THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF

TEWISHISTUD ES

Edited by

MARTIN GOODMAN

Associate Editors

IEREMY COHENA N D

DAVID SORKIN

OXTORDU N I V E R S I T Y P R E S S

LAOZ

cHAPTER 23

t -T

..:r eral lloI-Ites rr

. . i t l irto, Ronutttc

. , r i , e tc . in the ( )' . , r r th

Af i ica. F.,nt roverst 'abot

I.hree nirntes.' : tor lan Erni r i l, . t , te o-Espntn,o l

. lcnote ntore '

:rs t iom Hebr.

.i tnilny rese.lr,

z. Tur

: r rc ich ( r9;-r :' r ' t i r rc ' thc - c r1 ': . r r r ' , anc i Scp: . 'p|1x 1-ql i11i 11 ,

- . ' . . t tst-t l I l rcr,

-.r . t{c. . \1.rp.rr.

. , l l t 9 ; t l : : - l l, , r r q i c a l g r r r r r

. : ' . . l ' hev

t r :c . l' : t l r ' 1 o r r c l i r

- : n J S c o n r n r u

. , ' p e d i r t t t t c r i' . l rrr ' : . t nt l i' . . U tc \ ' u5c(1

. : t c r v l l I ' t g 9

, J t h . r t l ' t h , , n' l l J \ .1 l IC (1 1 .1

. : - : - r ' c r r ' - - \ r . tn

IUDAEO-SPANTSHSTUDIES

oRA (noDRrcuE) scHwARZwALD

I NrnoDUcr. to-*

JupeEo-SpeNrsu (JS) is the language used by the fews originating frorn Sp.r

flourished in the Ottoman Empire immediately after the expulsion from S1..r;;

continued its existence there. Some of the expelled Jews settled in North Afir.

used the JS variety known as Httkit la (Haketiya).In the beginning of the trv.'n:

century, JS is in the process of becoming an endangered language for lack '

native speakers.

In spite of the decreasing number of speakers, interest increases rn :

language and literature from an academic and folkloristic perspectivc. ..

of the controversial issues wil l be raised in this chapter: (r) the nanrc.

language; (z) the h is tory of JS; ( : ) or thography and spel l ing; (4) l i terarr - .(t) JS dialects; (6) JS learning and activit ies today; (7) perspectives ti 'r

research. I

I fhe first fii,e issues are discussed at length in the follorving books: \\ragner t rev( r965 ) , Rena rc l ( r 967 ) , and Seph iha ( r q86 ) . De ta i l ed r esea rch b i b l i og raphy un t i l r 98o i s l i ' : . .( 1q81 ) .

I U D A E O - S P A N I S H S T L ] D I E S

t_ TnE NAMES o_F THE LaucuAGE

Several names refer to the ianguage: Spanyolit or Espanyolir (in Israel), Espanyol,Ladino, Romance, Franco Espanl,ol, ludoeo Espanyol, Jidyo or Judyo, ludezmrt, Zor-gon, etc. in the Ottoman Empire communities, and either Hakitia or just EspanyolinNorth Africa. Each community used a certain narne for the language, and thecontroversy about the appropriate name still exists amorig speakers and researchers.

Three r-rames, however, are commonly used today to denote the lirnguage of theOttoman Empire communities: ludezmo (meaning Judaism, too), Ladino, orludoeo-Espatry/ol (lvdaeo-Spanish). However, Lodirro is used only among scholarsto denote more specifically the fS mirror-image type language of liturgical transla-tions from Hebrerv, rvhile either ltdezrno or fS refers to the vernacular. The speakersand many researchers stil l call the language invariably by either name.

r_ THE HlsroRy- o,F JUDAEo_-SpAN-r .sH

\\ 'einreich (t9zl: tz6) distinguished two periods in the development of JS: SepharirdI, befbre the expulsions from the Iberian Peninsula at the end of the fifteenth.entury, and Sepharad II, fiom the sixteenth century on. The expulsions cirusedthe Sephardim to become almost exclusively a diaspora community.

Jews used Ibero-Romance in medieval Christian Spair-r as their main vernacularlanguage. Apparentlv JS rvas developed at that time (Marcus 196z; Vanaro r987;Revah rgTo: 238-4o; see Section + below). The Jervs formed a religious ethno-:ociological group that was diftbrent in customs and beliefs from the non-fewishgroup. Tl'rev used an extensive Hebrew-Aramaic fLsed component in their language,not onlv for religious terms. The linguistic similarity between Hakitia and thecastern JS communities after the expulsion cannot be explained as accidental, unlessdeveloped in medieval Spain. Some Iberian Spanish linguistic forms were adoptedIrv the Jews and preserved in their speech while abandoned by their neighbours.Finally, thev used al.jamiadd texts already in Spain (Bunis r99z;Schrvarzwaldry99).

Mirrervini (r992: r3r-3) examined a variety of n-redieval aljamiado JS texts and.horved that phonological, morphological, and lexical evidence proves that the ]ewsLrsed the same dialectal variety as the Christians. Thus, in spite of the orthography,the Hebrew-Aramaic componeut, and the texts'speciai )ewish content, her conclu-

- Al.jntnittdo is a Spanish text written in Hebrerv characters.

573

5 7 4 O R A R . S C H W A R Z W A L D

sions do not support decidedly the claim that JS already existed in Sepharad I(Penn l ' r gg6 : i l ) .

The periodization of JS after the expulsion tiom Spain varies among scholars.Based on historical, l i terary', and l inguistic processes, one can distinguish betweensixteenth-century IS and seventeenth to twentieth-century JS (Revah ry7o: z4o-z).3On the other hand, various l inguistic considerations support the division betrveenthe sixteenth to eighteenth and the nineteenth to twentieth centuries (Bunis r99z:

4o4-tz).Written JS in the sixteenth century followed Iberian Spanish l iterary norms;

however, the distance fi 'om Spain and the development of JS changed fS in bothliterary and linguistic aspects in later centuries. Vernaculirr forms entered thewritten language and many words and expressions from the local languages werefused with JS.

From the First World War to the present fS has been marked by a gradual shiftfrom Hebrew spell ing to Roman script and bv irn increase of French and ltalianinfluence that has replaced local Turkish, Greek, and sometintes Hebrew elementsby more 'Romant ic ized ' forms.

z.r fudaeo-Spanish: The Current State

At the turn of the twenty-first centurv the number of speakers of IS is gradr,rallvdecreasing and the quantity of creative writ ing grolvs smaller. Hirrris (t994: r97-zz9)lists twerrty-four reasons for the present status of fS, manyof them related to eachother . A few of the most important ones are:

. Nationslisnr: with the fbrmation of separate nationalit ies in the Balkans and EastEurope during the nineteenth century, the local langr.rages became national.Greek, Turkish, and Bulgarian were adopted by the fews, while fS became theinformal, mundane family language.

. Secularizntion and modenization: the change fror-r-r the religiously oriented conr-munity to a secular one caused JS to be associated with the traditional rvay oll i fe. The youngsters wanted modernism and abandoned the previous wav of l i t!.including IS.

. Education: increasing numbers of Sephardic fews acquired general education innon-religious in-stitutions. The western North Afi ican Sephardic commtrnitjc.replaced Hakitia rvith Modern Spanish, while French replaced fS in the easrMediterranean as the culture language.

. Prestige JS did not have the prestigious status of Spanish and French. fS-speaker.degraded the language as unimportant .

I Sephiha (ry7g: z6: r9116) sets the year r6:o as the turning-point in fornration of lS, r. ierving rL,sixteenth-centurv var ietv as a Hispanic one rather than JS.

. Imntigrntic

countries asettled in vthey adoprtruse JS.

. Ziottisrrt: trmovenrents

members crcommuni t i t

N{oshe in Isrthe Israeli icloss of the l l

. The Holocnt,rvere kil lecl raround the r

. Interntqrritte

munities, e.marr ied cou;

IS.. Institutiorts: s

wi th fS as a prschool (Hrr l r

taught in s tatAmal ia HighHebrew ancl I

, Orthogrnphv:

rntended to nnegative eflccgrammar rvithis a l iv ing larr r

. IdeologS, ttrrd timportant , r lhfight for its erand i t s Cu l t t r rlanguage, hasSect ion 6. : hrc l ,

i : is not a nat ivc,r er 5o years okl the r.arioLrs reasor,nd rvhat it rep;g1r() l t in other cont l

I U D A E O - S P A N I S H S T U D I E S 575

' lmmtgrattofi: many members of the Sephardic communities emigrated to variouscountries around the world for commercial, educational, and other reasons. Theysettled in various parts of Europe, America, South Africa, etc. In these countriesthey adopted the local languages, and their children gradually lost the ability touse JS.

' Zionisnr: with the rise of the Zionism in the nineteenth century, youth Zio.istmovements were established in the Balkans, Turkey, and North Africa. Man'members of the Sephardic communities emigrated to Israel and formed JScommunities. For exampre, a group from Greece established the village TsurMoshe in Israel, rvhere agriculture is their principle source of livelihood. Ho*eue.,the Israeli ideological pressure to speak only Hebrew in Israel caused the gradualloss of the f S among the younger generations.

' The Holoccusf thousands of fS-speaking sephardic fews, especially from Greece,were killed during the Holocaust. The few survivers settled in various contriesaround the world.

' Intermarriages: many sephardic fS-speakers married Jews from other com-munities, e.g. Ashkenazi, Italian, Iraqi, etc. communication between themarried couples and their children is in the language of the country rather thanIS'

' Instittrtions: since the Second world War there have been no learning institutionswith JS as a primary language to help retain the language. The traditional religior-rsschool (Havra, Talmud Torn) has been discontinued. The national language istaught in state schools, and iS is not studied even as a second language. onry i.Amalia High School in Jerusalem has IS been taught as a third language (afterHebrew and English) since r9g9.

' orthogrophy: the replacement of Hebrerv orthography by Roman sc.pt wasintended to make IS read more like other Europ.un lu.,guuges, but it has had anegative effect. It has prevented speakers from enriching their vocabulary andgrammar rvith the wealth of written literature in JS. ,t language without literatureis a living language, but cannot be as aftluent as a written one.

