IN SEARCH OF A KENYAN THEATRE:

THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF EDUCATIONAL DRAMA

AND ITS POTENTIAL FOR KENYA

A Thesis Submitted to theUniversity of Manchester

for the Degree ofDoctor of PhilosophyIn The Faculty of Arts

by

OPIYO JOHN MUMMA

Drama DepartmentFaculty of Arts

University of Manchester

May 1994

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BEST COpy

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CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

DECLARATION

DEDICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

PREFACE

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

SECTION ONE1.0 CHAPTER ONE:

LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1 Literature Review: Educational Drama

1.2 Theorists in the Field of CriticalPedagogy

1.3 Theoretical Influences on DIE/TIE

critical Methodology from Africa1.4

1.5 Concluding Remarks

2.0 CHAPTER TWO:CULTURE & EDUCATION IN GENERAL & INKENYA IN PARTICULAR

2.1 Background and Historical Overview

2.2 Culture

2.3 Christianity

2.4 Socialisation As Education

2.5 Other forms of Cultural Expression

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7

8

9

10

13

14

15

40

40

40

55

66

76

88

92

92

98

99

104

108

2.6 Formal Education Before Independence 110

2.7 Education in Kenya From 1963 toThe Present 112

2.8 A Major Shift 119

2.9 Concluding Remarks 124

3.0 CHAPTER THREE;AN HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TOCONTEMPORARY KENYAN THEATRE

126

3.1 An Historical Starting Point 126

3.2 The Kenya National Theatre - 1950-1968 129

3.3 The Role of The KNT in thePost-Independent Era 135

3.4 Aspects of Policy and Funding for KNT 143

3.5 The Theatre School 144

3.6 Emerging Theatre Forms in the 1970'sand 1980's 149

3.7 The Development of Political andCommunity Theatre Forms 153

3.8 Concluding Remarks 176

4.0 CHAPTER FOUR;EDUCATIONAL DRAMA PRACTISESIN KENYA

180

4.1 The Influence of Shakespeare 181

4.2 The Teaching of Oral Literature 188

4.3 Drama in Schools 193

4.4 The Primary schools Enquiry 193

4.5 Drama and Theatre Activities InSecondary Schools 199

4.6 Theatre and Drama in colleges 202

4.7 Theatre and Drama in the Universities 203

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4.84.9

4.104.114.124.13

4.144.154.16

4.174.184.194.20

5.0

5.15.25.35.45.5

5.65.75.85.9

The Performing and Creative Arts Centre 205other Training Facilities for Drama andTheatre 206The Nairobi Theatre Academy 207Bomas of Kenya 208The Drama Festival 210The Drama Festival In The PostIndependent Period 213Glimpses of Change 215The 1975-1982 Phase 219Interfaces with Other CulturalActivities 222The 1982-1993 Period 226Item Categorization In The Festival 229Spill-over Effects of The Drama Festival 240Concluding Remarks 242

CHAPTER FIVE; 244A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF THENATURE AND FUNCTION OF THEATREIN EPUCATION IN BRITAINThe Origins of TIE 245Nature and Aims of TIE 248Devising A TIE Programme 251The Belgrade TIE: 1965-1970 262New Directions For The Belgrade TIEand the TIE Movement: The Early 1970's 267Through Growth and Change 1975-1985 269Examples of Practice in the 1990's 275Blood and Honey: A Case Study 276Concluding Remarks 288

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6.0 CHAPTER SIX: 289FURTHER INSIGHTS INTO TIEPRACTICE

6.1 Lancaster TIE: Indigo 2936.2 pit Prop TIE: Angel 3036.3 The Relevance of TIE to Kenya 3156.4 Concluding Remarks 319

SECTIOM TWO 3217.0 CHAPTER SEVEN:

DRAMA AND THEATRE AS MODES OFCREATIVE LEARNING

321

7.1 Learning and Change 3227.2 Popular and Participatory Education 3287.3 ~nata: A Case Study of A Play

In The Quest for Change 3337.4 The Environmental Education Project:

The Use of Drama Methods to Raise SocialAwareness 341

7.5 Lie Of The Land: An example of aTIE programme devised to teach languageskills 347

7.6 Concluding Remarks 375

8.0 CllAPI'EREIGHT: 377THE CUTTING EDGE OF KENYANTHEATRE

8.1 Gathering the Material 378Methodological Implications 3828.2

8.3 Texture of The Drama Festival Performance3848.4 Creative Dances 3868.5 The Drama Festival Play 389

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8.6 Festival Themes 3948.7 Interfaces with Other Experiences 3978.8 Lessons from Case Studies 3998.9 Is There an Authentic Kenyan Theatre

Tradition? 4068.10 Defining A Theatrical Educational Model 4118.11 Concluding Remarks 428

CONCLUSION 429BIBLIOGRAPHY 436

APPEHQICESAPPENDIX ONE: QUESTIONNAIRES TO 452

THEORISTS, PRACTITIONERS,INSTITUTIONAL DRAMA THEATREGROUPS AND AUDIENCES.

APPENDIX TWO: THE DRAMA FESTIVAL GUIDELINES 480APPENDIX THREE: A DRAFT NATIONAL CULTURAL 491

POLICY FOR KENYA.APPENDIX FOUR: A STORY FOR OUR TIME. 515

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ABSTRACT

This thesis is concerned with educational drama practicesand the British form of Theatre in Education (TIE). Theresearch has been undertaken with special regard to thepotential of educational drama for Kenya and how theparticipatory nature of those practices offers new paradigmsin education. Educational drama practices include formssuch as dance, music, instrumentation, mime and storytelling. The participatory research approach providedopportunities for these art forms into a public expressionthrough the process of their performances.Section One is concerned with current theory and differentpractices in educational drama. It begins by tracing thewider theoretical issues and puts in perspective terms usedin drama and theatre work within the educational spectrum.The areas of culture, education and contemporary theatrepractices in Kenya are surveyed and the basis for theirexistence is established. within the main chronologicalthrust the study develops along generic lines: the state ofeducational drama in Kenya is explored; Oral Literature as amajor intervention in performance forms is discussed and theDrama Festival as a major cultural and educational occuranceover the past forty years is given as a prime example.TIE theory and practice has had a seminal influence ontheatre writing and performances in Kenya. This part of thethesis evaluates the nature and function of TIE and providescase studies of TIE programmes that examine concepts,techniques, and TIE critical methodology. It is suggestedthat TIE strategies and dramatic devices have parallels withthe story telling tradition which is viewed as aparticipatory and performance mode. At the end of thissection it is pointed out that the relevance of thesedramatic devices are manifested as elements of educationaldrama.section Two focuses on performances observed whichillustrate how Drama functions as a mode of Creativelearning and as an instrument for social change. Casestudies of programmes devised to develop language skills,create social awareness, and change attitudes are provided.They point to the need for a more creative approach toeducation and make apparent in the programmes the impact ofa synthesis of education and the creative arts. The DramaFestival Performances are illustrations of emerging forms ofwriting, performance techniques, audience developments and acul,tural intervention within the educational establishmentthat locates the cutting edge for the future prospect ofKenyan Theatre.

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DECLARATION

1) No portion of the work referred to in this thesishas been submitted in support of an applicationfor another degree or qualification of this or anyother university or other institute of learning.

2) I further declare that this thesis which is beingsubmitted in fulfilment for the Degree of Doctorof Philosophy in Drama is the result of myindependent research. The extent of myindebtedness to other sources is fully indicatedin the text, footnotes, and bibliography.

SIGNED:

Mumma(Nairobi), M.A. (Wales)

DATE:

SUPERVISOR:

Antony R Jackson

8

FOR

Anyango, AwUor, Ogano,

A~ieno, Ja-Oko and Achieng.

9

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am most grateful to Rank Xerox International and TheBritish Council for the Scholarship Award which enabled meto embark on this study.I am greatly indebted to Tony Jackson for his patience andskillful supervision of this work, his keen interest andobservations of educational drama practices was a greateye-opener for me. His assistance in the most trying timecame in useful and I must thank him for his time andsincere friendship. Asante.

I also want to sincerely thank Professor David Mayer andProfessor Kenneth Richards for their support in theDepartment and I thank Mrs Claudeth Williams for herassistance and good will. The words of encouragementalong the corridors from viv Gardner, Paul Heritage and DrGeorge Taylor helped me along the stairs of the research.I would like to acknowledge the solidarity and comradeshipthat was accorded to me by past and present students ofthe Department of Drama; my thanks go to Jane Plastow,Shashi, Rani, Anna Seymour, Adrian Kear, Ursama Darwish,Saleh, Kim Henry and Tulin. The people who toured Lie ofThe Land to Finland: Teresa, John, Taru, Aine, Kevin,Mark, Adrian, Jenny and Tony provided a great experiencein sharing in all ambivalent terrains of language andiaperialis.: many thanks.Special thanks to several TIE teams I closely worked withparticularly Lancaster TIE, Pit Prop TIE, The BelgradeTIE, Big Brum TIE, Leeds TIE, Theatre Powys, Bla Bla BlaTIE, all who were most helpful. Many thanks toindividuals and teams I was able to interview informallyand who allowed me to witness their work in severalvenues.I would also like to thank TIE actor/teachers particularlyChris Cooper, Brian Bishop, Ian Yeoman, Dave, Miranda,Ballin and Bobby Coril; and to sincerely thank TagMacEntergart, Tony Grady, Dave Davis, Gillian Adamson,Theo Bayer, Ochieng Gori, George Raburu, Jaya G and GeoffGilham.I am grateful to SCYPT, NO and NATO Conference Committeefor allowing me to participate fully in their conferences,the debates and practical creative work clarified theworkings of DIE/TIE; all I can say is we have a lot incommon in terms of political affiliation and thephilosophical grounding of our work.

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Bernarr and Lynn Atherton were great friends and I cannever thank you enough for the warmth and real support yougave to me in times of great difficulties. I will alwayscherish the friendship of Mary and Mike Monaghan, Brendaand Keith Mottershead, Barbara, Meagan, Beng, Ernesto,Miriam, Theresa, Spa, Lesli and Onyach. You are all greatfriends, thanks all very much.Michael and Priscilla Quinn have been an inspiration andhave kept nudging me to keep going and in times of despairthey provided that necessary kick. My appreciation toMick for taking time to read the work and the invaluablesuggestions that he made. Many thanks for the intensedebates in your homes, this was the impetus that Iconstantly needed to forge on.In Kenya my thanks go to all the theatre groups, the dramateachers and theatre practitioners that let me be part oftheir work. All of you have been great friends since wetook that initial step a decade ago and continue toprovide that creative tenacity of purpose. Special thanksgo to Waa, Kenya High, Mukumu, Maseno, Kericho, Kaaga,Kapenguria Schools.I would like to thank all past FTT members 'the brethrenin 116', TWP, Chelepe Arts and Friends Theatre. My thanksgo to Oby Obyerodhyambo, Masingila Masheti, Odera outa,Mueni Lundi and Gacugu Makini, Rufus Esuchi, Okanga, Wendo

S, Gogo, Odhiambo, Aghan Odero, Joshua Teyie, GichoraMwangi and Rapasi P.The debates in the corridors of 116 came to mean a lot inthe quiet of this place.My sincere gratitude to Professor H Indagasi, ProfessorCiarunji Chesaina, Professor Oluoch Obura, Dr Peter Amuka,Professor Kibutha Kibwana, Dr Osunga Buyu, ProfessorFrancis Imbuga and Professor Chacha N Chacha and ArthurLuvai, Kavetsa Adagala, Waigwa Wachira and Bob Nyanja.While here in the UK, I received vital material for thestudy and my utmost gratitude to Ndiga, Michael Maina,Sally Mwangola, Babu Ayindo, Bantu Mwaura, Omondi Oyaya,Ochieng Anyona, Omondi Ogira and Nderito Joni. Asantenisana.

My thanks also go to Maria Van Bakelen, Stig Erikson, KateDonelan and Christine Hoeper and Professor John O'Toolewho provided most stimulation session during IDEAconferences. Kari Heggita, Kerstin Wendt Larson, Tintti,Wilbert and Aud Sebo provided another slant to the debateon educational drama. My gratitude for all the creativeinputs.

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To all those great people and friends who departed and Ihad to mourn from this distance: the late Henry OwuorAnyumba, the late Mika Ongoro, the Late Otewa Ogola andthe late Nyabola Opiyo and to my true and great coaradeAguk Jonnie small Jonyo, you were all great friends and Ibelieve you have only gone for a brief visit to theancestors. Were Kende!

My sincere gratitude to my parents Emmarensia andAugustine, you have supported and encouraged me all along;this has given me purpose and motivation, my appreciationand thanks. My sisters Adhiambo, Anyango, Atieno, Nancyand Anna and my brothers Oduor, Akumu, Odongo and Mboya:your constant contacts and affection and whole-heartedsupport made me go that extra mile. Bro uru kaaano ahinya!

My patriotic children, Anyango, Awuor, Ogano, Atieno, Ja-Oko:- you the people have been most inspiring with yourfrequent tu-letters; these kept me warm in the chill here.As I have watched you play, you provided an extended needas to why I have to engage with this area of work; you areintegral to the continued story. Sawa Sawa

Ja-Oko who was blessed to touch the sun while I wasthousands of miles away, and provided that generic linkand a firm reminder by his birth that there is definitelylife - life after this study.My wife Achieng has provided unparalleled support allthrough this time I have been journeying; the incredibleatmosphere of love that our children and whole familyenjoyed is due to her. Her patience and completeunderstanding of the nature of our whole experiencedeserves utmost gratitude and Achieng has been atremendous blessing to me - and the laughter rings nearer!My appreciation and thanks.The work with students in Kempen, Arnheim, Eindhoven,Amsterdam, Leeuwarden Drama and Theatre Schools in Hollandand with teachers and students in Australia, Denmark,Norway, Finland, Sweden influenced my own functioning as ateacher and through the workshops and seminars differentbut very innovative methods and a fresh insight intoeducational drama. Thanks to you all.Last but not least, I would like to express my sincereappreciation and thanks to Marilyn Nicholson who has beenvery helpful with the typing of this thesis.

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PREFACE

The author received the degree of Bachelor of Education(Hons) from the University of Nairobi in December, 1980.His research interest was on Con~emporary Dra.a~ic Formsin Kenyan Theatre, after which he taught literature andDrama in high schools for six years. The author completeda Master of Arts degree in Theatre Studies at theUniversity of Wales, Cardiff in December, 1987 and hisM.A. thesis was An EXlUlina~ion of The nritii.st:Hodel ofThea~re in Educa~ion and A Proposed Hodel For Kenya.

From 1988, he has been a lecturer in Drama, Theatre Artsand Educational Drama at the University of Nairobi and wasthe Director of The Free Travelling Theatre (FTT) until1990. FTT an interdisciplinary, research, touring andperforming troupe has had a vision for a truly Kenyantheatre since its establishment in 1974, and the basis forthis research arose from some of the performances it hashad in the people's spaces and the dialogue that wasestablished due to the participatory nature of the events.The Author is an executive committee member of theInternational Drama/Theatre and Education Association(IDEA), and has been a Guest Teacher of Drama andfacilitated workshops in the U.K., The Netherlands,Australia, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Denmark. He is theauthor of plays, several research papers and articles forjournals on Popular Education, Participatory Drama andCulture.since November, 1990, the author has been engaged inresearch in the Drama Department of The University ofManchester and over a period of time in Kenya, under thesupervision of Antony R Jackson.

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

1) ACGB2) DIE3) FTT4) KCC5) KCECC

6) KNT7) NATD

8) ND9) NTA10) PCAC

11) SCYPT

12) TFD13) TIE14) TWP15) YPT

Arts Council of Great BritainDrama In EducationThe Free Travelling TheatreThe Kenya Cultural CentreKamiriithu Community EducationalCultural CentreThe Kenya National TheatreNational Association for theTeaching of DramaNational DramaNairobi Theatre AcademyThe Performing and CreativeArts CentreThe standing Conference of YoungPeople's TheatreTheatre for DevelopmentTheatre In EducationTheatre Workshop ProductionsYoung Peoples Theatre

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION

This investigation of educational drama and its potentialin Kenya is about the ways in which in a particularhistorical period, through the medium of drama andtheatre, practitioners have tried to bring about change ofperformance modes in educational institutions. Theinvestigation raises fundamental questions about thesocial and educational purpose of process in teaching ofdrama and devising for a production. It also touches onthe nature and meaning of performance as expressed in theaesthetics of its styles of production especially inrelation to educational, Young People's and Communitytheatres in Kenya. There follows an analysis of theprocess and product of key practitioners in educationallyengaged drama and theatre over the last four decades. Itsets each decade in the context of social, political andeducational history focusing on how drama teachers andtheatre practitioners realise this potential.

This research has been conducted in both Kenya and the UKand it explores certain educational drama practices inboth countries. It is not intended to be a comparativestudy. Due to the historical circumstances and theeducational implications of the relationship between the

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two countries, theoretical and practical influences haveoccurred which necessitate this investigation.

A brief explicit statement about my position serves as apointer to clarify the very approach I take in thisresearch.

My interest in drama, theatre and education is rooted inthe fact that I have been an educationalist and a theatrepractitioner over the last sixteen years. This haslargely been determined by my initial training as ateacher and a theatre worker. This was furtherstrengthened by teaching drama and literature to youngadults and subsequent drama and theatre work with childrenand young people in educational institutions in Kenya.This has, over the years, enhanced my interest in thecombination of education and drama. As a teacher atvarious levels of the educational system and an activisttheatre worker with different artists, I deem it as aresponsibility to use these talents in contributingtowards the kind of drama, theatre and education which caninfluence the Kenyan individual and society towards all-rounded and wholesome development. Large parts of thisstudy arise from my own workshop and classroom practiceand crucially examines my own functioning as a teacher ofdrama and a theatre worker within the educational andtheatre establishments.

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This study aimed to test the following positions:

i) That the presentation of artistic and educationalvision inevitably involves the rise of art forms thatquestion the realities of that society.

ii) That the progressive tendencies employed by educationaldrama practices, at the level of both form and contentare part and parcel of the process of education and theemancipation of the young which every committed teacherand artist should engage with. In this respecteducational drama is treated as a liberating form.

iii)That the concept of participatory education aspresented in the Drama Festival movement in Kenya isessentially at opposites with the dictates ofrestrictive social and educational institutions. Thesedemand a re-examination of education and culture asartistically presented through play, dance and poetry.

These shaped the aims and objectives of this study, whichare:

i) To determine how educational drama as an art form maybe an agent of change, and what groups of people arelikely to benefit from it in learning and developmentalsituations in the long term in Kenya.

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ii) In the light of the current TIE practice to suggest thetechniques and strategies that could inform the theoryand practices of those involved in educational theatrein Kenya.

iii)To throw light on the principles and methods ofteaching drama as a discipline, the generic nature ofthe Drama Festival and how teachers of drama couldengage with what is best in these practices.

iv) To investigate the reason for various attitudes towardsdrama and theatre as a method, a subject, a learning

medium and as entertainment. This is with the view toincluding drama as a subject in its own right in thecurriculum and a discipline that would play a centralrole in the educational and cultural life of theKenyans.

The overall aim of the research is therefore to expose thepotential of drama as a learning medium, a working method

and a subject. This will inform the professionalattitudes of educationalists, drama teachers and theatreworkers. The central question the research attempts toanswer is, what is the educational role of drama andtheatre, in the process of social change, and how it canbe used in learning situations.

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The justification of this research is that very fewstudies have been undertaken on educational drama inKenya. Little extensive work has been published in thisarea except for literary analyses of published plays.Literary based scholars such as Ngugi wa Thiongo, FrancisImbuga, David Mulwa, John Ruganda, Wasambo Were, CiarunjiChesaina some of whom the study discusses have researchedon published texts, this they have done from a literaryviewpoint, rather than with regard to performanceconsideration. Published drama is only a fraction of thetheatre work currently taking place, the larger portion isnot scripted nor documented. A number of Drama Scholarshave made several attempts at classifying Kenyan dramaticliterature. Some can be simply described as an extensionof the Greco-Roman parlence: Francis Imbuga's work fallsinto this category. A good example is The Successor(1979) . Some are basically a revisiting into Africanreligious metaphysical past of which Asenath Odaga hasbecome renowned with Nyamgodho (1981) being a primeexample. Yet others are based on ideological and thematicpolemics; this encompasses Ngugi wa Thiongo's practice andtheory as in The Trial of Deda" Ki.athi (1976). Thisstudy goes further to put forth another classificationbased on our premise that: drama must as a primaryresponsibility combine a people-oriented the.atic focus

with efforts at reaching a true people's or popularaudience. So, in part, this study complements the debateon drama, but, more importantly, to input the research for

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a viable Kenyan Theatre through educational drama.

In Kenya, there is a recognition from educationalists andtheatre practitioners that drama is a useful instru.ent of

learning, but very little has been done by all concernedto utilise the methods and possibilities in various areas.Although there are drama teachers and theatrepractitioners actively engaged in using drama and theatre,there is no clear framework within which they may developwhat is best in their practice. Because there are noclearly defined objectives in many classrooms or in thetheatre as to why a piece of drama is produced or who itis targeted towards, there is no proper assessment forfollow-up work. At the moment it is not easy todistinguish between theatre forms in their diversity.This study explores these different forms which should bedesigned for different audiences and necessarily usedifferent techniques of process, production andperformances. This study identifies these diversities inTheatre-for-Development (TFD), Popular Theatre,Theatre-In-Education (TIE), Drama In Education (DIE),street Theatre and Professional Theatre, Community basedtheatre, theatre for and by children.

In this research I studied educational drama: as a social

institution: as an independent system with its own rulesand conventions and recognised by a large percentage ofthe educational population in the Kenyan society: as an

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artistic process, an event of which both the results andthe process are received as artistically valid; and asperformance, where a collective action of people is inprocess at the same time as it is perceived. Theseinclude the teaching of drama and the performance oftheatre productions in these institutions. In this studyfor. will be understood to mean the qualities of thefinished performance which can be measured in theinteraction with an audience. Experience to mean theperception and interpretation of an immediate emotionalexperience which the said work of art may cause. Thechange in opinions and attitudes which may result fromthis new experience may also constitute effect.

As a teacher of drama, I researched into how dramafunctions in a classroom: as a theatre worker how learningtakes place between the performer and the audience: and asa researcher, an investigation into how learning elementsin the classroom and theatre realise change in theparticipants involved in the theatrical/educational event.In a nutshell, this research methodology strove toinitiate the process through which people in learningsituations e.power themselves with the choices they maketo solve their own problems using their own organisationand resources as far as possible.

In this study no distinction is made between dra.a andtheatre, the terms are used interchangably, educational

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drama will be seen to embrace the study of literary text,the teaching of drama and theatre skills in the classroomand the performance of dance drama; the creative dance anddra.atised poetry. Educational drama incorporates oracy(the spoken word and performance), theatre for and by

children, community participation, and communicationpatterns in the creative arts. The linking factors arethe learning elements inherent in the dramas. It is therelationships and meanings that are established inparticipation and performance situations that form thebasis of these categories.

Particular note is taken of the aesthetic and educationalelements which determine the production of meaning duringthe devising and performances. Therefore, the units ofobservation are educational, institutional and communityforums where teachers of drama and facilitators or theatrepractitioners work in drama with those who are taught. Inthis way, the words dra.a, theatre and education areallowed a wider interpretation and perception withpriorities according to the skills and inclinations ofteachers and practitioners in the field.

One of the major questions in educational studies todayconcerns how learning strategies can be designed so as toincrease participation, achieve self-reliance, promoteequality and communication. There is a growing feelingamongst educationalists in Kenya that the existing 8-4-4

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educational system has failed to serve the needs of thedevelopment of the individual and enhancement of learning.The failure is due mostly to political interference ineducation and the obstinate implementation of a flawedcurriculum over a period of ten years; details of whichwill be given in chapter Two. There is need todemocratise the structures of communication systems,because in their current authoritarian form they are non-conducive to and dysfunctional for education. The current8-4-4 education policies need to be decentralised andlocated amongst the teachers who are competent to givefocus and to be of benefit to the learner.

