement of the contract during the p

are central to the successful enforcement of the new competition syste

resources necessary to ensure enforcement of the new rules. Finland

States will have to make the enforcement of the opt-in a priority. It

fleet renewal, more effective enforcement of the rules and increased i

out of port and ensuring the enforcement of these and other measures

f road deaths by 2010. Proper enforcement of traffic rules combining c

ation of documentation to the enforcement of WTO rules. This procedu

rol Agency in Vigo will boost enforcement" On a visit to Vigo in Ga

effective implementation and enforcement; on corporate governance and

s; improving the quality of enforcement operations by stipulating th

States to apply in a national enforcement plan what is known to be bes

re-examined and reformed its enforcement policy towards different typ

he required investigation and enforcement powers to trace and prosecut

a sound basis for competition enforcement practice. In order to stre

plan what is known to be best enforcement practices of enforcement mea

n promote this cooperation on enforcement. 3. Promoting self-regul

173

des certain amendments to the enforcement provisions of the Merger Reg

fic or location data for 'law enforcement' purposes, since these are b

his would ensure that the new enforcement regime for the application o

ns. 2) Implementation and enforcement Regulatory and administr

arent legal framework and its enforcement, remain key conditions for t

solidation of the control and enforcement rules in a single Regulation

lete the modernisation of the enforcement rules. I know that this Co

international cooperation on enforcement Secondly, and in view of

, at national or EU level, in enforcement - see the answer to question

eld to exist, while antitrust enforcement should safeguard it. Yet, th

the training and equipment of enforcement staff; ensuring that Membe

g and implementing a national enforcement strategy as well as liaising

laws. Will self-regulatory enforcement, such as advertising codes,

k for a Community control and enforcement system whereby Member States

f the key features of the new enforcement system. A first pair of no

features of the new antitrust enforcement system. The notices will dea

g: the use of automated speed enforcement systems (automated cameras),

and more effective sharing of enforcement tasks between the Commission

conflict situations and peace enforcement. The African Union's Peace

w regulatory architecture and enforcement The best hope for rigoro

d a Foundation. On-line law enforcement The project has also devel

t rules in Europe. To improve enforcement, the Regulation identifies t

the European Parliament. Enforcement The two proposals also c

arly acute. Difficulties on enforcement There is a problem of enfo

merger control and antitrust enforcement. Through its antitrust e

uniformity of inspection and enforcement throughout the Community.

tion Plan for co-operation in enforcement, to be implemented in a mann

They also equip and train law enforcement to deal with computer and In

l. All efforts of antitrust enforcement to ensure that companies do

introduce efficient means of enforcement. To promote this process, th

roved standards to facilitate enforcement Today: Authorisation via

s farmers). Ensuring better enforcement Today: Enforcement via R

llow-up: an important part of enforcement Today: Route plan is che

n instead of Directive better enforcement tool Today: Directive (s

well as introducing efficient enforcement tools, such as checks via th

than 8 hours). In future: Enforcement via Journey Log when above 9

nt means to encourage private enforcement via national courts. The Com

better enforcement Today: Enforcement via Route Plan (but Route Pl

r institutions and better law enforcement, we will get nowhere in the

specific areas, in antitrust enforcement, which are closer to regulat

rgences in implementation and enforcement which may unnecessarily or a

to co-operate effectively on enforcement. While enforcement in Europe

efficient competition policy enforcement will continue to require mor

ain how EU competition policy enforcement will look like after 1st May

be, the better international enforcement will work. The second obje

future of competition policy enforcement with a positive note. Some t

has strengthened control and enforcement with a view to achieving a l

174

he modernisation of antitrust enforcement with the new Regulation 1/20

fields such as police and law enforcement work, border management and

Enforce levance of European action to enforce a right-of-reply for persons c

rovides for the Commission to enforce a widely phrased ban on all _s

e Commission will continue to enforce and promote new measures aimed

prepared and to substantially enforce cooperation at an EU-level. Th

ided to act in eight cases to enforce EU law on public procurement,

ocurement: Commission acts to enforce European law in France and Ita

nmental standards action to enforce intellectual property rights a

as well as the willingness to enforce it. I was happy to see durin

To be in a proper capacity to enforce its competition rules, an agen

ive, adopted in 1999, aims to enforce, on board every ship calling a

s endeavours to implement and enforce such standards within the Euro

ive capacity to implement and enforce the acquis. Justice and Home A

Member States to implement or enforce the Directive uniformly? Thi

ir national law and when they enforce the Directive. Of course, this

A series of actions to help enforce the EU "ban on spam" were pres

ion authorities and courts to enforce the EU antitrust rules, will l

ure for restrictions and will enforce the new system within their te

ore decided to act rapidly to enforce the rules in the Treaty and ke

ration fails to implement and enforce the rules...." The complainant

es must apply and effectively enforce these rules. Bilateral and mul

ges. How will Member States enforce this opt-in? Member States m

have to apply and effectively enforce this regime by the 31st of Oct

Enforces each Member State effectively enforces EU law in its territory on beh

Enforced isputes and have their rights enforced. All too often, people do not

y implemented and effectively enforced; and cutting red tape, by, f

fair commercial practices are enforced and that traders in their juri

the current social rules are enforced can there be fair competition

wever, effective and properly enforced codes of conduct can, under th

made, are often not properly enforced. Consumers can therefore be mi

es before they can be legally enforced. Exactly how the Directive is

being properly monitored and enforced. Finally there is simplicity

A similar approach has been enforced for nearly a decade in the U.S

xplain why not. Disclosure is enforced further by our proposals in th

n fish stocks if they are not enforced. If the political will is ther

Exactly how the Directive is enforced in each Member State will depe

nown, understood and properly enforced. Otherwise, they will be a dea

175

when the sums raised from an enforced sale of shareholdings have bee

to be properly monitored and enforced. The Commission will, therefor

g that the rules are properly enforced._ The Regulation will have t

and traceability will not be enforced. This is on the basis that

xist but are not sufficiently enforced to prevent an Australian produ

Enforcing eving significant progress in enforcing basic road transport rules._

ement There is a problem of enforcing GI protection. GIs are, in a w

ey will not be prevented from enforcing their rights. If consumers

177

Appendice 2

European Commission Translation Service

English Style Guide

INTRODUCTION This Style Guide is intended primarily for English-language staff and freelance

translators working for the Commission's Translation Service. However, now that so much of the Commission's work is being drafted in English by native and non-native speakers alike, we hope these rules, reminders and handy references may be helpful to a wider readership as well.

In this Guide, “style” refers to recommended in-house usage, and not to literary style. Excellent advice on how to improve writing style is given in The Plain English Guide by Martin Cutts (Oxford University press, 1996) and Style: Towards Clarity and Grace by Joseph M. Williams (University of Chicago Press, 1995), both of which encourage the use of good plain English.

Writing in clear, plain language can be difficult at the Commission as much of the subject matter is complex and more and more is written in English by (and for) non-native speakers or by native speakers who are beginning to lose touch with their language as a result of working in a multilingual environment. We as translators must nevertheless try to set an example by using language which is as clear, simple, and accessible as possible, out of courtesy to our readers and consideration for the image of the Commission. This is especially important where a text is for publication or wider circulation, and particularly so in our case, since the Commission lays itself open to misunderstanding or ridicule if it sounds “foreign” or fails to get an appropriate message across in the UK or Ireland.

Register is all important. In texts for a wider public it goes without saying that we must aim, sometimes against the odds, for accessibility and ease of comprehension, stripping out the “pursuant tos” and “with regard tos” of lazy officialese in favour of clear modern English. Be sparing, though, with cutting-edge neologisms. We are not competing for circulation, and not all our readers have English as their native language.

In legislative texts, too, accuracy and clarity are paramount. But legal or bureaucratic language which we might regard as pompous elsewhere has its place in both legislation and preparatory drafting, though the specialist terms must be embedded in rock-solid straightforward English syntax. The same goes for other types of formal document — colloquialisms may be frowned on in letters to foreign dignitaries, but we can at least keep our subjects, verbs, objects and commas in place. In some cases — departmental memos or papers for specialist committees — we may regard “Eurospeak” as acceptable professional shorthand; searching for “plain English” periphrases wastes time and simply irritates readers.

So “style” is very much a matter for the translator — or author — at the wordface, for whom we hope this guide will be a practical source of information and an aid to consistency.

178

1. SPELLING CONVENTIONS 1.1 British spelling. You should give preference in your work to English usage of

the British Isles. Influences are crossing the Atlantic in both directions all the time of course (the spellings program and disk have become required British usage in data processing, for example).