' Ideology and unifying forces: language is retained when its speakers consider itimportant, when formal institutio.s exist and the academy sets up an ideologv tofight for its existence. The establishment of The National Authority for Ladinoand its Culture in ry97 by the Government of Israel, aiming to preserve thelanguage, has been an important step, but it seems too late *d too little (seeSect ion 6.2 below).

IS is not a native language to children anymore. The youngest native speakers areover 50 years old today; with their death, f S will cease to exist as a native language. ofthe various reasons outlined above, the most significant are the attitude towards fSand what it represented, the geographical dispersion of the speakers, their assimila-tion in other communities, and their decrease in number after the Holocaust. Had IS

5 7 6 O R A R . S C H W A R Z W A L D

been as prestigious as the other European languages in the eyes of its speakers, andhad the other factors not interacted so strongly, perhaps its f-ate might have beendifferent.

3: OnrHo-cRAPHY ANo SprrLrNG

From its early beginning IS has been written by lews in Hebrew characters in theform that was later named Rashi. The Sephardic fews named Rashi handwrittenscript So/lrreo. Printed materials were written in either Rashi script or in squareHebrew letters, rarely' vocalized.

The only Sephardi Jewish group that used Roman characters rvas the Converso(converted) Jews who returned to Judaism. Nlost Converso literature was written iueither Spanish or Portuguese, naturally in Ron-ran script (though some was rvrittenin l{ebrew or Latin), rather than in JS. T'heretbre, I shall address myself to thiscommunity only rvhen discussing Ladino translations and JS clialects.

IS developed a certain kind ofconr.entional spelling system to represent Spanishand ]S words in Hebrew characters; however, it rsas not always consistent. Neitherrvere the vowels marked unifcrrmly, especially in vocalized (punctr.rated) texts,nor were the diacritics marked reguiarly in consonants. The spelling becarne moreregularized during the nineteenth century. Table r represents a sample of Spanish

Table r. A sample of written words in IS in the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries

Spanish IS r6th c. JS rgth c. Spanish lS 16 th c . lS rgth c.

sslud'health'

l ly i r ' l ive '

c l r lco 'smal l '

gc/,le'people'

f t i lo 'son '

l lartnr'call '

ci lco'f ive'

-'17X1'

-rfxo -rbr.r:rbo-..|rlrf

t i : ' ' l

( '1',)r '!) '1',)t i-]

tx):xtt)

'1Pl1D

y ino 'w ine ;

he came'

lreber'drink'

. iusto'r ight '

ttluger'woman'

Lrajo'[ow'

oir 'hear'

.slere'seven'

- ' lr}f,-- 'F,l1l

r v v I i - l u v r i

tr')"1)f

-'tut-'r'\tNl

1\'Xf -'1'\IJtr

1:t t9tx1 l tr tx

r l l t t l l - t l r t i l r r

' l l ) ' :

- l r ' l r l

' l i ' T I n

' l \ rNl- '1 ' \ rN'

1: : !11q- ' '1 : r15

) 1 1 ) t r

rvords withpossible altt

As can beat ic in thediacr i t ic to rIn i t ia l h is torepresenteci

pronounceci

Sftirr for theand 7?r , rverHebrew as r,Spanish <c:Spain. Nirr i:

Dur ing thcharacters riramong schol ,held ir-r Jerusrdescribed th,others expl icraphy and sp1978; Litzar ry

Thble z re1rvorcls accclrclto represent Sone fS phoncrepresentecl tr

. {s in any l iv inIrterature ancleclLrcatecl laus.rnd every nterthe cul tura l h,

l - lI l te fe.lder .

. t c ra tL l re a l tc l i l \

rbxo

' 1 r ' l r l

tP ' ' :

ru))')

' 1 ' I IN

- lxnN))

"rPlrD

I t r t

J L I D A E O - S P A N I S H S T U D I E S 577

\rords with their JS spelling in the sixteenth and the nineteenth centuries with thepossible alternations.

As can be seen from the table, the spelling becomes more corrsistent and system-.rtic in the nineteenth centur)'. Zayin with a diacritic replaced the Gimel with a.iiacritic to represent the sound l2l . Ginel with a diacritic represented ltil and ldil .Irritial historical l.t/ or lhl that were not pronounced in |S were ignored, Kofrcpreserrted lkl. The combination of Lamed and Yod reflecting Spanish <//>

I,rrrnounced lyl inlS, rvas replaced by Hebrew double lbd, not aiways consistentlv.l/ri n for the representation of /s/ was substituted by Santech. The lettc'rs Kaf, Tzadi,.rnd 7?r,were normally used in words of Hebrew origin while Her could occur inHebrew as well as in Turkish or dialectal varieties. Rarely would Tzndi representSfranish <c> or E, especially in ear:ly texts immediately after the expulsion fiom5l,ain. lftrn and Yod represented Spanish r) (Pascual Recuero 1988).

Durirrg the twentieth century many of the ]S texts were written in Romancharacters rather than Hebre'rv ones, and this orthographic change is controversial.rnrong scholars. In an international congress on Writing and orthography in Ladinoheld in Jerusirlem, October 1999, there were fifteen academic lectures. Some of thenrdescribed the orthographl, and spelling used in fS thror"rghout its history,, whileothers explicated the preferred way IS should be written in according to orthog-raplrv and spelling used r/c facto in their orvn transliteration systems (e.g. Hassin

ry78;Lazar rg88; Sephiha ry73\ Shaul 1979- ; and others).Table z represents the various methods of transliteration used for some of the

rlords according to the writers'viewpoints. Some claim that JS Roman script oughtto represent Spanish spelling as much as possible, others are ir-r f-avour of one sign fbrone JS phoneme, while stil l others opt for a combir-ration of the Hebrew spellingrepresented in Roman characters with diacritics.

4. LTTERARY GENREs4

As in any l iving language, one can distinguish between canonical or genuine written

literature and fblk (oral) l i terature. The former is known mainl,v to the learned and

edr"rcated language-users, mostly men; the latter is widespread, lvell known to each

and every member, and is widely practised by women. Both l iteratures are part of

the cultural heritage of ar.rv speech community (Romero r99zb).

{ The reader should address Refat-l 's (1999) bibliographv tbr the full l ist ofcatalogues reuarding lSl i terature and i ts var ious senres.

578 O R A R . S C H W A R Z W A L D

Table z. Examples of the various transcriptions used in various texts

fS rvord Sephiha(t9il)

Lazar( 1988 )

Shaul(1979- )

Nehama

\1977 )

Nlinervini Perahva( rqsz) ( tss8)

Sephardic Jtthe language oof the l i terat r r rfollowing sectiafter the expulLadino t ran.s lagenres.

4.r Sephara

\,'ery,little rvas pby an anonr'rl(Ardut ie l ) (Dra

Regulations o1-

Iews. The Klrrrrl1977); the conrbstructure fit.

' t h

thet, were sonrctTlte TaqanLt \

Council in r.1,i:Spanish (Mincn

characters, the tcnece-ssarily rest ri

The other tn'tt ions for cor.rrirr,medical recil.res.instructions fbrl inguist ic t radi r i rcomnton amoltq

The rvomen's ,ibecause i t is o l r tl inguistic featurrSpain

Texts writteu bpatrons and theiRepentance), a l r l .

i . r . ,I n l \ S n O r t \ e l t l ( t l

qahal S'i' w l Yislt nrt, rr' ttinoqot hagun que lte:be required to hat 'e ar

- ) r ' l r f

- l1 f ) l

t l / ^

I t l t t ' t

. . \ ,T1N

l t rN l

' ' t xhN) r

-''t))lN

1: l t : h' r - -

'D)bNP

-'rlff

I r l l r r

l-r-'ltn

n a n

"1tt. lN'1

biuit ' -

b ib i r

beber

gtKo

gente

ntgo

boxo

I iannr

o.ir '

;itrko

kstrrirro

khaltod

tsedako

thorn

l.rakhnrn

dattit't

l t iy ir

bever

cltico

hiio

baxo

lliltnr

o i r

; i rrco

cattt i r to

KLl0od

sEdfiqnlr

tor0t1

nnKnt l t

df i t Io

b iv i r

bever

chiko

d.jente

i.io

basho

yatnar

o t r

sinko

kantirro

kavod

sedaks

tora

hahanr

danyo

bivir '

bever

iiko

gente

t2t't

baio

y0ilMr

o i r

siuko

katrrirto

KAIOd

sednka

tor0

.iainrn

Llaio

Itit'ir-

bi l t i r

lteyer

chico

gente

fi.io

ltaxo

Ilanutr

o t r

eutco

cttt t t i t to

KAvOA

sc4aqan

I OrAn

l.tnkant

dat l0

bivir

bever

tclriko

d.iente

iio

bacho

yat i lar

oir- oyir

sinktt

knnrirro

kavttd

sedako

tOttj

haharn

dsrtt 'o

Most of the printed f S works were written by individuals in the community. Theidentity of the ar-rthor is known in most cases. This genre includes scientific andreligious literature, poetrli translations, prose literature, drama, and from thenineteenth centur)' on, journalism. On the other hand, the creators of most Lac-linotranslations and of folk literature-stories, songs, ballads, proverbs, idioms, riddles,etc.-are mostly unknown.

Trvo points should be raised here concerning the literary genres: First, reliance onsources: some of the genres continue the literary Iberian Spanish tradition, but thevare later developed by the Sephardic fews independently. Other genres are genuinc

]S traditions, either independent of any prior tradition or influenced by localliterary genres. Secondly |ewishness: some of the genres are Jervish in naturebecause of their inherent content rvhile others are not fewish at all. Only the useol'JS, its Hebrew orthography', and the souce and target audience contribute to the

fervishness of the genre (Hass6n r9tl2; Romero ry92a).

