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Nieral Lives C O M M U N I C A T I O N , G E N D E R , A N D CULTURE FIFTH E D I T I O N
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Julia T. Wood LINEBERCER D I S T I N C U ISH ED PROFESSOR OF H U M A N I T I E S
THE UNIVERSITY OF N O R T H CAROLINA
AT CHAPEL HILL
T H O M S O N +-WADSWORTH Australia • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • Spain
United Kingdom • United States
WMmmmmmmmHmaKmm CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Opening the Conversation 1
The Social Construction of Inequality 2
Feminism—Feminisms 4
Becoming Aware 6
Why I Wrote This Book 8
Communication as the Fulcrum of Change 10
The Challenge of Studying Communication, Gender, and Culture 11
Discussion Questions 11
PART I CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS
CHAPTER 1
The Study of Communication, Gender, and Culture 13
C O M M U N I C A T I O N , GENDER, AND CULTURE AS AN AREA OF STUDY 13
Knowledge of Gender, Communication, and Culture 14
Student Interest 14
The Value of Studying Communication, Gender, and Culture 14
THE MEANING OF GENDER IN A TRANSITIONAL ERA 15
Confusing Attitudes 15
Differences Between Women and Men 17
RELATIONSHIPS AMONG GENDER, CULTURE, AND COMMUNICATION 18
Gender and Sex 19
Sex 19 Gender 21
Culture 28
Communication 30 Communication is a dynamic process 31 Communication is systemic 31 Communication has two levels ofmeaning 32 Meanings are created through human interaction with symbols 33
SUMMARY 35
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 35
CHAPTER 2
Theoretical Approaches t o Gender Development 37
THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO GENDER 38
Biological Influences on Gender 39
Interpersonal Influences on Gender 43 Psychodynamic theory of gender development 44 Psychological theories of gender development 46
Cultural Influences on Gender 50 Anthropology 50 Sym bolicin teractio n ism 52 Standpoint theory 54
SUMMARY 57
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 58
CHAPTER 3
The Rhetorical Shaping o f Gender: Women 's , Men 's , and Gender Movements in Amer ica 6 0
WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS 61
The First Wave of Women's Movements in the United States 61 The women's rights movement 61 The cult of domesticity 63
The Second Wave of Women's Movements in the United States 65 Radical feminism 65 Liberal feminism 68 Separatism 71 Cultural feminists 72 Lesbian feminists 74
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Revalorists 74 Womanists 75 Multiracial feminism 77 Power feminism 78
THE THIRD WAVE OF W O M E N ' S MOVEMENTS IN THE UNITED STATES 80
MEN'S MOVEMENTS 83
Profeminist Men's Movements 84
Promasculinist Men's Movements 87 Free Men 87 Mythopoetic men 89 Promise Keepers 92 Million Man March 94
OTHER MOVEMENTS FOCUSED ON GENDER 95
The Backlash 96
Ecofeminism 98
SUMMARY 100
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 100
CHAPTER 4
Gendered Verbal Communicat ion 102
THE NATURE OF H U M A N C O M M U N I C A T I O N 103
VERBAL C O M M U N I C A T I O N EXPRESSES CULTURAL VIEWS OF GENDER 103
Language Defines Gender 104 Male generic language excludes women 104 Language defines men and women differently 105 Language names what exists 108
Language Organizes Perceptions of Gender 109 Stereotyping gender 110 Encouraging polarized thinking 111
Language Evaluates Gender 111
Language Enables Hypothetical Thought 112
Language Allows Self-Reflection 114
Language Is a Process 115
GENDERED INTERACTION: MASCULINE A N D FEMININE STYLES OF VERBAL C O M M U N I C A T I O N 115
Gendered Speech Communities 116
The Lessons of Childplay 117 Boys'games 117 Girls' games 118
Gendered Communication Practices 119 Feminine Speech 119 Masculine speech 122
Gender-Based Misinterpretations in Communication 124 Showing support 125 "Troubles talk" 125 The point ofthe story 126 Relationship talk 127 Public speaking 127
SUMMARY 128
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 129
CHAPTER 5
Gendered Nonverbal Communicat ion 130
FUNCTIONS OF NONVERBAL C O M M U N I C A T I O N 131
Nonverbal Communication Can Supplement Verbal Communication 131
Nonverbal Communication Can Regulate Interaction 131
Nonverbal Communication Can Establish the Relationship Level ofMeaning 132
Responsiveness 132 Liking 134 Power or control 134
FORMS OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICAT ION 135
Artifacts 136
Proximity and Personal Space 138
Haptics (Touch) 140
Kinesics (Facial and Body Motion) 141
Paralanguage 142
Physical Characteristics 143
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IMPLICATIONS OF GENDERED NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION 148
The Cultural Context of Nonverbal Communication 149
Respecting Differences in Nonverbal Communication 150
SUMMARY 151
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 152
PART II GENDERED COMMUNICATION IN PRACTICE
CHAPTER 6
Gendered Family Dynamics 153
ENTERING A GENDERED SOCIETY 154
Self-as-Object 154
Monitoring 154
GENDERING COMMUNICATION IN THE FAMILY 155
Unconscious Processes: Identification and Internalization 155
Ego Boundaries 159
Parental Attitudes About Gender 160
Parental Communication About Gender 161
Parental Modeling 164
Different Contributions of Mothers and Fathers 165
THE PERSONAL SIDE OF THE GENDER DRAMA 167
Growing Up Masculine 167
Growing Up Feminine 172
SUMMARY 178
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 179
CHAPTER 7
Gendered Close Relationships 181
THE MEANING OF PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS 182