1.2 Words in -ise/-ize. Use -ise. Both spellings are correct in British English, but the -ise form is much more common. It is the convention in most British book publishing, and in British newspapers. The Times converted overnight in the mid-1980s, at about the time two new broadsheets were founded (The Independent and The European), which have used -ise from the beginning. Using the -ise spelling as a general rule does away with the need to list the most common cases where it must be used anyway. (There are up to 40 exceptions to the -ize convention: the lists vary in length, most not claiming to be exhaustive.)

1.3 The -yse form for such words as paralyse and analyse is the only correct spelling in British English.

1.4 Judgment. Use the form without the middle -e-, in line with the European Court of Justice.

1.5 Digraphs. Keep the digraph in aetiology, caesium, foetus, oenology, oestrogen, etc. (etiology etc. are US usage).

1.6 Use -ct- not -x- in connection, reflection, etc. But note complexion, one of the few words in -exion.

1.7 Write gram, kilogram, litre, metre (not kilogramme, liter). However, use tonne, not ton, for the metric tonne, which is 1 000 kg. The spelling ton refers to the imperial ton (2 240 lb avoirdupois) and the American short ton (2 000 lb), the former unit now being obsolete.

1.8 Plurals of words of foreign origin. Follow the list below.

addendum Addenda

apparatus apparatus or apparatuses

appendix appendices (books), appendixes (anatomy)

bacillus Bacilli

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bacterium Bacteria

Bureau Bureaux

consortium Consortia

corrigendum Corrigenda

criterion Criteria

curriculum Curricula

Focus focuses, focal points, foci (mathematics, science)

formula formulas (politics) formulae (science)

Forum forums or fora

Genus Genera

Index indexes (books), indices (science, economics)

maximum maximums or maxima

medium media, mediums (spiritualism)

memorandum Memoranda

papyrus papyri or papyruses

180

phenomenon Phenomena

Plus Pluses

premium Premiums

referendum Referendums

spectrum spectra (science), spectrums (politics)

symposium symposia or symposiums

INTERFERENCE EFFECTS 1.9 Confusion between English words. Look out for errors involving the words

below.

VERB/ADJ/NOUN NOUN ONLY

dependent dependant

license licence

maintain maintenance

practise practice

principal principle

stationary stationery

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Note also: independent, dependence, dependency; all together (in a body), altogether (entirely); premiss, premisses (propositions), premises (building); discreet, discrete.

1.10 Confusion between English and French. Beware of interference effects when switching from one language to another:

FRENCH ENGLISH

adresse address

carcasse carcass

compétitivité competitiveness

correspondance correspondence

existant existent

indépendance independence

médecine medicine

messager messenger

négligeable negligible

négociation negotiation

réflexion reflection

représentativité representativeness

responsable responsible

182

rincer rinse

tarif tariff

HYPHENS AND COMPOUND WORDS 1.11 General. Compounds may be written as two or more separate words, or with

hyphen(s), or as a single word: and many compounds have followed precisely those steps (data base, data-base, database).

Use hyphens sparingly but to good purpose: the phrase crude oil production statistics needs a hyphen to tell the reader whether 'crude' applies to the oil or to the statistics.

Sometimes hyphens are absolutely necessary to clarify the sense:

re-cover — recover; re-creation — recreation; re-form — reform; re-count — recount

1.12 There are few hard and fast rules, but note the following examples:

well-known problem; hot-rolled strip; broad-based programme (but a broadly based programme); oil-bearing rock; user-friendly software; two-day meeting; four-month stay (but four months' holiday) balance-of-payments policy; cost-of-living index; crude-oil production; low-interest loans; flood-control measures; melting-point temperature.

1.13 In adverb-adjective modifiers, no hyphen is needed when the adverb ends in -ly:

occupationally exposed worker, a beautifully phrased sentence 1.14 Many compounds lose their hyphens when not used attributively:

policy for the long term, production on a large scale (but he works full-time)

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1.15 Chemical terms. Note that open compounds designating chemical substances do not take a hyphen in attributive position: boric acid solution, sodium chloride powder.

1.16 Prefixes are usually hyphenated in recent or ad hoc coinages:

anti-smoking campaign, co-responsibility levies, co-sponsor, ex-army, non-resident, non-flammable, pre-school, quasi-autonomous

If they are of Latin or Greek origin, however, they tend to drop the hyphen as they become established:

antibody, codetermination, codecision, cofinancing, cooperation, subcommittee, subparagraph

Others are more resistant to losing the hyphen:

end-user, end-phase, end-product, all-embracing, all-metal, off-market operations, off-duty but note endgame, nonsense, overalls

1.17 Nouns from phrasal verbs. These are often hyphenated, but the situation is fluid and US usage (no hyphen) is increasingly adopted in British English too. Thus handout, takeover, comeback but follow-up, run-up, spin-off.

1.18 Present participles of phrasal verbs. When used as attributes they are generally hyphenated:

cooling-off period; 1.19 Avoiding double consonants and vowels. Hyphens are often used to avoid

juxtaposing two consonants or two vowels:

aero-elastic, anti-intellectual, part-time, re-election, re-entry, re-examine

The hyphen is often omitted in frequently used words:

bookkeeping, coeducation, cooperation, coordinate, macroeconomic, microeconomic, radioactive.

1.20 Numbers and fractions. Numbers take hyphens when they are spelled out. Fractions take hyphens when used attributively, but not when used as nouns:

twenty-eight, two-thirds completed

But: an increase of two thirds.

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1.21 Prefixes before proper names. Prefixes before proper names are hyphenated: pro-American, intra-Community, mid-Atlantic, pan-European, trans-European (NB: Trans-European Networks). Note, however, that transatlantic is written solid.

1.22 Coordination of compounds. Hyphenated compounds may be coordinated as follows:

gamma- and beta-emitters, acid- and heat-resistant, hot- and cold-rolled products

Where compounds are not hyphenated (close compounds), or should you choose to write them so, they should not be coordinated but written out in full:

macrostructural and microstructural changes, minicomputers and microcomputers, prenatal and postnatal effects, agricultural inputs and outputs NOT macro- and microstructural changes, mini- and microcomputers, pre- and postnatal effects, agricultural in- and outputs (BUT of course macro- and micro-structural changes, pre- and post-natal effects)

1.23 Close compounds in technical texts. There are two major categories. Firstly, those that consist of pairs of short native English words: sugarbeet, pigmeat, sheepmeat, feedingstuffs, groundwater, yellowcake, wetfish, shortgrasses; secondly, there is the highly productive category of compounds derived from Greek or Latin stems: keratoderma, keratomalacia, keratolytic, phyllophaga, phyllopod.

1.24 VAT. If you need to write this out in full in Commission documents, write value added tax.

2. ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS AND SYMBOLS ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 2.1 General. In principle, acronyms are uppercased. However, if an acronym has

come to be regarded as a proper name, it retains just the initial capital. For this process to start, it must first conform to the rules for English spelling and be pronounced as a normal word. In addition, there must be no risk of unintentional confusion with an existing word. Of course, one person may still consider a word an acronym while another regards it now as a proper name. Such a decision is necessarily subjective. In practice, however, the longer the acronym, the more likely it is to lose its capitals. To ensure consistency and remove the need to make subjective decisions, it is therefore suggested that you

185

follow the 'five-letter' rule below. Bear in mind, though, that this rule is necessarily arbitrary, so use your judgment if you have confidence in it.

Note also that some acronyms may go all the way and become common nouns, losing even the initial capital, e.g. radar and laser.

2.2 Short acronyms. Five letters or fewer: uppercase throughout without points, including acronyms that can be pronounced:

ACP, CCC, EAGGF, EEA, EEC, EIB EMS, EMU, ERDF, FADN, ISDN, MCA, OECD, R&D (no spaces!), UNHCR, UNRWA also: AIDS, COST, ECHO, EFTA, NASA, NET, SALT, SCENT, SHAPE, TRIPS, TRIMS, UCLAF But note: Tacis and Phare are no longer considered to be acronyms!

2.3 Longer acronyms. Lowercase those with more than five letters, with initial capital, provided they can be pronounced. Thus:

Benelux, Esprit, Helios, Interreg, Resider, Unesco, Unctad but: EFILWC, EMCDDA etc.

Computer terms are also exceptions:

FORTRAN, CRONOS, WYSIWYG 2.4 Indefinite article. Apply the rule “a before consonant, an before vowel” as if a

following abbreviation is being spoken:

a UN resolution/an Unctad meeting, an EDF project a NATO decision, an MP

2.5 Plurals of abbreviations. Plurals of abbreviations do not take an apostrophe:

SMEs, UFOs, VDUs, OCTs 2.6 Lowercase-only or mixed-case abbreviations. There is a small but high-

frequency class of scholarly abbreviations that traditionally are written in lowercase and require points after each letter, such as e.g., i.e.