I U D A E O - S P A N I S H S T U D I E S 579

Sephardic )ews, like those of any other Jewish community, considered Hebrew asthe language of learning, the hol,v language of high value. Therefbre, a great amountof the literature written by Sephardic fews was in Hebrew rather than in IS. In thefollowing sections a distinction will be made between the JS literature before andafter the expulsion tiom Spain. After this the following genres rvill be discussed:Ladino translations; rabbinical literature; press; drama; belles lettres; populargenres.

4.r Sepharad I

\tr1'little was preserved in JS prior to the expulsion; notable are the Coplas tle Yosclbv an anonymous writer and the Proyerbios lv4orqles by Sem Tob de Carri6rr(Ardutiel) (Diaz-Mas and Mota r99S). The Kharjas and Taqanot Valladolid (the

Regulations of Valladolid) show the interactions between languages used by theJervs. The Kher.ias are the concluding Spanish verses of a Hebrew poem (HitchcockrgZZ); the combination of langr.rages is systematic where the rhymes and the metricstructure fit. The Kharjas probably belonged to the oral literary tradition, althoughthey were sonetimes created by r,vell-reputed poets.

The Tnclanot Vnlladolid for the communities in Castile, formulated by the JewishCouncil in r43z, give additional proof of the interaction between Hebrew irndSpanish (Minervini r99z: r8r-255; Baer 1936: z8o-97). Although written in Hebren'characters, the text is basically Spanish with a heav.v inclusion of Hebrerv words, notnecessarily restricted to cultural religious terms.5

The other twenty-five ol.iamiado texts Minervini (r992) studied include instruc-tions for conducting the Passover Seder, contracts, written oaths, cleclarations,medical recipes, and varitlus agreements, most of them short or fragmentary. Theinstructions fbr conducting the Seder atter the expulsion follow the pre-exiliclinguistic tradition. The other short documents follow certain f S stylistic formulae,conlrnon among the Sephardim.

The women's aljamiado Siddurpublished by Lazar {r995t>) is Ladino by definitionbecause it is obviously a translation from a Hebrew text. It is identical in itslinguistic features to l.adino translations published after the expulsion fron-rSpain

Texts written by Iervs in Roman script in Spain were mainly done for Christianpatror-rs and their language is the Spanish of their era. Sefer Teiuva (Book forRepentance), althor-rgh written in Roman script, is very Jewish in nature. This

: ' This shcrrt sentence demonstrates the case (Hebrerv is stressed): otro se ordentunos que cual quicreqahal yi'w (Yislutrcrenu Suro Vego' olo\ dt ryince bd ale batim sean mehuyavim de tener entre si melamedtinoqot hagun que bezc o srr.fig'os pasuq (more rve order that each community of fifteen house-holdersbe required 1o have among themselves n respectable teacherrho rvi l l teach their chi ldren Bible).

580 O R A R . S C H W A R Z W A L D

book also inch-rdes sel'eral short tractates.6 The original translator is unknorvn, andaccording to Lazar (1993: pp. xii-xiii) it was copied from an original, the orthog-raphy of which is unclear. The aim of the book was to give the fews

'a condensedversion of religious and ethical texts otherwise not accessible to them' (ibid., p. xi).Another text lvas a translation of Se.fbr Hakuzari (Book of the Kuzari) by YehudahHalerry (Lazar r99o). l'hough verv fewish in nature, both Se/er Tehve and SeferHakuznri r'vere originallv published in Roman script, probabli' by and for convertedJews.7 The Jewishness of the texts is revealed through their contents and theirlinguistic nature, r,r'hich supports the claim that JS did exist before the expulsion.

4.2 Sepharad II

As mentioned earlier, the Converso Jews of Spanish and Portuguese origin fbrmed

communities in Italy, Holland, Germany, England, and France. They used Ladino

translations, as n,e shall see below, but most of their writ ings r.r 'ere in otherlanguages.

+z.t Ladino Tronsltt iotts

The traditional custom of ianayim miqra ta'el.rad targum ('reading the scripturalportion of the week twice and the Targum (translation) once'), n'hich originated inpost-biblical t irnes, continued throughout the generations rvith other vernacular

languages (Per i r955) . Sephardic lews used'enladinado' ( ' IHispanic] - t ranslated ' )

versions of l i turgy, known as Ladino translations, as part of their traditional rituals.These Ladino translations have an educational value as a word-for-rvord transmis-sions of the sacred Hebrew text into the )udeo-Spanish vernacular.

This genre is famous for its inflexibil i ty on the one hand, and for its archaicnature on the other. The Ladino translations reflect many Hebrew syntactic struc-tures and they retain grammatical and lexical l inguistic features typical of MedievalSpanish (Lazar r96-1; Revah rgZo; Sephiha:-9T3, r979;Schwarzrvald r989; Bunis r996).

Unfortunately, written medieval Ladino translations are non existant, except for

the women's Siddurmentioned above. The seemingly Ladino translations in Romar-rscript from before the expulsion are in f 'act free Spanish translations, made for

Catholic patrolls by either Jews, converted Iews, or others. The only remnant Ladino

translations are those published after the expsl5ien from Spain, mainly in Italv andthe Ottoman Empire.

" Pirqcy Aboth (Ethics of the fathers), l lqi lht'Estir(translation of Esther), 'Ortth Horyirrr (Wa1.of'l i fe ; a t ranslat ion of jacob ben Asher 's book), and Midrni 'oseret ha-Di l t rOt (Midrosh on the TenCommandments) .

See Lazar ( r9go, rq9, t ) f t>r the quest ion about the patrons of the publ icat ions. Note the introduct ion to the Escor ia l Bib le I .J : (Lazar r995a).

Several Ion special

. The Bibl,special hThe BiblHebren' lin Const,the Hebr

. Siddurarin LaclinrHebren,twere tl.alt

exlstent :versions t

. The Passc

C)ttonran

booklets '. Pirke Ayo

Saturclav

in the Fcrbooklets(Schu,arzr,

The differc-ncomntuni t ic

expel led fer ' .Ladino t ran:the t ranslat i tin Hebrerv servere more Jc

The b inarlingr-ristic crit

. C0nvent io

western tclfrom the r.

I n c ' , 1 n t \ l l

r t - e - c \ l l t !

. r t a l l .l ' r North . \ t r :

vr . rs ions fbr th. 'r t t i r in l r . in Leqhir

I U D A E O - S P A N I S H S T U D I E S 58r

Several l i turgical texts lvere subject to many Ladino translations, each being read

on special dates:

. The Bible. The Pentateuch read in weekly portions; Psalms; the five Scrolls read on

special holidays; several Halinrot (e.g. the gth of Av, Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur).

The Bible rvas translated in full in Ferrara 155j, in Roman characters rvithout the

Hebrew text, rvhereas in the Ottoman Empire it was translated in parts since r54o

in Constantirrople and Salonika, in Hebrew characters, mostly accompanied bv

the Hebrerv biblical text (Lazar zooo).. Siddur and Mahzor. The daily Siddur and the holiday Mahzor were also published

in Ladino translations in full in Ferrara in r55z in Roman script rvithout the

Hebrew text,8 rvhereas in the Ottoman Empire onlv certain passages of the books

were translated in Hebrew script, each next to the original Hebrew text. Texts are

existent sirrce the eighteenth century, though there might have been earlier

versions that have been lost. ' l. The Passover Haggadnh rvas published as part of the Mallzor in Ferrara and in the

Ottoman communities. It was also published rvith the Hebrew text as separate

booklets since 16o9 in Itall 'and in the Ottoman Empire.. Pirke Alor (Ethics of the Fathers) was read by Sephardic communities everl '

Saturday between Passover and Pente'cost, in rveekly chapters. It also appeared

in the Ferrara Mahzor without the Hebrew text, u'hereas all the subsequent

booklets and Mahzors published since 16or appeared r'vith the Hebrerv text(Sch rva rzwa ld r989 ) .

The difference between the Ladino translations stems primarily f iom the Jewishcommunities for lvhom the translations were done, namely, between the eastern

expelled Jervs and the western converted Jews. The Western communities published

Ladino translations mainly in Roman script in ltaly, Amsterdam, and London, and

the translations were rather 'hispanizedl

The eastem communities published them

in Hebrew script in a variety of locations of the Ottoman Empire. Their translations

were more Jervish in nature.l i)

The binary classification of east and west is based mainly on the following

linguistic criteria, in addition to the orthographic differences mentioned above:

. Conventional JS spell ing is r.rsed in the eastern Hebrew script translations, rvhile

u,estern texts reflect Hispanic spell ing of their t imes. Even Hebrew script texts

from the west reflect this fact. For instance. nineteenth-centrlry translations of

n l 'he Amsterdam 1612 Malzor ts an exact copv of the Ferrara r55: .e Pre-er i l ic Nlahors inc lude onlv short instruct ion in JS. The l ]ebrerv texts are not t rarnslated

a t a l l .

" ' Nort l - r Af i ican communit ies d id not publ ish any Ladino t ranslat ions. Thev used Ottoman En-rpi re

vcrs ions for their purposes, and s ince the t rvent ieth centurv thev have used Ladino texts publ ished

rnainlv in Leghorn ( I - ivrr rno).

582 O R A R , S C H W A R Z W A L D

Pirke Avot from Leghorn exhibit the use of Het for Modern Spanish /ota, u'hich is

represented by Shin, Gimel, or Zayin with an apostrophe in the eastern commu-

nities.. The western translations make a more sparing use of Hebrew words within a

hierarchy of usage. The western Roman-script Ladino translations consistently

use only God's name ( lA.l Adonall ), proper names, and very few |ewish con-

cepts. The western Hebrew-script Ladino translations contain some additional

Hebrew words. The eastern ones, however, include the largest number of Hebrew

words (Schwarzwald ry96:6t). The Roman-script conventions made the text read

more l ike Spanish, hence the natural avoidance of Hebrew. Most Hebrew-script

versions published in the west followed suit. The paucity of Hebrew words in their

texts is due to the conscious intention of the translators, as expressed in some

translations. The Ladino translations from the east made no such claims. Inclu-

sion of the Hebrew words can reflect either the ancient traditional translations or

the natural reflection of the spoken langr.rage.. Different words and phrases are used consistently in both east and west (Sephiha

1973: 48ff; Schwarzwald 1989, 1996). Also, there are systematic differences in

grammatical forms, typical of JS.