Defining Personal Relationships 182
Gender and Closeness 182 The male deficit model 182 The alternate paths model 183
Contents
GENDERED FRIENDSHIPS 185
Commonalities in Women's and Men's Friendships 185
Differences Between Women's and Men's Friendships 185
Women's Friendships: Closeness in Dialogue 186
Men's Friendships: Closeness in the Doing 188
Friendships Between Women and Men 190
GENDERED ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS 192
Developing Romantic Intimacy 192
Engaging in Committed Relationships 194 Gendered modes ofexpressing care 195 Gendered preferences for autonomy and connection 197 Gendered responsibility for relational health 198 Gendered power dynamics 199
SUMMARY 203
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 204
CHAPTER 8
Gendered Education: Communicat ion in Schools 2 0 6
THE ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOLS 208
Schools Perpetuate Gender Inequities 208
Schools Limit Career Aspirations 209
Schools Have Too Few Female and Minority Role Models 209
CURRICULAR CONTENT 213
Misrepresentation of White Men as Standard 213
The Invisibility of Women 214
Misrepresentation of Human Experiences 215
EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES 216
Unequal Attention to Male and Female Students 216
Not Taking Women Students Seriously 216
Classroom Communication 218 Gender biases in teachers' communication 218 Communication among peers 220 Instructional style 221
S U M M A R Y 2 2 3
D I S C U S S I O N Q U E S T I O N S 2 2 4
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CHAPTER 9
Gendered Organ izational Communicat ion 2 2 6
INSTITUTIONAL STEREOTYPES OF W O M E N AND MEN 227
Stereotypes of Women 227 Sex object 227 Mother 228 Child 229 hon maiden 230
Stereotypes ofMen 233 Sturdy oak 233 Fighter 233 Breadwinner 234
Evaluation of Stereotypes 235
MISUNDERSTANDINGS OF PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION 236
Male Standards in Institutions 236
Masculine Norms for Professional Communication 237
Static (or Unchanging) Views of Communication 239
Misperceptions of Mens and Women's Ability to Work Together 241
GENDERED COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS IN ORGANIZATIONS 242
Leave Policies and Work Schedules 242 Leave policies 242 Work schedules 244
Communication Climates in Organizations 246 Unwelcoming environments for women 246 The informal network 247 Mentor relationships 248
Glass Ceilings—and Walls 248
EFFORTS TO REDRESS GENDERED INEQUITY IN INSTITUTIONS 250
Equal Opportunity Laws 250
Affirmative Action Policies 251
Quotas and Goals 254 Quotas 254 Goals 254
Increasing Sensitivity to Gender Issues 256
SUMMARY 257
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 258
CHAPTER 10
Gendered M e d i a 261
THE PREVALENCE OF MEDIA IN CULTURAL LIFE 262
THEMES IN MEDIA 263
Underrepresentation of Women and Minorities 264
Portrayais of Men and Women 265 Portrayais ofmen 265 Portrayais of women 267
Images of Relationships Between Men and Women 272 Women's dependence/mens independence 272 Women's incompetence/men's authority 274 Women asprimary caregivers/men as breadwinners 276 Women as victims and sex objects/men as aggressors 277
BIAS IN NEWS COVERAGE 279
IMPLICATIONS OF MEDIA REPRESENTATIONS OF GENDER 283
Fostering Unrealistic and Limited Gender Ideals 284
Pathologizing the Human Body 286
Normalizing Violence Against Women 289
SUMMARY 290
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 291
CHAPTER 11
Gendered Power and Violence 293
THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDERED VIOLENCE 294
THE MANY FACES OF GENDERED VIOLENCE 295
Gender Intimidation 295
Sexual Assault 297
Abuse Between Intimates 299
Sexual Harassment 305 Quid pro quo 306 Hostile environment 307 Whose perspective counts? 307
Genital Mutilation 308 Male circumcision 308 Sunna 309
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Excision or ditoridectomy 309 Infibulation 309
Gender-Based Murder 312
S O C I A L F O U N D A T I O N S O F G E N D E R E D V I O L E N C E 3 1 3
Normalization of Violence in Media 314
Normalization of Violence by Institutions 315 Family 316 Law enforcement 317 Counseling 317 Language 318
R E S I S T I N G G E N D E R E D V I O L E N C E : W H E R E D O W E
G O F R O M HERE? 3 1 9
Personal Efforts to Reduce Gendered Violence 320
Social Efforts to Reduce Gendered Violence 321
S U M M A R Y 3 2 2
D I S C U S S I O N Q U E S T I O N S 3 2 3
E P I L O G U E
L o o k i n g B a c k w a r d , L o o k i n g F o r w a r d 3 2 5
T H E C U L T U R A L C O N S T R U C T I O N A N D R E C O N S T R U C T I O N
O F G E N D E R 3 2 5
L O O K I N G B A C K W A R D , L O O K I N G F O R W A R D 3 2 6
Communication 327 Womens communication 327 Mens communication 327 Gender and communication in thefuture 328
Womens and Mens Movements 328 Feminism 328 Thefuture offeminism 328 Mens movements 329
Gender in Education 330 Reducing gender discrimination 330 Future gender issues in education 330
Gender in Media 331 Changes in media's portrayals ofmen and women 331 Mediated gender in thefuture 331
Gender in Personal Relationships 332 Changes in gender relations 333 Addressing gender divisions 333
Contents XV
Gender and Violence 334
Gender in Institutional Settings 334 Womens positions in institutions 335 Social support jorfamilies 335
CREATING THE FUTURE 335
Defining Masculinity and Femininity 336
Responding to Differences 337
Redefining Culture 337
Taking a Voice 338
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 339
GLOSSARY 341
REFERENCES 345
INDEX 377
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