Another concern in participatory education is the failureof the current curriculum, particularly the diffusion ofknowledge to effect learning. Our discussion in ChapterTwo focuses on its (curriculum) failure to take intoaccount the structured amenities available, and how thisrestricts the teacher to processing the learner into aproduct. As an attempt to remedy this, the searchexplores new paradigms in the 8-4-4 educational system.Research conducted on educational drama identifies it asone medium which has the potential for being a democraticmedium in which the taught/learner may play an active rolein the learning programme.

In its production and distribution of messages,educational drama is capable of integrating indigenous and

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popular systems of communication that already exist in andout of the school unit. Although appropriate technology,self-reliance and all-round development underpin the aimsof objectives of the 8-4-4 educational system, it stillinsists on drama being classified amongst "the non-formallearning activities" which are defined as "activities notcarried out in a regular class setting, but are anintegral part of the school's efforts in the developmentof pupils". (Government Printers 1984:67)

This research attempts to show that educational drama hasbeen part and parcel of the national curriculum that ithas been carried out on the timetable, and in classroom asa non-formal activity. It will be illustrated howeffective it is in the interdisciplinary sense by usinginterpersonal channels that have been found to have animpact on other subjects in the school and other areas ofknowledge outside the school setting.Thus the for.ation under scrutiny here is educationaldrama and the various strands that constitute it. Thefor. that is the focus is educationally oriented, in theshape of key practices undertaken mostly by and ineducational institutions. The examples and case studiesdiscussed combine entertainment, institutional debate,socio-political proposals and recommendations. Theyrepresent a theatre of educational engagement committed tobringing about actual change in people and institutions.

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The teacher and the taught in the learning context areoften dealing with material, stories, images, metaphors,inscribed with questions of fundamental importance toprospective audiences. Largely, the starting point forthem in devising is story in their immediate environmentand the people within it. The aesthetics of process andperfor.ance is shaped by this culture - in the case of theschool - the school community. In order to assess theimpact of these performances it became essential to studytheir context. To understand the potential meanings ofthese performances enshrined in the different dramafestivals, it became imperative to investigate howspecific audiences might read the same. Our researchmoved beyond the formalist analysis which treats theatreas if it were independent of its social and politicalenvironment: we considered educational drama as a culturalconstruct. In its cultural context it is seen as a meansof cultural production.

This has meant an exploration of the cultural landscape ofKenya in the colonial and post-independent period. Theterrain of culture is full of discourses of power, and asour principal example the Drama Festival has aimed tochange audiences, education and culture in the last fortyyears, we are dealing with a deeply political approach totheatre. In the study, the cultural legislation put inplace over the past seventy years is discussed. These

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combined with formal schooling, Christianity and thecolonial administration are reflected against thebackground of indigenous cultural norms. The DramaFestival established during the last stages of colonialrule, influenced the dominant cultural values in Kenya inthe 1960's and 1970's. After this it changed the politicsof performance, and it is argued that it manages to mountan effective opposition to the dominant culture embodiedby the Kenya National Theatre, the Phoenix Theatre, theDonevan Maule Theatre and the Little Theatres. Because itmodifies the values herein expressed through itspractitioners, we consider the practices of the DramaFestival as a form of cultural intervention.

My theoretical construct takes into account the criticaldiscussion on education, drama and theatre over the lastfifty years or so. This study focuses on essentialtheorists from the fields of drama and education but moreso those relevant to the practice of educational drama inKenya. The major influences on Theatre-In-Education (TIE)and Drama-In-Education (DIE) have included the theories,practice and publications of Peter Slade, Joan Littlewood,Brian Way, Richard Courtney, Dorothy Heathcote, GavinBolton, John O'Toole, Pelter Abbs, David Pammenter, GeoffGilham, Dave Davis, David Hornbrook and Tony Jackson.Their theories have continued to inform debate, teaching,in the classroom and theatre practices in education theworld over and have been instrumental in shaping the

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practice and writing of Joe de Graft, Francis Imbuga,Osodo Osodo, Ouko Otumba, Asenath Odaga and John Rugandahave largely influenced what is recognised as educationaldrama in Kenya today.

In the field of critical pedagogy, the theories of PauloFreire, Raph Carmel, Keas Espkemp, Ad Boeren and Ross Kiddin which open dialogue is an emancipatory educationalinstrument and where the link between the creative arts isestablished, have also influenced this study. BertoltBrecht I s pedagogical attitudes which are understood asconditions for his didactic dramaturgy, especially wherehe stresses that the performers should be experi.antal andexploratory and the performers should strive for a blendof instruction and entertainment which underpins theessence of participation.

Augusto Boal goes further to posit that there should be anobvious change of passively watching audience into anacting subject and this line of thinking is central indetermining a vision of a participatory educational dramaprogramme for the future.

Extensive investigation has been done on the dramamovements in Africa and other parts of the world. Theliterature in these works is invaluable and serves toprovide insights into the potential of educational dramabut of necessity do not address the Kenyan sphere. Our

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literature review covers PeninaBabatunde Lakoju (1985), ShadePlastow (1992), David Hornbrook

Mlama (1983 & 1990),

Olatoye (1991), Jane(1989), Tresa 0'Connor

(1990), James Whittle (1987), Christina Redington (1983)

Shashikant Barhanpurkar (1992), Cecilly O'Neill and AllanRambert (1990), Ken Robinson (1980), Hodgson J and BanhamM (1980), Rustom Bharucha (1992) and Baz Kershaw (1992).

During my field work I gradually came to the conclusionthat as a researcher I had to be consciously committed tothe cause of the communities involved in the research. Itsoon became clear that this particular search had to bebased on a dialectical process of dialogue between theresearcher and the community. The approach was orientedtowards proble. posing in order to unearth the causes ofcommunity problems and to encourage the participants tosuggest ways and means of solving them.

In this study, consideration is taken of earlier researchI conducted in schools, rural communities and deprivedcommunities in urban areas over the last decade. Iselected a number of educational institutions, there areprimary and secondary schools, colleges and universities,community based learning institutions and specialeducational institutions and interviewed both teachers andstudents. I went into schools and colleges during theperiods of the Drama Festival, and was part of thedevising process as teacher and facilitator. This was

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with the view to staging some dramas in order to presentproblems and to suggest solutions in a creative mode.There were post-perfor.ance discussions by the students ofthe institution and audiences, examples of which arediscussed in Section Two.

In the community based learning institution I was part ofthe community events, ceremonies or performances. I alsoparticipated closely in theatre groups' projects that tookperformances to various communities or actually madedramas with these communities. As a participant in theseevents it was possible to explore the performer'sperception of audience and to suggest that the performercan be audience for his or her own performance. I mustacknowledge the difficulty during the research ofdistancing myself from the event and objectively lookingfor meaning integral to the event. For instance, a groupof youth in a community requested me to lead a dramaworkshop for them whilst I was researching their event. Isuggest that the difficulty of remaining neutral inparticipatory research is in a sense, its strength, for itprovides meaningful learning for all participants. Thisis what Paulo Freire calls 'investigation-education-praxis' based on education with dialogue which by its verynature has a pedagogical content, i.e. source andreceivers, educator and educatees, researcher and

researched .•..'(1973:19)).

29

I did extensive personal interviews with students,teachers, educationalists, policy makers in the Ministriesof Education and Culture, students of the performing arts,non-governmental organizations, theatre goers, theatrepractitioners and various shades of the public. Apartfrom personal interview I designed questionnaires coveringas much ground as possible on drama, theatre and educationin Kenya.

In the study, I opted for participatory research, theguiding principle being the interest and priority of theparticipants, that is, the teacher/facilitator/learner/

audience, who formed the subject of the search. The long-term premise is that the participants will benefit fromthe actual research process as well as the results thestudy hopes to achieve. Participatory research promotesdevelopment through popular education, and it furthers aresearch methodology which aims to increase the awarenessof people and to mobilize them for collective action. Ichose this method because it goes beyond research toconcretize the findings into public expression of people'sown feelings through performances. As Freire asserts:

To guarantee that benefi ts accrue to the'researched' participatory research emphasizes thenecessity of their involvement in the entireresearch process.

Freire in Renke & Welzel (19:134)

Details on all these questionnaires are given in AppendixOne, but their results and findings will form part and

30

parcel of this study. The research results have led tovarious conclusions to educational drama in Kenya, buthave also informed on-going work in the fields of dramaand theatre at the moment.

In the UK where I observed TIE teams at work in schools, Iwas able to distance myself from the event. This meantthat by and large I was an observer of the TIE teamdevising work, taking work into schools, relating to theteachers and students. I was able to follow work thatwent on between the TIE team and the teachers before theperformance and the follow-up work to the event.

I designed questionnaires for the TIE team as a whole, theteachers and the students. The interviews were bothformal and informal, but as we got more familiar tended tobe the latter. Right from the start TIE teams were verywilling to provide information and access into the work.This has made it possible to examine the dynamics of TIEmethods and the flexible nature of TIE practice.

In both Kenya and the UK I preferred to conduct theinterviews in the respondents' habitat which provided aview of the social fabric of that particular community.On several occasions there were focused group discussionswith performing or TIE groups with whom I shared similarbackgrounds and an interest in my work. Conductingresearch in two countries with different backgrounds has

31

its limitations, however, the historical links betweenKenya and the UK provided an illumination in this area.

Definitions of Terms

In coming to terms with the topic of educational drama,there are obviously problems with definitions as the termis perceived differently in Kenya and the UK. Therefore,before discussing how drama and theatre function aslearning mediums and as educational methods, we must firstexamine various definitions on educational drama. Thiswill be done by looking at usage of terminology andpractice. This has particular relevance and provides ahistorical account of theatre in Kenya, and of educationand drama in particular.

EDUCATIONAL DRAMA: This is understood to include thestudy of literary dramatic text, the teaching of drama andtheatre skills in the classroom, experimental learningusing drama and the performance of plays, dance dramas anddramatized poetry by students and community groups. Italso incorporates oral literature, theatre for and bychildren and TIE and DIE practices in schools. What linksall these together are the learning elements in theteaching and performances of drama.

DRAMA IN EDUCATION (DIE): In a school situation DIE isboth a method and a subject. As a subject on the

32

curriculum, it uses various dramatic elements of movement,voice, concentration, improvisation and role-play to aidthe personal development of the pupil. As a method itutilizes role play and acting to teach pupils throughexperience. I take a very distinct view of drama ineducation and educational drama: the former I consider tobe only a small segment of the latter. In this study DIEis understood to be one of the educational dramapractices.

THEATRE IN EDUCATION (TIE): There are considerableoverlaps between DIE techniques and TIE workshops. In TIEa professional group of trained and experienced actor-teacher or teacher-actors prepare relevant material to bepresent in schools as prograa.es. These progra..es ofteninvolve more than one visit to the school and areresearched and targeted for small groups of one or twoclasses of a specific age. The aim of the progra ..e isessentially educational and uses theatre, drama andteaching techniques to gain this end.provides an educational aid, resource and stimulus forboth teachers and pupils. This varies from totalparticipation to performance with workshops and discussionand it requires strong and continuous liaison withteachers and schools.

Theatre in Education (TIE) is a method of work used bysome theatre companies all the time and by others only

33

occasionally. As a starting point TIE teams act asoutside questioners, exploring ideas and values in societythrough theatre. Different terminologies have developedwithin TIE which we consider in the course of the study.

CHILDREN'S THEATRE: This involves actors performing playsto children in a theatre or a school. The aim is toentertain and to introduce theatre to children. There isvery little physical participation by the children becausethe groups tend to be large. It is usually associatedwith 5-12 year olds. In Kenya there is THEATRE BYCHILDREN for children or for adults. This takes the formof oracy in the initial stages, which with the help of theteacher culminates in performances at the Drama Festivals,and for the school community.

YOUNG PEOPLE'S THEATRE (YPT): This is an overall titlefor a range of forms of professional/amateur theatre forchildren and young people including TIE. The distinctionis that this kind of work is more theatre oriented thanTIE/DIE and is normally for an older age range, between 14and 16 years. Like children's theatre they perform forlarge groups of young people.

YOUTH THEATRE: This involves groups of children or youngadults who get together doing dramas for themselves or foradults normally in a community or a social hall. Theirwork can be anything from improvisation to rehearsal and

34

performance of a scripted play.

COMMUNITY THEATRE: This involves actors working in andperforming to a particular community. The work isnormally performance based and in the Kenyan scene,communi ty members often performing for themselves forentertainment or learning purposes. The product isnormally folk culture through song, myth or dance.Community theatre has no individual author, and ispresented in oral, aural or visual form. The link betweenTFD and Popular Theatre is located within communityperformance. Community theatres in Kenya do not tourmuch, but perform very much in their area of residence.

POPULAR THEATRE: As currently practiced in Africainvolving the participation of amateur players and thewhole community and what are seen to be their problems.Problems are analyzed in individual and group discussionsand are then concretized into theatrical performancesusing artistic forms popular or familiar to the community.Public performances for the community are staged topresent the problems and invite suggestions for solutions.A post perfor.ance discussion by the performers andaudience then charts out what action is to be taken by thecommuni ty. Popular Theatre is unique in that it usespopular traditional art forms. It transcends communitytheatre by the very nature of its process and overlapswith Theatre for Development (TFD), a theatre movement in

35

its own right.

THEATRE FOR PEVELOPMENT (TFPl: This movement, likePopular Theatre, recognizes the characteristic inindigenous African performances. Where TFD exists, it isfacilitated by a team of theatre experts who work withvarious types of development and extension agencieshelping them to create theatre that will carry a messageon such themes as nutrition, literacy, health andagriculture around the communities. This kind of theatrevaries from straight drama to songs and dance. The songsare usually simple, catchy tunes with a clear message,composed and sung by the extension workers together withthe audience. TFD workers fall into two groups:government agents and autonomous practitioners.

In this study we look at Popular Theatre and TFDexperiences in Kenya from an educative point of view.

•T~H~EL-~D~RAMA~~__~F~E~S~T~I~V~A~L_:This is understood to meanby primary, secondary schools, teachertertiary colleges, non-formal education

and by communities. These are at the

performancestraining andinstitutionscommunity, zonal district, provincial and national levels.The celebratory nature and their diversity in the use ofart forms bring together children, youth and adults whoexpress themselves through play, creative dance anddramatized poetry. The principles underlying the Drama

36

Festival are entertainment and education.

The structure of The Thesis

This study is divided into two main sections, and eachsection is sub-divided into several chapters. section Oneestablishes the terrain of educational drama, its natureand functions are explored in the Kenyan and UK contexts.Its location in history and education with the variousperspectives in theory and practice are discussed.section Two investigates the potential of educationaldrama in Kenya, recommends the need for creative educationthrough a discussion of performances used for thatpurpose. The notion of a Kenyan Theatre is located withinthe practices of The Drama Festival whose potential isshown in its cross-cultural nature.

Chapter One sets the scene by reviewing most of therelevant literature in the field of educational dra.a.

The scholarly background established links between variousdefinitions on educational drama and the basic conceptsused in the study. A broad overview of the inter-relationof culture and education is given in Chapter Two. Aspectsof formal and non-formal education during the colonial andpost-colonial period are discussed and the disruption ofindigenous culture is analyzed. The state of the 8-4-4educational system introduces a major influencing factoron educational drama.

37

In Chapter Three a historical background of contemporaryKenyan theatre is given. There is an examination of fourleading playrights and their plays and it is shown howthese productions have impacted on drama and theatrepractices. The rise of community and political theatre inKenya is the focus of this chapter.practices in Kenya are discussed

Educational Dramawithin educational

institutions. The teaching of Oral Literature and itsimpact on the Drama Festival is the discussion of ChapterFour.

Educational Drama has been influenced by such movementsas TIE; Chapter Five gives a critical evaluation of thenature and function of TIE in Britain. A historicaloverview is provided through the practice of Belgrade TIEand a programme is chosen as a case study. Chapter sixanalyses other TIE programmes from two different TIE teamswhich utilize certain educational strategies and dramadevices that have a relevance in educational drama. Therelevance of TIE to educational drama in Kenya is pointedout and this link marks the end of Section One.

section Two starts in Chapter Seven with Drama and Theatreas modes of Creative Learning the need for a more creativeapproach to education and how it can contribute to anunderstanding on how drama and theatre practices can raiseawareness. Two examples of a theatre programme devised to

38

create social awareness and to develop language skills areanalyzed and this illustrates how drama and theatrepractices can raise awareness.

Chapter Eight gives examples of Drama Festivalperformances that aimed to change their audiences andacted as instruments for social and educational change.Different plays, creative dances and poems are given toillustrate the range of themes and technique and theirdiversity indicate their functions in various educationalcommunities in Kenya.

The pertinent question of the nature of Kenyan Theatre isaddressed at this stage and these traits are exposed. Itis then argued that the story telling traditionencapsulates the concepts of process and product and thisis illustrated in defining the educational cultural model.

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SECTION ONE

CHAPTER ONE

LITERATURE REVIEW

This review of selected theorists and practitioners in the

field of educational drama is intended to clarify the

premises and method of this thesis. The examination ofthe various perspectives will help to define the basic

concepts being used.

The distinctive discourse of educational drama arises from

a series of interconnected assumptions associated with the

progressive education movements. This movements goes back

to Jean Jaques Rousseau, but began to be significant in

the early Twentieth Century. Much later, Caldwell Cook,

for instance, in his book The Play Way says

We must let ourselves live fully, by doingthoroughly those things we have a natural desireto do, the sole restriction being that we so orderthe course of our lives as not to impair thoseenergies by which we live, nor hinder other men solong as they seem also to be living well. Rightor wrong in the play of life are not differentfrom the right or wrong of the playing field.(1917:4)

When the recognition of playas a form of instinctive

learning with its accepted 'naturalness' and 'let's

pretend' element started to take root during this period,

psychologists began to explore methods that would enable

40

the child to learn basic academic skills and knowledgethrough everyday experiences. The holistic .ethod wasused during this period to 'apply learning throughexperience'. (Hornbrook 1989:8) These post-Freudianpsychologists argue that the play of young children has aplace in theories of early learning.

By 1952 Susan Isaacs in Developments in Psychoanalysis(1952) was able to say confidently that:

The child's make-believe play is thus significant,not only for adaptive and collective intentionswhich when fully developed mark out the artist,the novelist, the poet, but also for the sense ofreality, the scientific attitude and the growth ofhypothetical reasoning.

(cited in Hornbrook, 1989:8)

Educational drama was making a claim to being apsychological approach dedicated to the aesthetic anddevelopment needs of the young. The Ministry of Educationin England at this time recognised the essentialcontribution that drama could make in schools.

Peter Slade in his book Child Drama (1954), believed thatthe relativity of children should not be measured by adultstandards; he argues that Child Drama is an Art Form inits own right (Slade, 1954:7)

He stresses the importance of non-interference in thenatural creative process, suggesting that 'the teacher

41

should become a "loving ally" not criticising or directingbut perhaps drawing the group's attention to some littlepiece of reality that has been missed.' (Slade:1954:45)This conviction of Slade's remains a major contribution inthe development of child drama and educational drama inits entirety. Very much aware of child-psychologyargument, he emphasised the distinction between thespontaneous process of classroom drama, 'drama in thewidest sense', and the theatre 'as understood by adults',(Slade:1954:72). This has over the years become a vitalprinciple for TIE/DIE teams who have to make clear whatage range they are devising a prograa.e for.

Slade noticed that when children play, they have naturalmovement patterns that change with development andgradually suit their own dramatic purpose. According toSlade the children do not need an audience, nointervention from anybody since the pouring out ofcreative forms of expression and the taking of ideas andexperiences is a natural process. He felt that thechild's artistic expression is 'unconscious thereforegenuine', that even young children have an aestheticappreciation that enables them to respond to other art

forms. It is for this reason that he objected to theimposition of adult theatre for.s on the dra.a of the

child. Slade's ideas concerning personal and projectedplay and the natural play shapes of children from infancyto adolescence are all set out in learning. This implies

42

total intellectual, physical and intuitive involvementwith the environment and learning based on directexperience. For instance, attempts by the children atstory writing, polishing improvisation, and creatingnatural groupings normally found in children's play shouldbe encouraged by the teacher. However, he still did notrecommend the presentation of plays by junior schoolchildren on the proscenium stage because the imposition offormal techniques would stifle the creativity of thechild.

His belief was that dramatic play is useful but theatreperformances at this stage were not necessary, and thatchild drama needed no audience, the child is both thespectator and the player. This raises a fundamentalquestion in the work of TIE teams which are normallyactor/teachers and combine the use of theatre and teachingskills in their programmes. Some of Slade's ideasconcerning personal and projected play have been used byteachers in Kenyan nursery and primary schools and need tobe emphasised a lot more in these institutions. However,in our search it was apparent, that even the teachers whodo this are hard-pressed for time to attend to theindividual pupil. On a more practical plane too, most ofthe teachers part ways with the Slade conviction that:

It (child drama) has no necessary connection withthe theatre, or even with the stage, and none withthe scripted playas such. (Slade, 1954:139)

43

This practice is evident from the Kenyan classroom and theperformance by pupils at the Drama Festival. Nonetheless,Slade's book Child Drama is a primary text in theDrama-in-Education Course at Kenyatta University'sLiterature Department. This course is for teachers ofDrama and literature who also study Education and Slade'sbook is often used by psychologists as a text for studyingchild development. Its theories are probably most usefulfor those training to be primary school teachers, but inpractice there is only limited use of Slade's theory inthe teacher training courses. In this study the theoriesexpress in Slade's Child Drama book are discussed withinthe premise of Child play and education.

The relationship between educational drama and children'spsychological adjustment to their social circumstances isfurther explored in Brian Way's Development Through Drama(1967). Way reinforces Slade's distinction betweentheatre and dra.a and views theatre as largely concernedwith communication between actors and audience, and dra.a

with the experience of the participants. He maintains thatthe primary purpose of educational drama is to develop thepersonality and influence for good the character of thechild. He believed the following kinds of learning couldbe developed in children through the experience of drama.

iJ a sense of the uniqueness of the personality of everypupil;

44

ii) a training in the use of intuition and an increasedconfidence in the effectiveness of intuitive thought;

iii)an enrichment of pupils' inner resources throughpractice of the arts at their own level of competence.

(Way 1967:36)

This shows Way's concern with the development of the pupilrather than the aspects of the drama. His book includesvaluable practical exercises, designed to develop pupilsin oral language to make them sensitively aware of otherpeople socially and to develop general behaviour. He doesnot see 'drama as another subject, but as a way of helpingpupils develop their personality. He urges the teacherto:

Keep reminding yourself that what you areconcerned with is the development of everyone ofthe manifold facets of human beings.

(Way, 1967:9)In this study, I cannot accept Way's view entirely, for Iwill argue that drama is recognised as a subject in itsown right exclusively but that its use as a socialising

agent is also emphasised, the study focuses thatsocialising drama should embrace the emotional developmentof the individual for all-round growth. Developmentthrough drama demands that the teacher in the classroomshould be resourceful and intuitive, and this intuitionneeds training.

What Way does not explain is where the teacher shouldstart after training and how to cope with the sole burden

45

of developing the whole personality of the student. LikeSlade, he does not favour the conventional picture framestage or any theatre forms in educational drama, he feltthese would undermine the basic values of drama as part ofthe development of the personality. While he looks togroup activities as a source of individual enrichment, hedoes not consider what the individuals would input into asocial situation. He says this of improvisation;

Imagination and self-expression have been grosslyundervalued in this system and that the unfoldingand elaboration of the self can be nurturedthrough creative dramatic play. (Way, 1967:191)

Way sees improvisation as the key activity in educationaldrama: 'in essence improvisation is quite simply a playwithout a script', (cited in Hornbrook, 1989:14) hestates. He stresses that the aim of such i.provisation,

like that of all drama activity in schools, is thedevelopment of the whole pupil and for this the pupil mustdraw for the content of improvisation on personalresources and imagination. When he says that the qualityof the improvisation could be enhanced by pupil's previousexperience of activities in speech, movement andcharacterisation, he does not in his book make it clearwhere the pupil would derive this experience from, if notfrom a dramatic cultural context in which the pupils arelocated.He remains silent as to whether improvised pieces should beshown to others, although he believes that if pupils began

46

by using source materials such as historical events ofwell-known stories, their concerns for accuracy of contentin their improvisation would inhibit their imaginativedevelopment. This is in sharp contrast to the educationaldrama practices that will be presented at a later stage inthis study. The material that has often informed thedrama and theatrical pieces comes from historical eventsand well-known stories.