Ladino translations are studied extensively by many scholars, some of them men-

tioned above. It seems that the translators intentionally tried to preserve the archaicnature of the text with its special calque features in order to keep the text educa-tional and sacred. Thus, in spite of natural developments of JS, the translators

adhere to old norms which make the spirit of the text archaic.

The printing of the Constantinople Pentateuch Ladino translation in Hebrew

script in ry47 and the Ferrara Bible in Roman script in 1553, immediately after theexpulsion, intrigued researchers.l l These translations resemble each other more

closely than they resemble any of the pre-expulsion Spanish translations. Therefore,

one of the important issues researchers try to resolve is the origin of the Ladino

translations. Lazar (1964, 1995a), for example, claims the Spanish translations of the

Middle Ages set the foundations for the Ladino translations published after theexpulsion. Wexler (1987) shows that clear tendencies in the Roman-script Ladino

translations of the eighteenth century make the text more Jewish on the one hand,yet more Hispanic in nature on the other-which also assumes old pre-exil ic

versions as the origin for the translations, Bunis (1996) argues that fewish oral

tradition of Ladino translations had already existed in Spain and had been based on

the Hebrew text itself. Based on the use of proper names in the Bible Ladino

translations, Schwarzwald (zooo) also claims that the post-exil ic translations areindependent of the Spanish pre-exil ic translations. Also, a comparison of pre-exil ic

rr Not surprisingll', a congress has been devoted solely to the study of the Ferrara Bible (Hassiint991).

Pirke At'ot iindependen

! .2.2 Rnl t l

Rabb in i ca l i i

Iewish l i irr. rvarious Hel.

Mos t o i t iexceptions. )yida (The \scr ip t , but h iacters donc' l ifbr instancc.

Karo: Saloni lHovat Hal t ' t ,author : Con,

Varior-rs ch.some decrea, ,d ic leaders gr

rvrit ing in l5rvere rvrittenYehudah El icVi tas, and oth

The rabbin irvords, phrarcon comnloltsomet imes ( i r

as explainecl .rlThe Respor:

.rlthough irddrrvould be c i te . lcen tu rv (e .g . r r

Sermon col l\brahant Pal.r,hontil ies. St' l t 'r\crntons ofa H

- Studies ot r l rl i r r r n s t c i n - I I r k o r .

' Alntosr . r in, , . r) t tont i l l t k ins: , . r i .

I . ,raar l (19 .1-+ . t :

r c p r i n t e d n t a t c r : . r

I U D A E O - S P A N I S H S T U D I E S t83

Pirke Avotin Se.fer Teshuva and the post-exilic ones proves that they are linguisticallvindependent (Schwarzwald forthcoming).

,t.z.z Rabbinical Literature

Rabbinical literature refers to literature written by Sephardic rabbis on subjects likeIervish law, morals, education, cllstoms, commentaries on and interpretations ofvarious Hebrew cannonical texts, judicial matters, and Responsa literature, etc.rr

Most of this rabbinical literature was written in Hebrew, but there were somec'\ceptions. Moses Almosnino rvrote Se/er Hanhagat HaHnyyim: El regimiento de lolrr la (The Management of Li fe: Salonika, r t64)tr in (Judaeo-)Spanish in Rashiscript, but his work became famous through the transliteration into Roman char-.rcters done for the benelit of Spanish readers. Other Rabbinical literature included,tbr instance, Meza de la almn (an edited translation of Shull.rcttr HnPanim by Yosel'Karo: Salonika, 1568), EI deber de los corazores (translated by Zadiq Fornan fromHovat Halevnvot Constantinople, 1569), Dinim de shehita i bediqa (anonymousauthor: Constant inople, r5ro), etc.

Various changes in the economic, political, and social situation of the lews causedsome decrease in the Hebrerv education of later generations. The educated Sephar-dic leaders grasped the need to elevate the knowledge of the layman and startedrvriting in JS as well. In addition to Mesm Loez (see 4.z.z.r belorv), other booksrvere written in )S by Abraham ben Isaac Asa, Reuben ben Abraham of Shtip,Yehudah Eliezer Papo, Yehuda ben Shlomo Hai Alcalay, Shabetay ben YaacobYitas, and others (Yaari 1934: z8-ll).

The rabbinical fS literature, either original or translated, is loaded with Hebrewn'ords, phrases, and citations due to the contents of the treatises and their relianceon common Jewish knowledge of Hebrew words. The number of Turkish andsometimes Greek rvords increased during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries,as explained above in Section z.

The Responsa literature, like the rabbinical homilies, was mainly in Hebrerv,although addressed to a Sephardic audier-rce. Occasionally, actual cases or willsnould be cited within the Hebrew text even in early Responsa from the sixteenthcentury (e.g. in Rabbi Shmuel de Modena's IMaHaRaShDa]v{l Responsas).

Sermon collections were written by rabbis mostly inlS. Vehokhiah AvrahnrnbvAbraham Palachi (lzmir, 186z), for instance, includes s€rmons of Bar Mizvahhonrilies. SeJer Vtyl,itlra |vfosheby Moshe Shimon Pesah (Volos , t89t-t937) includessermons of a Halachic nature and lamentations in Hebrew and IS.la

1r Studies of the Sephardic rabbinical l j terature shorv that most of i t wirs wr i t ten in Hebrew (e.g.

Bornstein- l \ {akovetsky :oor ) .rr Alnrosnint> llso lvrote the historical book Cronica de los re,ves otomanos (1-he historv of the

()ttcrnrirn kings, illso knorvn as Extrentos y grondezns de Constattinoplri; Romeu Ferr6 r998)' ' Yaa r i ( r g l . + ) and thecomp len ren ta r v l i s t s (men t i oned inRe fae l r 999 )g i vede ta i l eddesc r i p t i onso f

the pr intecl mater ia l .

t84 O R A R . S C H \ V A R Z W A L D

4.2.2.1 Meam Loez

Meam Loez, one of the most voluminous and important l i terary works in JS, rvas

begun by Rabbi Jacob Khuli (:689?-17z-). He gathered biblical commentaries from

the classical Jewish sources: N4ishnah, Gemarah, Halachic and Aggadic midrashes,

ethical rules and homiletic interpretatior.rs, l i terary, historical, and kirbbalic sources,

as well as rabbinical commentaries on the Bible from all periods.

Iacob Khuli completed the commentary on Genesis (Constantinople, r73o). His

commentary on Exodus, however, ended at the twenty-seventh chapter (Tentmo),

and was published posthumously in r73. Following his guidelines the followingrabbis carried on the enterprise: Isaac Magriso (end of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers),

Isaac Shemaria Argueti (Deuteronomy), Menachem Mitrani (Joshua), Isarirc Abba(f i rs t Prophets; Isa iah) , Rafael Isaac Meir Ben Veniste (Ruth) , Hayinr Shaki (Songof

Songs), Nissim Abor,rd (Ecclesiastes), and Rafael Hiya Pontrimoli (Esther). Even

their efforts failed to bring this monumental rvork to completion. This JS classic was

eventually published in its unfinished form and ran into several editions in Con-

stantinople, Salonika, Leghorn, Smyrna, etc. (Landau r98o; Maeso and Pascual

Recuero ry6+-lo). Because of its educational value, the book has been translatedrvith some adjustments and additions into Hebrerv (S. Yerushalmi r957-8r), English(Kaplan 1977-97\, and other languages.

The language of NIeam Loez is JS; horvever, it echoes the Hebrelv sources. On

the one hand, rz-r5 per cent of the words and phrases in the text are Hebrew; on the

other, Hebrew phrzrses are reflected in fS expressions, and ofter-r the syntax is

influenced by Hebrew word structure. Hebrew and JS terms alternate freely, e.g.

dinim- /e1res (laws), navi-porfeta (prophet), sibot-kavzos (reasons), resha'im -

gente ntala (evil people).

Several studies of Meorrr Loez have examined its l i terary aspects (e.g. Landau

t98o, t98r; Alexeuder 1986; and rnany others). The sources that the writers used ha'r'e

been analysed as well as its lexicon (e.g. \Viesner 198r; Romeu Ferre :.ooo); however,

its language has not been seriously analysed. The study of the various books written

by different authors at various times and locations wil l certainly shed light on

Ianguage varieties of the Ottoman Jewry IS of the eighteenth and nineteenth

centuries.

4.23 Drama

The first sepharclic dramatic writers were fervs from Holland (Enr(quez Gomez, Levide Barrios), but their writing cannot be considered JS. As mentioned above, thevbelonged to the Cotrverso communities and adopted Hispanic thernes and literarr'norms, as well as Spanish linguistic standards.

The JS drama developed around Jewish themes in the earlv centuries afterthe expulsion. The story of Esther and the drama of foseph and his brotherslvere repeated themes played around Purim in various communitic.s, though not

documer

produce,

in variot

first plav( lhar i r9.p lays, thr

In acld

Deborsh,

secular, cterious Ftranslat etfrom Nftr

Shakespe,

Manrperfornrc

were pro(

One o f t h ,aspects br

4 .2 .4 B t

The secorliterature

elevate ththistorical

love, traqestones, e. !by,\ '. cie Btonly the pr(A Sca rv S t

Ierusalen.rSome r.rl

Europe esp^Viserablt,s.

Ksrsntnzot

.\braharn )Yehuda Btr rLrp to the rrILomero r9

l i Avne r 1 , ,I heo log i ca i S ,

J U D A E O - S P A N I S H S T U D I E S

documented.r-5 From the middle of the nineteenth century many new plays were

produced. Some of these exist in print and manuscripts, rvhile others are mentionecl

in various newspapers but are lost. Bunis (r99;) described what was apparentl,v the

first play published in the Ottoman Empire. Other plays are described in ctrtalogues(Yaari r934: 57-9). Ronrero (r929) gives the most comprehensive descriptiorr of these

plays, though many of them are unattested irr n'ritten form.