Most other (i.e. non-scholarly) lowercase and mixed-case abbreviations are written without stops: aka, fob, cif, BAe (British Aerospace), etc., in particular most scientific abbreviations and symbols: pH (hydrogen ion concentration), etc.

2.7 Single truncated words. Single truncated words take a point unless the last letter is included:

Mr, Mrs, Dr, Fr (Father), Mme, Ltd, Pty, acct, St Petersburg Jan., Sun., Co., fig., etc., cf., Fr. (Frau), chap., cp., dict., ibid.

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2.8 Single letters. Single letters (uppercase or lowercase) conventionally take a point. Exceptions: scientific symbols (chemical elements, basic and derived units, etc.) and the v in the names of court cases.

2.9 Abbreviate Philippe as P., not Ph., and Theodor as T., not Th. 2.10 Note also: p. = page (plural: pp.); p = pence; l. = line, (plural: ll.) 2.11 Foreign-language abbreviations. Untranslated foreign language abbreviations

should retain the capitalisation and punctuation conventions of the original, such as GmbH and other German commercial abbreviations.

2.12 Abridgements in online databases. Ignore the convention in Eurodicautom and other databases of uppercasing all acronyms and abbreviations.

2.13 A list of common abbreviations and acronyms is given in Annex 10. 2.14 NB: Abbreviate Nota Bene as NB not N.B.

3. FOREIGN IMPORTS FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES IN ENGLISH TEXT 3.1 Latin and other foreign-language expressions that are grammatically integrated

into an English text should be italicised (no inverted commas) and should have the appropriate accents, e.g. “used inter alia as proof of payment”, “a possible raison d'être for these sites is ...”.

Exceptions: words and phrases now in common use and/or considered part of the English language, e.g. “angst”, “ennui”, “ad hoc”, “per capita”, “per se”, etc.

3.2 Quotations. Quotations that are not being translated (references to the actual wording of other documents and so on) may be placed in quotation marks without italicising the text.

3.3 Typing special marks and characters. Put all accents and marks normally available on word processors used in the Commission (i.e. accented characters used in the Community languages); other marks (e.g. barred l in Polish, b above o in transcribed Japanese) can be omitted pending the introduction of appropriate multilingual word-processing facilities.

3.4 Latin. For the more obscure Latin phrases consult a Latin dictionary. The Van Dale Dutch dictionary is also an excellent source.

3.5 The expression “per capita” is preferable to “per caput” (NB no hyphen); “per diem” (“daily allowance”), “per se” and many others have English equivalents, which should be preferred. Use “a year” or “/year” rather than “per year”.

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4. VERBS SINGULAR OR PLURAL 4.1 Collective nouns. Use the singular when the emphasis is on the whole entity:

The Government is considering the matter. The Advisory Committee has met twice this year.

4.2 Use the plural when the emphasis is on the individual members:

The police have failed to trace the goods. A majority of the Committee were in favour.

4.3 Countries, institutions and organisations take the singular:

The United States is reconsidering its position. The Netherlands has agreed ... The Commission was not informed.

4.4 A singular verb is common in English with a double subject if it is felt to form a whole:

Checking and stamping the forms is the job of the customs authorities. 4.5 Words in -ics. The sciences of mathematics, dynamics, kinetics, statistics and

economics are singular. Statistics meaning simply “figures” is plural; so too is economics in the sense of “commercial viability”, as in the economics of the new process were studied in depth.

4.6 A statistic. The singular statistic is a back-formation from the plural and means an individual item of data from a set of statistics. It is now in common use in English.

4.7 'Data' is properly a plural noun and should therefore go with a plural verb. 4.8 The word none may take either a singular or plural verb. PERFECT/SIMPLE PAST 4.9 When translating from languages that do not make a clear distinction between

perfect and simple past, beware of writing Americanisms. British English has four uses for the perfect tense, three of which can be replaced by the simple past in US usage.

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4.10 State up to the present. Example:

The Commission HAS BEEN (Eastern US: WAS) based in Brussels since the Communities were founded.

4.11 Event in indefinite past. Example:

The Council HAS already DISCUSSED (US: already DISCUSSED) this several times.

4.12 Present result. Example:

The Community HAS finally RESOLVED (US: finally RESOLVED) the issue. Annex LIST OF COMMON ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ACP African, Caribbean and Pacific countries (party to the Lomé Convention)

BCR Community Bureau of Reference

CAP Common agricultural policy

CCC Consumers' Consultative Committee

CCT Common Customs Tariff

CEDEFOP European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training

CEC Commission of the European Communities

CEECs Central and Eastern European countries

CELEX Computerised documentation on Community law

CET Common external tariff

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CFI Court of First Instance

CFSP Common foreign and security policy

CJEC Court of Justice of the European Communities (also ECJ)

CN Combined Nomenclature

COR Committee of the Regions

COS Common Organisational Structure (of the ESC and COR)

CRONOS Database of the Statistical Office of the European Communities

CSF Community support framework

DECT Digital European cordless telecommunications

DG Directorate-General

EAGGF European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund

EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development

EC European Community/ies

ECB European Central Bank

ECHO European Community Humanitarian Office

ECICS European Customs Inventory of Chemical Substances

ECJ European Court of Justice (also CJEC)

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ECR European Court Reports

ECSC European Coal and Steel Community

ECU European currency unit

EDF European Development Fund

EEA European Economic Area

EEA European Environment Agency

EEC European Economic Community

EEIG European economic interest grouping

EFILWC European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions

EIB European Investment Bank

EIF European Investment Fund

EMCDDA European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction

EMI European Monetary Institute

EMS European Monetary System

EMU Economic and monetary union

EP European Parliament

ERDF European Regional Development Fund

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ESC Economic and Social Committee

ESCB European System of Central Banks

ESF European Social Fund

ETF European Training Foundation

ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute

EU European Union

Euratom European Atomic Energy Community

EUR-OP Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

FADN EEC farm accountancy data network

ILO International Labour Organisation

Insis Interinstitutional system of integrated services

JHA Justice and Home Affairs

JET Joint European Torus

JRC Joint Research Centre

MEP Member of the European Parliament

NET Next European Torus

NUTS Nomenclature of statistical territorial units

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OCTs Overseas countries and territories

OJ Official Journal of the European Communities (includes L, C and S series)

Phare Poland and Hungary — Aid for economic restructuring

PIP Priority information programme

SAD Single Administrative Document

SdT Service de Traduction (the European Commission Translation Service)

SOEC Statistical Office of the European Communities

TAC Total allowable catch

Tacis Technical Assistance to the Commonwealth of Independent States

Taric Integrated Community tariff

Tedis Trade electronic data interchange system

TEN Trans-European Networks

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Appendice 3

Glossary: Definitions of European Union concepts Abstention, constructive (positive abstention) Constructive abstention is the idea of allowing a Member State to abstain on a vote in Council under the common foreign and security policy, without blocking a unanimous decision. This option was introduced by the Treaty of Amsterdam in the new Article 23 of the EU Treaty. If constructive abstention is accompanied by a formal declaration, the Member State in question is not obliged to apply the decision but must accept that it commits the Union. The Member State must then refrain from any action that might conflict with Union action based on that decision. Architecture of Europe This refers to the various organisations, institutions, treaties and traditional relations making up the European area within which members work together on problems of shared interest. An essential part of this architecture was established by the Treaty on European Union, which formed three pillars: the European Community (first pillar), the common foreign and security policy (second pillar) and cooperation in the fields of justice and home affairs (third pillar). Matters falling within the second and third pillars are handled by the Community institutions (the European Council, the Council, the Commission, the European Parliament etc.), but intergovernmental procedures apply. Assent procedure The assent procedure was introduced by the Single European Act. It requires the Council to obtain Parliament's assent before certain important decisions are taken. The European Parliament may accept or reject a proposal but cannot amend it. If the European Parliament does not give its assent, the act in question cannot be adopted. The assent procedure mainly applies to the accession of new Member States (Article 49 of the EU Treaty), association agreements and other fundamental agreements with third countries (Article 300 of the EC Treaty), and the appointment of the President of the Commission. It is also required with regard to citizenship issues, the specific tasks of the European Central Bank (ECB), amendments to the Statutes of the European System of Central Banks and the ECB, the Structural and Cohesion Funds, and the uniform procedure for elections to the European Parliament. Since entry into force of the Treaty of Amsterdam, the Parliament's assent has also been required for sanctions imposed on a Member State for a serious and persistent breach of fundamental rights under the new Article 7 of the EU Treaty. The Treaty of Nice has made the Parliament's assent mandatory where reinforced cooperation between certain Member States is envisaged in an area which is subject to the codecision procedure. The European Convention established by the Laeken Declaration in December 2001 has been asked to propose simplifications to the procedures for the adoption of the various types of Community act and is therefore considering the future use of the assent procedure.