Way qualifies this by saying that if myths, legends,stories from scripture or history were eventually used insecondary schools, they could provide opportunities fordrama specialists to work in co-operation with othersubject specialists. He sees drama as providing 'one ofthe most valuable ways of breaking out of the strongholdor over-specialisation in secondary education'. (Way1967:63)

For Dorothy Heathcote in 'drama as challenge' in The Usesof Drama (ed)(1972), the teacher's aim is to use drama 'inthe way in which it will most aid him in challenging thechildren to learn'. (Wagner, 1972:47) By channelling themotivating energy of dramatic play into the curriculumintentions of the teacher, she defines it as a learning

.ediu.. Through the sensitive agency of thet;eacher/facilit;at;or, Heathcote argues that imaginativeworld stimulated by drama will reveal to pupils newinsight;s and underst;anding.

47

Moving from Brian Way's emphasis on the individual andpersonal development, Heathcote lays stress on knowledgeas the goal and this is achieved through group work andthe examination of the subjective process of drama forunderstanding. Heathcote says knowledge become keyconcepts in a new language of authenticity, negotiation,

and universal whereby it is argued that by manipulatingdramatic improvisation the pupils would be led to anauthentic experience I a so-called deep knowing, of theessential truths of the human condition. "Drama had thusbecome not just a subject of pedagogy, but a form ofpedagogy" (Wagner, 1972:61). This is the thrust of herpractice as discussed in 'Drama as Challenge'.

Both Heathcote and Way agree that improvisation can bringabout change in the perspectives of pupils. Heathcote goesfurther to explain the use of role-play both for theteacher and the pupil in a learning situation. Bothclassroom drama and TIE programmes need and use the role-play technique to understanding the issues and conceptsbeing learnt. Heathcote claims that she is not educatinga theatre audience or potential theatre goers, but usesdrama and theatre techniques in the service of education.

B J Wagner analyses Heathcote's teaching methods in thebook Dorothy Heathcote: Drama as a learning medium (1976),she asserts Heathcote's fundamental educational purpose is

48

to evoke reflective responses in pupils, in order to gaindeeper insight into the nature of their emotions andhopefully as a result of this insight, modify theiremotional response in the real world. Heathcote is quotedas saying:

I am engaged first of all in helping children tothink, talk, to relate to one another, tocommunicate. I am interested primarily in helpingclasses widen their areas of reference and modifytheir ability to relate to people Goodtheatre can come out of this process too.(Wagner, 1976:79)

Role-si.ulation is one important form of drama, but is notsynonymous with drama and many of the role-playing

situations improvised in drama sessions in schools havenothing to do with drama. Heathcote's methods bear closesimilarities to some of the techniques employed in socio-drama, but her objectives differ. Heathcote's majorinterest is in the group solving process whereby theatrewould be a by-product and not an end-product toactivities. Her work seems to be influenced as much by ahumanistic as a sociological awareness of the educationalprocess. Her motivation, like Brian Way's, is the need tosee the schools more hu.anised.

Gavin Bolton's in Towards a Theory of Drama in Education(1979) points to distinct types of drama being studied inschools. He puts them under the general headings of TypeA: Exercises, Type B: Dramatic Playing, Type C: Theatreand Type D: a combination of exercises, dramatic playing

49

and Theatre involving the teacher and the pupils. LikeHeathcote, Bolton's approach lends greater authority tothe work of the teacher. In Bolton's Type A - D model, heargues that children revolve their drama around a ritualwhich happens spontaneously, but the pupils as they growolder tend to work within set structures. Bolton suggeststhat whatever is done in drama has one or more of fourbasic aims. He lists them as:

i)ii)iii)iv)

learning about contentpersonal developmentsocial skills and developmentlearning about dramatic form

(Bolton, 1986:25)

In Gavin Bolton: Selected Writing (1986) (ed) the editorsexplain:

In the perfect drama of Gavin Bolton the teacherintroduces the strategies to meet importantobjectives including language development andincreasing awareness of social responsibility andthe theatre form reflects meanings of bothpersonal and group significance.

(1986:14)

In personal development, Bolton is referring to thoseaspects of drama which seek to develop sensitivity,commitment, confidence similar to Slade's view whichregarded 'absorption and sincerity' in drama as a measureof personal development. This, however, is not always thecase with everyone involved with educational drama and isin any case very difficult to evaluate and the principleof personal development is in itself highly problematic.

50

Drama involves some kind of group activity and can lead tosocial development, where the group and its activities areextended beyond the drama class to include the widercommunity in which it exists. This argument is for Boltona point of departure from both Slade and Way. For Bolton,it is essential to learn the basic elements of theatre inorder to understand and use dramatic form to create,explore and communicate meaning.

Bolton's definition of creation of meaning comes fromVygotsky's book 'Play and its Role in the mentalDevelopment of the child' in: ll.gy (eds C S Bruner)(1976). The psychologist here seeks to illustrate how, inplay activity in childhood, thought is separated fromobjects and action and these arise from ideas rather thanthings. Vygotsky says:

In a playa child operates with meanings severedfrom objects, but not in actions with real things.To sever the meaning of horse from a real horseand transfer it to a stick, the necessary materialpivot to keep the meaning from evaporating andreally acting with the stick as if it were ahorse, is a vital transitional stage of operatingwith meanings. (Eds Bruner 1976:53)

What Bolton does not make clear in his book is whether themeaning created in educational drama is for theparticipants or the teacher. The implication here is thatthe teacher may impose another meaning onto the meaningcreated by the child. Bolton's assertion that 'while the

51

playwright may not wield any authority in educationaldrama, the teacher certainly does'. (Bolton, 1976:24)This has various ramifications for the discipline as anenabling process. It lays a heavy burden on the teacher,who must then of necessity be on top of the subject, havetime and space; this is usually not the case both in Kenyaand the UK. But it is significant foundation for DIEpractice and an integral part of the subject's discipline.

Bolton argues that true knowing is what one feels. Dramaoffers pupils access to the authentic inner world, it isespecially placed to help them feel their way intoknowledge. Learning through drama involves a full change

in value. Bolton also proposes that educational dramashould aim to bring about a change in the affective andcognitive domain of its practitioners; this proposition isideal in the understanding of current practice in Kenya.

The practical elements from the author's own experienceare grounded in Bolton's recent book New Perspectives onClassroom Drama (1992). The approaches that Boltonunderlines to dramatic activity in the classroom and tothe teacher as an artist working inside and outside thedrama, reinforce the importance he attaches to theteacher/facilitator within educational drama.

Richard Courtney in Teaching Drama: a handbook forTeaching in Schools (1965), in Play, Drama, and Thought

52

(1968) and in The Dramatic Curriculum (1980) is anotherinfluential figure in the field of educational drama. Histenet in these books is that 'Drama is the totalexpression of mind. It is not spatial, it is inclusive ofthe cognitive, the affective, the aesthetic, the psycho-motor - all aspects of life'. (Courtney, 1968:36) He,like Slade, argues for the doing of life and that'curriculum design should be based on experientialknowledge'. (Courtney, 1968:72) This argument is used byCourtney for the inclusion of drama as part of acurricular programme for education in the expressive arts;the education which should provide all-round opportunitiesfor each pupil to achieve maximum development.

He agrees with Bolton, that the primary objective ofeducational drama is to develop people, not the drama, andlike Heathcote, Courtney uses in his teaching of drama,role-play and siaulation, with drama as a facet of the artof the theatre. In this, there is a paradox, for Courtney(1968) attempts to marry a creative approach toimprovisation with more formal exercises in speech,movement and mime. He sees this activity as the core ofall drama teaching and as a preparation for a moreconscious approach to theatre skills.

In Teaching Drama (1965) he concedes that as children growtheir dramatic actions mature and he proposesdevelopmental stages of dramatic action. These are:

53

i) The identification stage (0-10 months)ii) The impersonation stage: The child as actor'

(10 months - 7 years)iii) The Group Drama stage: 'the child as planner'

(7 - 12 years)iv) The role stage: 'the student as communicator'

(12 - 18 years)(Courtney 1965:76)

In proposing these dramatic stages, Courtney pointed toother stages of human development; the intellectual, the

affective, the .oral and the e.pathetic. Since all theseare expressed in dramatic action, there is all the morereason why drama should be included in the curriculum.Courtney's thinking has influenced many drama teachers andtheatre workers in Kenya because of the availability ofhis books, his propagation of the development of thestudent through creative activity and the emphasis ondrama as an educational tool.

The above theorists and practitioners have played aninvaluable role in shaping the field of educational drama.The study acknowledges that there are many more who havehad a seminal influence in the field, but some of theirliterature will be reviewed in direct connection to thedrama/theatre movement that they inform. It is mycontention that for drama and theatre to legitimise itselfwithin education, it must have a clear and unified theorythat explains its position within the culture and historyas a demonstrably social form.

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THEORISTS IN THE FIELD OF CRITICAL PEDAGOGY

In the field of critical pedagogy, the ideas of PauloFreire, a Brazilian educator, as derived from his Pedagogyof the Oppressed (1982) in which open dialogue is animportant emancipatory educational instrument will beconsidered. This aims at helping the participant to havea critical awareness of the problems in his/herenvironment and to be able to read the world. Freireconsiders the awakening of critical awareness as a vitalprocess of education. This can grow out of criticaleducation based on favourable historical conditions.

Freire distinguishes essentially two types of education.The first is described as the banking syste., whereby theteacher selects problems irrespective of their relevanceto the actual of perceived reality of the students. Thesecond advocates the problem-posing approach aimed atchallenging students to critically and objectively thinkabout their topic in relation to their natural, culturaland historical environment and pupils are seen as'creatively thinking human beings with the capacity tocomprehend the relation of the topic of study withreality'. (Freire, 1982:42) Freire considers banking asthe common type of education in the western world and dueto the colonial heritage of the developing world, such asKenya, this has become a widely accepted form of learning.

55

Therefore, according to Freire in Education: The Practiceof Freedom (1976), the educator's role is to engage in adialogue with the learner, about situations relevant tothe learner. He sees learning more as a creative than asan intellectual process, putting emphasis on learning bycreative proble.-posing which implies processes of change.It is the relationship between knowing and the desire tointervene in the world to solve problems which Freireidentified as key of the motivation of learning.According to JBM Kronenburg

The problem-posing quali ty of words forms theimpetus to a process of auto-generated discoveryof the causes of related problems and the socialimplications of solutions. This' awakening ofawareness' takes place in a situation whereby thevertical teacher-student structure becomes ahorizontal one of teacher - student with studentteachers. (1986:18)

This is in support of Freire's content in that mutualrespect for intellectual capacity forms the attitudenecessary to create the new source of learning calleddialogue. Freire says that when there is dialogue thereis no authority of knowledge embodied in one person, theteacher. Along with other participants in the dialogue,

the teachers are contributors to a learning process on thestrength and authority of their own cultural experiences.

The learners are thus enabled to teach the teacher andeach other as subjects in an educational process ofknowledge empowerment. This view has shaped many

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educational drama programmes and underlies the fundamentalprinciple of proble.atising: to stimulate the awakening ofcritical awareness which they contend can be presented ina proble.atised way within a theatrical context. InEducation for Critical Consciousness (1973) Freireasserts:

Problematising is so much a dialectic process thatit would be impossible to begin it withoutbecoming involved in it ... Problematisation isnot only inseparable from the act of knowing butalso from the concrete situation. (1973:153)

In addition to a growing understanding from genuinedialogue about the socio-cultural reality and itsinfluence on the shape of people's lives, proble.atising

also deepens participant's awareness of their own capacityto transform reality. This is a necessary condition andmotivating factor for what Freire calls cultural action;

that is:

The authentic liberating freeing of peoplethemselves. This refers to reflection afteraction as a crucial moment of knowledgeacquirement. For it is from the own experiencegained during the action that new and relevantknowledge can be obtained for the improvement ofthe next action. (Freire, 1973:96)

Similarities between Freire's philosophy of education andTIE strategies are striking. For instance, his concept ofaction and reflection is congruent with most TIEprogrammes' step-by-step approach of action and fact-finding in the action-research concept. Likewise bothapproaches emphasise the role problems have in discussion

57

with learners, the need for fact-finding and evaluation bythe participants as part of the learning process. Much ofthe best practice in educational drama exemplifiesFreire's assertion that education is of necessity a formof cultural action.

More important to this study is Paulo Freire's originalline of thought, that in participatory research, theresearcher is at the same time educating and beingeducated. Freire re-affirms that:

By returning (in a subsequent phase) to the areain order to put into practice the results of myinvestigation, I am not only educating and beingeducated: I am also researching again, because tothe extent that we put into practice the plansresulting from such investigations, we change thelevel of consciousness of the people, and by thischange, research again. Thus, there is a dynamicmovement between researching and acting on theresults of the research. (In Rerike &Welzel:134)

This centre-stages the relationship between educationaldrama as a means of raising awareness and the educator asessential to the radical transformation of society,through a pedagogical content, that is source andreceiver, educator and educatee, researcher and researched

who are both educating and being educated with the people.This is a major motivation behind this research andprovides a grounding for participatory education.

According to De Bruyne, five pedagogical attitudes can bedistinguished in Bertolt Brecht's work. First, he

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stresses that 'the performer should be experi.ental andexploratory and should strive for a blend of instructionand entertainment; multiple methods should be used: theperformer should be open with regard to using other media;and the play in one way or another should be arelationship to life.' (De Bruyne, 1980:117-118) Brechtand Freire agree that the didactic play teaches whiLebeing acted rather than viewed and that the roles actedshould be representative of actual social episodes,depicting visible reality and human relations as shaped insociety.

In his epic plays, Brecht objects specifically to theactors ignoring the audience, or the failure to confrontthe audience with the fact that the actors are well awareof its presence. He did not want the audience identifyingwith the characters on stage, unless the world created onstage reflected the same reality in which the audiencelive. This view has continued to influence the idea oftheatre as a .ediu., as a didactic instruaent that aimsprimarily at the process of awareness-raising amongst theaudience. Educative theatre should be designed to provideas many means as possible for the target groups to realisethe desired intervention; those involved with educationaldrama practices view the theatre work they do along theselines.

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Brecht tries to achieve a balance between entertainmentand learning. The Epic Theatre is more to do with thenarrative technique of dramatisation, so often used inparticipatory programmes, than with the literary form ofthe epic poem. Brecht sought a narrative form of actingin which the play began to narrate and points of view arepresented both in the dialogues and the acting itself.The narrator, who explains and reminds the audience ofvarious episodes in the story, is central to Brecht'swork.

Brecht posed profound questions about central aspects oftheoretical form, in particular, the role of the spectatoras the centre of attention, and he argues that theatricalforms have ideological implications in a given context:that they do not simply express content but shape andmediate reality in complex and historically specific ways.

In the essay, 'Theatre for pleasure or theatre forinstruction' in John Willet, ed, Brecht on Theatre (1982),Brecht tries to dissolve the old distinction betweenlearning and pleasure: the 'pleasure of learning dependson all sorts of things; but none the less there is such athing as pleasurable learning, cheerful and militantlearning'. (Brecht in John Willet, ed, 1982:73) Thisstand is reinforced by Lehrstucke written in the early1930's and which attempt to place learning at the centre

60

of a theatrical event. Elisabeth Wright (1989) arguesthat Lehrstucke is 'distinct, both formally and in formsof its political and educational functions and are centralto understanding Brecht's political and aestheticpurposes. (1989:63)

Wright draws attention to a little-known fragment fromBrecht's theoretical workings, making a distinctionbetween .ajor pedagogy and minor pedagogy Brecht's termsfor the kind of oppositional theatre in which he wasprimarily engaged; this theatre, although it challengedthe aesthetics of the dominant theatrical forms ofBrecht's time, still operated within the establishedtheatrical institutions, .ajor pedagogy, however, proposeda further aesthetic:

Major pedagogy ... is a model for a radicallydifferent theatre of the future, where thedistinction between actor and spectator isentirely wiped out. The actors occupy adouble role of 'observing' (spectating) andacting, working and reworking a communal set textwhich is perpetually alterable; the object beingto turn into a social practice, and experiment insocially productive behaviour. (Wright 1989:19)

Although the context is different, the emphasis onalienation and the essential flexibility of the roles ofacting, and spectator, on the creation of theatre in whichthe participants, can move from enacting to observing andback again, and who have a degree of authorial controlover the product unknown in conventional terms is presentin what we consider to be educational drama.

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Augusto Boal (1979) in Theatre of the oppressed writesabout the progression of the Arena Theatre in Sao Paulo,Brazil, from which his theory developed from the 1950's tothe mid 1960's. Here, the aim was to create a theatrethat was both authentically Brazilian and, as the theatredeveloped, politically radical. Dramaturgically speaking,Boal was inspired by the ideas of Brecht. In terms ofdidactics, Boal was influenced by fellow Brazilian Freire,from whom he borrowed the notion of conscientisation: healso drew parallells between the passibility andconsu.eris. of what Freire calls the banking concept.

Boal goes further when he says the 'Metaxis is seen as amental attitude; a way of holding two worlds in mind, thereal and dramatic fiction, simultaneously by a participantwithin the drama frame.' (Boal, 1979:67) He shares withBrecht the view that the audience must be critical withregard to what happens on stage 'artists must shed lighton reality, not only to reflect and interpret reality, butto try to change it'. (Boal, 1979:81) This is wheretheatre and education merge.

Central to Boal's line of thinking is the transformationof a passively watching audience into an acting subject;an actor who is able to transform the dramatic action onstage. Boal (1979) rejects what Brecht saw as the powerto put a character on stage that acts and thinks for andinstead of the audience. In this argument, he is in

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favour of a practice in which the spectator allows actors

to put a character on stage that acts for them, but not

one that thinks for them. Ideally, the audience reserves

the right to think for itself about the action of the

character.

Boal's own approach, in his pref ix to Theatre of the

Oppressed (1979) goes one step further. The spectator

does not derive from the actor the power to act, nor the

power to think for him. On the contrary, the spectator

himself uses the occasion to play and act in the role of

the protagonist.

The actor decides on the acting, changes thedramatic action, brings in solutions of his ownproblems, threatens to leave the dramatic actionat a dead end, and thus prepares himself, whileacting, for an action that could be taken, laterin the everyday reality.

(Boal 1979:45)

Thus, as soon as the audience can be accepted as creators

of drama, the process of aaking dra.a will become more

important than the product; drama will be made in co-

operation with audience, which will have to find a

connection to the social reality of that particular

community.

When Baal was exiled in Peru in the early 1960's, he

developed a project not a new theatre, but an educational

progra..a, in which the pedagogical function of the

theatre could be explored. The 'ALFIN project' in Peru

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began as part of a national literacy campaign, andformulated four principal aims. First, 'to teach literacyin both the first language and the Spanish without forcingabandonment of the former in favour of the latter and,secondly, to teach literacy in all languages especiallyartistic ones, such as theatre, photography, puppetry,films, journalism etc.' (Epskamp:1989:54) Baal involvedhimself in this project as a theatre worker, but themethod, pedagogy, and conception of the whole project wasderived from the work of Freire which stems from theconviction that language and power are inextricablyintertwined.

Fundamental to the work of Freire and Baal is the conceptof praxis which demands that cul~ural ac~ion shouldencourage both reflection and ac~ion.

cultural action is always a systematic anddeliberate form of action which operates upon thesocial structure, either wi.th the objective ofpreserving that structure or of transforming it.(Connolly in Mackie, 1982:81)

These theorists and practitioners whose works have beenreviewed, inform the discourse of educational drama, andhave affected and shaped the various movements thatconstitute the landscape of educational drama. We move onto look at theorists and practitioners who have focussedon particular movements.

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Kees P Epskamp in Theatre in Search of Social Change(1989) deals with how theatre has been viewed as animportant educational tool by the persons and agenciesinvolved in development work. He does an in-depth studyon the sociological aspects of the theatre within theframework of the developmental process. He argues thateducation, theatre and development have similar functionsand developing countries have laid firm stress on thesewith case studies provided in the book. Epskamp discussesDevelop.ent and Change and is concerned with a sociologyof theatre within the framework of development processesand argues that:

Every development process is, in fact, a learningprocess. Those involved learn ~n a mannerdifferent from that which is customary to them,according to their physical and socialenvironment. (Epskamp, 1989:11)

This study shares a similar view, that several theatreforms practiced in Kenya are mainly learning process.

Boeren and Epskamp in The Empowerment of Culture:Deyelopment. communication and Popular Media (1992)emphasise the role which culture plays in developmentprocesses and establish links between culture, educationand communication. The crucial importance of culturallyappropriate systems and approaches to education andtraining is given in essays by Ross Kidd, Eugene van Ervenand John Collins. The use of audio-visual materials andtheir cultural implications are discussed by Boeren and

65

Epskamp putting forth suggestions that:

the potential of local popular expressions forpurposes of development support communications notonly strengthens a local population's cuituralidentity but also provides a development approachwhich seems more related to their specific needand environment.

(Boeren and Epskamp 1992:12)

Raff Carmen in Communication. Education and Empowerment(1990) poses similar concerns and is convinced thatempowerment comes through participation, and thatparticipatory programmes are crucial to any kind ofcommunication. These views have shaped the principlesthat have guided this study.

THEORETICAL INFLUENCES ON TIE/PIE MOVEMENTS

John O'Toole's book Theatre in Education (1976) came at atime when TIE was thriving in the UK. Eclecticism by TIEteams made their practice more resourceful and accordedthe movement a flexibility in dealing with a diversity ofissues and concepts. Little comprehensive writing on TIEas a movement and the analysis of TIE programmes had beendone. The difficulty according to O'Toole (1976) arosefrom, 'The nervous reluctance of those who practice it tocommit themselves to a written description or definition'.(O'Toole, 1976:vi)

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Theatre in Education (1976) gives an introductory idea of

TIE as it had existed for a decade: what TIE is and its

motivation. O'Toole tries to focus the rationale of TIE,pitting theory against practice. It is written from the

perspective of one who had been part of the TIE movement

as an ardent observer and from an educational point of

view. The emergence of TIE in 1965 in Coventry, gave rise

to a new educational mood, and people like O'Toole

researched new methods of learning. In his interviews

with teachers, actors, policy makers he points out:

TIE's educational aims and claims need to assume ahumi1i ty ignored by proponents of new ideas ineducation as well as by exponents of old ones,namely that any experience of one or at most a fewhours, taken in the context of ten years of formalschooling and a lot more of life's education, canhardly have more than an infinitesimal effect onthe total knowledge personality developmentskills, outlook and attitude of a grown humanbeing. This caution is all the more necessary asthe extent of the type of learning caused by TIEmay not immediately be recognised.

(O'Toole 1976:18)

O'Toole uses some concrete descriptions of TIE programmes

in an attempt to concretise what TIE is and its emergence.

As his descriptions show Theatre-In-Education is a form of

theatre that has arisen in direct response to the needs of

schools and theatre, seeking to put together the

techniques and imaginative power of theatre in the service

of education. O'Toole says:

It was conceived as an attempt to bring thetechniques of theatre into the classroom. In theservice of specific educational objectives.(O'Toole 1976:vi)

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He explores the nature of the experience which TIEprogrammes offer through pure presentation; throughtheatrical techniques and skills, the pupil's desire to beactively involved in an experience is harnessed: thisexperience is created for them and they identify with thereality presented by integral participation whichunderlies the central purpose of TIE.

The debate on the pros and cons of the concept ofparticipation is discussed at length. He groundsextrinsic, intrinsic participation and peripheral

participation within the realms of the theatrical andeducational contexts. The impact of participation, heunderlines, can only come from sensitivity in theselections of aims and objectives for the TIE prograa.e.

