Nieral Lives C O M M U N I C A T I O N , G E N D E R , A N D CULTURE FIFTH E D I T I O N

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Julia T. Wood LINEBERCER D I S T I N C U ISH ED PROFESSOR OF H U M A N I T I E S

THE UNIVERSITY OF N O R T H CAROLINA

AT CHAPEL HILL

T H O M S O N +-WADSWORTH Australia • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • Spain

United Kingdom • United States

WMmmmmmmmHmaKmm CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

Opening the Conversation 1

The Social Construction of Inequality 2

Feminism—Feminisms 4

Becoming Aware 6

Why I Wrote This Book 8

Communication as the Fulcrum of Change 10

The Challenge of Studying Communication, Gender, and Culture 11

Discussion Questions 11

PART I CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS

CHAPTER 1

The Study of Communication, Gender, and Culture 13

C O M M U N I C A T I O N , GENDER, AND CULTURE AS AN AREA OF STUDY 13

Knowledge of Gender, Communication, and Culture 14

Student Interest 14

The Value of Studying Communication, Gender, and Culture 14

THE MEANING OF GENDER IN A TRANSITIONAL ERA 15

Confusing Attitudes 15

Differences Between Women and Men 17

RELATIONSHIPS AMONG GENDER, CULTURE, AND COMMUNICATION 18

Gender and Sex 19

Sex 19 Gender 21

Culture 28

Communication 30 Communication is a dynamic process 31 Communication is systemic 31 Communication has two levels ofmeaning 32 Meanings are created through human interaction with symbols 33

SUMMARY 35

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 35

CHAPTER 2

Theoretical Approaches t o Gender Development 37

THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO GENDER 38

Biological Influences on Gender 39

Interpersonal Influences on Gender 43 Psychodynamic theory of gender development 44 Psychological theories of gender development 46

Cultural Influences on Gender 50 Anthropology 50 Sym bolicin teractio n ism 52 Standpoint theory 54

SUMMARY 57

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 58

CHAPTER 3

The Rhetorical Shaping o f Gender: Women 's , Men 's , and Gender Movements in Amer ica 6 0

WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS 61

The First Wave of Women's Movements in the United States 61 The women's rights movement 61 The cult of domesticity 63

The Second Wave of Women's Movements in the United States 65 Radical feminism 65 Liberal feminism 68 Separatism 71 Cultural feminists 72 Lesbian feminists 74

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Revalorists 74 Womanists 75 Multiracial feminism 77 Power feminism 78

THE THIRD WAVE OF W O M E N ' S MOVEMENTS IN THE UNITED STATES 80

MEN'S MOVEMENTS 83

Profeminist Men's Movements 84

Promasculinist Men's Movements 87 Free Men 87 Mythopoetic men 89 Promise Keepers 92 Million Man March 94

OTHER MOVEMENTS FOCUSED ON GENDER 95

The Backlash 96

Ecofeminism 98

SUMMARY 100

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 100

CHAPTER 4

Gendered Verbal Communicat ion 102

THE NATURE OF H U M A N C O M M U N I C A T I O N 103

VERBAL C O M M U N I C A T I O N EXPRESSES CULTURAL VIEWS OF GENDER 103

Language Defines Gender 104 Male generic language excludes women 104 Language defines men and women differently 105 Language names what exists 108

Language Organizes Perceptions of Gender 109 Stereotyping gender 110 Encouraging polarized thinking 111

Language Evaluates Gender 111

Language Enables Hypothetical Thought 112

Language Allows Self-Reflection 114

Language Is a Process 115

GENDERED INTERACTION: MASCULINE A N D FEMININE STYLES OF VERBAL C O M M U N I C A T I O N 115

Gendered Speech Communities 116

The Lessons of Childplay 117 Boys'games 117 Girls' games 118

Gendered Communication Practices 119 Feminine Speech 119 Masculine speech 122

Gender-Based Misinterpretations in Communication 124 Showing support 125 "Troubles talk" 125 The point ofthe story 126 Relationship talk 127 Public speaking 127

SUMMARY 128

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 129

CHAPTER 5

Gendered Nonverbal Communicat ion 130

FUNCTIONS OF NONVERBAL C O M M U N I C A T I O N 131

Nonverbal Communication Can Supplement Verbal Communication 131

Nonverbal Communication Can Regulate Interaction 131

Nonverbal Communication Can Establish the Relationship Level ofMeaning 132

Responsiveness 132 Liking 134 Power or control 134

FORMS OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICAT ION 135

Artifacts 136

Proximity and Personal Space 138

Haptics (Touch) 140

Kinesics (Facial and Body Motion) 141

Paralanguage 142

Physical Characteristics 143

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IMPLICATIONS OF GENDERED NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION 148

The Cultural Context of Nonverbal Communication 149

Respecting Differences in Nonverbal Communication 150

SUMMARY 151

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 152

PART II GENDERED COMMUNICATION IN PRACTICE

CHAPTER 6

Gendered Family Dynamics 153

ENTERING A GENDERED SOCIETY 154

Self-as-Object 154

Monitoring 154

GENDERING COMMUNICATION IN THE FAMILY 155

Unconscious Processes: Identification and Internalization 155

Ego Boundaries 159

Parental Attitudes About Gender 160

Parental Communication About Gender 161

Parental Modeling 164

Different Contributions of Mothers and Fathers 165

THE PERSONAL SIDE OF THE GENDER DRAMA 167

Growing Up Masculine 167

Growing Up Feminine 172

SUMMARY 178

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 179

CHAPTER 7

Gendered Close Relationships 181

THE MEANING OF PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS 182

Defining Personal Relationships 182

Gender and Closeness 182 The male deficit model 182 The alternate paths model 183