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Bilateral Intergovernmental Conference (EU-Applicant countries) Negotiations on the accession of new Member States to the European Union take the form of bilateral intergovernmental conferences between the European Union and each of the applicant countries. The intergovernmental conferences on the accession of the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia and Cyprus were formally opened on 30 March 1998. The first ministerial meeting to negotiate with these six applicants took place on 10 November 1998. The conferences on the accession of Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania, and Malta were opened on 15 February 2000. Clarity of the Treaties (simplification of the Treaties) The European Union has come into being gradually and its structure is the result of a succession of amendments to the various treaties. This has led to a situation where the lack of clarity and readability of the founding texts of the Union has created a gulf between the Union and the public. The Treaty of Rome was followed by the Single European Act and the Treaty on European Union (the "Maastricht Treaty"). This Treaty created a new structure, the European Union, in addition to the European Communities, which has three pillars (the European Communities, common foreign and security policy and cooperation in the field of justice and home affairs). The Nice and Amsterdam Treaties contain amendments to the earlier treaties and a new article numbering system. Several protocols and declarations are also annexed to these treaties. To make the treaties more accessible to the public, the December 2001 Laeken Declaration convened the European Convention to prepare for the reform of the European institutions and to consolidate the treaties. As regards the simplification of the treaties, the Declaration asks the following questions:

• reorganisation of the treaties: should a distinction be made between a basic treaty and the other treaty provisions?

• simplification: Should the distinction between the Union and the Communities be reviewed? What of the division into three pillars?

• constitution: should a constitutional text be drafted? • what status should the Charter of Fundamental Rights have?

In October 2002, the President of the Convention proposed a preliminary draft constitutional treaty in three parts, the first dealing with the institutional architecture, the second with the policies and action of the Union and the third with transitional and final provisions and those on legal continuity proper to this kind of constitutional act. The Convention will present the results of its deliberations by June 2003. Closer cooperation To encourage closer cooperation between countries of the European Union who wish to go further than the degree of integration provided for by the Treaties (in the fields of social affairs, elimination of border controls, etc.), various instruments have been introduced, such as the Social Policy Agreement and the Schengen Accords. This has allowed Member States who so wish to make progress at a different pace or on different objectives outside the institutional framework of the European Union. After the Treaty of Amsterdam came into force, the use of these instruments was put on a more formal footing with the introduction of the concept of "closer cooperation" in the

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Treaty on European Union (EU Treaty) and the Treaty establishing the European Community (EC Treaty). The aim of such cooperation is to enable a limited number of Member States that are willing and able to advance further to deepen European integration within the single institutional framework of the Union. Closer cooperation must meet a number of conditions. In particular it must:

• cover an area which does not fall within the exclusive competence of the Community;

• be aimed at furthering the objectives of the Union; • respect the principles of the Treaties and the Community acquis; • be used only as a last resort; • involve a minimum number of Member States; • allow the gradual integration of other Member States.

Closer cooperation under the EC Treaty is authorised by the Council, acting by a qualified majority on a proposal from the Commission and after consulting the European Parliament. The object of closer cooperation under the EU Treaty, according to the provisions of the Treaty of Amsterdam, is to develop the area of freedom, security and justice. At the request of the Member States concerned, it is authorised by the Council, acting by a qualified majority after obtaining the Commission's opinion and after submitting the request to the European Parliament. According to the Treaty of Amsterdam, a Member State could always refuse to allow closer cooperation in a particular area for reasons of national political importance. However, a qualified majority in the Council could refer the matter to the European Council, which must act unanimously. The Treaty of Nice aimed, in particular, to simplify the use of closer cooperation and introduced significant changes:

• the minimum number of Member States required for closer cooperation has been cut by a half (Treaty of Amsterdam) to eight, irrespective of the total number of Member States;

• Member States can no longer prevent closer cooperation: the matter may be referred to the European Council but it is the Council of Ministers that decides by the majority provided for in the Treaties;

• under the EC Treaty, Parliament's assent is required if closer cooperation covers a field subject to codecision;

• an additional condition for the implementation of closer cooperation has been added: it must not jeopardise the internal market or economic and social cohesion.

The Treaty of Nice introduced the possibility of closer cooperation in the field of the common foreign and security policy (CFSP), except for matters having military or defence implications. At procedural level, decisions are taken by the Council, after an opinion from the Commission, acting by qualified majority on the basis of a common strategy. Codecision procedure The codecision procedure (Article 251 of the EC Treaty, formerly Article 189b) was introduced by the Treaty of Maastricht. It gives the European Parliament the power to adopt instruments jointly with the Council. The procedure comprises one, two or three

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readings. It has the effect of increasing contacts between the Parliament and the Council, the co-legislators, and with the European Commission. In practice, it has strengthened the Parliament's legislative powers in the following fields: the free movement of workers, right of establishment, services, the internal market, education (incentive measures), health (incentive measures), consumer policy, trans-European networks (guidelines), environment (general action programme), culture (incentive measures) and research (framework programme). The Treaty of Amsterdam has simplified the codecision procedure, making it quicker and more effective and strengthening the role of the Parliament. In addition it has been extended to new areas such as social exclusion, public health and the fight against fraud affecting the European Community's financial interests. Increasing the democratic nature of Community action requires the Parliament to participate in exercising legislative power. Thus, any legislative instrument adopted by qualified majority is likely to fall within the scope of the codecision procedure. In most cases, therefore, codecision in the Parliament goes hand in hand with qualified majority voting in the Council. For some provisions of the Treaty, however, codecision and unanimity still coexist. The Treaty of Nice partially puts an end to this situation. The Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) launched in February 2000 called for an extension of the scope of codecision, in parallel with and as a supplement to the extension of qualified majority voting in the Council. Seven provisions for which the IGC planned to apply qualified majority voting are thus also subject to codecision. They are: incentives to combat discrimination, judicial cooperation in civil matters, specific industrial support measures, economic and social cohesion actions (outside the Structural Funds), the statute for European political parties and measures relating to visas, asylum and immigration. On the other hand, the IGC did not extend the codecision procedure to legislative measures already subject to qualified majority voting (such as agricultural or commercial policy). There is therefore no definitive link yet between qualified majority voting and the codecision procedure for all legislative decisions. Comitology Under the Treaty establishing the European Community, it is for the Commission to implement legislation at Community level (Article 202 of the EC Treaty, ex-Article 145). In practice, each legislative instrument specifies the scope of the implementing powers granted to the Commission and how the Commission is to use them. Frequently, the instrument will also make provision for the Commission to be assisted by a committee in accordance with a procedure known as "comitology". The committees which are forums for discussion, consist of representatives from Member States and are chaired by the Commission. They enable the Commission to establish a dialogue with national administrations before adopting implementing measures. The Commission ensures that they reflect as far as possible the situation in each country in question. Procedures which govern relations between the Commission and the committees are based on models set out in a Council Decision ("comitology" Decision). The first "comitology" Decision dates back to 13 July 1987. In order to take into account the changes in the Treaty - and, in particular, Parliament's new position under the codecision procedure - but also to reply to criticisms that the Community system is too complex and

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too opaque, the 1987 Decision has been replaced by the Council Decision of 28 June 1999. The new Decision ensures that Parliament can keep a eye on the implementation of legislative instruments adopted under the codesision procedure. In cases where legislation comes under this procedure, Parliament can express its disapproval of measures proposed by the Commission or, where appropriate, by the Council, which, in Parliament's opinion, go beyond the implementing powers provided for in the legislation. The Decision clarifies the criteria to be applied to the choice of committee and simplifies the operational procedures. Committees base their opinions on the draft implementing measures prepared by the Commission. The committees can be divided into the following categories:

• advisory committees: they give their opinions to the Commission which must take the utmost account of them. This straightforward procedure is generally used when the matters under discussion are not very sensitive politically.

• management committees: where the measures adopted by the Commission are not consistent with the committee's opinion (delivered by qualified majority), the Commission must communicate them to the Council which, acting by a qualified majority, can take a different decision. This procedure is used in particular for measures relating to the management of the common agricultural policy, fisheries, and the main Community programmes.

• regulatory committees: the Commission can only adopt implementing measures if it obtains the approval by qualified majority of the Member States meeting within the committee. In the absence of such support, the proposed measure is referred back to the Council which takes a decision by qualified majority. However, if the Council does not take a decision, the Commission finally adopts the implementing measure provided that the Council does not object by a qualified majority. This procedure is used for measures relating to protection of the health or safety of persons, animals and plants and measures amending non-essential provisions of the basic legislative instruments.