By the late 1970's theatre in education practice had takenroot in schools in the UK, and interest fromeducationalists and researchers was picking up. InLearning Through Theatre (1980) edited by Tony Jacksonthere are essays and case books from different people thatprovide an insight into TIE's theoretical base and itsapplication. The aim is to avail the process anddevelopment of TIE by teams in the classroom, and also tolook at the TIE programmes from an educational as well asan artistic point of view.

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In the introduction, Jackson argues that TIE is one of themajor developments in theatre since the Second World War.Because it stradles education and theatre, it has made aunique contribution in both fields. He concedes it isdifficult to define a TIE experience but that is because:

The difficulty lies first in the peculiarinteraction in TIE between theatrical art form andeducational method, between dramatic event andlearning process, between actor and pupil; andsecondly, in the constantly developing andchanging nature of TIE itself as its practitionersrespond to and learn from their achievements andmistakes. (Jackson, 1980:vi)

By then, not many dramatic texts for TIE programmes hadbeen scripted, a situation that has changed, but stillJackson maintained that TIE had gained recognition fromeducationalists and theatre artists alike. To show thisrecognition Learning Through Theatre brings togetherwriting from TIE practitioners and educationalists in themid 1960's and 1970's.

Jackson sets the scene by attempting to say what TIE is,its difference and relationship with other forms oftheatre, and where TIE as a movement is at during thisperiod. Gordon Vallins, the pioneer of the first TIEscheme in coventry in 1965, discusses the initial work inTIE, and how this scheme became a viable method of usingtheatre within education. This is vital information onhow the works of the earlier theorists were being applied

by early TIE teams.

69

Kathy Joyce a Drama Advisory Teacher and David Pammenter,practitioners in TIE, emphasise the role of the TIE tea.,its devising strategies, and their relationship withteachers and the schools. Pammenter in particularunderscores the principle, approach and philosophy of aTIE team.

Gavin Bolton, whom we discussed earlier, teases out thesignificance of the actor/teacher, and proposes atheoretical construct for the drama teacher and how bothcomplement the other. Aspects of evaluation is the taskfor Ken Robinson, who argues that if TIE is to develop andimprove it has to find effective ways of assessing itsimpact and of learning from its own experiments, and if itis simply to survive at a time of economic restraint itmust be able to justify its existence to those whoultimately control the funds. This is a debate that hasraged on between TIE teams and funding bodies into the1980's.

Many researchers on TIE are guided by ChristineRedington's research on a TIE programme, her essay inLearning Through Theatre (1980): "The effect on a TIEprogram in schools" is indicative of the slippery pathspotential researchers have to wade through. In her laterbook Can Theatre Teach (1983) Redington, from theexperience of her research, details the emergence and

70

development of TIE and its impact thus far.

Brian wilks in "Preparing to play Yorick: some reflectionsupon TIE and the reality of illusions" foreground thepower of the skills of the theatre and its impact onlearning and challenges some of the assumptions that haveoperated in many TIE programmes. His interest in theevent takes place between the TIE performers and thechildren in schools, which is a point of constantreference in this study.

Pam Schweiter provides a case study of a TIE programme inLearning Through Theatre. This is seen to have been aninfluence on the edited TIE scripts in three volumes in1980 titled Theatre in Education Programmes. These fallunder the titles TIE programmes for infants, juniors andsecondary. This is a rare attempt to script the TIEexperience, and these TIE scripts have publicised the TIEmovement, for the scripts have acted as guidance towardsdevising in many countries. These programmes continue tobe debated upon by those concerned with educational dramain general and DIE/TIE in particular.

David Hornbrooksuggests that we

in Education and Dramatic Artlive in a dra.atised society.

(1989)within

this society, he argues, we have to understand ourselvesas role-playing individuals, but also as moral beings, whoare fully aware of the games we play and therefore realise

71

that we are dependent on the co..uni~ies of discourse towhich we belong. Hornbrook suggests the necessity torecognising the world as a stage where the objectivereality can be represented. This study takes on boardsome fundamental proposals on the role of drama in today's

•rapidly changing society. Hornbrook is surely on theright track when he identifies a dramatised socie~y as ofimportance to educational drama. What he obviouslymisses in his argument is that we are confronted withmethods that combine theatre and draaa in the service ofeducation. We do need both draaa and thea~re atappropriate points, with appropriate audiences. Hequestions process as an end in itself and argues that anyprocess ought ideologically to issue in some kind ofproduct.

When we discussed Dorothy Heathcote's and Gavin Bolton'stheories and practice, it was evident that emphasis waslaid on draaa as a process I almost at the expense ofseeing it as a product. David Hornbrook uses the termtiext:to cover a wider conception of soae~hing that ismade. Whereas I believe process and produc~ both need ourattention, especially when it comes to the evaluation ofdrama. It is important that both the facilitator/dramateacher and the pupils should together evaluate drama as atraining ground for theatrical skills, and that moreattention should be given to helping those teachers whoare involved in examination drama.

72

From Hornbrook's assertions in Education and Dramatic Art,it is clear that in drama as a subject, that there is asplit as to its purpose. Hornbrook is right to point outthat, to many parents, drama means "doing plays" Parentsusually want their children to do drama so that they canget confident in public, and be culturally enriched bythis art form.

This study discusses the difference between using drama tomanipulate pupils or giving pupils the means which theycan manipulate drama. While the latter may seem, on theface of it, to be more wholesome, we have to accept thatsome pupils will simply not use the knowledge and skillsnurtured through sensitive and committed drama lessons in

sensitive and committed ways.

In The Process of Drama (1992) by John O'Toole, heinvestigates the notion of process in drama withparticular reference to DIE as practiced in Europe, theUK, Canada and Australia. We note the difference in scopefrom O'Toole's previous book Theatre in Education (1976)which concentrates mainly on the practice of DIE in theUK. In The Process of Drama, O'Toole proposes a veryspecific definition of process, and attempts to clarifythe dimensions and structure of i.provised drama,validates its use as a medium for creat;ing .eaning ineducational terms, that is, learning, and revealing its

73

potential as a dramatic genre (that is, as art form). Indoing these O'Toole provides brief descriptions of dramalessons and various experiences in DIE work from differentparts of the world.

O'Toole argues that although this is part of the historyof drama in education's struggle to find a rationale andmethodology, the process of drama has not been centred onthe individual. Drama is a social and public art forminvolving more than one person in all aspects of itscreation.

O'Toole (1992) believes that the debate between processand product; is a false dichotomy and that the centraldebates have centred on the educational implications ofdrama in schools, the notion of teaching about drama,versus the notion of teaching through drama. O'Toole doesboth in his practice; for he says "doing plays entails forme a lot of process, just as I have discovered thatimprovisation may often be or become in a full sense aproduct - a genre of the art form of drama" (O'Toole1992:17). This study embraces a similar view.

O'Toole in The Process of Drama proposes a structure thatsurrounds his draaat;ic (or fict;ional) cont;ext. He sayswhen people have come together to do drama in a theatre,hall, space... or what he refers to as t;he context; of the

aediu. it becomes a social event. He goes on to say that

74

sometimes drama happens in places which are notspecifically designated for drama, and where participantsmay have different purposes for doing or watching a drama.This forms another layer of context, the context of set-

ting, which imposes very explicit messages and sonegotiation must be very specific. Then, there is thereal context and this is the web of experience, attitudesand cultural values which the participants in the dramabring with them and which may be partially, but neverentirely, suspended in the drama. This O'Toole asserts:

is what is illuminated by the real insights whichdrama may provide - this is why we all fight fordrama in schools, either in the form of plays ordramatic play, because we all believe that thedrama reaches back out to the real. The realcontext like the others, is social as much as itis individual.•.• (O'Toole, 1992:16)

He therefore defines process as the degree ofnegotiability of the basic elements of the art form, interms of the purposes of the participants. This studyproceeds from the premise that drama is a process,

improvised educational drama is a processual genre.

At this stage it would be very useful to move on fromtheorists and practitioners who have informed the DIE/TIEmovements to those who have written on Drama, Theatre, andPopular Education in Africa. Africa is a huge continentand is very diversified in nature, however, there arecuItural and educational concerns that Africans share.This writer has once again concentrated on works most

75

relevant to this study whilst acknowledging that a lot hasbeen done in areas of culture in general, but moreresearch needs to be done in the area of educational dramaand its potential in Kenya.

critical Methodology from Africa

In The DevelopDlent of African Drama (1982) by MichaelEtherton, an analysis is undertaken of the development ofAfrican drama both as a type of performance and as ageneral social process.economic and political

It describes the general socio-factors that have led to the

stifling of an authentic African theatrical tradition. Anumber of the theoretical positions taken by Etherton willbe addressed in this study against the background ofeducational drama/theatre in Kenya.

Etherton uses the terms theatre and draaa interchangeably,but does not seem to consider the use of the term script

and play in the African drama. This contradiction is areflection of the confusion beset by the attempt to fusethe Western and African traditions. Etherton in his bookstresses the need to demystify the art of acting and toget community members involved in performing plays.However, Etherton, incorrectly, expresses that theatreskills can be acquired only through what he calls thewell-.ade play, a work scripted in accordance with the

76

conventions of drama.

Experience has shown, as will be illustrated in thisstudy, that the skills of acting can be learnt throughimprovisation and other participatory methods. Thenarrative itself can be structured through improvisation;people need to learn the skills in order to create withtheir own resources in their own communities, but the pathis not just through scripted plays.

On the whole The Development of African Drama concentrateson the themes of transforming traditional performances fora modern audience. The book does attempt an analysis ofthe aesthetics of traditional performances and istherefore relevant to this study only in so far as itrecognises African drama and theatre as wider concepts.As I said earlier, a book that hopes to study thedevelopment of African Drama can only provide a generalpicture because the very diversity of theatricaltraditions and their unique response to socio-historicalcircumstances is beyond the grasp of one book. This isthe major reason for concentrating the scope of this studyon the Kenyan scene.

Soyinka's philosophy on ritual both as a performance and acommunal tool for secular and religious concerns isextensively exemplified in Myth. Literature and theAfrican World (1976). He asserts that the debate about

77

whether drama proceedsirrelevant for African

from ritual or vice-versa isdrama. He says in ritual

performances "man is afforded a chance to come to termswith his physical and metaphysical being. It becomes anavenue for affirming social ethics, as well as a way ofgroping for the void. Man attempts to comprehend hisrelationship with cosmic reality." (Soyinka 1976:91) Thisis then the religious aspect of ritual drama. An in-depthstudy of ritual drama falls outside the scope of thisstudy, however, as it implicitly occurs in performanceespecially the Drama Festival, it will be discussed fromthe point of view of its meaning within the event.

Graham-White, in The Drama of Black Africa (1983) attemptsa categorization of African drama in three broad areas:,traditional', 'popular' and 'literary' . The area ofcategorization is one that recurs in the study and one weshall come back to, but my major concern is in Graham-White's rigid division between ritual and drama and theinevitable progression of ritual into drama; this studyparts ways with his view, for theatre always has a certainritual element in the sense that it fosters certainattitudes necessary for the survival of a certain valuesystem. On the other hand, theatre can set out to workagainst a certain value system: theatre always impliesconsequences beyond itself.

In The Epic of Africa (1976) Okpewho Isidore makes an

78

attempt to free traditional performance from undueassociation with ritual origins which as he points out inan earlier work tied the tradition performance to ritual.His focus is on the creative input of an individual artistrather than the real dynamic relationship established in atrue theatrical situation. He says that myth is thatquality of fancy which informs the creative configurativepowers of the human mind in varying degrees of intensity.

Okpewho is interested in the element of fancy in thenarrative tradition as operated by the creative mind andhow this is achieved in traditional performances and theimplications for community theatre today. This studyacknowledges that the individual traditional artist was ahighly skilled performer who played a significant role incommunity education.

Kamlongera in Theatre for Deyelopment in Africa with CaseStudies from Malawi and Zambia (1989), describes thedevelopment of theatre in Africa from a medium ofentertainment for the colonial elite to a post independentAfrican theatre. Various approaches to using theatre as amedium of education and development are discussed.Kamlongera starts by examining colonial education anddrama. This drama did not take into account traditionalAfrican forms "for the missionaries had already decidedthey were going to accept only those 'native' practicesthat suited their civilizing mission". (Kamlongera

79

1989:8)Indigenous African drama, Kamlongera argues, " exists incontext, and by context he means 'the situation in whichparticular human intention and action take place."(1989:15) Such a situation will be created by thecommunity itself and not by any outside force. The methodof creating is pegged to the nature of the function thatdrama is supposed to fulfil in a ceremony.

Like Kamlongera (1989) this study takes the view that theaesthetic qualities embedded in these events are not fullyrecognised, in spite of the acknowledgement that most ofthe action of these ceremonies is performed through song,dance, mime and even dialogue.

Kamlongera then deals with the concept of 'travelling

'theatre or taking theatre to the people. He says the ideaof a touring theatre group stems from the attempt topattern modern theatre on traditional models.

From time immemorial, traditional artists travelfrom village to village performing their arts.This they did on their own initiative or at theinvitation of important personages in mostvillages, and their performance was composed ofdance, story-telling and drumming. (1989:33)

He gives examples of the Alarinjo performers of Nigeria,Ghanaian Concert Party, The South African Musical Theatre,University drama groups like those from Ibadan (Nigeria)Makerere (Uganda) Chikwakwa (Zambia) and Chancellor

80

College (Malawi). He significantly misses out The FreeTravelling Theatre of Nairobi (Kenya) and The Creative andPerforming Arts, Kenyatta (Kenya): this study fills inthat vacuum.

Kamlongera rejects the notion of creating theatre for thepeople which many of these touring drama groups attemptedto do in performing finished products of the group's ownchoice and proposes an African aesthetic by creat;ing

theatre with the people. His primary concern is that ofcultural development and that means being with the peoplein creating theatre. In this study we pose a similarconcern in advocating for creating theat;re with the

people. People must be active participants in thecreation of theatre, with the objective of turning theatreinto a much more effective medium of education.

The basis of the work of educators such as Freire, Boal,

Kidd, Epskamp, Carmen, Hall and Boeren lies inparticipatory research, conscientisation and development.They all agree that in many cases people are notinterested in theatre for its own sake but for learningand developmental goals. Kamlongera feels that Theatrefor Development (TFD) continues the functional nature ofindigenous theatre into our modern age:

It is not a cliche to say indigenous performancesin Africa contain within them some functionalelement. In most cases this takes the form of a

81

didactic statement: whilst performers might engagein doing spectacular movements and dances, theymight also carry within the performances specialmessages or lessons to some members of theiraudience. Some work in Theatre for Development isa direct result of recognizing this characteristicin indigenous African performances. (1989:84)

David Kerr (1981) in 'Folk Media, Popular Theatre andConflicting Strategies for Social Change in the Third', inRoss Kid and Nat Colletta (eds)Tradition for Development:Indigenous Structures and Folk Media in Non-FormalEducation says that theatre can provide a method ofimplementing ideas by raising the critical awareness ofpeople to identify problems and consequences of aparticular social order. Kerr goes on to say theatre isbeing encouraged as a tool for adult education because ofdeficiencies in existing educational institutions andcommunication media which stems from elitism of colonialeducation and its irrelevancy to the goals of nationaldevelopment.

Kamlongera and other practitioners and such scholars asstephen Chifunyise in Theatre for Deyelopment in Zimbabwe(1985) propagate Theatre for Development and Kerr and Kiddboth relate popular theatre to adult education, and shareone philosophical basis derived from the ideas of PauloFreire. This study will attempt to illustrate that inKenya TFD and Popular Theatre in practices intenttechnique and applications largely aim at the educationaldomain of the people to whom they are presented.

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Mlama's Tanzanian Tradit:ional Theat:re as a Pedagogical

Institution. (1983) which is based on outlines of how someof the indigenous theatre forms were woven into formal andinformal educational processes of Tanzanian traditionalsociety. It describes dance, story-telling, mime and somerituals were effective tools through which specific valuesand attitudes were imparted to people and the basis ofbehaviour in the society mapped out. Mlama's researchdescribes the popular base on which this form of theatrewas built. She argues that in many societies, thecreation of both form and content was constructed on thebroad participation of the members of the community, whoas performers or audience could use the theatre to expresstheir concerns and viewpoints.

Mlama's Culture and Development (1992) based on herpractical experience over the years gives in depthinformation on cultural concepts and arts forms setagainst the backdrop of development. In her discussion ofthe different projects undertaken, popular theatretechniques are foregrounded and she offers a methodologyfor work with people in their communities. As MartinBanham in The New Theat:re Quart:erly 33:398 points out'...Mlama and Mda's work can also be placed in the contextof discussion and experience offered by H. Ndumbe Eyoh inHammocks to Bridges (33.398)

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Mda in When People Play People: Development ThroughTheatre (1993) presents a study of theatre for developmentwork in and gives aTravelling Theatre and

case example of The Marathoniits programmes put against the

confusions surrounding development projects. He discussesat length the educational impact of the programmes andposits theatre as a communication tool both for the peopleand those concerned with development. His criticalmethodology is based on making the participants experiencechange in learning situations.

The study of Wo.en in African Dra.a: Representation and

Role (1989) by Ciarunji Chesaina is an important work inan area where little research has been done. The studyexamines the representation and role of African women inAfrican theatre, and is based on texts from a pro-Africanperspective. It looks at the portrayal of women by majorplaywrights, their presentation of women characters andwriters attitudes towards women and women's issues.Chesaina selects Kenyan plays and treats them as readtexts and does an analysis of the performances of thesetexts and how audiences respond the them. Because thescope of her study is so widespread in Africa, variouseducational implications of the plays from Kenya are notgiven an in-depth investigation.

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Women in performance is a major theme in the case study of~nata by Imbuga which indicates Kenyan theatre is not asingle body of activities, rather it is a variety ofmovements constantly feeding into and influencing eachother, and most of the writers that Chesaina (1989)touches on are integral parts of the educational dramamovement.

There are many other scholars who have written onDrama/Theatre in Africa for instance Jane Plastow in The

Develop.ent of Theatre in Relation to the status and

societies of Ethiopia, Tanzania and Zimbabwe (1991)

concentrates on the theatre of these three countries fromthe pre-colonial era through to the present day. Sheexplores traditional art forms, the experience in thecolonial period and how post-independent theatrepractitioners have reacted to their multi-facetedperformance heritage. My interest was captured byPlastow's investigation into how art promoted bygovernments converges or diverges from popular art and howtheatre has been used as a tool for politicisation. It isnot just in the three countries she studies that politicsand political involvement play a central role in culturalactivities but in Kenya as well. Cultural legislation isan area of investigation later in this study.

A critical Evaluation of the Nature and Functions of

Theatre in Education in Britain and a Proposed Hodel for

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Nigeria, (1985) by T B Lakoju is one of the most importantworks to come out of Africa on TIE. It analyses thenature and function of TIE and Lakoju proposes thatliterary theatre is the category that has the potential tocarry the course of TIE in Nigeria. C F Olatoye in A

study of Educational strategies used in TIE and Their

Potential For Theatre in Education in Nigeria (1991) has adifferent view, arguing that TIE has to be groundedamongst the teachers in the classroom first. Olatoye'sargument for TIE's place is very much grounded within theeducational system and the classroom in particular anddiscusses how TIE can affect change on the pupils. Lakoju(1985) suggests a TIE programme that will aim at changingthe social consciousness of the people. This debatecoming from two educationalists from the same countrymakes for interesting observation on how drama and theatrefunction in a nation such as Nigeria where culturalactivities are so varied.

Both Lakoju and Olatoye give an overview of Nigeriantheatre and it is within these institutions that theyrecommend the potential of TIE. Lakoju proposes asocialist-based revolutionary education through TIE,because he observes that radical theatre is developing inNigeria in different forms. Olatoye believes that:

The war against disunity in Nigeria is not a warbetween capitalism and socialism. It is rather awar against attitudes such as distrust, apathy,ignorance and complacency. TIE would do better to

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address these directly rather than engage in openconfrontation with the government especially asthe government does not have a clear ideologicalfocus. (Olatoye, 1991:323)

Both positions have immense validity, particularly inAfrica where there is still a search for selfhood andnation-hood and the essence of education.

Barhanpurkar N.S. in A S~udy of Aspec~s of Indian Thea~reand i~s Educa~ional Role and a Considera~ion of S~ra~egies

for Developing TIE in India (1992) further testifies tothe viability, and wealth of strategies of TIE practice.It is one form of theatre that can be applicable in cross-cultural contexts as is illustrated in India.Barhanpurkar argues that the strategies developed by TIEteams over the last three decades in the UK have beenflexible enough to withstand constant attacks on theirfunctions by various circumstances. The concepts andtechnique advocated by pioneers in the field ofeducational drama are evidently appropriate to Indiantheatre forms. Barhanpurkar's work is useful in exploringthe cross-cultural terrain between India and Britain usingTIE as the link.

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Concluding Remarks

It is evident that Slade, Way, and Courtenay present vitalreading on theory of drama in education. The period oftheir writing coincide with the development of TIEpractice in the UK and the Drama Festival in Kenya; thesetheories influenced the practitioners at the time in bothcountries. In this study no distinction is made betweentheatre and draaa. Heathcote similarly does not see adichotomy between the two, and claims she is not educatinga potential theatre audience. I am of the view that it isimportant to teach theatre goers but also to create aforum that encompasses all that is the art of drama andtheatre which gives it an identity readily accessible to awide constituency and that is a conflation of the existingpractices in the field of drama, theatre and education.

The debate raised by Bolton on the dialectical set upbetween actors and audience is one that recurs in thisstudy as it foregrounds the notion of the teacher asfacilitator of a draaatic process. Bolton and Courtney'sbooks are availible to many drama teachers in Kenya andtheir propagation of the development of the studentthrough creative activity and the emphasis on drama as aneducational tool has influenced many theatre workers inschools.

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The guiding principle in this research has been influencedby theorists in the field of critical pedagogy and theseinclude Friere, Brecht, Boal, Epskamp, Kidd who proposethat the audience should be accepted as creators of somedrama and that drama made in collaboration with theaudiences will find a linkage with their social reality.Friere, in particular, emphasizes that education is a formof cultural action and this line of thinking is central tothis study and a particular education programme for thefuture. Participatory education should be based onculture and history, which gives the learners a purchaseon drama which ought to be both interpretative andcritical. It can offer explanations, make sense ofutterances and situations, but it can only do so withinthe structures and meaning already embodied in the self-interpretations of the participants and through thelanguage of the culture by which those interpretations

O'Toole, Jackson, Schweiter, Hornbrook's writings haveinfluenced the DIE/TIE movements and have createdfundamental debates on the discourse of educational dramaand the concepts of process and product. These writingshave had spill-over effects on educational drama practicein other countries and this study takes on board somefundamental proposals on the role of drama in today'srapidly changing society as expounded by Hornbrook.

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However, this study takes the view that drama cannot justbe understood as either process or product and we shouldnot have to choose between dra.a as subject or draaa as.ethod, neither should we choose between dra.a as art ordra.a as education in our proposed programme. It is myview that attention to developing a pupil's ability towork with story telling as a drama process and torecognize the drama product as manifested in the KenyanDrama Festival is necessary. At the same time I see theneed for erperi.ental play-.aking as providing the basisfor drama training, and also teaching the principles oftheatre, more importantly, the use of teacher-in-role asan approach for drama is an essential teaching technique.Oral perforwance is the very basis of many people's livesin Kenya and as the reservoir of a people's value itexpresses a given community's world view and gives them aspring-board via story telling, riddle, proverbs, song,dance, the ritual and epic from which their day-to-dayexistence is propelled. From this perspective oralperformance is seen by Soyinka, Graham-white, Isidore,Kamlongera and Mlama as the foundation on which culturaldirection, development and intervention can be grounded.Their writing explores this through Popular Theatre andTheatre for Development forms and this writer largelyagrees with their views but takes the slant that althoughpeople must be active participants in the creation oftheatre they should have the objective of turning theatreinto a much more effective medium of education.Lakoju,

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Olatoye, Barhanpurkar and many others have researched onthe educational strategies in TIE/DIE from theperspectives of Nigeria and India. In this study TIE as amovement is examined and the influences its concepts havehad on Kenyan theorists and educational drama. Certain ofthe concepts and techniques used in TIE practice aresimilar to modes and techniques in Kenyan educationaldrama. Plays, performances that incorporate participatoryeducation are suggested as programmes for the future of aKenyan theatre.