Contents

GENDERED FRIENDSHIPS 185

Commonalities in Women's and Men's Friendships 185

Differences Between Women's and Men's Friendships 185

Women's Friendships: Closeness in Dialogue 186

Men's Friendships: Closeness in the Doing 188

Friendships Between Women and Men 190

GENDERED ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS 192

Developing Romantic Intimacy 192

Engaging in Committed Relationships 194 Gendered modes ofexpressing care 195 Gendered preferences for autonomy and connection 197 Gendered responsibility for relational health 198 Gendered power dynamics 199

SUMMARY 203

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 204

CHAPTER 8

Gendered Education: Communicat ion in Schools 2 0 6

THE ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOLS 208

Schools Perpetuate Gender Inequities 208

Schools Limit Career Aspirations 209

Schools Have Too Few Female and Minority Role Models 209

CURRICULAR CONTENT 213

Misrepresentation of White Men as Standard 213

The Invisibility of Women 214

Misrepresentation of Human Experiences 215

EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES 216

Unequal Attention to Male and Female Students 216

Not Taking Women Students Seriously 216

Classroom Communication 218 Gender biases in teachers' communication 218 Communication among peers 220 Instructional style 221

S U M M A R Y 2 2 3

D I S C U S S I O N Q U E S T I O N S 2 2 4

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CHAPTER 9

Gendered Organ izational Communicat ion 2 2 6

INSTITUTIONAL STEREOTYPES OF W O M E N AND MEN 227

Stereotypes of Women 227 Sex object 227 Mother 228 Child 229 hon maiden 230

Stereotypes ofMen 233 Sturdy oak 233 Fighter 233 Breadwinner 234

Evaluation of Stereotypes 235

MISUNDERSTANDINGS OF PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION 236

Male Standards in Institutions 236

Masculine Norms for Professional Communication 237

Static (or Unchanging) Views of Communication 239

Misperceptions of Mens and Women's Ability to Work Together 241

GENDERED COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS IN ORGANIZATIONS 242

Leave Policies and Work Schedules 242 Leave policies 242 Work schedules 244

Communication Climates in Organizations 246 Unwelcoming environments for women 246 The informal network 247 Mentor relationships 248

Glass Ceilings—and Walls 248

EFFORTS TO REDRESS GENDERED INEQUITY IN INSTITUTIONS 250

Equal Opportunity Laws 250

Affirmative Action Policies 251

Quotas and Goals 254 Quotas 254 Goals 254

Increasing Sensitivity to Gender Issues 256

SUMMARY 257

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 258

CHAPTER 10

Gendered M e d i a 261

THE PREVALENCE OF MEDIA IN CULTURAL LIFE 262

THEMES IN MEDIA 263

Underrepresentation of Women and Minorities 264

Portrayais of Men and Women 265 Portrayais ofmen 265 Portrayais of women 267

Images of Relationships Between Men and Women 272 Women's dependence/mens independence 272 Women's incompetence/men's authority 274 Women asprimary caregivers/men as breadwinners 276 Women as victims and sex objects/men as aggressors 277

BIAS IN NEWS COVERAGE 279

IMPLICATIONS OF MEDIA REPRESENTATIONS OF GENDER 283

Fostering Unrealistic and Limited Gender Ideals 284

Pathologizing the Human Body 286

Normalizing Violence Against Women 289

SUMMARY 290

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 291

CHAPTER 11

Gendered Power and Violence 293

THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDERED VIOLENCE 294

THE MANY FACES OF GENDERED VIOLENCE 295

Gender Intimidation 295

Sexual Assault 297

Abuse Between Intimates 299

Sexual Harassment 305 Quid pro quo 306 Hostile environment 307 Whose perspective counts? 307

Genital Mutilation 308 Male circumcision 308 Sunna 309

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Excision or ditoridectomy 309 Infibulation 309

Gender-Based Murder 312

S O C I A L F O U N D A T I O N S O F G E N D E R E D V I O L E N C E 3 1 3

Normalization of Violence in Media 314

Normalization of Violence by Institutions 315 Family 316 Law enforcement 317 Counseling 317 Language 318

R E S I S T I N G G E N D E R E D V I O L E N C E : W H E R E D O W E

G O F R O M HERE? 3 1 9

Personal Efforts to Reduce Gendered Violence 320

Social Efforts to Reduce Gendered Violence 321

S U M M A R Y 3 2 2

D I S C U S S I O N Q U E S T I O N S 3 2 3

E P I L O G U E

L o o k i n g B a c k w a r d , L o o k i n g F o r w a r d 3 2 5

T H E C U L T U R A L C O N S T R U C T I O N A N D R E C O N S T R U C T I O N

O F G E N D E R 3 2 5

L O O K I N G B A C K W A R D , L O O K I N G F O R W A R D 3 2 6

Communication 327 Womens communication 327 Mens communication 327 Gender and communication in thefuture 328

Womens and Mens Movements 328 Feminism 328 Thefuture offeminism 328 Mens movements 329

Gender in Education 330 Reducing gender discrimination 330 Future gender issues in education 330

Gender in Media 331 Changes in media's portrayals ofmen and women 331 Mediated gender in thefuture 331

Gender in Personal Relationships 332 Changes in gender relations 333 Addressing gender divisions 333

Contents XV

Gender and Violence 334

Gender in Institutional Settings 334 Womens positions in institutions 335 Social support jorfamilies 335

CREATING THE FUTURE 335

Defining Masculinity and Femininity 336

Responding to Differences 337

Redefining Culture 337

Taking a Voice 338

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 339

GLOSSARY 341

REFERENCES 345

INDEX 377

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