It also provides the criteria which, depending on the matter under discussion, will guide the legislative authority in its choice of committee procedure for the item of legislation; this is meant to facilitate the adoption of the legislation under the codecision procedure. Lastly, several innovations in the new "comitology" Decision enhance the transparency of the committee system to the benefit of Parliament and the general public: committee documents will be more readily accessible to the citizen (the arrangements are the same as those applying to Commission documents). Committee documents will also be registered in a public register which will be available from 2001 onwards. The ultimate aim is, with the computerisation of decision-making procedures, to publish the full texts of non-confidential documents transmitted to Parliament on the Internet. From 2000 onwards, the Commission will publish an annual report giving a summary of committee activities during the previous year. Communitisation Communitisation means transferring a matter which, in the institutional framework of the Union, is dealt with using the intergovernmental method (second and third pillars) to the Community method (first pillar).

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The Community method is based on the idea that the general interest of Union citizens is best defended when the Community institutions play their full role in the decision-making process, with due regard for the subsidiarity principle. Following the entry into force of the Treaty of Amsterdam, questions relating to the free movement of persons, which used to be come under cooperation on justice and home affairs (third pillar), have been "communitised" and so will be dealt with under the Community method after a five-year transitional phase. Community acquis The Community acquis is the body of common rights and obligations which bind all the Member States together within the European Union. It is constantly evolving and comprises:

• the content, principles and political objectives of the Treaties; • the legislation adopted in application of the treaties and the case law of the

Court of Justice; • the declarations and resolutions adopted by the Union; • measures relating to the common foreign and security policy; • measures relating to justice and home affairs; • international agreements concluded by the Community and those concluded by

the Member States between themselves in the field of the Union's activities. Thus the Community acquis comprises not only Community law in the strict sense, but also all acts adopted under the second and third pillars of the European Union and the common objectives laid down in the Treaties. The Union has committed itself to maintaining the Community acquis in its entirety and developing it further. Applicant countries have to accept the Community acquis before they can join the Union. Derogations from the acquis are granted only in exceptional circumstances and are limited in scope. In preparation for the next enlargement, the applicant countries now need to transpose the acquis into their national legislation and will have to implement it from the moment of their accession. Concentration A concentration is the result of a merger between two or more previously independent enterprises, but may also be the result of the takeover of an enterprise by another enterprise acting alone (sole control) or by two or more enterprises acting jointly (joint control). Under European competition law, concentrations with a Community dimension (i.e. exceeding the turnover thresholds laid down in the 1989 Merger Control Regulation) are subject to a control procedure which gives the Commission the power to assess their compatibility with the common market and, where appropriate, to prohibit them. Under that Regulation, a concentration with a Community dimension "which creates or strengthens a dominant position as a result of which effective competition would be significantly impeded in the common market or in a substantial part of it shall be declared incompatible with the common market." With a view to determining the compatibility of a concentration with the common market, the Commission takes account on a case-by-case basis of several factors, such as the concepts of "Community dimension", "dominant position", "effective competition" and "relevant market".

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Concentric circles This concept involves a Europe structured out of subsets of states which have achieved different levels of integration. It is not confined just to the integration structure of the European Union, and the idea has been expanded upon by a number of prominent figures. Some of them talk of "the circle of shared law" (the Union's Member States), the "adjacent circle" (the countries outside the Union waiting to join it) and "more select circles" for the purpose of greater cooperation (the currency circle, the defence circle and so on). Convergence criteria To ensure that the sustainable convergence required for the achievement of economic and monetary union (EMU) comes about, the Treaty sets five convergence criteria which must be met by each Member State before it can take part in the third stage of EMU. The Commission and the European Central Bank (ECB) draw up reports to check whether the criteria are being met. The criteria are:

• the ratio of government deficit to gross domestic product must not exceed 3%; • the ratio of government debt to gross domestic product must not exceed 60%; • there must be a sustainable degree of price stability and an average inflation

rate, observed over a period of one year before the examination, which does not exceed by more than one and a half percentage points that of the three best performing Member States in terms of price stability;

• there must be a long-term nominal interest rate which does not exceed by more than two percentage points that of the three best performing Member States in terms of price stability;

• the normal fluctuation margins provided for by the exchange-rate mechanism on the European Monetary system must have been respected without severe tensions for at least the last two years before the examination.

The convergence criteria, then, are meant to ensure that economic development within EMU is balanced and does not give rise to any tensions between the Member States. It must also be remembered that the criteria relating to government deficit and government debt must continue to be met after the start of the third stage of EMU (1 January 1999). A stability pact with this end in view was adopted at the Amsterdam European Council in June 1997. Deepening Deepening refers to the integration dynamic present from the outset of the European venture. Through the customs union, the common market, and then the Euro zone, the European Communities have grown into what aspires to be an "ever closer union" among the peoples of Europe (Article 1 of the EU Treaty). Deepening is a process parallel to, and often viewed as a necessary step prior to, enlargement. In this spirit it has been decided to reform the main Community policies (common agricultural policy and structural policy) and the workings of the institutions to create a favourable context for new Member States to join the European Union. Eurocorps Eurocorps was set up at the 59th Franco-German summit, which took place in La Rochelle on 21 and 22 May 1992. Three other countries have since joined it: Belgium on 25 June 1993, Spain on 10 December 1993 and Luxembourg on 7 May 1996. It comprises 50 000 men and has been operational since 30 November 1995, following the Pegasus-95 exercise.

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Eurocorps forms part of the Forces Answerable to Western European Union (FAWEU). It can operate as such within the WEU (Article V) or NATO (Article 5) and can be mobilised for humanitarian missions, missions to evacuate Member State nationals and peace-restoring or peace-keeping operations, under the aegis of the United Nations or the OSCE. The commitment of Eurocorps under the political control of the WEU was the subject of an agreement signed on 24 September 1993 and commitment under NATO authority was codified by the agreement of 21 January 1993. Since June 2001, Eurocorps has been a rapid reaction force which is at the disposal of the EU and NATO. Europe "à la carte" This refers to the idea of a non-uniform method of integration which allows Member States to select policies as if from a menu and involve themselves fully in those policies; there would still be a minimum number of common objectives. European arrest warrant The European arrest warrant is a judicial decision issued by a Member State with a view to the arrest and surrender by another Member State of a person being sought for a criminal prosecution or a custodial sentence. It is a tool designed to strengthen cooperation between the judicial authorities of the Member States by eliminating the use of extradition. It is based on the principle of mutual recognition of decisions in criminal matters. The European arrest warrant is based on a Framework Decision adopted by the Council on 13 June 2002. This decision must be applied from 1 January 2004 but a number of States have decided to bring forward the date of entry into force to 2003. Globalisation of the economy The phenomenon of economic globalisation was identified by the Turin European Council as one of the major challenges facing the European Union at the end of the 20th century. The term refers to a process of growing economic integration worldwide, and the main driving forces behind it are:

• the liberalisation of international trade and capital movements; • accelerating technological progress and the advent of the information society; • deregulation.

These three factors accentuate each other: technological progress stimulates international trade and worldwide patterns of trade allow for more effective dissemination of technological progress. At the same time, deregulation stimulates the development of new forms of technology and contributes to removing barriers to trade. Some observers, however, blame technological progress for enabling businesses and individuals to find a way round national regulations more easily. Green Paper Commission Green Papers are documents intended to stimulate debate and launch a process of consultation at European level on a particular topic (such as social policy, the single currency, telecommunications). These consultations may then lead to the publication of a White Paper, translating the conclusions of the debate into practical proposals for Community action. Hard core This refers to a small group of countries able and willing to enter into closer cooperation with one another. This concept has to be seen in the wider context of flexibility, which should see differentiated integration enshrined in the institutional framework of the