In addition to plays on biblical and historical subjects, l ike David and Golintlu

Deb<trah, and Yiftnh, there were other themes, either religiously oriented or entirelv

secular, comic, tragic, and tragicomic, for example la frmia nisterioza (The Nlvs-

te r i ousFami l y ,byJ .Beha r ) , E lbe td inde lossye los (TheCour to f La rvo f Heave r . r ;

translated fionr Polish) , El Hazino inn2inado (The Imaginary Invalid; translatecl

from Moliere's Le Malade Innginnire), Los Bugukes (the Twins, trernslated fronr

Shakespeare's Contedy of Errors), and so on.

Many of the plays rvere musicals or semi-musicals. In most cases the,v rverc

perfbrmed by amateur players, children as well as adults. Occasionall,v thev

rvere prodr.rced and performed by members of youth movements in various cit ies.

One of them has been scientif icallv edited with respect to its musical and folkloristic

aspects bv Alexander and Weich-Shahak (rsS+).

4.2.4 Belles Lettres

The second half of the nineteenth century marks the turning-point for secularliterature as well. Biographies, books, and stories were rvritten in JS in order tcrelevate the education of the common people. Some novels were lvritten ir-r )S on

historical fewish matters or people. Most of them rvere devoted to such matters as

love, tragedies, fortune, and the l ike. The authors are known in some of the original

stories, e.g. La dgudia salvado del konvento (The Iewess Saved From the Convent,

by Y. de Boton), Muerta por el amor (Dead For Love, by M. Habib). In other books

only the printer is mentioned, for example, Estoria temeroza de un i io muy presy()zo(A ScaryStoryAbout a Dear Son; Izmir ryl:), Entre dos amores (Between TWo Loves;

Jerusalem tgoZ).

Some of the JS novels were adaptations or translations of l i terature written in

Europe especiall,v in English, French, German, and Russian, for example, Hugo's le-s

Miserables, Dumas's The Count of Monte Cristo, Dostoevsky's The Brothers

Karofttrlzor', as rvell as Hebrew: Alnvot Zion (Atnor dc Ziorr; Love of Zion, by

Abraham Mapu), Kisme Moledet (Sharnrcs de patria; The Magic of Homeland, bv

Yehuda Burla). The source is specificalh'mentioned in some cases, but in others it is

up to the researcher to trace it. This is a genre that has yet to be studied thoroughlv(Romero 1993; Barquin Lopez r995) .

r ' Avner Perez inf t l rmed me of l s ix teenth-centurv NIS f ronr the Genizah and kept at the Jel ishTheological Seminary in Neiv York. i t ref lects c lassical prosodv ofSpanish texts.

585

t 8 6 o R A R . s c H w A R Z w A L D

It is wrong to claim that all JS literature is adapted (Hasstin rgAz). Much of thecreative writing in fS was original and deserves research. Also, it should be recalledthat Sephardic Jews kept on publishing and creating all kinds of literary genres, fiomscience to belles lettres (e.g. Elias Canetti), in languages other than fS. The fact that atext is written in JS does not make it automaticalll, imitative.

4.2.5 lournalism

Although Hassin (1982) considers all kinds of journalisrn pLrblished in JS asderivative, it is an independent creative genre. The first fS newspaper, La esperansa(Hope) was published in Izmir in 1842, followed four years later by shn'erehemizrah (The Gates of the East). Since then hundrecls of JS newspapers havebeen published in many cities (Gaon 1965), most of them in salonika (since rg65)and constantinopie (since 1853), but also in Izmir, vienna, Jerusalem, Sofia, Fili-popoli, Rusjuk, Tel Aviv, and in other smaller cities in the ottoman Empire.

The first ne\\rspapers included only translated news from major foreign news-papers; hower.er, the publication of La epoka (The Era), published in salonika in1875, rnarked the turning-point in the development of /S .journalism. It incl_rdedoriginal articles on political matters as well as local news. The other newspaperstbllowed suit and reduced the number of translated articles.

Rarelv were the newspapers published on a daily basis. Most of them appearedtwo or three times a week or even just once weekly. some of them were politicalnewspapers' others were satirical-humorous, while the rest had a Zionist orienta-tion or were the voice of political-nationalist moventents. The language of thenewspapers varied accordingly: vernacular JS with a healy Hebrew componentwas freely used in the satirical-humorous ne\,vspapers; a high stylistic variety of )Srvas used in the more politically oriented papers. The Hebrew component wasavoided and replaced by Hispanized (French-like, Italian-like) fbrms in the otherpolitical newspapers.

In addition to ne\.vs and editorial articles, the nen,spapers included stories,sometimes continued every week, songs in Hebrerv and in JS, and had varioussections, just as in modern journalism. Some of these stories were later published inbook form.

A number of IS iournals in Hebrerv Rashi letters stil l existed at the beginning ofthe trventieth century in the Balkans and in Israel, but their number graduallydecreased. Moreover, Hebrew letters were gradually replaced by Roman letters (seez.r above and 4.3 below).

4.2.5 Popular Genres

4.2.j.r Poetic Literahtre

A rich poetic oral tblkloristic tradition in JS existed in the Moroccan and easterncommunities alike. Since the end of the nineteenth century the various oral trad-

i t ions hatradition

and ctnteight_sr.l l

educat ior .

written ir.famous ctsongs, e.sllIervish-orirvomen ( l

These tl),osclment

to historicby rhe SeplCherezli inare more Irgz6 ) .

Hispanictraditi<ln inresemblanc.

l inguist ic a icollection.s tBenichou rgthemes ancl ta l l ) ' too (Ret ,

A carefirlthe rotrtttrtsoThe innovat i ,Ottoman Enrrvriters on lhtfor instanct-, .r998b; Len. rand bal lads, ;rvell-knorvn tgenre, becausauthors is knrsarily sung.

The langualpoetry. Ronor

r t ' Ihe c lassi f i .

speakers ivho call

I U D A E O - S P A N I S H S T U D I E S

it ions have been recorded and written dorvn (Men6ndez Pidal r9z8). The poetictradition includes varieties of forms-romansas (or romances), coplas (or complas),and cantigas (or canticas)-mostly sung. The romansas are ballads with six- oreight-syllable lines rhyming in the even-numbered lines. The coplas are poems ofeducational origin on assorted narrative or descriptive rather than lyric themes,rvritten in stanz.as, frequently acrostics, with various tlpes of rhvming. The mosttamous coplas are dedicated to Jewish holidays and customs.The cantigas are lyricsongs, especially love songs. Men used to sing many of rhe coplas on religious orIervish-oriented themes, whereas the romansas and cantigas were usually sung by\\'omen (Diaz-lVlas r99z to5-6, n9; Men6ndez Pidal r9z8).r6

These three types of poetry are very old and rooted in Spain (e.g. Coplas de)irselmentioned in +.r). Most of the romqnscs are not related to )ewish themes orto historical Jewish characters. They became Jewish because they lvere adoptedtrv the Sephardic communities and collected in written form (e.g. Yona in Salonika,Cherezli in |erusalem; see e.g. Armistead and Silverman Lg7r, t98z). The coplnsirre more Jewish in nature, but their poetic form was rooted in Spain (Flass6n1976).

Hispanicists were fascinated at finding the old poetic forrns as a living oraltradition in JS culture, in spite of the geographical and temporal distance. Theresemblance to Iberian traditions is reflected in musical as well as thematic andlirrguistic aspects. Many studies were dedicated to the romensa, most of themccrllections of the traditions in particular communities (Men6ndez Pidal ryo6-7;llc'nichou 1944; Attias rg6r). Men6ndez Pidal, in his numerous works, analvsed thethcrnes and their Hispanic roots. Specifi c rotnansas have been analysed systentatic-.rllv too (Refael r998a; Alexander et al. rygd.

A careful analysis of the various oral poetic traditions reveals that many ofr,he romnnsas, coplas, and cantiga-s are late innovations of the Sephardic Jews.'fhe

innovations follow tr,vo trends: adoption of local, non-fewish traditions in thet)ttornan Empire and in North Africa; and an independent innovation by creativerlriters on the lines of the old traditions, especially of coplas and cantigas. One finds,ti)r instance, Zionist coplas (Zionidas), coplas on the Holocaust, and so on (Refaeli998b; L6r,y 1989). Newspapers and other pamphlets include many new poems.rnd ballads, and some of them carry the instruction to sing them to a specific','ell-knorvn tune. Hence, coplas and cantigas are different from the romens(l{cnre, because in many of them, especially the modern ones, the identity of the.ruthors is known. Cophs are also written, llke cnntes (poems), and are not neces-..rrilv sung.

The language of these genres varies, depending on the contents and time of the)()ctry. Ronansas of Hispanic source carry f-eatures of Old Spanish with almost no

' ' The c lassi f icat ion based pr imar i ly on l i terarv and themat ic cr i ter ia does not accord wi th the.:.r.rkers ivho call man1, of the coplas ronnnsas.

587

5 8 8 O R A R . S C H W A R Z \ 4 ' A L D

markers of JS. Romansas, coplas, and cantigason Jewish themes have definite lewish

markers, reflected by either Hebrew components, reference to Jewish tradition and

customs, or phrases from Ladino translations. Late coplas and cantigas have ver-

nacular forms with a heary Turkish and Greek component as well'

4.2.j.2 Proverbs

Many of the JS proverbs can be traced back to Spain. The proverbs include Hispanic

elements, and many of them are identical in form and content to the Spanish ones,

which means that the expelled Sephardic Jews carried this oral tradition over and

brought it with them to the diaspora'

The study of the )S proverbs stil l needs further depth (L6vy 1969).' ' Some

proverbs of Hispanic origin seem to be kept intact, though the vocabulary may

vary; for example, Spanish cada tmo sabe donde Ie aprieta el zapnto (everyone knows

where his shoe hurts) is retained in eastern ls as kada uno save onde Ie ergwele el

sapato (or el kalsado). The JS proverb axnre eamal veatorax vaikax korcx (someone

who likes to enjoy the fruit of somebody else's efforts; Lit: after labour and effort

took Korah) is based on biblical literature. The words are all Hebrew, though the

proverb is non-existant in Hebren. The idiom honna i bina i kyoik enriva (wisdonr

and knowledge (building) and a tower on top of them, i.e. great stupidity) includes

the Hebrew synonyms hokma and binn. Bina, like kyoik, is a Turkish word for

building, hence the word play of Hebrew and Turkish gives two entirely different

meanings. In spite of the Hispanic tradition, there is a considerable innovations irt

fS proverbs.