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CHAPl'ER TWO

CULTURE AND EDUCATION IN GENERALAND IN KENYA IN PARTICULAR

Educational drama is obviously influenced by the social,economic and political climate in which it operates. Tounderstand what has happened in Kenya, we need to considercultural conditions during the colonial period and thepost independence period. This chapter discusses aspectsof performance within Kenyan communities that appear tohave fulfilled cultural, ritual and didactic functions aswell as serving the need for entertainment it alsoexamines how European colonialisation, administration,Christianity and formal education interfered with theseforms and shaped them in a different direction. I examineculture and education in the post-independent period,highlight colonial structures that are still in place andtheir impact on education. The emphasis of this chapteris to foreground the institutions in which Kenyancontemporary theatre has survived.

BACKGROUND AND HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

The colonial period 1890 - 1963 witnessed the disruption

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of the social, economic and political systems of theAfricans in Kenya in many ways. Kenya obtained itspolitical independence from Great Britain on December 12th1963. According to the inconclusive and ratherprovisional 1989 population census: Kenya has a populationof about 25 million people. Kenya is a multi-racialnational composed of Africans, Arabs, Asian and Europeanraces. Africans who are the majority have several ethnicgroups with over 49 distinct languages: these multicultures present a diversity of aesthetic traditions, ofwhich a brief insight would be useful.

The country is divided into eight provinces which reflectvery much the ethnic, religious, occupational and economicdiversity. This is very much the result of the colonialadministration which for several decades kept the KenyanAfricans in "reserves". These "reserves" were normallymarginalised land unsuitable for arable farming whilst"the white highlands" with good agricultural land were setaside for the colonial settlers.

Kenya has a land area of about 583,645 sq. kms, but only18 per cent of its land is either high or medium potentialland suitable for farming without irrigation; this landmainly confined to the coastal belt and higher elevationswhich commonly receive 900 mm or more of rain a year. Butgenerally speaking most of the fertile land is in thesouth western part of the country with virtually all the

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northern and most of the eastern parts being littlecUltivated and maintaining only livestock.

Colonisation did not end with the forcible annexation ofAfrican territory, it went on to subjugate independentAfrican peoples to the political domination of Europeanpowers, for the purposes of economic exploitation.Clough, Marshall (1977) in "Chiefs and Politicians": LocalPolitics and Social Change in Kiambu, Kenya, says "Ex-senior Chief Koinange tells Carter Land Commission thatwhen Europeans came, in aftermath of famine and smallpox,"we were trusting in the Government: while we found thatthe Europeans who had come as temporary occupiers, hadturned themselves into the owners and the real owners intotenants". (Clough, "Chiefs":340). Bullock (1975) inNdeiya, Kikuyu Frontiers: The Kenya Land Problem inMicrocasm, writes of the Annual Report of AssistantDistrict Commissioner for Dagorretti in which someofficials clearly understood the profound and dangerouserror of the government in "doling out to Europeans landsactually paid for and owned by natives •..•. It isdoubtful if Government can secure the prestige lost bythis action which in a Protectorate is little less thanrobbery".(cited in Sicherman, 1990:44).

At the turn of the 19th century when Africa was colonised,the continent was fairly well organised in kingdoms andchiefdoms, with clear political leadership and authority.

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It was not easy for the colonialists to impose theirpolitical domination without first breaking the politicalbarrier and authority of African leaders and people. Inany case, they did not want to impose political dominationfor its own sake; but to pave the way for economicdomination and exploitation of African labour to grow cashcrops, work in mines or other colonial projects.

The African peoples did not voluntarily accept theimposition of colonial, political and economic domination;all available resources to resist were employed. But thestakes were high for colonialism, and the Europeans usedforce through colonial administration, religion andeducation. These totally disregarded the value of therich and diverse indigenous cultural heritage in theseregions. Political leadership and authority were disrup-ted; the indigenous economics were destroyed and thepeople's personalities too.

The alienation of the people's land forced many to moveeither to urban areas or to the settler farm as squattersin search of a means of livelihood. Many Africans weretaken into forced labour and in some colonies thesituation was so bad that not even the Inspector Generalof the Portuguese colonies could hide the reality. Thisis how he described the state of the colonised peoples:

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·....forced labour is in some ways more thansimple slavery. Under slavery after all thenative is brought as an animal; his owner prefershim to remain as fit as a horse or an ox - yethere (in Angola) the native is not bought, he ishired from the store, although he is called a freeman. And his employer cares little. If hesickens or he dies, his employer will simply asKfor another. (Cited in Sicherman, 1990:75)

This applied right across the continent of Africa, inKenya there was a law forbidding women to accompany theirmenfolk to their places of work. This contributed tofamily breakups, tensions and disruptions in communities.Social norms, customs and practices that required both themale and female started fading, for the women and childrenwere left in the reserves with the men having to look forpaid work in other areas. The Africans who worked onsettler farms were not allowed to carry out their culturalpractices which were considered "primitive" and evil.This robbed the African personality of the facility ofexpression using known indigenous art forms that werepracticed in the communal context.

At the same time, the Africans were excluded from thecUltivation of commercial crops such as coffee, tea andpyrethium and denied access to many other marketsparticularly maize and dairying. This was all done on avery discriminatory basis, part of the reason was toforestall competition to European settler agriculture. InLeys letter to the Colonial Secretary in 1918 in Cells

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J.W. (1976) ed and intro. By Kenya Possessed: The Corre-

spondence of Norman LeYs and J.H. Oldham 1918 - 1926, hesays:

Because many Africans have "just enough ground onwhich to grow their necessary food" they cannotgrow cash crops to raise money for taxes and areforced into the labour markets(6) (Leys, letter toColonial Secretary, 1918, in Cells 92)

Leys estimates that by the 1920's "the average labourers"

wages for between three and four months were entirely

devoted to paying the direct taxation, which in Kenya then

fell almost exclusively on those of the African race.

This dependency syndrome and the cyclic problems that the

Africans have during this period disrupted communal

systems which dealt a serious blow to cultural norms.

We argue in this study that the African personality that

emerges against this background is seriously disoriented.

We go further to illustrate how colonial cultural forms

expressed in Christianity and Education negatively imposed

on African traditional education and indigenous values and

art forms. Antony Baker (1970) In COlDlllUDity of the

Careless aptly puts it in a nutshell:

Economic or even social analysis of migratorylabour will fail to reveal the full picture of itscosts. To learn this you must listen to thelonely wife, the anxious mother, the insecurechildren •• It is at the family level that mostpain is felt and we cannot forget that the Africanculture enshrines a broad concept of family ••.••

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Migratory labour destroys this, by taking away forlong months together, the father, the brother, thelover, the friend.

(1970:79)

It is within this context that we have cultural discoursesin Kenya in the 20th century.

culture

To study culture we first need to confront the complexityinherent in the term itself, that is in its diversity ofusage, relating to different areas of inquiry. RaymondWilliams terms culture 'one of the two or three mostcomplicated words in the English Language' (Williams,1976:76) He suggests these broad definitions. First ofall, culture can be used to refer to a 'general process ofintellectual, spiritual and aesthetic deve-

lopment'(Williams:80) A second use of the word culturemight be to suggest 'a particular way of life, whether ofa people a period or a group'. Finally, Williams suggeststhat culture could be used to refer to 'the works andpractices of intellectual and especially artisticactivity' (Williams:80). There the word is used to referto a peoples way of life, a way of perceiving and doingthings that identifies one people as distinct fromanother. A culture derives its qualities from the condi-tions - the economic, political and social - existing in asociety.

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Using Williamsdevelopment of

first suggestion we could discuss theKenya with reference to intellectual,

spiritual, aesthetic factors which include thinkers,artists, and educationalists.we could look at particular

Using his second definitioncommunities and the many

ideological tools such as religion, education, languageand the arts which are used to consolidate this way oflife and determine the workings of a society's structures.

The heterogenity of Kenya is intricate and it is difficultto draw cultural boundaries. In the first quarter of the20th Century many Kenyan Africans were caught in a dilemmafor their tradition culture was opposed to Christianityand their formal schooling. Initially, the values ofChristianity were introduced gradually but once formaleducation came into play their influences on traditionalcultures became immense.

Christianity

Colonialism used the Christian religion to condemn variousAfrican cultural practices as "evil" and "heathen".Because many of the African traditions were used to bindpeople towards a community: The Christian edict was usedto put a wedge between African people. The Christianmissionaries also urged those connected to them asconverts into a culture of silence, accepting colonialism

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as inevitable. Good Christians, for instance, wereexpected to stay out of politics that would question theworkings of colonialism; "it is fellow kinsmen and fellowcountrymen who, as Christians were made to believe thatfighting for their independence was the work of thedevil". (Ngugi, 1986:44)

As early as 1913 leaders of the Mumbo cult in Luoland inwestern Kenya rose up against Christian and colonialpractices. Ogot and Ochieng (1972) assert that "despitepersistent British repression, Mumboist resistance spreadsuntil 1954, when the government bans Mumbo worship asdangerous to peace and good government" (1972:172)

Christianity was in its own right a cultural concept andits practices normally challenged the African practices.To make it more attractive, formal education wasintroduced gradually; the study of the catechism and thethree R's, reading, writing and 'rithmetic becamefoundation subjects in the missionary schools. TheChristian converts could not therefore concentrate oncommunal activities and non-formal education that taughtthe people to understand how to deal with theirenvironment, their neighbours and themselves as a people.They were barred from communal ceremonies including namegiving, initiation, and ritualistic ceremonies. In theschools they were taught to look down on these practicesas irrelevant and outmoded.

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The Christian agenda was supported by a well thought outideological onslaught.

In order not to confuse the similar landscapes that bothculture and ideology explore, it is important to note thatthese terms are not synonymous. Ideology can refer to asystematic body of ideas by a particular group of people;for example the Christian missionaries to Africa hadChristian edicts that guided their practice and informedtheir work in these areas.

Another case would be a practice at Nyabondo CatholicMission in Nyanza Province of Kenya, in the 1930's;Reverend Bartelis Leo had argued that religious and moralinstruction, crucial in the socialisation of thoseindividuals subject to missionary influence could be aidedby suitable theatre, and felt drama provides an excellentand instructive recreation. He encouraged andparticipated in the production of religious plays and alsosimple dramatisation of Luo narratives during his tenureas a priest. He is also remembered for involving manyyoung people in clay moulding and sculpture.

In an interview with vital is Ojore, a 82 year oldChristian convert, who was part of Reverend Bartelis Leo'scatechist class said "Father Leo stressed to us in 1937the importance of playing with simple stories in dramas,

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in order to understand the bible, he always wanted us todramatize these and other biblical events. You know, Ilearnt to count through the play of kidi (this is the Luo

form of chess)." (Interview ojore, 1992). People likeLeo could be said to have been involved in using a mediumof drama in the teaching of Christianity. Thedramatization of biblical stories with the fusion ofsocietal art forms constituted a certain ideologicalintervention. I will go into another example of how thisform was used but at the same time put forth a suggestionthat educational drama practices were used by themissionaries as mediums of imparting religious messages.

A significant example of this use of drama maybe found inunpublished scripts in Dholuo, by a Catholic sister in1946, at the Nyabondo Catholic Mission. Bernadette Leyshad by this time worked in various parts of Kenya as amissionary for twenty years. She mainly taught Africannurses and took an interest in their recreationactivities, found out that they liked to sing, dance andplayas a major pre-occupation.

Over a period of time they did biblical stories or playsin English, but she realised the nurses were not as"enthusiastic" when performing in English as when doingthe singing or playing in their own language Dholuo. Shethen learnt Dholuo and decided to write scripts in thelanguage. According to Patricia Orowe a retired nurse who

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worked with Bernadette Leys for fifteen years 'Bernadettewanted to teach religious history, Christian ethics in thenursing profession through drama. She wrote thesescripts, three of which she gave me as presents and overthe years, these were performed: but this is how welearnt to read and write properly as we trained to benurses' (Interview with Orowe 1991). The scripts RO.o,

Ler Harwa, Chako Kendo all written between 1945-1954,apart from their didactic thrust appear to directthemselves to certain discourses and events during thatperiod. The 2nd World War and its impact on the Luo

people is a significant issue, or specifically how womenleft by their menfolk during the war coped and their senseof expectation as the war drew to an end. They talked ofeducation, Christianity and the teaching career.

But the plays also seemed to discourage the manifestationat any level of the Africans' impulse for resistance. Theplays then tended to propagate an essentially pre-determinist view of accepting the inevitable. sisterBernadette seemed to be consciously using drama with thenurses as an educational medium but with a slant toreinforce 'goodness' as espoused by the Bible. In the1950's African Christians were a formidable fraternity andformed an opposition to traditional religion, medicine andeducation. But on its own Christianity could not providethe onslaught on these cultural norms, hence thefoundation of the missionary schools that had started in

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the 1930's and 1940's.

socialisation as Education

In the traditional African context, culture and educationdid not have the semantic specificity that a definitionrequires. To give a brief example of what I mean would bein order, grounding the two concepts within the context ofthe Luo oral tradition. This oral tradition was the modeof socializing the young into the norms of the society.The oral traditional had a didactic as well as aestheticfunction between which it is practically impossible todraw lines of separation.

The oral traditional was communicated from the old to theyoung and the institutions in which this function wascarried out were the siwindhe and dual. Like in manyAfrican societies the Luo kinship constitutes the primarybasis for the individual rights, rules of residence,marriage and succession. All these can only be meaningfulby reference to their social and educational functions.

Siwindhe was the sleeping quarter for adolescent girls.It was the house of a women long past child-bearing.Through narratives, proverbs, riddles and other aspects ofthe oral tradition the girls' role in society and what thesociety expected of them as adults was given. The

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institution of siwindhe could benormal school. The importance

compared to today'sof the siwindhe

socialization is captured in the Luo saying, 'Iming ka

ngama ok onindo e siwindhe'. This, translated, means 'Youare as naive as one who did not sleep in the siwindhe.'

One's knowledge of the world, their environment and how tocope with it, was expected to come from the socializationin the siwindhe which was very informal. Most of the daythe girls did their daily chores but went to the siwindhe

in the evening.

The duol was, for the male children, what siwindhe was tothe female one, although the male children did not sleepin the duol. The duol was the hut that the owner of thehomestead built as his special guest room and this iswhere he received any visitor. It is also where malemembers of the family had their meals and evening talk.Male children would sit in the duol listening to storiesor sometimes just listening to their elders discuss issuesthat affected that particular community. In this way theylearnt the traditions and customs of the society and alsolearnt the art of rhetoric and performance. Thissocialization process centres too on other areas of theirlives; their occupations, their aspirations, thecelebrations and the sorrows. Each item of life wasintegrated and linked to other aspects of life throughthis form of oral tradition. Meanings were establishedfor the young in the daily occurrences part and parcel of

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their lives.

It is through oral tradition that the community'sconstitution was constantly under promulgation andenforcement. Social control is based on law and order andthe Luo, as a people, based their social systems on lawand order. These responded to cultural dynamism for thelaws were often challenged by the siwindhe and dual withpeople grounded in this system, by an oral traditionwhich, through the story teller, singer, riddler madecomments on the Luo constitution and by so doing broughtout interpretations that sought for adjustments in theconstitution or expression of the people's feelings aboutsome of the laws, and the enforcers would be forced totake the people's will into consideration. In its own waythis informal educational system coped with the realitiesof the time; but became entirely marginalized with theadvent of formal education and Christianity. So far wehave attempted to show that there were educationalinstitutions in the traditional societies.

The example I have given of a simple non-formaleducational set-up in the Luo community, had differentstructures and modes of application in the differentAfrican communities of Kenya. There were then culturalceremonies and events such as the initiation, the handingover of power to the young, spiritual rituals which haddidactic purposes.

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Educational Implications

Both initiation and the Siwindhe/Duol Institutions hadpolitical and educational implications. In theireducational aspects, the individual is able to learn aboutthe tradition of the society and to understand his dutiesand privileges. The methods of education were pragmatic,entailing the practice of social activities; the learnerparticipates in the real social situation. The content issimple, but very comprehensive, so that there is atransmission of both knowledge and skills. The motives andattitudes that underlay the educational process is totrain children and also help members of the community topass from one phase of life to the other with confidenceand knowledge of societal and individual realities anddifficul ties. The sociological and psychologicalfunctions is to mould the growing individual in accordancewith the rules of the community and to check thedevelopment of the personality of such an individual alongthe lines which the community considers to be in order.

The missionary schools and, later, the African governmentschools, emphasised that African traditional culture wassomething that educated Africans could do without and didnot merit much attention in the curriculum.went to school were physically discouraged from

Those whoattending

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their community's cultural functions. They started losingthe power to perceive themselves as an entity and torecognise the good and the bad forces in theirenvironment. The ideological tools enshrined in communityvalues and instructions had become weak in the face ofChristianity and the school. The siwindhe and duol

institutions amongst the Luo people could not challengeeffectively the onslaught of religious and educationalforces encroaching into their lives. Nevertheless theAfrican people resisted these ever so fervently usingtraditional modes of ritual which the colonial mind didnot deliberately want to accept and allow to thrive. Thefollowing are some of the creative modes of expressionthat stood in opposition to formal school.

other forms of Cultural Expression

In 1925 the Ituika ceremony amongst the Gikuyu people,which was for the purpose of handing over power from ageneration of elders, installed between 1890-1890, wasstopped it from going on by the colonial government, whichlabelled it as "seditious" and "evil". In doing this theGikuyu people were being denied legitimate political powerand, as Jomo Kenyatta in his book Facing Mount Kenya. theTraditional Life of the Gikuyu (1938) says, "The presentgeneration is denied their birthright - the most harmo-nious participation in the social, political, economic andreligious organisation of the tribe" (Kenyatta, 1938:196-

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7). This is not an isolated incident because earlier on,in other parts of Kenya, people were having to revert totheir spirituality to mobilize and inculcate the values ofthe community in order to resist British dominators.

In Giriama, at the coast, the people were inspired by MeKitilil a "prophetess" using oaths to enforce the call forrestoration of traditional ways: this is just before thebreak-out of the First World War.

In the Rift Valley in 1923, led by Arap Manyei, the Nandipeople protested that extensive land alienation increasedtaxes and labour conscriptions. According to Ellis Dianain "The Nandi Protest of 1923 in the Context of AfricanResistance to Colonial Rule in Kenya" Journal of AfricanHistory (1976). Arap Manyei was "charged withadministering an oath binding the Nandi people to joinhands with other nationalities to drive out theBritish." and was detained for ten years.should be "seen as an initial, positive

This protestattempt to

mobilise Nandi resources to resist colonial threats".(Meinertzhagen 1957:239)

Faced with such resistance and the mode utilized by theGikuyu, the Giriama, the Nandi, the Abagusii and the Luoall drawing from their cultural practices, the colonialgovernment got alarmed and this resulted in thelegislation of the Witchcraft Act Cap 67 of the 12th

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November, 1925. The Act does not provide a definition ofwhat constitutes "witchcraft", but in reality thelegislation was to inhibit cultural activities such astraditional medicines, religious and ritual and non-formaleducational practices. The witchcraft Act of 1925, TheChief is Authority Act of 1937 and The Public Order Act of1950 were legislative acts designed to reinforcemissionary education by destroying African culturalpractices and have continued to do so today.

Formal Education before Independence

By the time Kenya approached political independence in the1950's the schools exhibit a clear racial difference; allwhite schools, Asian schools and African schools sponsoredby either missionaries or the government. The facilities,the curriculum and intention and methods were different inthese schools. The African schools were designed toprepare pupils for blue-collar jobs in industry andagriculture. Norma Leys (1970) provides figures from thegovernment Annual Report for 1938. "1% of Africanchildren are educated in government schools, 23% inmission schools, and the rest get no education at all"(Furley & Watson, 1978:246). Overall governmentexpenditures on African education was 4s 3d per school-agechild, and even the tiny minority of children ingovernment schools is funded at grossly disproportionaterates - "£4 6s per child, versus £23 13s for European

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children". (Beecher Report: 1951: 134-135)

In 1949 the colonial Government adopted the Beecher Reportwhich attempted to remedy some of the educationallimitations; a ten-year development plan for Africaneducation, which would provide by the end of ten years -six years of education by trained teachers for 50% ofAfrican children; 10% would receive another four years ofschooling, and 400 graduates a year would receivesecondary education through expansion of existing schoolsand an additional sixteen secondary schools (2 of them forgirls). The Beecher Report goes on to recommend continueduse of mission schools to provide Christian correction of"breakdown of moral standards in African society"(1951:136). The Report notes that "illiterates with theright attitude to manual employment are preferable toproducts of the schools lacking such an attitude; it alsosuggests that more than four years of primary educationmight impair pupil's rural attitudes and willingness toperform manual labour" (1951:143). The Beecher Report of1949 fails to advance beyond the 1919 report recommendingeducation on technical lines to enable "natives" to followorders better". (1951:143)

The Beecher Report must, however, be seen in context. In1947 there were only two secondary schools preparingstudents for university-level studies, and in thefollowing year there were only 39 pupils in the entire

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country at that level, by 1950 there were six universitygraduates among five million Kenyan Africans. In 1959only 7% of the total education budget went to Africans.These figures indicate the significance that was given toAfrican education. The huge contradiction inherent incolonial practice up to this time is not to give Africansadequate leeway in both the non-formal and formal systemsof education. This then becomes a legacy that is tobecome part of education in the post-independent period,our interest in this legacy is how the school and theatresas institutions did not adequately prepare Kenyan Africansto fully operate within them.

Education in Kenya from 1963 to the Present

since Kenya attained political independence thirty yearsago, the Kenyan government has had to look at theeducational system it inherited from the British, itsimplications for the Kenyan people and the realities ofthe nation and its people. As Olatoye correctly observes:

The educational systems of Third World countries,like the economies they inherited fromcolonialism, are consumer-oriented in theory andpractice.(Olatoye 1991:288)

As we have observed, too, in this study, the westerneducation imposed on the Kenyan people was not appropriatein intention and lacking in facilities for effectiveimplementation. The traditional forms of education had

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undergone almost a century of suppression andmarginalisation and were not well-placed to tackle thepresent realities of Kenya and her people.

The government have, therefore, had to set up severalcommissions to review the educational systems, to ensurethat national aspirations and objectives are identifiedand achieved through education. These commissionsinclude:

1. The Kenya Educational Commission(The Ominde Report, 1964)

2. A study of Curriculum peyelopment in Kenya(The Bassey Report, 1972)

3. The National Committee on Educational Objectives andPolicies(The Gachathi Report, 1976).

4. The Presidential Working Party on a Second University(The Mackay Report, 1981)

The Ominde Report of 1964 laid stress on the expansion ofAfrican education and the promotion of national unity,through the introduction of a standard curriculum and onepublic examination system. This stress is not at allsurprising looking at the Beecher Report and the state ofAfrican education in the 1950's. The discrepancies ineducation between the races had to be addressed and this,Ominde recommended should be done through a unified

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curricular and examination system that would access allraces into further education. These separatist structureshad to be done away with. However, this has been anuphill task all along for instance, the former all whiteand Asian schools had special facilities and specialteachers. These could not be compared to the ordinaryAfrican schools and to change them and attitudes to themhas not been easy. They have become what are known as"high-cost" schools and they charge high fees that only aminority of the Kenyans can afford. Then, the governmentand wealthy parents have tended, over the years, toconcentrate educational resources in these institutionswhich only form a minority of the schools in Kenya.