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Union to prevent hard cores from forming outside this framework (as was the case with the Schengen area). Joint action (CFSP) This term, which refers to a legal instrument under Title V of the Treaty on European Union, means coordinated action by the Member States whereby resources of all kinds (human resources, know-how, financing, equipment and so on) are mobilised to attain specific objectives fixed by the Council on the base of general guidelines from the European Council. Kyoto Protocol Adopted in December 1997, this Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change highlights the international community's new attitude towards the phenomenon of climate change. Under the Protocol, the industrialised countries have undertaken to reduce their emissions of six greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride) by at least 5% during the period 2008-2012 compared with 1990 levels. For their part, the Member States of the European Union have undertaken to reduce their emissions over the same period by 8%. In 2000, global emissions of the six greenhouse gases in the countries of the Union were 3.5% below 1990 levels. On 31 May 2002, the Union and its Member States ratified the Kyoto protocol. Nevertheless, the protocol is not yet in force. "New-look" NATO "New-look" NATO refers to the process of redefining the organisation's role and operation. The key aspects involved are the recognition of a European defence identity, the strengthening of the European component of the transatlantic security system, the new role of the WEU, and the prospect of the eastward enlargement of NATO - initially taking in Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic - as agreed at the North Atlantic Council meeting in Madrid in July 1997. This will be accompanied by a deepening of NATO's relations with third countries through partnerships for peace and the North Atlantic Cooperation Council. A major challenge in this connection is that of establishing a sound, stable and sustainable partnership with Russia and Ukraine. Objectives 1, 2 and 3 The Agenda 2000 reform of the structural funds focuses assistance available under the Community's regional policy on crucial development problems. The present rules thus envisage the setting of three priority objectives, as compared with six previously. Objective 1 promotes the catching-up of the economies of regions whose development is lagging behind. It is "regionalised" in that it applies to statistically demarcated regions. Only those whose per capita GDP is less than 75% of the Community average are eligible. The seven "outermost" regions, the areas in Sweden and Finland with very low population density and Northern Ireland also receive assistance. In all, Objective 1 covers sixty or so regions in thirteen Member States. Transitional support is also available over a seven-year period for the regions previously eligible between 1994 and 1999 and a performance reserve for the most virtuous regions has been set up. Objective 1 receives 70% of the structural funds' budget (i.e. 137 billion over seven years), which is broken down between the four funds (ERDF, ESF, EAGGF Guidance Section and

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FIFG). Basic infrastructures, the development of human resources, investment in research and innovation, and the information society are the four main priority areas. Objective 2 contributes to the economic and social conversion of regions in structural difficulties. It too is regionalised: the demarcation of eligible areas depends both on national and European population ceilings (18% of the Union's population) and on specific socio-economic criteria. Four categories of eligible area are defined: areas undergoing economic change in industry and the service sector, declining rural areas, urban areas in difficulty and depressed areas dependent on fisheries. Since all their territory is eligible under Objective 1, Greece, Ireland and Portugal do not qualify for assistance under Objective 2. Transitional support is also available for the regions previously eligible under Objectives 2 and 5(b) during the period 1994-99. The Objective 2 budget amounts to 22.5 billion over seven years (11.5% of the total budget) and is financed by the ERDF and the ESF. Objective 3 supports the adaptation and modernisation of educational, training and employment policies and systems. It serves as the reference framework for all measures taken on the basis of the new employment title in the Treaty of Amsterdam and for the resulting European strategy. It is not regionalised: all regions falling outside Objective 1 are eligible. It has a budget of 24.05 billion over seven years (12.3% of the total budget) and is financed exclusively by the ESF. How Objectives 1, 2 and 3 develop beyond 2006 will depend on the forthcoming assessments of their impact on economic and social cohesion and on the outcome of the debate on the future of regional policy after 2006 and ahead of the Union's enlargement to take in the Central and Eastern European countries. Ombudsman The European Ombudsman is appointed by the European Parliament after each election for the duration of Parliament's term of office. He is empowered to receive complaints from any citizen of the Union or any natural or legal person residing in a Member State concerning instances of maladministration in the activities of the Community institutions or bodies (with the exception of the Court of Justice and the Court of First Instance). Where the Ombudsman establishes an instance of maladministration he refers the matter to the institution concerned, conducts an investigation, seeks a solution to redress the problem and, if necessary, submits draft recommendations to which the institution is required to reply in the form of a detailed report within three months. He submits a report to the European Parliament at the end of each annual session. Opting out Opting out is an exemption granted to a country that does not wish to join the other Member States in a particular area of Community cooperation as a way of avoiding a general stalemate. The United Kingdom, for instance, asked to be allowed not to take part in the third stage of economic and monetary union (EMU) and similar clauses were agreed with Denmark as regards EMU, defence and European citizenship. Outermost regions There are seven "outermost regions": Guadeloupe, French Guiana, Martinique, Réunion (the four French overseas departments referred to in Article 299(2) of the EC Treaty), the Azores, the Canaries and Madeira. They are the subject of a Declaration annexed to the Treaty. The Declaration acknowledges that these regions suffer from major structural backwardness and states that, while the provisions of the EC Treaty and secondary

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legislation automatically apply, it is nonetheless possible to adopt specific measures to assist them as long as there is a real objective need for such measures to promote their economic and social development. Article 299(2) has been amended by the Treaty of Amsterdam to enable the Council, acting by a qualified majority, to adopt specific decisions laying down conditions for applying the Treaty, including the common policies, to the outermost regions. In so doing, the Council has to ensure that the integrity and coherence of the Community legal order is not undermined. Own resources Originally, the Community budget, like that of other international organisations, depended on the Member States' financial contributions. However, under a decision adopted on 21 April 1970, the Member States' contributions were replaced by own resources. These are transfers paid by the Member States to the Community budget to cover the financing of expenditure by the European Union. The combined total of all own resources may not exceed 1.27% of the aggregate gross national product (GNP) of the Member States. With the introduction of this system, financial autonomy was established, and since 1 January 1978, the Community budget has been entirely financed by own resources. These are currently made up of four elements:

• agricultural duties and the sugar and isoglucose levies: these consist mainly of the agricultural duties and, under the common organisation of the sugar markets, production and storage levies;

• customs duties: these come from the application of the common customs tariff to imports from third countries;

• the VAT resource: this comes from the application of a flat rate to the VAT base of each Member State. The rate was set at 1% for 1999, but, under the new own resources decision (September 2000), it will fall to 0.75% in 2002 and 2003 and to 0.50% from 2004. It is collected on a base which may not exceed 50% of a Member State's GNP;

• the 'fourth resource': introduced in 1988, this is a so-called additional resource, because it is set according to the other three sources of budget revenue. It is based on GNP and the application of a rate, set under the budget procedure, to the total GNP of all the Member States.

In the 2002 budget, the revenue of the European Union amounted to EUR 95.6 billion, of which 43% came from the GNP resource, 38.3% from the VAT resource, 14.8% from customs duties and 1.8% from agricultural duties. Pillars of the European Union In Community parlance people often refer to the three pillars of the EU Treaty. These are:

• the Community dimension, comprising the arrangements set out in the EC, ECSC and Euratom Treaties, i.e. Union citizenship, Community policies, Economic and Monetary Union, etc. (first pillar);

• the common foreign and security policy, which comes under Title V of the EU Treaty (second pillar);

• police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters, which comes under Title VI of the EU Treaty (third pillar).

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The Treaty of Amsterdam has transferred some of the fields covered by the old third pillar to the first pillar (free movement of persons). Political agenda of the European Union The Madrid European Council (15-16 December 1995) described the European Union's agenda for the end of the century as laying the foundations for the Europe of the future, a large community enjoying the benefits of freedom, prosperity and stability. In practical terms this means:

• adjusting the Treaty on European Union; • making the transition to a single currency in line with the agreed timetable and

conditions; • preparing for and carrying out the enlargement negotiations; • adopting the financial perspective for the period beyond 31 December 1999; • contributing to establishing the new European security architecture; • actively continuing the policy of dialogue, cooperation and association already

under way with the Union's neighbouring countries, and in particular with Russia, Ukraine, Turkey and the Mediterranean countries.

Precautionary Principle On 2 February 2000, the European Commission adopted a communication on the precautionary principle, in which it defined this concept and explained how it intended to apply it. This text complements the White Paper on Food Safety (January 2000) and the agreement concluded in February 2000 in Montreal on the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. In this document, the Commission sets out the specific cases where this principle is applicable:

• where the scientific data are insufficient, inconclusive or uncertain; • where a preliminary scientific evaluation shows that potentially dangerous

effects for the environment and human, animal or plant health can reasonably be feared.