4.2.5.3 Miscel lorteous

As in any other living culture, other JS genres exist, for example, folk-tales, riddles'

fables, jokes, and so on. Men wrote down many satirical tales, folk-tales, ancl

riddles in JS texts, though most of them were transmitted orally through thc

fS comrnunitl,, especially by women. These genres still need investigation. Matrr

folk-tales are being collected today, but their study is stil l in its beginning (Alexan-

der-Frizer zooo and the references therein). Bunis (rgg9b) studied the satirical

supposed correspondence between typical folk characters, a husband and wif-e, a'

published in the press from Salonika, and his description is important frorrr

linguistic and literary point of view. The other types of these folkloristic creation\

need further research. The JS language in them seems to be the vernacular, modifie..i

according to topic.

' ; A lexander and Bentol i la (zoor ) , fbr instance, in their n 'ork on the Haki t i r r prove that rv i th re:pc. '

to Hispanic pror .erbs, proverbs can be c lassi f ied according to four cr i ter ia-message' theme' fbr t t r . , r r ' :

lex icon.

4.3 Cur

Current prence of t lYerusholoi

Moshe Shrcontr ibutc

current s t .mat ion a l r rferv JS atrltranslite r.r t

O the r p ra Turk ish r,Vilc-slrtr..:

Ri rhmirn i .

fblklore. nrScpltonr,lt

Uni tec l 5r . i :eclitecl br I,\ ir lrt-s Lr r.{,

C)r ie in. r lp lavers. l l r , . '\ i rvor t r r ' r , ,i nc lu r l cs l >l t c c c s s a r t l r ,

. \ r , u s . t l l i

: t ' r r ' t l t l i c r 1 . ,: l l ( ) t h e r l ( ) t ': . i r g c t . t u ( i ; L

, . . r r l . r C t . l t t . r

\ . ' . h . l r ( l i e I \

: : . ' i l ' t l i ' i , ' . . :

\ r ' \ C t J I t l . .

. : i o i t l r ' . 1 . .' i . \ ]

| h r ( r ' i . -

- . . . i r ' l i r ' t . : '

- ' : t . i . i r r r :

' , ' - . 1 ' ' . . '

. ' . ' ' ,

I U D A E ( ) - S P A N I S H S T L I D I F S 589

4.3 Current State(lurrent pr"rblications in JS are a result of some very staunch believers in the resili-errce of the language. The most prominent and well-known publication is .4kiYeruslnlaim: Revista Klturaln Djudeo-Espanyola, founded in ry79 by the editor\loshc'Shaul as a supplement to the Israeli Radio broadcasting in JS. Various rvriterscontribute to this journal, covering subjects like culture, folklore, history, and the.urrent status of Sephardic Jews, as rvell as customs, old and new poerls, infbr-nration abor.rt new books, articles, records, conferences, and so on. In recent issues at*v fS authentic texts in Rashi script or Solitreo have been reproduced, with alransliteration, by Avner Perez.

Other publications around the world focus on JS and Sephardic culture. Shalortr,.r Turkish newspaper from Istanbul, includes one page in ]S by Silvio Ovadya. lo-s.\Irre,sfros; La Boz de los Sefardirn, published in Brussels and edited by N{oiselLahmani, is a multil ingual quarterly'. The articles on history, culture, language,lirlklore, music, and literature appear in French, English, Spanish, and JS. La Leftrt'St'pharnde is a recent publication (since zooo) that appears concurrently in theL'nited States in English, edited by Rosine Nussenblatt, and in France in Frerrch,edited by Jean Carasso. Haim Vidal Sephiha is responsible for the publications ofYidns Largas in Paris.

Original fS plays are produced from time to time in Israel and Turkey by amateurplavers. Bustan Sefnradi(A Sephardic Orchard), a popular Hebrerv play that Yitshak\avon wrote about life in lerusalem at the beginning of the twentieth centur\',includes )S songs, proverbs, and some idioms. It attracts a large audience, notruecessrtr i lv of IS <rr igin.

Margalit Matityahu and Avner Perez in Israel, Clarisse Nikoidski in France, and aterr, other poets write f S poetr,v, though most of their creative rvritings are in theirrlother tongues. Their poems have been published in bilingual editions. Theirtarget audience is srlall, not only because poetry has relatively f'ew readers but.rlso because the number of JS readers is scarce. Israeli authors, n'hen u,riting aboutSephardic lS-speakers, characterize them by inserting fS sentences and phrases intotheir discourse.

Several discussion lists on the Internet infbrm about news in the Sephardic world.The oldest is SEFARAD managed by Yitshak Kerem (ykerem@actconr.co.il, distrib-rrted through Sefardic Electronic Archives set'arnd@shantash.org as rvell). Eachner'vsletter includes extensive lists of various related websites. Another discussionlist hars been established by Aviva Ben-Ur about Mizrahi and Sephardic lervstben-ur@.iudneq.urtt(tss.edrr). Since 2oo1 a nerv site narned Jewish Languagesicwish-langtrages@lists.Stanford.EDU) has been initrated by Sarah Bunin Benor

,90 O R A R . S C H W A R Z W A L f )

in which one can find information about the study of Jewish languages in general,inclnding fS. A very popular discussion internet list in lS is ladinokomurita@ynhoogroups.com.

5; Iuoano;SrANlsH Dlarrcrs

Hispanicists view )S as a dialect of Spanish; however, researchers of JS consider it anindependent language rooted in Iberian Spanish. As in the case of any language thatis spoken over a wide area, different dialects developed in f S.

Several linguistic features are common to all JS dialects and make it different fromother varieties of Spanish, although certain features can be found in the vulgarvarieties of Spanish in either Spain or America. A f-ew of the features are listedhere; the reader will find more details in Zamora Vicente (ry67: 349-72), Bunis(ry92'. 4t4-zo), Marcus (rg6S lo-gS), Wagner (r99o(I) [: r93o): n6-35), and others.The phonemes lil, ldgl, and l2lwere retained in JS (they changed in Spanish into

/x/). The phonemes lvl and lbl are distinct (allophones in Spanish ([/] and [&] ).The equivalents to the Spanish letters E and z are pronounced Is] and fz) in JS. Oftenhistorical /s/ rvould be pronounced Iz] between vowels. Residues of the historical g

or z are rarely pronounced as an affricate ldi), e.g. dodie (nvelve, Spanish doce).Historical s before k is pronounced i e.g. rrtLtika (fly, Spanish rrtosca). The Spanish-swe (spelled .srre) is often realized in ]S as [-sxwe] or fsfwe), e.g. esxweito-es.fwefio(sleep). Metathesis occurs in many consonal)t clusters with d or r, e.B. pedrer (lose,

Spanish perder). The vowels are not alrvays as in Spanish,e.g. kuzir (sew, Spanishcoser), diugo (game, Spanish juego).

Verbs are conjugated with some modifications. The suffixes -i (rst person), -fes

(znd person singular), and -rei (znd person plural) are used in the preterit instead of-i, -ste irnd -els in Spanish, e.g. rtvli, uvlates, ovlatei (spoke, Spanish hnbli, hablnste,hablateis). The verb ser (to be) and some other verbs have a special conjugation(Koen-Sarano r99gc). fS tense system is less elaborated than Spanish and compoundverbs are tiequently tbrmed rvith the verb tener (have, own), rather than lnber(have), e.g. tengo lutvlsdo (l har.e been talking). The Spanish ustedes formal politeform is absent. Although nos (us) and ntrestro (our) are used in literary styles, thevernacular forms are rnos and tnuestro, respectively. JS diminutive is -iko/-ikn ratherthan Spanish -ito/-ita.

JS retained medieval Spanish vocabulary, e.g. agora (norv), ovagar (slowly), kczrrl(vilfage), merkar (buy), oganyo (this year), etc. A considerable amount of Hebrew-Aramaic was fused and integrated into the language, e.g. balabay/balabaya (good

housch

iha rd I 'H c'brcr'

l { c l r rc i '

_ \ \ I t l

Sp r . 1y11 . i 1

l r e g r I t . r :

l . r n g r r . rso t h c r l rt l i . r l r ' . t '

( - o 1 1 1 I

l r r r I r t l t . :

. I . i . l . :

. I . t . l i :

. \ t n . . i :

. ' F . . t . 1 . :

t t t t t i . : . L

I ' c l l r ' r i .

I h . ' t , '

' r ' L t t o l .

\ \ f a L . l . : r

' ' . l l l l r ' l ' i l t . :

r ' \ l ! . 1 ] . . . .

I i

J U D A E O - S P A N I S H S T U D I E S

hotrseholder m/f, Hebrew ba'al habbayitlba'alst habbayit); (gwevo) enxaminsdo(hard-boiled Iegg]; Hebrew hamin ((Sabbath) stew); dezmazalado (unluck1,';

Hebrew ntazal, 'star, fate'); aspan (insolent; Hebrew'nz paniml. etc. (Bunis 1993).Hebrew influence is revealed through svntactic structures as well.

As mentioned above, the Sephardic lews carried dialectal varieties of N{edievalSpanish to various locations in the Ottoman Empire and North Africa. In thebeginning they formed separate communities and continued their customs andlanguage as before. However, in time, because of the constant contacts betu,eenother |S-speakers, and because ofthe contact with various local languages, special JSdialects were formed in various places.

Communities are often classified among JS researchers as 'eastern' and 'western',

but referring to several different groupings, as follows:

. 'Eastern' is the expelled Jewish community; 'western' is the Corver-so commrrrritr'.