More importantly, English has remained the officiallanguage in Kenya and the medium of instruction inschools: this has placed the majority of Kenyan childrenat a disadvantage especially with the handling of thepublic standard examinations. The teaching and learningof English has had spill-over effects on educational dramaas we see later on. Because of the English tradition inthe high cost schools they have an advantage over schoolswhere English is the medium of instruction.

The Bassey Report of 1972 criticised the emphasis ongeneral education and the comparative neglect of subjectswith aBassey

practical bias. What waswas an educational system

needed according towith a curriculum

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relevant to the country's social and economic needs. Imust hasten to point out that the Ominde Commission hadnot laid stress on "technical education" and"agriculturally" related subjects because of theircolonial legacy and the attitudes attached to them fromthat period: not many Kenyan Africans wanted to have thechildren study these subjects because of their careerdeficiency.

Between 1964 and 1972 there had been attempts to assessthe relationship between needs, existing facilities andthe cost of education. It was during this period thatForm 5 and 6 and the 'A' Level syllabus was implementedfor all in Kenya and the Abolition of Year 8 in Primaryschools: I highlight these two developments because theybecome the centre of an educational debate in the 1980'sand 1990's.

Having managed to set a standard curriculum and one publicsystem the government, for eight years, played a wait-and-see game, before moving ahead to attempt to radicallychange the tenets of the educational system. Part of thereason for this was the inequality in staffing andinfrastructure in the various educational institutions.Other reasons include the inability by the politicalleaders to cut off links with colonial-oriented education,of which most of them were products; the influence of the

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British expatriate teachers and policy makers was stillvery noticeable in the early 1970's.

Educationalists in Kenya generally concur that the BasseyReport of 1972 was ineffectual and did nothing to changethe education system for the better. This was an attemptby the then government to be seen to be doing somethingafter public concern at the process of education. Therewas no attempt by the Ministries of Education and Cultureto strike a balance between western forms of education andwhat was appropriate for the country. Manyeducationalists argue that to deny education for

understanding to many young people at this stage was todiscard the nations most precious resource on the basis ofshort-term political expediency.

In reacting to criticism the government, in 1974abolished school fees for years 1-4 in primary schools,and a presidential decree demanded that all Kenyanchildren should go to school free of charge. Thepropaganda by the government was education for all by theyear 2000.

But as the government was abolishing fees in the firstphase of primary schools, it introduced a Loan toUniversity students to be paid back, and fees in Forms 5and 6. All these had been free of charge prior to 1974.It presented the government with huge contradictions in

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its educational policies from here on, for this jugglingwith policies has led to several major mistakes injudgment by the government in years to come.

Another significant educational development was thedeclaration by the president was that Kiswahli wouldbecome an official and national language and parliamentpassed a bill to this effect in 1974. This has basicallybeen the theory but English has remained the officiallanguage and medium of instruction. Two related eventsoccured at about the same time. This was first, thechange of name from The English Department to theDepartment of Literature at the University of Nairobi andsecondly the start of the teaching of oral literature inschools and at the University.

The Gachathi (NCEOP) Report of 1976 went further than theBassey Report and recommended the abolition ofexaminations and the introduction of a system ofcontinuous assessment of individual performance: it arguedthat continuous assessment would be at least as effectiveas the examinations in identifying pupils with highintellectual potential and skills which could then bechannelled into appropriate courses. Throughout the1960's emphasis was laid on how the growing number of '0'level graduates might best be employed in the middlelevels of the economic spectrum, but according to theGachathi Report (1976):

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The 1970's would be a period for the strengtheningand expansion of the University of Nairobi: thiswas in part a conscious effort to provide thenecessary manpower at various levels ofadministration and the professions within both thepublic and private sector. (Government Report,1976:49)

Between 1966 and 1984 the educational system in Kenya wasstructured to provide pupils with seven years at theprimary level, four years at the secondary level and aminimum of three years at university, formerly known asthe 7-4-2-3 system. The examinations were: Certificateof Primary Education at year 7, Kenya Junior Certificateof Education at year 9 (this was abolished in 1976), andKenya Certificate of Education of 'Q' Levels and AdvancedCertificate of Kenyan Education 'A' Levels. It is worthnoting that the commissions took note of the fact thatonly a few students could get to do 'A' Levels and go onto University, but they did not deem it appropriate tochange this structure. One thing all the commissionsshared was their concern with the relevance of the type ofeducation provided.

A MAJOR SHIFT; The 8-4-4 Educational SystemThe Presidential Working Party on a Second University, theMackay Report of 1981, criticised the structure, contentand quality of education of this period.

The whole system was found to be highly competitive,elitist, and largely serving the interest of the

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minori ty. This trend seems to be reinforced andperpetuated by the public examination which takes placeat every level. Its competitive and elitist naturereinforced social inequality and inequitabledistribution of income.(Government Report 1981:31)

This commission once again set out to review developmentin education with regard to the production of increasingnumbers of graduates that the development of the countryrequires. In this regard they felt post-secondary anduniversity education should relate their curricula tonational problems. The Mackay Report recommended arestructuring of the educational system to eight years atthe primary level, four years at the secondary level and aminimum of four years at University. This has becomepopularly known as the 8-4-4 educational system.

It seemed in 1982 that the educational systems in Kenyahad gone full circle back to where it was in 1964. Eightyears at primary was recommended for Africans in order tomaster the basic concepts in education, but was abolishedin 1965 and replaced with seven years at the primarylevel. Forms 5 and 6, which had been introduced forAfricans soon after that, became the major target forremoval by the Mackay Commission. It was seen asnarrowing down the scope of the learner by too earlyspecialization of subjects and as having become moribundin the employment sector.

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The report was accepted by the Government in 1982 and theimplementation of the programme started in 1984. Thus, inthe Kenyan context, children enter year one of the primaryschool from the pre-primary school at the age of six andstay on until the age of fourteen. In the primary schoolthe broad aims of the 8-4-4 educational system is to:

i) Provide education for numeracy and literacyand an all-rounded education in order to socializethem as useful citizens within the Kenyan society.

ii) To avail subjects which will prepare thepupils for secondary education.

(Government Report, 84:117)In the primary school curriculum the following subjectsare studied from year three to year eight: English (as asubject and the medium for instruction), Kiswahili,Mathematics, Science, Agriculture, Home Science, Arts andcrafts, Music, History and Civics, Geography and PhysicalEducation. In the first two years of primary schoolemphasis on Arithmetic, Reading and Writing and the mediumof instruction is in Kiswali in urban areas and thepupil's mother tongue in the rural areas.

The age range in secondary schools is between 15 and 20years of age. The subjects under the secondary curriculumare: English, Kiswahili and Foreign Languages (undercommunication), Mathematics, Physical and BiologicalSciences, Geography, History and Government, ReligiousEducation, Social Education (Humanities), Agriculture,Industrial Education, Business Education, Home Science,

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Art, Music, and Physical Education (under Applied Educa-tion). The broad aims of secondary education are statedas:

i) To prepare students to be selt-reliant and tocope with living in the Kenyan society.

ii) To prepare for further education, either tothe university or tertiary colleges, polytechnicsand training institutions of various kinds.

(Government Report 1984:79)

Education is, at the moment, of immense importance for thefuture state of Kenya, and a huge proportion of Kenyansare involved in the educational system as learners,teachers and parents.

The realisation of the objectives in the 8-4-4 systemdepended very much on the serious difficulties in Kenya atthe time, both in and out of education. The most seriousproblem facing Kenyan education is the shortage ofadequately trained teachers. The introduction of the 8-4-4 educational system made more obvious than ever theserious understaffing at all levels. This is felt morewith highly specialized subjects and those that were newlyintroduced and there has been hardly any time forprofessional training. The mass recruitment and the crashprogrammes to cope with the new educational system has

caused problems. Increased numbers have stretchedfacilities in the teacher training colleges. otherproblems include the congested timetables in the wholespectrum of education from primary school to university.

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Physical facilities are in dire need but the governmentdoes not have adequate funding so that the funding ofthese costs will have to be borne by parents.

since the 8-4-4 system was introduced it has been thesubject of many debates on its usefulness, relevance andcost-effectiveness. But, unlike the other threecommissions, the Mackay Report has had the most impact onKenyan education. Just as Kenyans were getting a feel ofa people's oriented education which borrowed from thewestern forms, but used its own resources for implemen-tation in the 1960's and 1970's, the 8-4-4 system set in.Although all was not well with the implementation ofeducational policies prior to this, there was room forthought and debate amongst educationalists andpoliticians. Decisions made were piloted first andgradually put in place. All these factors were missingduring the implementation of the 8-4-4 system. Theinterference by the politicians into the "debates", theirpronouncements on the system and how they engage with itraise some significant issues. According to Sifuna

To meet a high school student during the 7:6:3education system was a real academic encounter.Knowledge, views and experiences would be exchangedwith candour an inspiration. Generally students weremore aware of their environment and their respectivesocieties than is the case today. (1990:187)

The 8-4-4 system became an ideological weapon in serviceof the powerful politicians. Education has come to be

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viewed by the Kenyan people in a particular light, as amechanism of oppression. In the 8-4-4 system, there havebeen attempts to conceal the reality of its oppressivenature, and in it the aims have created an impression sothat those concerned with education are not able to seethemselves as either oppressed or exploited within thedominant educational system. It has been used toestablish power bases within the educational institutionsand the society as a whole, and this can been seen in theway the taught and teachers, teachers and politicians haveoperated in the last decade. In the 8-4-4 system,ethnicity, regionalism and race relations have beendistorted and masked to present "the establishment"attitude. More importantly, the 8-4-4 system hascontinually presented partial truths to the students,teachers, and the Kenyan people. The political agenda hasnever been clear, the tenets have remained confused andthe implementation obviously subjective. K'Olale argues

that

Let's restructure our education, such an education canobviously not be in the spiri t of the 8-4-4, but aneducation system that rehumanises, conscientizes and leadsto greater heights of human progress and satisfaction.(1993:16)

Historically, this has been the state of Kenyan educationfor the past forty years; all the phases I have discussedhave had various impacts on the Kenyan people.Participatory education is clearly opposite to the

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philosophy of the 8-4-4 system, but takes its effects intoaccount. Drama as a medium and method for teaching and asa subject have a case in solving some of the problems soinherent in the 8-4-4 educational system.

Concluding Remarks

Education should help liberate and then develop people.Indeed, this liberating role of education has beenthwarted by colonial and post-independent governments inKenya. The Colonial administration,formal education obviously interferededucation; then when it did provide

Christianity andwith indigenous

some educationalfacilities for Africans they were far from adequate.These structures were inherited at independence and withseveral but far from perfect recommendations by variouscommissions Kenyan teachers developed an education thatwas making its recipients more creative, informed,inquisitive and relatively more independent than before.

Then in 1984 came the 8-4-4 system of education which hasbeen underdeveloped because it demands more facilitiesthan the already impoverished parents could afford. Onlya few privileged schools have been able to acquire some ofthe prescribed facilities; this results in theinequalities in the distribution of educational amenities.

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The implementation of the system was concomitant withorganized politicization of the educational process.First, courses were radically reformed to conform to thedemands of the regime. For instance progressive literaryworks were removed from the school curriculum, second, thehistory syllabus was tampered with to make history adetached discipline which centres on the achievements ofthe rulers; to misinform their recipients. In a nutshellthe 8-4-4 system is typically characterized byunderdevelopment and miseducation of the Kenyan Youth andthis aspect of education is now part of the historical andsocial realities in Kenya. But in areas such aseducational drama, there is reflected hope for a basis forthe future.

In the next chapter, we look at how contemporary KenyanTheatre has survived in this cultural and educationalclimate.

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CHAPTER THREE

AN HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CONTEMPORARY KENYAN THEATRE

AN HISTORICAL STARTING POINTAs a Kenyan who grew up both in the pre and post-independent Kenya, exposed to the remains andcontradictions of colonialism, inspired by, and yetresistant to, my predominantly western education, I canperceive the intricacies of contemporary theatre largelyfrom within my historical roots in Kenya. In this chaptercontemporary theatre traditions in the last forty yearsare discussed and how they have functioned in thepolitical cultural landscapes.

Expatriates and the colonial settlers staged theatricalshows as early as 1902. These early theatrical eventstook place in settlers clubs that were built exclusivelyfor whites only. These include the Mombasa LittleTheatre; the plays performed there consisted mostly ofcomedies and musicals, with occasional plays by GeorgeBernard Shaw and Shakespeare. In 1933 James Alfred RudolfMasters founded the East African Shakespeare Festival tobe organised on an annual basis and to perform onlyShakespearean plays. This Festival attracted amateurdrama groups from Tanganyika, Uganda and Kenya.

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In 1947, Mr Rost, a British Council Representative, mootedthe idea of a Kenyan National Theatre building to be putup in Nairobi. This was accepted and, in 1952, the KenyanCultural Centre (KCC) which houses the Kenya NationalTheatre, (KNT) came into being. It was to function as amulti-racial centre whose objective was to provide arecreational facility for the different races in Kenya atthe time. In March 1951, the Kenya Cultural Centre Act,Cap 218, had been enacted to incorporate the Centre andconfirm its powers.

In October 1952, a state of emergency was declared becauseof the Mau Mau national uprising against British rule.The earlier objectives of the Kenya National Theatrechanged and was now to entertain the British soldiers whohad come to suppress the popular and national Mau Maustruggle. From this point, the Kenya National Theatreassumed a symbolism of oppression, a stigma attached to itby Kenyans to this day.

In 1953, the East African Theatre Guild started the KenyaDrama Festival in conjunction with the British Council.The Kenya Drama Festival ran alongside the East AfricanShakespeare Festival, although, in the former, otherEuropean plays were performed. The Festival broughttogether amateur groups made up of expatriate teachers andcolonial settlers.

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In 1959, the Kenya Schools Drama Festival started as aprivate and autonomous organisation; certain all-whiteschools were chosen by the drama and music officer toparticipate in the Festival. The British Council helpedto run the event that put up As You Like It, Henry IV,Midsummer Nights Dream, all by Shakespeare, taking centrestage during the period. Most of the English Literatureteachers of the time were members of the Royal ShakespeareCompany in Kenya and our investigation shows that this, tosome extent, determined the set texts studied in schools.

Just before independence on 1st October 1963, the Film andstage Plays Act Cap 222 came into being. It was enactedto control the making and exhibition of cinematograph,films, for licensing of stage plays, theatres and cinemas.Part IV (section 19-23) of the Act provides for thelicensing of stage plays, and section 19 gives theresponsibility for the administration of the Act thepowers to appoint a person to be the stage plays licensingauthority. The Act does not identify the said ministry,the result is that licensing of stage plays is currentlyregarded as a revenue issue rather than one of culturalorientation. There has never been a consistent ministryin charge of culture too because of this ambiguous Actwhich has remained in place and promoted censorship.

Theatre in Kenya can very generally be classified under

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three main broad categories, namely traditional, popular

and literary theatre.

Tradi tional theatre focuses on traditional performance

modes. The terms theatre or drama are inadequate for the

description of these modes. By and large they were

practiced regularly until the 1920s when cultural

legislature put paid to their legitimacy; in effect the

practices went underground. Popular theatre may be

further categorised into five sub-categories:

i)ii)

iii)

iv)

v)

Professional and Amateur Theatre

street Theatre

Popular Theatre in Theatre For Development (TFD)

Community Performances

The Travelling Theatre tradition

The literary Theatre is that contained within the works of

Kenyan playwrights. This category includes Ali Amin

Mazrui, Asenath odaga, Ngugi wa Thiongo, Francis Imbuga,

Osodo Osodo, John Ruganda, Kibutha Kibwana, Barnabas

Kasigwa to mention a few. These include educational and

political works that are individually or collectively

scripted.

The History of the KNT 1950-1953

The history of contemporary theatre in Kenya is closely

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related to the origin and development of The KenyaNational Theatre (KNT). Over the past forty years it hasbeen a central talking point among theorists and theatreworkers, the crucial issues have been:

i) The use of the KNT as a building and spaceii) The KNT as a movement within mainstream theatre in

Kenyaiii) Its relationships with other theatres and its role

in the development of the concept of a KenyanTheatre.

'The Kenyan Cultural Centre Ordinance Chapter' declaredthat:

it was desired to establish in Nairobi a CulturalCentre for the use and enjoyment of the citizensof Kenya without distinction of race or creed andto provide for the performance of music, drama anddancing, for the exhibition of works of art andcraft and for the holding of meetings fordiscussion of matters of literacy , historical,scientific or educational interest or importanceand for such other purposes generally as may fromtime to time be approved by the Governing Councilof the cuLtural Centre. (Government Printer:1979:3)

These are the objectives of the Kenya Cultural Centrestated in the preamble to the Ordinance dated 27thDecember 1950, which inaugurated the Centre. Two yearslater, on 6th November 1952, the first part of the Centre,the Kenya National Theatre, was opened. The CulturalCentre also incorporated the Nairobi War Memorial which

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has been a significant determinant on the position of theTheatre in relation to African artists. People associatedwith the conception of the National Theatre in the 1950'sby Sir Philip Mitchell, the Governor of Kenya, Mr JamesMaster, Mr Brian Figgis, Miss Kathleen Robinson, and SirRichard Woodley.

The declaration of a state of emergency in 1952 changedthe destiny of the Kenya National Theatre, because itbecame a centre where soldiers suppressing the nationaluprising were entertained. Most of the performances werefor Europeans so the title "The Kenya National Theatre"became a contradiction in terms. In the 1950's it was theNational Theatre building that hosted the Kenya DramaFestival from 1953 to 1965. The East African TheatreGuild performed most of their plays there and in 1959 theFirst Kenya Schools Drama Festival was held there and theBritish Council helped to run the event. Apart fromthese, various professional and semi-professional groupsfrom other parts of East Africa, often used the venue.These events are significant because the Kenya NationalTheatre was going to play a big role in the development ofDrama and Theatre at independence, for already Theatregroups were forming a base that would extend to othervenues.

Although the facilities offered by The KNT have beenextensively used, it is certainly not a National Theatre

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and never has been. The prestigious word 'National' mayhave helped raise funds but it has also made the Theatre abone of contention between polarised African, Asian andEuropean theatre groups. The Theatre is run as acommercial organisation and the fees for hiring it arebeyond the resources of many groups, especially Africangroups. So it does not meet its constitutional object ofserving "all without distinction of race orcreed"(1979:3). The funding of The KNT has been a problemsince it was set up in the 1950's and it still has notbeen satisfactorily resolved today.

The Kenya Cultural Centre (The KCC) of which KNT is apart, has from its inception been run by a governingcouncil on which sits a representative of the BritishCouncil. The British Council has over the years had astrong influence on the artistic direction andadministration of the KNT. For instance, the best knowndirector of the KNT was Mr James Master, a Governor of theRoyal Shakespeare Company (Kenya) and for a considerabletime, a member of the Theatre Committee and the BritishCouncil.

The European directors, such as Oscar Fischer and JoeClement who dominated the KNT in the early years, did muchto enable the Theatre to pay for better amenities. Theyalso introduced Christmas pantomimes such as 'l'reasureIsland which spread allover the country through the

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Little Theatres. These served as focal points forexpatriate teachers and administration staff in theprovinces who either took part in the Little TheatreProduction or took the school production regularly to thetheatre. This is how a few Kenyan Africans, who happenedto be in those special schools, first performed in thesetheatres with European plays.

The orient Art Circle, at that time, was very active as atouring Indian group and in their performances at theKenya National Theatre. They travelled to most of theurban areas, performed for Asians and were very popularwith stylised Indian musicals. Another Asian group,mainly composed of Goans, known as "The Jolly Boys"presented six hour shows in the Goan language, Konhanin.Their plays, which were described as "colourful, physicaland vibrant" by The Standard Newspaper, are mainlyremembered for their length. "These highly vibrant showsstart in the morning and go on the whole day. Their stagepresence is amazing in the context of all the intricatemime •••" (27.5.1957:11) The Jolly Boys lasted at theNational Theatre only for two seasons and then the stagestaff rebelled because of the length of hours that theyhad to work. The impact the Jolly Boys made isrecognisable in many plays done by former Asian schoolsbenefiting from this tradition.

Musicals formed the main repertoire at the KNT during this

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period. In the late 1950's, Charles and Sheila Olington,both professionals, came into the theatre and participatedin musicals and popular English plays such as TheBoyfriend, Salad Days, Free as Air, French without Tears,witness For the Prosecution and Teahouse of the AugustMQQn.

In November 1958 the Nairobi City Players was founded byJohn Ebdon, Noreen Antrobus and Donald Whittle, and theirfirst production was The Love of Four Colonels. It wasmade up of professional actors and actresses and asdescribed in one of their programmes as "committed toputting quality plays of standards not seen before on theNairobi stage" (Programme, 1958:12). The Nairobi Cityplayers has survived the turbulent periods at the KenyaNational Theatre, it is one group that has consistentlypresented a production on an annual basis.

So, up to the time of independence, the KNT was largely anexclusive reserve for the whites and the Asians, withlittle attempt to include anything African; indeed, thereseems to have been a deliberate policy to obliterateAfrican forms of performance. But resistance to this wasdeveloping among African scholars and artists who began towrite in their own languages and to create alternativetheatre forms at a very small scale.

For instance, Henry Kuria's Nakupenda Lakini (1954) Kimani

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Nyoikes Maisha ni Nini (1955) Gerishon Ngugi withNimelogua Nisiwe na Mpenzi (1956) and B. M. Kurutu'sAtakiwa na Polisi in 1957. All these were written inKiswahili and were performed in Menengai Social Hall inNakuru. This alternative space has remained vital forschool and community performances to this day.

In 1959 there were performances in small peri-urban spacesin Kisumu such as Nam Lolwe and Koth ne Ochwe by OrindiOwenga and Jopodho Ma Uqwe by Nathaniel Oderoi these werescripts with simple plots that relied a lot on mimesequence and depiction to unfold the narrative. Thetopics they explored were very current to the time, butwere not overtly political, for the state of emergencyclamped hard on cultural norms and did not allow fordissent in expression. It is significant that allplaywrights had a grounding in formal education and werestudents at prominent African schools such as Mangu,Thika, Maseno, Nakuru and Alliance high schools.

COME INDEPENDENCE;

The space at the KNT continued to be reserved to semi-professional or professional groups i but there were noprofessl.onal African groups in the western sense. Itwould appear that at the beginning of independence, theKenya government allowed the existing situation tocontinue and so compromised the possibility of developing

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a truly Kenyan theatre. African theatre in particular wasat a crossroads; during the colonial period it had beendiscouraged by the administration and the missionaries andduring the emergency cultural activities had beenofficially banned.

No attempt had been made to encourage any Africans orAfrican groups to work alongside the groups that performedat The KNT, but in the 1960's many looked to the NationalTheatre for a cultural revival in 1963. The Minutes of the98th meeting of the Governing Council of the KenyaCultural Centre, held on 8th July 1964, stated under item686 that "there was still no official reaction from theMinistry of Education regarding the nomination of twoAfricans to the Governing Council" (Minutes of TheGoverning Council, 1968:4). In all the major documentsthat have been issued on culture, statements thereinunderscore the role of culture in the develop.ant process.

SESSIONAL PAPER NO 10 of 1965 on "African Socialism andits Application to Kenya" is one such document. Kenya isan affiliate of UNESCO and the constitution of UNESCOstates that:

The wide diffusion of culture and the education ofhumanity for justice and liberty and peace areindispensable to the dignity of men. (GovernmentPrinters, 1989:7)

Further to this, Kenya is a member of the OAU and ~

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African Qnity Cultural Charter for Africa which statesthat:

any human society is necessarily governed by rulesand principles based on traditions, languages,ways of life and thought, in other words a set ofcultural values which reflect its distinctivecharacter and personality. (1989:18)

Yet up to this point in the mid-1960's and in spite of thelimitless opportunities to redress these culturallegislatures, there was no explicit policy statement onculture. The situation was worsened by the lack ofcomprehensive legislature and institutional infrastructurewhich could be relied upon to foster cultural developmentin all spheres. If there was anything resembling it, itwas seen in the image and operation of the KNT.