In both cases, the risks are incompatible with the high level of protection sought by the European Union. The Communication also sets out the three rules which must be followed for the precautionary principle to be respected:

• a complete scientific evaluation carried out by an independent authority in order to determine the degree of scientific uncertainty;

• an assessment of the potential risks and the consequences of inaction; • the participation, under conditions of maximum transparency, of all the

interested parties in the study of possible measures. Finally, the Commission would like to point out that the measures resulting from recourse to the precautionary principle may take the form of a decision to act or not to act, depending on the level of risk considered "acceptable". The Union applied the precautionary principle in the area of GMOs, for instance, with the entry into force of a moratorium in 1999. Qualified majority A qualified majority is the number of votes required in the Council for a decision to be adopted when issues are being debated on the basis of Article 205(2) of the EC Treaty (former Article 148(2)). Until 1 November 2004, the date of the entry into force of the

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provisions in the Nice Treaty on Council decision-making, the threshold for the qualified majority is set at 62 votes out of 87 (71%), and Member States' votes are weighted on the basis of their population and corrected in favour of less-populated countries as follows: France, Germany, Italy and United Kingdom 10 votes each; Spain 8 votes; Belgium, Greece, the Netherlands and Portugal 5 votes each; Austria and Sweden 4 votes each; Denmark, Ireland and Finland 3 votes each; Luxembourg 2 votes. Following the 2000 IGC and the Nice Treaty, the number of votes allocated to each Member State has been reweighted, in particular for those States with larger populations, so that the legitimacy of the Council's decisions can be safeguarded in terms of their demographic representativeness. The Nice Treaty also amended the qualified majority decision-making system. A qualified majority is deemed to have been reached when two conditions are fulfilled: the decision receives a set number of votes (which will change as new countries join) and is agreed by a majority of Member States. Moreover, a Member State may request that it be verified that the qualified majority represents at least 62% of the total population of the Union. If this is not the case, the decision is not adopted. As the various institutional reforms have taken effect, qualified majority voting has replaced unanimous voting, which is less effective for developing an operational Community policy (veto risk). The results of the last IGC are in line with this, as 27 new provisions are passing in whole or in part from unanimity to a qualified majority, including areas such as judicial cooperation in civil matters, commercial contracts on services or intellectual property, cohesion policy (from 2007 onwards), industrial policy, measures to facilitate the free movement of citizens, economic, financial and technical cooperation with third countries, and the appointment of members of certain institutions. The move to qualified majority voting was not accepted for social and tax policy. Moreover, most of the legislative measures that, under the Nice Treaty, require a qualified majority will be decided by the codecision procedure. However, the IGC did not extend the codecision procedure to legislative measures that already today come under the qualified majority system (such as agriculture or commercial policy). The link between a qualified majority and the codecision procedure does therefore not necessarily exist for all legislative decisions. Recasting of legislation The recasting of legislation means the adoption, when an amendment is made to a basic instrument, of a new legal instrument which incorporates the said amendment into the basic instrument, but repeals and replaces the latter. Unlike formal consolidation, it involves changes of substance. It also gives a comprehensive overview of an area of legislation. The new legal instrument is published in the Official Journal (L series). Schengen (Agreement and Convention) By the Agreement signed at Schengen on 14 June 1985, Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg and the Netherlands agreed that they would gradually remove their common frontier controls and introduce freedom of movement for all individuals who were nationals of the signatory Member States, other Member States or third countries. The Schengen Convention was signed by the same five States on 19 June 1990 but did not enter into force until 1995. It lays down the arrangements and guarantees for implementing freedom of movement.

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The Agreement and the Convention, the rules adopted on that basis and the related agreements together form the "Schengen acquis". A protocol to the Treaty of Amsterdam governs the incorporation of the Schengen acquis into the Treaties. In order to provide a legal basis, incorporation entailed dividing the Schengen acquis under the first pillar (new Title IV - Visas, asylum, immigration and other policies related to the free movement of persons) of the Treaty establishing the European Communities or the third pillar (Title VI - Provisions on police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters) of the Treaty on European Union. The legal incorporation of Schengen into the Union was accompanied by integration of the institutions. The Council took over the Schengen Executive Committee and the Council's General Secretariat took over the Schengen Secretariat. The protocol annexed to the Treaty of Amsterdam states that the Schengen acquis and the rules adopted by the institutions on the basis of that acquis must be adopted in their entirety by all applicant countries. Schengen has gradually expanded: Italy signed up in 1990, Spain and Portugal in 1991, Greece in 1992, Austria in 1995 and Denmark, Finland and Sweden in 1996. Iceland and Norway are also parties to the Convention. Ireland and the United Kingdom are not parties to the agreements, but, under the protocol to the Treaty of Amsterdam, they may take part in some or all of the provisions of this acquis if the 13 Member States which are parties to the agreements and the representative of the government of the country concerned vote unanimously in favour within the Council. In March 1999 the United Kingdom therefore asked to take part in certain fields of Schengen-based cooperation, including police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters, the fight against drugs and the Schengen Information System (SIS). The Council adopted the decision approving the request in May 2000. In June 2000 and November 2001 Ireland asked to take part in certain fields of Schengen activity, including all the provisions on the implementation and working of the SIS. The Council adopted the decision approving Ireland's request in February 2002. Moreover, although already a signatory to the Schengen Convention, Denmark may choose in the context of the European Union whether to apply any new decision taken on the basis of the Schengen acquis. Screening In May 1995 the White Paper on preparing the countries of Central and Eastern Europe for integration into the Union's single market drew up an initial table of the Community legislation that they will have to incorporate into their own law before joining the European Union. In April 1998, analysis of the legislation of all the applicant countries except Turkey in the light of the Community acquis began. This first stage consisted of evaluating the compatibility of each applicant country's legislation with Community rules. This screening process was carried out jointly by the Commission and each of the applicant countries. Sector by sector, it allowed a road map to be drawn up for each applicant indicating which legislative instruments must be adopted or amended so that the future member will be able to adhere to Community legislation as soon as possible after accession. A technical assistance office, TAIEX, carried out a survey of the Community acquis and measures taken by the applicant countries in order to incorporate it into their own law. The screening exercise was essential because it served as a basis for bilateral negotiations between the European Union and each of the applicant countries.

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Simplification of legislation Simplifying legislation means weeding out the superfluous by rigorously applying the tests of whether it is necessary and proportionate. The exercise mainly involves the recasting and formal or informal consolidation of legislation. This concept has grown in importance since the White Paper on the Completion of the Single Market and was explicitly put forward by the Edinburgh European Council in 1992. Over the past decade a concentrated effort has been made to establish a market guaranteeing the four freedoms, but this has meant a wealth of European legislation. Simplifying this mass of law has now become a priority in order to ensure that Community action is transparent and effective. A pilot programme (Simplification of Legislation for the Internal Market - SLIM) covering four specific areas was launched in May 1996 and will be extended to other areas. A declaration on the quality of the drafting of Community legislation is attached to the Final Act of the Intergovernmental Conference (1997). It recommends that the European Parliament, the Council and the Commission lay down guidelines for improving the form of legislation. On 5 June 2002, the Commission published the action plan "Better lawmaking" and undertook to "legislate less but better". The Council of Ministers is currently setting up a new working group to implement this plan. In parallel, the European Convention on institutional reform, set up following the Laeken Declaration, has a working group on the simplification of instruments and procedures. Members of this group have already alerted the Convention to the need to redouble efforts to recast and formally consolidate Community legislation and to improve legislative drafting in order to produce clear texts more consistent with existing legislation. State aid Article 87 (formerly Article 92) of the EC Treaty states that "any aid granted by a Member State or through State resources in any form whatsoever which distorts or threatens to distort competition by favouring certain undertakings or the production of certain goods shall, insofar as it affects trade between Member States, be incompatible with the common market." The European Commission and the Court of Justice have placed a very broad interpretation on the concept of "aid" as regards the body granting it, which may range from the State itself to a regional or local authority, from a body over which the State directly or indirectly exerts a decisive influence to a private-sector enterprise or a public corporation, etc. Accordingly, any advantage conferred by the State is regarded as state aid where:

• it confers an economic advantage on the recipient; • it is granted selectively to certain enterprises or products; • it may distort competition; • it affects trade between Member States.

The prohibition applies to a whole panoply of aid measures, whether direct (grants) or indirect (e.g. measures that relieve an enterprise of financial charges) and regardless of their basis or purpose. However, an absolute prohibition of state aid is impossible and Article 87(2) and (3) provides for a number of exemptions for aid that is compatible with the common market and for aid that may be compatible under certain conditions.