. 'Eastern' is the Ottoman Empire Sephardic community; 'western' is the NorthAfrican Sephardic community.

. 'Eastern' is the dialect in the Ottoman Empire that reflects features of east andmiddle Iberian Spanish; 'rvestern' is the dialect in the Ottoman Empire thatreflects west and north Iberian Spanish.

The Cttnverso Sephardic communities deserve special reference. As shown insections 3 and 4.2.r, they used Spanish conventions in their Ladino translations.As recalled, most of their rvritings were in Spanish and Portuguese, in Roman script,rather than in JS. Nevertheless, in the spoken vernacular they stil l retained a uniquelexical usage of a variety of JS at the beginning of the tnentieth century (Wagner

rqqo(II)[: ryz4l: +o-ss). They are considered as west dialects only with regard tcrLadino translations.

According to the second classification, eastern refers to Ottoman Empire JS,rvhereas western refers to Hnkititt. Hakitirt has been described by Benoliel (t9zz).' '

In addition to its general )S gramn,atical and lexical features, it is typified br,extensive borrowings from Arabic, and by dift'erent lexical choices. The speakersretained the pharyngeal lhl and l' l in words of Hebrew and Arabic origin. The oralliterary genres are slightly different from the eastern one, as can be seen b,v variousstudies of the ronnnsn-s and coplas (see 4.2.5.r above). Very little has been publishedin JS in North Africa. The book Kerem H emedby Abraham Ankarve ( Leghorn, r86q )follor,ved the tradition of the Valladolid Statutes from Spain. Another rabbinicalwork is Vnyomer Yizhsk (Leghorn, rS55) by Isaac ben Walid, and a few manuscriptswere retained.

The most comprehensive studies on the various JS Ottoman Empire eastern andwestern dialects were conducted at the beginnirT g of the twentieth century by Crews

' ' Onlv the most important ivorks bear ing on thc- var ious c l ia lects wi l l be ment ioned here. See Bunis( l98r: .+2-8 ) ior a more detai led bib l ioerarrhv.

592 O R A R , S C H W A R Z W A L D

( rg: t ) and Wagner ( r99o( l ) [ : rqr+] :7-ro9; rggo( l ) [ : rg jo] : lnr -23i , and more in

r99o). Several other articles describe briefly the uniqueness of certairr diaiects with

respect to specific phenomena like pronunciation, proverbs, loan-words, etc. (Bunis

r98r: 4z-8; 1988; Quintana ry92).Within the Ottoman Empire researchers distinguish between groups of dialects

reflecting source areas in the Iberian Peninsula-western versus eastern. Further

differences are due to local influences of the vernacular languages and to natural

language clevelopment. Sentence r belorv is taken from Marcus (r965: too). Sen-

tences z-3 demonstrate other varieties:

t. Il iju dil sinior vizinu anndu mus meldo luqui lis acunticio a lus d.iidios in

Ispania, todos mttsotrus yurinrus.fin qui mu si izieron lus ojus curilsdus (Monastir

inYu goslavia, Sarayevo )2.. El ijo del senior vizitto cuando mos meldo loque les ocontesio a los diidios en Espania,

todos rrtosotros 1'orimos lin que mos se izieron los ojos corolados (Turke1,)

3. El f i jo del serior vizitttt cuando rrros meldo loque les scontesio o los djidios en

Espnnia, todos mosotros )torimos Jut cyte mos se fizieron los ojos corolados (Salo-

n ika)

(Translntiott: When the son of the neighbour read to us what happened to the Jewsin Spain, we all cried unti l our eyes turned red.)

The linguistic differences betu'een the dialects are marked bv phonetic and lexiczrl

features. The examples above demonstrate some of the phonetic dift-erences: i and u

in r, e and o in z-3, respectively. Init ial / in 3 is absent in r-2. Lexical differences are

not demonstrated here but are l isted in the references mentioned above and others.

Dictiorraries do not always mark the dialectal differences, e.g. fnldukwera in Salo-

nika, aldikera or dgep (pocket) in Turkey; sedakero (philanthropist) in Salonika,(beggar) in Turkey and Israel. Because of the continual migration between the

various cornmunities, dialectal study is very diff icult, especially norv that l iving IScommunities hardly carry on the tradition.

6. IS L EARNING AND A CTIV IT IES T ODAY

Only a f-erv institutions offer formal academic instruction in the langr-rage. Trvo

universit ies in Isrirel have advanced programmes for the studyof JS and its l i tera-

ture: Bar-l lan University in Ramat Gan and the Hebrew University in Jerusaierr.Ben-Gurion Universitv in Beer Sheva and Tel Aviv Llniversitv have a f 'en, introdtrc-

tory course in JS. Several ]S academic progralrmes also exist in Paris, Hambtrrq.

Be r l i n , I L r l . :elsc'rr 'herr' rn

l 'hc t r r . r .l . r ' e d r i n l n :o l t h e n t r n l\ c l t r sh . r l . r i : : 'I I r ' r i t . r g r , . , , :

l i . l i r l ' l . r 1 1 r . ; '

. r l t h . ' L n . . . r' r r r r t l r , . . : . . . -

: . r q - ' . l l l : , r

. : . . ! , ' \ c : , :

. r . : . . : l - . r . '

' - 1 , ' , . '

' : ' : : : -

. . i I \ I c r t

I U D A E O - S P A N I S H S T U D I E S

I lerl in, Tiibingen, Madrid, and Barcelona. Sp-roradic university courses are gir, 'en

elservhere in the world, depending on the availabil ity of teachers (and students).

The first conference devoted to fudaeo-Spanish was init iated at the University of

Leeds in England inry79. So f-ar there have been trvelve academic conferences, most

trithem in London, covering various aspects of JS language and creativity. Misgav

\-erushalayim, the Institute for Research on the Sephardic and Oriental JewishHeritage, organizes an international conference every four years in rvhich many

papers regarding JS are presented. The Maurice Amado Chair in Sephardic Studies

.rt the University of California in Los Angeles organizes colloquia and conferences,

btrt the themes are historical, l i terary, and cultural rather than linguistic. Around

1992, the year that marked 5oo years from the expulsion fiom Spain and the

.l iscovery of the New World, there were several international academic conferences

.lcaling r,vith the l inguistic, historical, l i terary, philosophical, musical, and cultural

inrpact of the expulsion on the Sephardic diaspora (a short l ist of the proceedings of

5ome of them: Sti l lman and Stil lman 1999; Leorenzo Sanz 1993; Benbassa 1996;

.\bitbol et nl. ry97). JS is also discussed at length in some sections of congresses on

Iervish studies-the World Congress on Jewish Studies in Israel, the American

Iervish Association in the United States, and the Europearr Association for |ervishStudies in Europe. Some of the section entit led'Sephardic Studies'refer to Middle

Eastern and Mediterranean |ewry altogether, rather than fewry originating in Spain.

.\ considerable number of sections in the recent EAIS in the r998 congress in Toledo,

Spain, were devoted to ]S, organized by Romero and Hassan, the leading scholars in

the study of fS l iterature.

6.t IS Textbooks and Dictionaries-[he

growing interest in JS in recent years has led to the publication of r]unlerous

textbooks and dictionaries. The textbooks are prirnarily designated for universitv

students. Four of them were published in Israel: Koen-Sarano (ry99a, r999b) and

Shaul (1999) use JS Roman script, whereas Gattegno and Refhel (r995, 1998) and

Bunis ( r99ga) use Rashi scr ip t . Varol 's ( rgg8) textbook in France conta ins )Sconversations and short texts in Roman script as well.

Two different attitudes are revealed in these textbooks: f irst, that IS is a language

of culture, and therefore students must be exposed intensively to Rashi script in

order to acquire the language and be able to read its rich l iterature; second, that JS is

a language of communication and, as such, students should knorv its grarnmar and

cultural background through whatever orthogrrrphic means available. Gattegno and

Refael and Bunis base their books on the first attitude, therefore all fS examples,

vocabulary, and texts are given in Rashi script. The other books all cite every JS word

593

O R A R . S C H W A R Z W A L D

in Roman script. Explanations of grammatical phenomena and instructions in the

exercises are given either in Hebrerv in the Israeli books, or in French in Varol's.

Varol's is the only book whose course is accompanied by a CD-ROM with recorded

JS conversations and songs. AII the books enable students to carry on a conversation

in JS and to understand oral texts. Only Bunis's book, and to a lesser degree

Gattegno and Refael's, enable students to read and understand real authentic ]Stexts from various genres.

Most of the dictionaries have been compiled and published outside the academic

sphere. The compilers wrote down the JS vocabulary used by themselves and their

ancestors in their particular dialects. The lirst and only JS dictionary written in

Hebrerv script was Cherezli (r8ss). It did not include any Hebrew words, assuming

unjustifiably that any Hebrew reader would understand the lS meaning, even when

it was remote from Hebrew, e.g. haver (partner, rather than friend), henozo (gentle,

from Hebrew fterr), etc.

All of the dictionaries published towards the end of the twentieth century are in

Roman script. Nehama's (1977) is the most detailed JS-French dictionary, recording

the Salonika tradition. Pascual Recuero (ryn) is a small fS-Spanish dictionary with

Spanish equivalents to JS words, especially those that are different from Modern

Spanish. Words of Hebrew origin are either unlisted or incorrectly explained.

Romano's (rSsl [rs::] ) dictionary, based on his dissertation, is a multi l ingual

dictionary reflecting the Bosnian tradition. Bendayan de Bendelac (1995) reflects

rhe Hakitia vocabulary and is more thorough than the l ist in Benoliel Aszz).Perahya and Perahya's (rgq8) dictionary is French-oriented, and can serve as a

complement to Nehama's as it gives the JS equivalents to French words. The recent

dictionaries by Perahya et al. (ry97), Passy (1999), Benchimol and Ko6n-Sarano(rggg), Bunis (r999a: +61-sst), and Kohen and Kohen-Gordon (zooo) are all bil in-

gual dictionaries, where the languages of explanations vary: Turkish, English, and

Hebrerv.le

Lazar's (rygg) Ladino Reader can supplement the above text books and diction-

aries. This reader includes representative texts from the various genres from all the

language periods, most of them in Roman-script transliteration in order to facil i tate

the availabil ity of the texts to anyone interested in the wide range of JS literature.