African plays in the early 1960's reflected the dialecticsof social relations between the colonizer and thecolonized, for instance, the question of an appropriatenational dress for various nationalities in Kenya. Butthe most challenging plays were not staged at the KNTbecause they did not conform to the policy of the theatre.Artists such as Ngugi, Ogot, Adagala were challenging intheir plays and novels, the forms and content of Christianhymns which were propagated as "concerts" by themissionaries on their communities and the influence thesehad on the converts. In the foregoing we have theNyakinyua Dancers, Bado Artists hinging their performance

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on these concerns. However in the mid-1960's such groupscould not find space at the KNT.

To take another example, in the backdrops in these Africanplays started to appear the shield and spear design oncountry buses and worker kiosks on the scenic design intheir performances. The shield and spear designsreflected an open broad support for the patriotic Land andFreedom Army of Kenya, which had been representative ofthe National uprising Mau Mau. This is in sharpcontradiction to the crown eableas which reflect Britishimperialism. Loyalist characters and homeguards worethese imperialist loyalty designs on their chests andheads as part of their costumes.

In a nutshell there was a strong feeling of patriotism inthe creative works of the 1960's contrasting sharply withthe government stance. But a feeling of disillusionmentstarted to creep in. People in general started to have afeeling of being betrayed, by the lack of direction andpurpose shown by the government, and the ministries incharge of culture in particular.

Back at the Kenya National Theatre in 1966, there had beena strong feeling even amongst those in the GoverningCouncil that the then Director of the Theatre, Mr Master,should train an African Director to take over from him.According to the minutes of the Executive Sub-Committee of

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the Governing Council of the Kenya Cultural Centre (KeC)"...it was agreed by all the members of the Sub-Committeethat this was out of the question, as there was no oneavailable, and the time was too ~hort" (Minutes of TheGoverning Council, 1966:4). This is indicative of how farthe British had fallen short of taking an interest totrain and prepare African people to take over thesepositions or work with them. Thus, five years afterindependence, there was still no African qualified to workin a management position at the Kenya National Theatre.

A notable occurrence during this time was the appointmentof the Director of the National Theatre, Mr Lawrence Hayesseconded by UNESCO. On the 12th January 1967, Mr NormanMontgomery, the Vice-president of the Governing Council,publicly stated that:

The Governing Council does not regard the NationalTheatre as merely a building in Nairobi, but as aNational Theatre movement, and it has been agreedby the Council and Hr Hayes that this was theaspect which the Director should develop.(1967:8)

The reason given at that time for why so little had beendone along these lines was that of those administratingthe theatre did so on a voluntary basis and lacked timeand experience for developing the theatre into a nationalmovement.

This coming from a person who had just come into the

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country aptly asserts how unpopular and ineffective theNational Theatre had been on many fronts. I want to pointout that it is from Mr J E Kariuki and Mr Lawrence Hayes'contribution within the Governing Council of the KCC thatthe community halls with minimal theatre facilities inestates surrounding Nairobi were put up. These communityhalls are in Kariokor, Kaloleni, Shauri Moyo, Uhuru,Majengo, Dagoretti all put up by the Nairobi City Councilin 1968 to cater for the recreation of the people in theseareas. They were modelled as multi-complex spaces tocater for many recreational activities. They exude anintimate atmosphere, adequate for small performances andare accessible for events other than theatre shows. Bothfelt that the KNT as a building and the proscenium archstage inhibited both African audiences and performers, anda simple form of theatre in different parts of Nairobiwould be feasible.

This was the biggest attempt by both the colonial andindependence governments to locate theatre facilities andspace to people within their communities. These, for awhile, with their modest productions, became the "nationaltheatres" which played to their respective communities.But as soon as their success was recognised by those atthe Governing Council, the relationship changed; for thesecommunity halls were seen not only to be competing withthe Kenya National Theatre for audiences, but alsocontesting most of what it (KNT) stood for.

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The government too changed its attitude to these communityspaces as they became more active and placed them underthe Chiefs and District Administration, thus squarelylocating them within the powers that they contested intheir performances. Their functions have now changed, andalthough most of them are in a state of disuse anddisrepair these community spaces still hold great hope fora home for community theatre in urban areas in the future.

positive Changes

with more African graduates joining schools, trainingcolleges and universities, and the debates on the teachingof African Literature starting to pace up at theDepartment of English at the University of Nairobi,educational drama was inching its way forward as anothertheatre movement that the Kenya National Theatre (KNT)movement could not ignore anymore.

In response, Mr Mark S Mshila, a Kenyan school teacher,producing plays, conducting choirs, and working withvarious African cultural groups, was appointed by theGoverning Council as Assistant Director (Field) in June1968. Mr Mshila's duties were mainly outside the Theatrebuilding "to help and encourage work by the less

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experienced dramatic groups while searching for, anddeveloping, acting, music and dancing talents" (Minutes ofthe Government Council, 1968:9). Mr Mshila's brief was towork with dramatic groups in the Nairobi suburbs, thenextend these as organised tours to outlying districts. MrMshila was convinced that African forms of drama had aplace at the Kenya National Theatre and that there wasimmense acting talent, not only in Nairobi, but alloverthe country. The Daily National Newspapers quote Mshilaas saying: "The need to foster indigenous talent is longoverdue, it is vital to start exchanges from the groupsthat already exist and establish more." (29.5.1968) Bymixing these talents each group could make itscontribution, and the most worthy retained for generalpresentation. This was an attempt by Mr Mshila to movetheatre activities from the centre enshrined in the KNT.

The fruitful relationship of exchange between drama andAfrican Cultural groups began during Mr Mshila's stint asAssistant Director of the National Theatre. In May 1968the Inter-African Theatre Group was formed, led by GeorgeMenoe and composed mainly of people who had some interestin theatre and wanted to use the space at the KenyaNational Theatre; this Inter-African Theatre Group were tomake their impact more as a lobby group for Africaninterest in the arts than as a performing group.

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Funding for the KNT

By 1968, the Kenya National Theatre was receiving itsfunding from the Colonial Development and Welfare, at theequivalents of Ksh (1,000,000), The Kenya Government Ksh(100,000), Nairobi City Council (Ksh 40,000), Theatre Fund(Ksh 79,000), War Memorial (Ksh 20,000) and Extension fund(Ksh 155,179). These figures from "A Report on the KenyaCultural Centre" by the Governing Council on 30 September1968 were significant in two ways:1969:71)

(Government Printers,

1) The financial support by the Kenyan government was verylow compared to the other funders, so that it could nothave much of a say in the making of crucial decisions.

2) The other funding bodies had various interests in thetheatre and were prepared to see their viewsimplemented. Their funding over the years into the1970's have either ceased or become anonymous; this hasclouded the issue of funding of the National Theatre inparticular and the arts in general in Kenya. Fundingof the arts and the drawing up of a cultural policy aretwo things the Kenyan government has been unable or isunwilling, to do.

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By July 1968 the government of Kenya was unwilling to makethe grant-in-aid unless an African director was appointed.There were behind the scenes tussles within the GoverningCouncil who opposed the appointment of Mr Seth Adagala andas one member of the Governing Council put it: "After afurther consideration of Mr Adagala' s youth andinexperience it was regretted that the Theatre committee'srecommendation to have the appointment made as DIRECTOR OFTHEATRE would not be advisable. Since his duties ofdeveloping theatre must be nationwide, without confiningthem to one building in Nairobi, the best brief, butdescriptive title would be DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL THEATRE"(Minutes of The Governing Council, 1968:16).

I understand this to imply a feeling on part of thecouncil that The National Theatre could not be entrustedto an African: that the Europeans in control of theTheatre had begun to feel uneasy at an African contestingtheir territory. Both Seth Adagala and Mark Mshila asDeputy Director in 1968 had to operate from the outsideand not at the centre of the management of the KNT. Onceagain the appointment of Mshila and Adagala to the KNT wassomething that had to be fought for, but had variousimplications that I proceed to examine.•

The Theatre School

Seth Adagala, having been appointed Director of the Kenya

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National Theatre (KNT) in July 1968 with duties of furtherextending theatre beyond the confines of Nairobi, went onto suggest the establishment of a theatre school. Thiswould involve interested artists throughout the countrywhile building up a National Theatre resident professionalcompany. This school would run evening classes in suchsubjects as Movement, Voice Production, Stage Management,Administration, Play writing, Acting, Directing and PlayProduction. The Theatre School would also run workshopsfor individuals and amateur theatre groups. The schoolwould be funded in the first instance by a grant from thegovernment to the KCC's Governing Council. The school wasset up to start on the 1st July 1968, based in the KNTbuilding above the dressing room block.

The idea of a Theatre School sprang from the realisationthat for African Kenyans to be involved with the KenyaNational Theatre, formal training was needed in the artsof the theatre. This was a milestone and a recognitionfrom both the Europeans, and the Africans and Asians thatsome kind of rapport had to be created amongst the races,and that the Africans were integral to that at KNT. Itwas a concession too, by the Africans, that in orderartistically to survive in the contemporary theatre world,skills in the theatre were necessary, though this might beproblematic if it was done at the expense of the skills ofAfrican art forms.

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The move by Seth Adagala was positive but the wholephilosophy behind the Theatre School was suspect. Thecurriculum shows a strong blend of Western formal trainingin the theatre, but there is no element of Africantheatre. Apparently this indicates that Adagala andMschila were prevailed upon not to press this issue by themajority of the Governing council and one is quoted assaying "It is necessary to start from the knowndisciplines in the theatre, then we can gradually moveinto the rather unknown realms of the African theatre"(KCC Report, 1969:14). This condescending attitude toAfrican Drama in the late 1960's did not do much toenhance belief and confidence in the discipline in thosegoing to school. The KNT being the venue for the annualSchools' Drama Festival, this influence played a big rolein the young people's attitude to theatre. The TheatreSchool produced its first graduates in 1970 and they thenformed the National Theatre Company.

However,problems

the Theatreright from

School wasthe start.

plaguedThere

by financialwas constant

interference in its administration by the GoverningCouncil and it became clear that there was apathy towardsthe project from the Government. It did not help theimage of the school when it appeared to become anexclusive club for the few able "to act" to "do drama".

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At this stage drama and theatre were becoming more andmore associated with those who had gone to school andreceived formal training. In a sense the Theatre Schoolcontributed to the disempowerment of artists who did notmake it to the school. Nevertheless in the early 1970'sthe Theatre School produced some of the most renownedactors, directors and technicians for the stage,television and radio. It is interesting to note thatthese are still some of the major theatre practitionerstoday: Paul Onsongo, Konga Mbandu, Alex Dindi, TirusGathwe, Philip Chege, Allan Konya, Edwin Nyutho and Annawanjugu.

The National Theatre Company did not stick to itsprogramme of reaching out to the community, mainly becausetheir plays were in English and devised for theconventional proscenium-arch stage. Experiments ofdeveloping a new form of theatre did not attract Africanaudiences to the KNT which has always been associated with

the colonial legacy. The repertoire at the KNT at thistime was still heavily slanted towards European plays,African plays being

crammed into two or three nights therefore gainingvery little from the crucial word-of-mouthpublicity given by the first three nightsaudience. (Ngugi, 1986:39)

Ngugi goes on to suggest that possibly because of thisfeeling several theatre groups opted for other premises,

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especially for the Education Theatre II at the universityof Nairobi, All Saints Cathedral, Ufungamano Hall,Harambee Hall and the Mwangaza Open Air Theatre.

The Theatre School finally closed in 1975, the excusegiven being lack of support from the Ministry of Culture.In actual fact there was a lack of support from everybodyexcept for the students and some of their tutors who keptworking in spite of the tough financial circumstances atthe time.

One major contribution by the Theatre School was itsinception of a Theatre in Education Project in liaisonwith schools in Nairobi. Tirus Gathwe with the nationalTheatre Company devised a series of drama/theatreprogrammes targeted at primary and secondary schools inNairobi and funded by Nairobi City Council. This went onbetween 1973-1975 and then had to stop because of lack offunding. The experiment by Gathwe had a major impact onthe style of staging at the Drama Festivals and thetheatre practitioners who worked on the TIE projects. Itlaid a foundation for TIE practice in Kenya, whichalthough not extensive, has had huge impacts whenever TIEexperiences have happened.

To summarise, the five year period between 1968 and 1973saw an attempt to incorporate Africans and African Theatrewithin the Kenya National Theatre Movement. From the

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level of management at the National Theatre, to theestablishment of the Theatre School and the NationalTheatre Company and to the performance of African plays atthe space. The period also brought out into the open theambiguous stance of the government to theatre and culturein general. This is illustrated by its unwillingness tofund such projects as the Theatre School. Moreimportantly, it showed clearly that it did and still doescentre-stage the Kenya National Theatre Movement as anideological and cultural base for European art forms, iemusic, art and drama: all of which run counter to thepopular expression of the majority of Kenyan people.

In 1973 the Government cut its grant to the Kenya CulturalCentre which caused acute financial embarrassment, thecity Council also reduced its grant. The GoverningCouncil's Report of 1973/74 indicates how confused was thesituation of the KNT which increasingly depended forfinancial support on people who enjoyed western art.

other Theatres During This Period

In the early 1970s realising that there was not much forthem in artistic terms at the KNT, African individuals andgroups began to look elsewhere for space. A series ofgroups sprang up; in 1974 the University of Nairobi'sDepartment started the Free Travelling Theatre (FTT),which was an interdisciplinary group made up of students

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and staff. Its main objective was to perform plays in theKenyan Languages, Kiswahili and English and to tour thecountry performing in village squares, halls, marketspaces, churches and school halls. As the Director, JohnRuganda, said: "take the theatre to the spaces itrightfully belongs; these are the peoples' theatres and weshall all perform together" (FTT Programme 1975:3). Theychose the name Free to denote an independence of artisticchoice, and perform to anybody who could not afford to payentrance fees. Because of this free entry FTT does nothave to get a stage licence to perform from the RevenueOfficer, one of the flaws and contradictions of the Films,Play and stage Act of 1963. Ironically this flaw in theact has enabled free theatre and peoples drama toflourish.

At Kenyatta University similar responses were taking placein the open air Mwangaza Theatre and Harambee Hall whichprovided space for such groups as the Mshindo Players, theUniversity Players and Tumaduni Players. Theirproductions depended to a great extent on the deepinvolvement and commitment of lecturers such as Joe deGraft, John Ruganda, Taban Lo Liyong, Okot P Bitek, Mumbiwa Maina, David Mulwa, Austin Bukenya, Francis Imbuga,Waigwa Wachira and Arthur Kimoli. Both Kenyatta andNairobi Universities were supported by strong Literatureand Drama in Education programmes, which provided thetheory for much of their practice.

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In 1969 the Department had changed its name from theEnglish Department to the Department of Literature whichemphasised the African components as well as studyingCaribbean and other world literature. This changed thewhole nature of teaching literature using Oral Literatureas a core study, and inevitably meant a study of Africanperformance modes, so students, graduating from theUniversities of Kenyatta and Nairobi, could engage withAfrican art forms. This change enabled the graduates fromthe said universities to deconstruct performance theoryand practice and to change the whole of Kenyancontemporary theatre, as they take up careers in differentinstitutions challeenging assumed dominant educational anddrama practices.

In 1975 contemporary theatre revolved around threedistinct racial groups: the Africans with the UniversityTheatre Groups, Tumaduni and Inter-African Theatre Group;the Asian Theatre Groups based in their own spaces butalso performing at the KNT; and finally the Nairobi CityPlayers at the KNT and the Donovan Maule Theatre at theProfessional Centre.

In this year, Seth Adagala was replaced as the Director atthe Kenya National Theatre by James Falkland. This drew

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the wrath of the theatre fraternity who felt the need tohave an African at the helm of the KNT. It led to suchheadlines in the newspapers such as "Let's rid KNT of itscolonial legacy" (Nation Newspapers 6.7.75:16) which didnot help in eradicating the racial element at the theatre.

What James Falkland is remembered for most is hisreluctance to let the performances of The Trial of DedanKimathi by Mugo and Ngugi and Betrayal In The city byFrancis Imbuga go on at the KNT. His excuse was that thetwo plays being new and untested would not be good for thebox office. These plays were destined for the ArtsFestival in Lagos, Nigeria (FESTAC) in 1977 and laterproved to be the most exciting plays written by Kenyans.From then on the KNT was in clear opposition to popularKenyan theatre.

The question that plagued everybody was whether the KNThad become synonymous with the National Theatre Bar. ManyAfrican theatre practitioners went to the Theatre Bar,which is part of the National Theatre and here issuesconcerning artists, theatre in general and the KNT werediscussed; but hardly any of them attended the theatreperformances in the auditorium. As John Ruganda recalls,the Africans were consciously seeking new ways and modesof theatre and particularly concerned to address theaudience more directly. It is here that the playwrightand novelist, Ngugi wa Thiongo, writing about the problems

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that beset the staging of Kenya's entries to Festac 77asked the question "Shouldn't the Kenya National Theatre(KNT) and the Kenya Cultural Centre (KCC) be catering fornational interest in the arts?" (Ngugi: 1986:41)

Indeed the structure of the cultural groups as theyexisted during this period was well designed for thispurpose: to secure the sectional social demands as theyexisted. The Kenya National Theatre, the Donevan MauleTheatre, The Asian Theatre Groups such as the Orient ArtCircle and the Amateur African groups, all saw their mainraison d'etre as the assertion, promotion and enhancementof a group-specific cultural identity and heritage. Thesocial composition and constituencies of theatrical groupswas clear cut, and so also were the aims and purposes andthe demarcation lines being drawn along the expectedcultural-racial lines. Our interest now moves from the KNTto the alternative spaces.

A Moye Towards community and Political Theatre

Ngugi wa Thiongo who, with Micere Mugo, wrote The Trial ofDedan Kimathi in 1976 and began a process in this playthat would in later work, draw more consciously on variousmaterialist modes of discourse. This play strives topresent and explore its subject from Brechtian and epicperspectives as pri.arily located within and affected by

process. Ngugi, who had been influenced by Brecht and Boal

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teamed up with Ngugi wa Mirii an educationalist, well-versed in the techniques and methodology of Paulo Freire.They proved to be a perfect combination and a base onwhich to implement their theories, this was the KamiriithuCommunity Education and Cultural Centre (KCECC).

The community had a problem: there was a need for greaterliteracy and the youth centre had fallen into disuse in1973. What the two Ngugis did was to encourage thevillages to write stories close to their realities and toevolve community drama. This emerged as the play calledNgaahika Ndeenda (1977). This empowerment of thecommunity sent alarm bells ringing in various directions.Firstly, the government was alarmed that the communityhad learnt to understand its true situation and throughthe play had begun to discover alternative ways of dealingwith its problems. Secondly, the play focused attentionon the class system in Kenya and the economic exploitationassociated with it. Finally, the dominant western forms oftheatre embodied by the KNT, Donovan Maule, the LittleTheatre and the Foreign Cultural Centres were threatenedby the interest shown by audiences in community theatreand African performance modes.

The banning by the government of Ngaahika Ndeenda centre-staged five issues:

i) The role of language in performance: empowerment

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in the community.ii) The role of the individual artist in a community

performance.iii) Writing/scripting in a community productioniv) The role of audience and theatre designv) Censorship.

These issues were to shape Kenyan contemporary theatre inthe future. The stage was set for a confrontation betweenthe government, the dominant theatres and the populartheatre movement. In all of these, the African theatreworkers were challenging the Government's indifference tothe development of African theatre.

Joe de Graft describes the writing of the time "theconcern by current playwrights to write of great heroeswhose activities are near enough to be of interest andmeaning, but remote enough to form subjects of great,dispassionately passionate creative literature" (De Graft,1977:19). De Graft had in mind plays like MuntuMekatili1i, Luanda Magere and The Trial of Dedan Kimathiall written and performed during this period and very mucha reaction against the mainstream theatre.

The Theatre Scene 1978 Onwards

The Trial of Dedan Kimathi by Ngugi and Mugo and Betrayal

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In The City by Francis Imbuga had done a successful tourat the FESTAC Festivals in Lagos, Nigeria in 1977. Whenthey were shown at Kenyatta and Nairobi Universities theywere very well received by audience~_~~~C:~_!--~ TheDaily Nation newspaper found both performances had anatural "freshness" and The Standard newspaper said "thesewere a milestone in Kenyan playwrighting and pointed a newdirection in Kenyan theatre" (The standard, 14.11.1977).So strong was the demand that both plays became set textsimmediately at the schools level and at University andplayed a major role in changing the domination of foreigntexts. This encouraged more writing and more theatregroups in and out of Nairobi. The plays by these groupswere from simple improvised scripts mainly challengingsome of the assumptions by the traditional bourgeoistheatre. Most of the theatre practitioners in 1980 werethe products of a particular system of education based onthe English tradition but with a blend of African teachingand orientation towards the alternative modes ofperformance.

until about 1980 there had been no attempt to see theatreand drama as important instruments of cultural

development. In the years of 1979 to 1982 there was araising of consciousness among Kenyan artists; popular

plays sought to represent the experiences of the oppressedclasses in Nairobi. It was often difficult to find

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spaces in which to perform, but this lack of amenitiesdid not deter these small groups who would performunscripted plays in the streets or in "impromptu banners".We don 't really know how much of this kind of theatreexisted and how much has been lost: this is an area forfurther research in the future.

By 1982 there was a conscious propagation of a meaningfultheatre by most African groups. Plays written for theSchools Drama Festival were a good indicator of what thefeeling of the Kenyan artist was during this period.These plays sought to promote self-determination, self-

realisation, and self-support in theatre arts andquestioned the roles of indigenous art forms and theirutilization. For the first time in 1982 the nationalSchools Drama Festival was taken out of the Kenya NationalTheatre, where it had been housed annually since 1959 andwas moved to Mukumu Girls High School in Western Kenya.This was a firm statement by the Organising Secretary andcommittee which had become largely African in 1979, thatthey intended a radical break with the conservativetradition; the students were now going to perform in theirown environment to familiar audiences.

The content and form of the plays for the 1982 DramaFestival drastically changed from those that had beenpresented in the previous years.

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In the same year KCECC which had regrouped decided tostage Maitu Njugira a drama in music, with songs in Kenyanlanguages "all depicting the joy, the sorrow, the gains,the losses, the unity, the divisions and the marchforward, as well as the setbacks in the Kenyan people'sstruggle" (Ngugi, 1993:44). They intended to perform thiswork at the KNT on 19th February 1982 after more than twomonths of rehearsal. By performing at the KNT, the groupwanted to make clear that the use of national languages ofKenya in performance at this venue would cut acrosscultures. It surely put the KNT and its role in Kenyantheatre in a spotlight.

Not surprisingly, when a stage licence was sought fromthe Provincial Administration office at Nyayo House, itwas never granted. Instead, security was beefed up at theKNT to keep away the cast of Maitu Njugira, who then movedover to the University of Nairobi's Education Theatre II.Here the group had about a dozen open rehearsals attendedby big audiences. The Kamiirithu group was asked to leaveEducation Theatre II premises on the 25th February 1982.On the 11th March 1982 the government outlawed theKamiriithu Community Education Cultural Centre (KCECC) andbanned all theatre activities in the entire area. On 12thMarch 1982 the KCECC open air theatre was razed to theground by bulldozers.

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The decision to allow Bat Dor, a theatre/musical groupfrom Israel, to perform at the KNT immediately after therefusal of the performance of Maitu Njugira summed up thegovernment's position on cultural activities in Kenya.The total ownership by the Kenyan people of their theatrewas not on the government's agenda for it understood wellits function which was undoubtedly to facilitate a processof critical awareness for action. This is a recurrentbone of contention between theatre groups, practitionersand the government.

The Emergence of Political Theatre

In the mid 1970's Political Theatre began to emergelargely in response to political intolerance. The leadingfigures in this political theatre were playwrights andtheatre practitioners, such as Ngugi wa Thiongo, Micere,Mugo, Al Amin Mazrui and Francis Imbuga. Individually andsometimes collectively they wrote their plays specificallyaddressing an historical mood in the mid 1970's and early1980's at the same time formulating new writing whichcould be performed in alternative spaces other than theKNT.