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On the basis of Article 88 (formerly Article 93) of the Treaty, the procedural Regulation on state aid stipulates that any aid or any aid scheme must be notified to the Commission and approved by it before being implemented. However, the prior notification requirement is relaxed by the Regulation on horizontal state aid, which authorises the Commission to exempt by way of regulation certain categories of aid including training aid, employment aid, aid for small and medium-sized enterprises and aid of minor importance. By drafting new Community guidelines and frameworks, the Commission has clarified the conditions under which other forms of state aid pursuing horizontal objectives such as regional development aid, environmental aid and research aid may be granted. Subsidiarity The subsidiarity principle is intended to ensure that decisions are taken as closely as possible to the citizen and that constant checks are made as to whether action at Community level is justified in the light of the possibilities available at national, regional or local level. Specifically, it is the principle whereby the Union does not take action (except in the areas which fall within its exclusive competence) unless it is more effective than action taken at national, regional or local level. It is closely bound up with the principles of proportionality and necessity, which require that any action by the Union should not go beyond what is necessary to achieve the objectives of the Treaty. The Edinburgh European Council of December 1992 defined the basic principles underlying subsidiarity and laid down guidelines for interpreting Article 5 (former Article 3b), which enshrines subsidiarity in the EU Treaty. Its conclusions were set out in a declaration that still serves as the cornerstone of the subsidiarity principle. The Treaty of Amsterdam has taken up the overall approach that follows from this declaration in a Protocol on the application of the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality annexed to the EC Treaty. Two of the things this Protocol introduces are the systematic analysis of the impact of legislative proposals on the principle of subsidiarity and the use, where possible, of less binding Community measures. Each year the European Commission produces a report ("Better lawmaking") for the European Council and the European Parliament, which is devoted mainly to the application of the subsidiarity principle. The Convention on institutional reform established by the Laeken Declaration in December 2001 is preparing, through its Working Group on "Subsidiarity", proposals with a view to taking more account of this principle without detracting from the aim of legislative simplification. It is suggesting the setting up of a political monitoring system (via an early warning system for national parliaments allowing them to deliver a reasoned opinion on a Commission proposal) or a judicial control system (creation of a subsidiarity chamber within the Court of Justice in order to strengthen ex post monitoring). The possibility of abolishing the Protocol on subsidiarity and replacing it by a number of articles in the new treaty has also been raised. Subsidiary powers Article 308 of the EC Treaty (former Article 235) reflects the realisation by those who drafted the Treaty of Rome that the powers specifically allocated to the Community (executive powers) might not be adequate for the purpose of attaining the objectives expressly set by the Treaties themselves (competence ratione materiae). This article can be used to bridge that gap, since it lays down that "If action by the Community should prove necessary to attain ... one of the objectives of the Community

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and this Treaty has not provided the necessary powers, the Council shall, acting unanimously on a proposal from the Commission and after consulting the European Parliament, take the appropriate measures." Since this provision gives the European Parliament a purely consultative role which does not take into account Parliament's current legislative powers, its improper use could upset the institutional balance. To avoid this, use of Article 308 as a legal basis is often accompanied by other Treaty articles which accord Parliament a greater legislative role. Suspension clause The suspension clause was written into the EU Treaty (Article 7) by the Treaty of Amsterdam. Under this clause, some of a Member State's rights (e.g. its voting rights in the Council) may be suspended if it seriously and persistently breaches the principles on which the Union is founded (liberty, democracy, respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, and the rule of law). But its obligations would still be binding. The Treaty of Nice added a preventive mechanism to this procedure. On a proposal by one third of the Member States, by the Commission or by the European Parliament, the Council, acting by a majority of four fifths of its members after obtaining the assent of the European Parliament, may determine that there is a clear risk of a serious breach of these fundamental principles by a Member State, and address appropriate recommendations to it. Trans-European Networks (TEN) Since the Single European Act (1986), the smooth functioning of the single market has been indelibly linked to the objective of economic and social cohesion. However, the free movement of persons, goods and capital has not smoothed out regional and national disparities within the European Union. Accordingly, interconnection and interoperability of national infrastructure networks have emerged as key factors for the coherent planning of Community territory. Title XV of the Treaty of Amsterdam provides the legal basis for Trans-European Networks (TEN). For the period 2000-2006 a total of 4.6 billion has been earmarked on the budget for TENs, to which must be added contributions from FEDER, the Cohesion Fund, the European Investment Bank (EIB) and the European Investment Fund (EIF). Trans-European Networks exist in three sectors of activity:

• Transport TENs (TEN-T) with major priority projects covering road and combined transport, waterways and sea ports, as well as the European high-speed railway network. Intelligent transport management systems also fall in this category such as the Galileo satellite-based geographic positioning project.

• Energy TENs (TEN-E) concern the electricity and natural gas sectors. Their objectives are to establish a single energy market and achieve security of supply.

• Telecommunication TENs (eTEN) seek to deploy electronic services based on telecommunication networks. Strongly focused on public services, they are at the very heart of the eEurope "An Information Society for All" initiative.

The prospect of enlargement to the countries of Central and Eastern Europe has further strengthened the importance of TENs by extending their scope to the entire continent. Further afield, their efficient connection to the networks of third countries to the east (Russia and the countries of the CIS) or to the south (countries of the Mediterranean basin) will be conducive to economic development and equilibrium. Transparency (access to documents) The term "transparency" is frequently used in Community language to mean openness in the working of the Community institutions. It is linked to a variety of demands for

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broader public access to information and EU documents, greater involvement in the decision-making process and more easily readable texts (simplification of the Treaties, consolidation and better drafting of legislation). Complaints regarding a lack of transparency tend to reflect a general feeling that the European institutions are remote and secretive and that decision-making procedures are difficult for the ordinary European citizen to understand. With specific reference to access to documents, the Council and the Commission adopted a code of conduct establishing common principles for the two institutions following a Council decision on 20 December 1993. On the basis of this code of conduct, the two institutions incorporated specific provisions on access to their documents into their rules of procedure. The Treaty of Amsterdam has inserted a new Article 255 on transparency in the EC Treaty. This gives all citizens of the Union, plus all natural or legal persons residing or having their registered offices in a Member State, the right of access to European Parliament, Council and Commission documents. This article was implemented by the Regulation of 30 May 2001, which is not significantly different from previous texts, in that it provides for two exceptions: cases in which access is automatically refused (for reasons of public security, defence, international relations) and cases in which access is refused except where there is an overriding public interest in disclosure (protection of commercial interests of a natural or legal person, for example). Troïka The "Troïka" consists of the Member State which currently holds the Presidency of the Council, the Member State which held it for the preceding six months and the Member State which will hold it for the next six months. The Troïka is assisted by the Commission and represents the Union in external relations coming under the common foreign and security policy. The Troïka in its present form has been altered by the Treaty of Amsterdam and replaced by a system whereby the Presidency is assisted by the Secretary-General of the Council, in his capacity as High Representative for the common foreign and security policy, and by the Commission. "Variable-geometry" Europe "Variable-geometry" Europe is the term used to describe the idea of a method of differentiated integration which acknowledges that there are irreconcilable differences within the integration structure and therefore allows for a permanent separation between a group of Member States and a number of less developed integration units. White Paper Commission White Papers are documents containing proposals for Community action in a specific area. In some cases they follow a Green Paper published to launch a consultation process at European level. Examples include the White Papers on the completion of the internal market, on growth, competitiveness and employment and the approximation of the laws of the associated states of Central and Eastern Europe in areas of relevance to the internal market. When a White Paper has been favourably received by the Council, it can become the action programme for the Union in the area concerned.

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INDICE Presentazione ......................................................................................................... pag. 9 Introduzione ........................................................................................................... “ 10

Capitolo primo 1.1 Il mondo (in generale) ...................................................................................... “ 12 1.2 Inglese lingua globale ...................................................................................... “ 12 1.3 Lingua globale, cultura globale? ...................................................................... “ 13

Capitolo secondo 2.1 L’Europa in particolare .................................................................................... “ 21 2.2 La lingua inglese nell’Unione Europea ............................................................ “ 24 2.3 Politica linguistica dell’Unione Europea .......................................................... “ 26 2.4 Lingue (e)strane(e): politica di standardizzazione all’interno dell’Unione Europea? .......................................................................................................... “ 29 2.5 Servizi linguistici dell’Unione Europea ........................................................... “ 30

Capitolo terzo 3.1 La ricerca. ECPREC (European Commission Press Releases English Corpus): caratteristiche salienti dell’inglese istituzionale dell’Unione Europea . ... “ 32 3.2 Produttività terminologica ................................................................................ “ 34 3.3 Influenze e scambi linguistici .......................................................................... “ 60 3.4 Acronimi .......................................................................................................... “ 75 3.5 Figure retoriche ................................................................................................ “ 79 3.6 Caratteristiche morfo-sintattiche ...................................................................... “ 99 3.6.1. Spersonalizzazione e personificazione ................................................... “ 100 3.6.2. Premodificazione ................................................................................... “ 110 3.6.3. Nominalizzazione ................................................................................... “ 114 3.6.4. Parafrasi ................................................................................................. “ 121 3.6.5. Strutture ridondanti ................................................................................ “ 124

Appendici 1. Liste di concordanze relative alla nominalizzazione .......................................... “ 131 2. Guida allo stile in lingua inglese dell’UE .......................................................... “ 176 3. Definizione di alcuni concetti dell’UE ............................................................... “ 193 Riferimenti bibliografici ......................................................................................... “ 211 Sitografia ............................................................................................................... “ 211

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