6.2 Special Current Enterprises

Several important enterprises deserve special mention. The Institttto de EstudiosSefardies (formerly Instituto Arias Montano) of the Consejo Superior de Investiga-ciones Cientificas (CSIS) in Madrid, Spain, aims to collect, preserve, and study ISlanguage and literature. In addition to the huge collection of Ramon Menendez

' ' Other d ict ionar ies are st i l l in NIS form. Mttchon Maale Adunt in has them in i ts records.

Pidal 's ( rq: f

newspaper\.

Iogued irnciand by thei r

Moshe L. itexts is carcenterpnse nwhich har c L

At t r t r t t t t 5 tdechai Arbclorganiz i r t ion

executive br.r

Jerusalem, firmanuscnpt \ .

gathered thcrPhonotecq ttlora l JS poet lco l lected orerInst i tu te has 1inc luding a p ltranscribecl .rrrvith translitcr

Antutat SclAuthoritv l irrorganized sr s t ,done in co-op(

The Ntrrriorr,,the presen'at io

a native spe.rkinspi rat ion. Inmentioned abtnatir. 'e speaker,olcl. Researchcrproject headedlisted systentati

IS newspaper cprepared befiirclnd init iates clcclnferences, Lrotso on. And th is

Isaac Jerushalnat i , Ohio, has c

iiE

t*

} U D A E O - S P A N I S H S T U D I E S

Pidal's (r928) transcripts and catalogues, thousands of manuscripts, printed texts,ne\rrspapers, IV{ichael Molho's librar,v, and other material are collected there, cata-logued and analysed by the Institute's chairman Iacob Hassin, by Elena Romero,.rnd by their students.

l\Ioshe Lazar edits the SepharLlic Clnssical Library. This collection of JS classicaltr'rts is carefullr- edited and transcribed or copied in Roman characters. Thisenterprise makes rare books available to the JS researcher, copies of some ofrlhich have until now existed onl1. in particular libraries around the world.

Atnutnt Scfarad (the Sepharad Association) in Israel, headed currently by Mor-.lechai Arbel and Moshe Shaul (of Aki Yeruslnlayin), is a non-profit-making')rqanization whose aim is the preservation of JS and its culture. Its most importalrtcrecutive branch is N{achoil lt4asle Adtunim (the Nfaale Adumim Institute) next toIcrusalem, founded in ry94 and directed by Avner Perez. A considerable number ofrnanuscripts, rare books, and other texts related to )S and its culture is beingsathered there. With the help of Shaul's radio programme in IS and the IsraeliPltonotecs at the Hebrew University, they have collected about z,8oo recordings oitrral |S poetry and computerized them for scholarly use. In addition, they havecollected over 6,000 proverbs, about r,ooo of then r'vith authentic recordings. Thelnstitute has published modern JS texts, and several books are about to come out,incltrding a play from Bulgaria fronr 1899, Lo Vinyn de Nayot (Naboth's Vineyard),transcribed and translated into Hebrew, and the original Meam Loez f-o Genesis,rvith transliteration.

Amutat Sefarad and Nfachon Maale Adumim, with the help of the National.\uthority for Ladino ar-rd its Culture, are con,piiing a comprehensive dictionary,organized systematically and based on linguistic criteria. Some of these projects aretione in co-operation with the Instituto de Estudios Sef'ardies.

The National Authority for Laclino and its Culture, established in ry97, also aims atthe preservation of JS and its culture. Yitshak Navon, the fifth president of Israel anda native speaker of JS, is the head of the authority and one of its sources ofinspiration. In addition to sLrpporting many of the enterprises related to JS in Israelmentioned above, the Authority gives financial support for the oral recording o1'native speakers and the salvation of books and manuscripts written in JS, new andold. Researchers of fS are gir.en grants. It has also initiated a )S bibliographicalproject headed by Dov HaCohen, in which all JS books and manuscripts in Israel arelisted systenratically. With the help of the Authority, microlilm copies of the largestIS newspaper collection in the world, in the Ben Zvi Institute in Israel, are beingprepared before the papers are spoiled. The Authority supports creative JS writing,and initiates domestic and international activities, for example study weekends,conferences, books exhibition, special courses for training JS teachers, concerts, andso on. And this is just a partial list of its activities.

Isaac Jerushahni (Yerushalni) edits Ladino Book-s. Rabbi Jerushalmi, of Cincin-nati, Ohio, has collected Sephardic texts from Turkey, edited them, and transcribed

596 O R A R . S C H W A R Z W A L D

and translated them into English, e.g. Yerushalmi (i98g), Ierusalmi (1993), andothers.

Researchers are working along these lines in other places. For lack ofspace theywill not be mentioned here. All of these efforts are important for the protection andredemption of the JS tradition befbre it is gone forever.

71 PnnspECTrvES FoR FuRTHER REsEARcH

rhe'rost imperative'ecessi*, today is," ...::;,;. ; ;;;;;. 'r;.";.rr ;,;;.use of the various l iterary genres and transcribe their language.20 This basic data canlirter serve as corplls for any study of l i terary, l inguistic, and textual analysis. It is areally urgent need, because the number of natite speakers is graduall,v decreasing.

The second important task is to gather all existing fS documents, handwrittenand pr i r - r ted. In spi te of the deta i led cata logues of JS creat i r , i ty (Refael1999), a greatdeal of manuscript material has not yet been collected in the above-mentionedinstitutes. Also, mucl-r of the printed rnaterial is not in l ibraries, and therefore hasnot yet been catalogued. These vah.rable documents exist either in private collec-tions or as the personal belorrgings of people who do not always appreciate theirvalue. Sometimes they are lost for various reasons. It is important to catalogue thernand to produce monograph series on the variety of dc'rcuments. The analysis of thesedata can be used for the studv of vocabulary, grammatical structures, dialects, andother l inguistic features. Although phonology and the lexicon have been studiedquite intensively in the past, morphology, syntax, and ser.nantics all need furtherinvestigation.

Time plal 's an importarnt role in the redemption of whatever has rernained of thisbeautifr-rl language and rich l inguistic heritage. As things now stand, it seems thatortlv the activity of academic research rvil l snrvive, long after the last fS natiyespeaker has passed away.

SuccEs rEo RnaDrNG

Bunis's research bibliography is updated unti l r98o (Bunis r98r). Studenrund-Halevr":bibliographies are important, too (Studemund 7975, 1gg4a, r994b). A general overview o1

ro Mat i lda Koen-Sar i rno, besides teaching lS, could be considered a one-rvoman enterpr ise. Shcrecords JS fo lk- ta les ancl songs and publ ishes them in Ronran scr ipt rv i th their Hebreu, t ransl i r t ion i ;ser ies of popular books.

t*l!

the Sepharctbeen r,vritterselected copthe referentdevelopnrcn

BreLro (

A n r r e o l , , \ 1 .

r49 : . JerurA r r x a x o e H .

Cottyerso tt. -and \ \ ' r

Tel Ar.iv.- a n d B r :

H ispan ic l ) r- Be x . . rn r

r.vards a 'fr

pI l vn l : / . r r i :

A r r x e x o E n _ ISheva.

A R M I S T E A T ) , 5 .Abruhat r t \ , ,

- = - 1 9 N l

drp(l tort. \ I .Ar r las , t r1 . r . )hBarn , F . r9 - i6 . rU a n e u i x L o p r

r/e/ -sig/o .\.\BExu, {ssa , F . . , ,t J Excur , r ro r , \ I

Ebrco-I).1tt t l i ,L: l Exrcuor., l ) . r .

/ ,ad 6: -16--6.B r.xo.,rr.rx rrr i :

Mlrrtrccos. (, ,[ ]ex r t r r r l , J . r9 -I . l o n x s r . e r x - \ l . r

the Ba lkanr , r -[ ] l : x rs , D . l , l . r , r :=- r98rJ. ' - f

ht, iL ingu is t i c . {n . r

- -- r99:.. 'Thc I

The Stplnrdr I- t99-1 . A 1 t ' . i i

I U D A E O - S P A N I S H S T U D I E S

the Sephardim and their language and literature can be found in Diaz-Mas (1992). A lot hasbeen rvritten since, e.g. rabbinical and other texts related to circumcision (Ronrero r998),selected coplas (Romero r988), selected ronuu$os from lr,{orocco (\\ 'eich-Shahak 1997, andthe references therein). Wexler (1996) expresses a very controversial view regarding thedc'r'elopment of lS, not accepted by most IS researchers.

Brs r rocRAPHY

. \ ortsor, N{., Hasax-Rottr, t , G., and Assrs, Y. eds. 1997. Hispano-Jev' ish Civi l iztt i tur Afte r

l .1g-2. Jerusalem.lrr.xaxorn, T. 1986.

'The Character of Rabbi Isaac Lr.rr ia in the Judeo-Spanish Story 7' lrc

Corrverso ntd t lrc Slrcwbread.' IHebrerv.] Pdanti t tr 26:87-107.-and Wercs-SuaHar, S. 1994. En este t ientpo: Drann rnusical para Purinr en Salonikn.

lbl Aviv.-and Bexrolr la, Y. zoor. " 'Give a Ierv a f inger"- lntertextual Relat ions Betu,een

Hispanic Proverbs and Hakit ic Proverbs. ' IHebrew.] Ladirnr z:37-58.- - f i ' 651ss l i , I . , Gr r - l rax , Y . , ScHu 'anzwalo , O. R. , and WrrcH-Ssauax, S . 199.4 . 'To-

rvards a Typologv of the Judeo-Spanish Folksong: Gerineldo and the Romance N'lociel. ' ln

\itval: lewish Ornl Traditiorts: Art Irterdisciplitnrl, Approach 6: 68-163.

.\r-rxasoen-FnrzER, T. zooo. Tlrc Belovetl Friertd-and-a-f iai f lHebreiv]. ]erusalem and Beer

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