By 1977 The Free Travelling Theatre, the Schools CollegesDrama Festival, KCCEC, the Performance and Creative ArtsCentre, had already established the foundation for an

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alternative theatre intended to make theatre available totheir communities. These writers were generally

Socialist or Marxist philosophiesassociated withdescribing their audiences usually as "the peasants andworking class". These theatre groups also engaged inmajor political campaigns and their material was designedto appeal to as broad an audience as possible. The playswere intended to confront Kenyan history to raise theconsciousness of the people.

Ngugi and Hugo In The Trial of Dedan Kimathi

As I have already pointed out the Trial of Dedan Kimathi(1976) by Ngugi and Mugo was their first stab at politicaltheatre. In the preface to this play, they express theirintention to use literature in articulating a politicalcause:

African Literature and African writers are eitherfighting with the people or aiding imperialism andthe class enemies of the people. (1976:viii)

Ngugi and Mugo were determined to use theatre to exposethe socio-economic factors, to depict the class strugglein Kenya using theatre, in a way similar to Erwin Piscatorin Germany in the 1920's. Ngugi and Hugo begin to viewIiterature, and theatre in particular, in Utilitarianterms. They state:

We believe that good theatre is that which is on

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the side of the people, that which without maskingmistakes and weaknesses, gives people courage andurges them to higher resolve in their struggle fortotal liberation. (1976: xiii)

In The Trial of Dedan Kimathi (1976), the playwrights seekto express the collective aspiration of the Kenyan massesagainst the colonial forces, and the continued struggleagainst the "neo-colonial forces" who have continued tomarginalise a large proportion of the population in Kenyatoday. Kimathi is presented as a symbol of the stoicstruggle against the colonial and neo-colonial forces thathave continued to marginalise a large proportion of theKenyan population. Kimathi's third trial is symbolic ofthe struggle against the forces of neo-colonialism. Thetripatriate of African business executive, politician andfarmer have parallels of Christianity, the Crown andCommerce; the three QC's" often used by students whoperformed this playas potent symbols and as a learningaspect especially about the colonial intervention inAfrica in 1884.

Kimathi, both in the text and often on stage, is portrayedas a single minded individual working for, and towards, acollective cause so is able to see through the variousguises presented by these interests. His call to theKenyan people is not to be hoodwinked by the forces andsymbols of neo-colonialism. The undying spirit ofstruggle is depicted through the symbolic immortality ofKimathi. Even as he (Kimathi) is sentenced to death, the

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Boy and Girl characters, who have matured through theplay, under the tutelage of the symbolic mother characterall take over the struggle.

Ngugi and Micere envisage a union between workers andpeasants in the struggle to regain the means ofproduction, initially taken over during the colonialperiod. Kimathi's final message, as he is sentenced todeath is:

So goOrganise in your homeOrganise in the mountainsKnow that you onlyKindred blood isWho is in the struggleDenounce those who weakenOur struggleBy creating ethnic divisionsUproot from you thoseWho are selling out to imperialismKenyan masses shall be free! (1976:84)

This is a call to the Kenyan masses to shun falseloyalties and struggle to forge nationhood as the basisfor economic and cultural emancipation. Kimathi ischaracterized as a courageous person who leads his forcesin battle against the British with their superior firepower. This vision of a national struggle is brought outin his rallying call:

You must open new frontsWarriors from NyanzaGiryama people at the coastAnd also young Kalenjin bravesTo set a grand alliance of Kenyan people (1976:86)

The play text has been studied as part of the Literature

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syllabus at High School and at University.

Imbuga's works in this period

Betrayal in the City (1977), by F. Imbuga, was written atabout the same time as The Trials of Dedan Kimathi and wasalso an entry by Kenya to the African Festival of Arts in1977. Although both plays show high levels of politicalconsciousness, their styles are very different. Imbugapresents a different shade of political theatre.

Certainly Imbuga's style does not utilise history asNgugi/Mugo do, but uses it allusively to exploreparticular soci-economic factors. Imbuga largely usesfolklore and traditional forms to create group, andindividual conflicts, that reflect conflicts within thepolitical sphere.

He has constantly drawn the parallel of the traditionalstoryteller, who it is said manages to say all he wants tosay, without compromising his own safety. The concern forpreservation of self, and one's art, is largelyresponsible for Imbuga's ideology and aesthetics. Weshall illustrate this by exploring some of his works,these include Betrayal In The City (1977), The Successor(1979), Game of Silence (1977) and Man of Kafira (1984).

Imbuga's drama deals more with the psychopathology of

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those in power and he characterises the varied responsesin the "power corridors". The major characters in theseplays are the leaders, although they rarely physicallyappear on stage, but are omnipresent from the reference ofall the other characters. Boss, the main character inBetrayal In The City and Man of Kafira, has a pervadingpresence in those who represent him, and are hismouthpieces. These characters are Mulili and Bin Bin inBetrayal In The City and Man of Kafira respectively.Imbuga portrays the intricacies of political systems inKafira, Masero, Abaira, which all revolve around theperson of the head of state and in his royal courts.

In Betrayal In The City, there is no mention made of theinstitution that assists Boss in his reign: no mention oflegislature or judiciary. In Man of Kafira, a primeminister is mentioned, but only to report that he has beenassassinated, and no note is made of his replacement. InThe Successor, in Masero, the capital city, there is acouncil of elders, but the struggle among the chiefssuggests that the emperor is the absolute head of Maserothe nation. Thus, Imbuga is suggesting that the heads ofstates have become dictators, who surround themselves withinept advisors, like Emperor Chanda in The Successor andBoss in Betrayal In The City and Man of Kafira.

These characters inparodies of many

Imbuga'sprominent

works, have been seen aspersonalities in post-

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independent Kenya. The subject of The Successor; intrigueand jostling for power among the members of the "innercircle" is an echo of the actual events of the "Change inconstitution" group in 1976, detailed in The KenyattaSuccessor (1979): a group that aimed to change theconstitution on Kenyatta' s death so as to prevent thevice-president from assuming powers. Man of Kafiradetails the paranoia of the likes of Idi Amin Dada, exiledpresident of Uganda in the 1970's, and Jean Bade Bokassaof Central African Republic. This is depicted throughJere, the character in both Betrayal In The City and Man

of Kafira as an aspiring leader and leader respectively.Imbuga's use of fictional countries and use of thepowerful as metaphors and as aspect of oral creativitythat enables him to distance his work from his immediateenvironment. He aims to expose the weaknesses of theleaders by concentrating his subject in the royal domain.Jere in Betrayal In The City sums it up by saying:

our wish was not to swim in human blood, but toprovide a mirror for Kafira. A mirror that willreflect the real faces of Kafira's front men.(1987:76)

For Imbuga, the art seeks to appeal to man's intrinsicgoodness, which even evil leaders, like Boss, stillpossess in their sUb-conscious selves. This is based uponhis recognition of the potency of art as a .ode of

knowing. Imbuga has used his drama to expose to hisreaders, and audience, real characters who encapsulate the

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contradictions that confront humanity.the position well:

Harb summarises

the function of art, then, is to penetrate throughman's external camouflage, right into the remotestcorner of his conscience. Its target is thesubconscious, "that part of one's brain thatrefuses to be cheated". Thus, Osmann believesthat by his drama, he can penetrate into Boss'subconscious and, therefore, Boss will bepsychologically affected and perhaps reformed.(1991:519)

This is the exchange between the cast preparing a play forBoss in Man of Kafira. Imbuga's faith in man's intrinsicgoodness allows him to 'save' his main characters Boss inBetrayal In The City, Emperor Chanda in The Successor andJere in Man of Kafira.

The Genesis of Ngaahika Ndeenda (1977) and Maitu Njugira(1982)

The writing and production of Ngaahiika Ndeenda's (1977)I'll Marry When I Want, marks an important phase in thedevelopment of political and didactic theatre in Kenya.Ngugi wa Thiongo describes it in Barrel of A Pen (1983) asthe "birth of a peasant/workers theatre movement: aprogressive rural and community-based theatre movement."(1983:21)

Ngugi wa Thiongo and Ngugi wa Mirii were actually workingalong the same lines as Augusto Boal did, with the ArenaTheatre of Sao Paulo. It was a huge shift from The Trial

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of Dedan Kimathi, which, in terms of form, is still verymuch oriented towards the western convention of theatre.According to Ngugi, the true makers of history and cultureare workers and peasantry, and it was the people who puttogether this piece of theatre, examining their lives andtheir history.

Hgaahiika Hdeenda was a development from The Trial ofDedan Kimathi in that it went further in dividing theKenyan society into classes; there are the proletariatAhois who own nothing save for their labour power, some ofthem form the worker's class. Then there are the peasantslike Gicaaaba who own small parcels of land, but stillhave to sell their labour to the owners of large tracts ofland. There is an emerging class of petty bourgeoisnouveau riche farmer cum businessman, represented by theNduCJires. At the very top of the socio-economic ladderare the wealthy upper class, represented by Ahrab Kioi;

the class that through their (supervisor) status props upthe neo-colonial African regimes.

In this play the Ngugis go further in their indictment ofthe historical tragedy that dispossessed those who foughtin the forest; for independence, but have not benefitedfrom the proceeds of the political freedom. Kigunda

becomes a mouthpiece for the playwrights when he says:

the crown of history should be taken away fromtraitors and be handed back to patriots (1982:29)

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The playwrights are arguing that neo-colonial control ofKenya's means of production should be handed back to theworkers and peasants. They deny the legitimacy of thepresent wielders of power and controllers of the economy.

Ngaahiika Ndeenda uses agitprop in parts as a techniquewhere it directly addresses the audience. The actionexplores the economic problems that beset the country andare a result of decisions made at independence, when thenew freedom was hijacked by those who collaborated withthe colonialists.

Ndugire, in the play, gives a highly contrived testimonythat illustrates this; he testifies that he was called bythe Lord at midnight on independence day (12.12.1963) andhe goes on to say: "Now you see I did not take out even acent from my pocket. And yet I am milking cows and I amharvesting." (1982:46)

Mazrui's Kilio Cha Haki: A step Further

Al Amin Mazrui's Kilio Cha Haki (1981) written afterNgaahiika Ndeenda is similar in technique. However, itshows a development in aesthetics compared to the latterthat relied on agitprop as a resonance. It depicts afarm in which the workers are fighting against theexploitation of their labour by a colonial farmer Delamon.

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The farm is symbolic of the African nationals fightingagainst neo-colonialism. Mazrui is critical of thehypocritical postures taken by nations already under thecontrol of neo-colonial domination.

Mazrui brings out the political significance of Kilio ChaIIgki through the name of the farm owner - Delamon anacronym from Del Monte, a multinational fruit processingconglomerate. The Del Monte Company, growing andprocessing pineapples, was in the news prominently when in1980 three primary school girls were mauled to death bythe factory's guard dogs. Despite great public outcry, noaction was taken against the firm. Similarly, the policecommissioner, who Ndeenda calls to come and quell theriots at the farm is called Handerson who also features inThe Trial of Dedan Kimathi.

Mazrui, like Ngugi/Mugo, uses allusions of the colonialera to comment on neo-colonialism. Mazrui, in a stylisticchoice more consistent with agitprop, bases his play onthe plight of workers. In typical socialist realismtechnique, he portrays the workers going through a processof conscientisation. The workers, in differing levels ofenlightenment, are shown trying to understand therelationship between production and wealth. Mazruidepicts the class struggle by portraying the doubleexploitation of female workers; first as all other workersand as slaves of male chauvinism. He wants the male

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workers to realise the important role played by women insociety.

Kilio Cha Haki makes the point that laws that are soopposed to true humanity, should not be obeyed. Musa andDewe, major characters in the play, lament the existenceof the laws originating from the colonial era, laws meantto exploit the weak and protect the wealthy.

For Mazrui, Ngugi/Mugo the way out of the socio-economicquagmire iswhereas the

a revolution led by the workers.Ngugis would leave the control

However,of the

politico-economic social situation in the hands of thosewho work, Mazrui envisages this, but only after they havebeen conscientised. In fact I at the end of Kilio ChaHgki, Dewe and Musa resolve to return to their country tostart a clandestine movement to conscientise their fellowworkers, in order to bring about a social revolution. Theportrayal of Lawina, a woman leader of the workers is usedto make the point that the struggle against traditionbased on male-dominated leadership, is the first steptowards a socio-economic revolution.

The development of political/didactic theatre in Kenya,has been greatly influenced by Brecht and Boal. Ngugi/Mugoin The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, marked the beginning of theidea of usingconscientisation.

theatre for direct politicalImbuga uses the political leaders as

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major characters and explores the landscape of the royalcourts, his style depends on symbols and allusions in thesemantics.

I proceed to discuss a dance drama collectively devised byTheatre Workshop Production in 1991 and have used materialspanning the last seventy years. In its description Ifind a summary of the cultural landscape in Kenya and itspointers in the 1990's.

Druabeats on Kirinyaga; A Mythological Historical DanceDrama

Dru.weats on Kirinyaga is a dance drama with a vision,expressing effectively its educational message inauthentic Kenyan form. It was first devised by TheatreWorkshop Production (TWP) in 1991 with the main objectiveof clarifying certain social values that had becomeconfused over the years. TWP wished to use drama andmusic to fight for the freedom of artists to communicateand offer the people the right and opportunity to know,share and express their own ideas.

The dance drama attempted to present the Kenyan culturaland historical landscapes on a fictional plain and, moreimportantly, to influence opinions and decisions at everylevel of society. Through story telling, mime, song anddance Dru.neats on Kirinyaga expresses the complexities of

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the human personality.various resistance themes such as the Mumbo Cult inLuoland in 1912, that of Harry Thuku and Mary MuthoniNyanjiru in Nairobi in 1922, Mekatilili of the Giriama in1918, Arap Manyei of the Nandi in 1923 are taken up andexplored using mimic sequences.

The characters are drawn from most Kenyan cultures:Gemuka, moulded from Mukuruwe wa Gathenga, Mkaya mouldedfrom Makaya Kenda, Ramogi from Got Ramogi, and Multevyafrom the Nzau Rock. These are all mythical charactersfrom the regions of Kenya showing the deliberate attemptto express the dynamic archetypes of the Kenyan nation.The characters were a dual existence appearing as bothhistorical and archetypal, and suggesting that thevarieties and differences stimulate creativity and help tocreate a national culture.

The story is told in cyclic waves reflecting the changingsocial and physical environment surrounding Mt Kerenyaga.It starts at the beginning of what we know as Kenya.Wasayangai says:

Yes, it dawned, the daymountains, in the west toeast•.•.

blossomed fromthe desert in

thethe

(Drumbeats, 1991:2)

The play develops the characters and themes through thecolonial period:

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This season bird sings a different tune .... thisdawn uses with a different call.

(1991:4)

Nyamu the overseer describes the post-independent periodas:

So different, yet from one seed will this not betheir undoing .....

(1991:19)

The dialogue and songs used within the various episodes,such as the ceremonial handing over of the stool of Nula(the symbol of the throne) reinforces the democraticprocess used to transmit to the next generation a sense offreedom and responsibility. They enhance the plot and cutacross ethnicity, stressing the understanding betweenpeople enshrined in their one-ness- Kerenyaga.

The imposing figure of Mt Kenya derived from the wordKerenyaga, is a symbol of unity given dramatic form by abunch of sticks straddling the actions of every character.This recurring metaphor is used when Wesayangai the godfigure represents unlimited privileges for the artist tosing, act, paint, write and celebrate; expressingthemselves in their languages as well. The bunch ofsticks put together cannot break, but taken one by onewill snap instantly as Mkaya reminds the people.

the sound of the drumbeats on Kirinyaga welcomes anew generation, those who shall be co-protectorsof the shrine. The inheritance and the sticksthat one's father bid you keep as a symbol ofunity. Let us listen to the sound of the

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drums ....(Drumbeats: 19)

The power of non-verbal images used in the dance with thecharacters Wyamurungu, the mother of the shrine,wesayengai, the keeper of the universe, Odolla, Mayeni andTsipoundi makes a strong emotional impact. The charactersare representative of very concrete elements of the earth.This is reinforced as the god character Wasayengai doesthe narration creating an environment in which the worldacts upon the characters within it who are seen to beworking in opposition to each other.

The conflict arises between those characters who want tobuild an individual base for the instant acquisition ofwealth and those who want to preserve the naturalresources and environment. The conflicts are seen inmoments of floods, drought, economic and social upheavalsand the people of Kirinyaga have to confront suddenly thepolluted landscapes. No solutions are provided but thepiece ends with a ritual participatory song as the food istaken from the 'ogres' and their masks and robes of greedare removed and they are adorned in their original humangarments. As Tshitabna, the god moulder of the universesays:

We must get their human spirits to overcome theirgreed. only the spirit washes the water.(Drumbeats, 1991:30)

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Dru.weats on Kirinyaga was collectively devised by TWPwith a cast of 35 over an 8 week period in 1991. Then ObyObyerodhyambo was asked by the group to write a workingscript, and then they applied for the stage licence fromthe Revenue Officers at Nyayo House in July, 1991. Butthe license was denied for no specific reason althoughsome officials suggested privately that it was because theperformance "had sensitive content". Towards the end ofJuly TWP tried to present it at the Education Theatre II,but again the University of Nairobi authorities refusedpermission. When the performers arrived, they were metwith the police who were destroying the publicity postersand pulling down the set.

TWP moved to the Kenya Cultural Centre auditorium wherethey were at first given permission to perform, but onconsultation with the government, the management withdrewtheir permit. This centre was established in 1952, withits main objective being the "promotion of andentertainment of Kenyan art". (Government Printers,1979:6)

TWP did not give up, however, and re-worked the dance-drama to focus on cultural legislation over 70 years. Aseries of workshops on cultural legislation for schools,colleges and for artists were held and four major actsemerged as crucial:

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i) The witchcraft Act Cap 67 of 1925.ii) The Chief's Authority Act Cap 128 of 1937.iii) The Public Order Act Cap 56 of 1950.iv) The Films and stage Plays Acts, Cap f22 of 1963.

The one thing all the acts had in common is that theycensored communality and traditional norms. It appearedthat, for local culture to survive, the legislation had tobe changed. The true appreciation of a country's theatrecannot be grasped until the cultural policies ofGovernments are grasped. The performance piece in a halfa dozen areas in November 1993 conveyed that message andDrumbeats on Kirinyaga may prove to be a hope for thefuture of a Kenyan theatre.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

In the 1990's Drama and Theatre Practices in Kenya can bedivided into four broad categories.

1) Educational Drama as practiced in formal educationalinstitutions, ie; primary and secondary schools,colleges and universities. The participants are mainlythe students, their teachers and the audiences aremainly educational fraternities. This kind of drama isperformed by touring groups such as The Free Travelling

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Theatre (FTT), The Mshindo Players and The Creative andPerforming Arts Centre. But its main theatre focus arethe performances at the Drama Festival. The work ispresented in Kiswahili, English and the Kenyan nationallanguages and is addressed to all communities and racesgenerally cuts across age, but has a slant towardsyoung people.

2) Professional and Semi-Professional Theatre groups aremainly housed at the KNT, Professional Centre, MombassaLittle Theatre, The Goan Institute, the French CulturalCentre and the Bomas of Kenya. These include groupssuch as the Donovan Maule Theatre, The Theatre Group,The Nairobi Players, Miujiza Players, The Nairobi CityPlayers, the orient Circle Group, Mbalamwezi Players,Sarakusi Theatre Company, Theatre workshop Productions(TWP) and Friends Theatre. From time to time thesegroups invite touring groups from overseas to performin their spaces or invite professionalactors/actresses, directors and technicians to workwith their companies. Phoenix Players and Nairobi CityPlayers are the mainstream theatres and attractlucrative sponsorship and publicity. European andAsian production might share the same venue at the KNTand certain aspects of professionalism, but differgreatly in performance, technique and artistic policy.The African groups receive sponsorship from time totime, but largely rely on gate takings.

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3) Community, Youth and Street Theatre are known for theirperformances in unconventional space, that is thevillage square, churches, streets and open fields.They use the language of their audiences and the idiomof the people, utilising improvisation as a startingpoint. These also include ritual and ceremonialperformances and they use dance, mime, story-tellingand instrumentation. They are not exclusive to ruralareas, but suburban areas in towns where communality isstill held as a value. Misango Arts, Meru Players,Jehudi, Sigoti community Arts Centre, Wanainchi ArtsTheatre groups fall into these categories. It is inthese communities that popular theatre forms thrive andwhere Theatre for Development (TFD) practices arecarried out. Animators for TFD come from theeducational spectrum and semi-professional theatregroups and work with these people in the communitieswith issue based theatre using indigenous forms.

4) Amateur Theatre falls into the category of groups thatdo drama mainly as a recreational activity and most ofthese groups to do not last for a long time and arevery intermittent. They mainly subsist from theirgate-takings and perform in educational institutions,for very short periods at the KNT, in the ForeignCultural Centres in Nairobi, Mombasa or Kisumu.Because they have no means of subsistence, they assume

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a sense of impermanency, however, in the 1980's, someof them have put up some of the most serious plays inKenya. Wanainchi Arts, Mbalamwezi Players, FriendTheatre, Literature Students Association, Ndeya WaNdeya, Zakale Arts, Wazalendo Players and Chelepe Arts.It is significant how theatre activities have movedaway from the KNT and have formed a location in thecommunities and a confidence to facilitate for thegrowth of other centres. The liaison between thesecommunity ventures and the FTT and other touring groupshave been very professional in terms of the specialistskills, either from within or outside the community.

The discussion on the five playwrights and the dance-dramaDrumbeats on Kirinyaga obviously have some educationalimplications and in the next chapter concrete aspects ofeducational drama in Kenya are discussed.

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CHAPTER FOUR

EDUCATIONAL DRAMA PRACTICES IN KENYA

The last chapter discussed contemporary theatre trends inKenya and the historical account explored the affinitiesbetween performance and cultural formations. This chapterwill attempt to map out the territory of educationaldrama, its origins in connection to the teaching ofEnglish, its development with the changes in theeducational system, and where it is within the Kenyanlandscape.

The introduction and teaching of oral literature in the1970's changed the writing and performance modes ineducational institutions. My research findings on thestate of drama and theatre practices in educationalinstitutions informs the discussion. The Drama Festivalmovement forms our principal example as a cUlmination ofeducational drama practices.

Educational drama is a particularly complex area becauseit centres around the dynamics of situations involvingpeople. The central hub is indicated by the work ofpractitioners and general writing on Educational Drama asa subject, and it involves those who are taught physicallyand mentally, both as active participant and activespectator in i.aginary and real social contexts.

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Educational Drama can be child-centred, social-centred

drama, culture-centred drama, it can involve schoolperformances, DIE and TIE as modes of learning and thestudy of published play texts. In them is foundeducational and drama roots.

The Influence of ShakespeareThe most powerful agent in social and cultural controlduring the colonial period, was the formal educationalsystem in schools. English as a language and literaturewas introduced into secondary schools in the 1950's. Thesyllabus then consisted of:

a study of the history of English Literature fromShakespeare, Spencer and Milton to James Joyce andT S Elliot, I A Richards and the inevitable F RLeavis. (Ngugi, 1986:90)

The assumption behind this syllabus was that the EnglishLanguage, literature and culture were the ultimate ofhuman experience for the Kenyans. No study of these areascould ignore that for most of Kenyans in secondary schoolsit meant, certainly in the formative years, the study andsometimes the performance of Shakespeare.

The study of Shakespeare can be traced back to the linkbetween the English teachers during the colonial periodwho were members of the Royal Shakespeare company in Kenyaand East Africa. These teachers determined the set textsthat were chosen for study in schools and so it was the

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Shakespeare text that dominated the dramatic work andalways featured as a compulsory component at the secondaryschools level. The manner in which the Shakespeare textshave been used over the decades by those in schools andthe theatre scenes has made Shakespeare an important pointof reference for many.

Possession and knowledge of Shakespeare texts became theevidence of empowerment enabling those who had beenthrough secondary schools in the fifties to join thecolonial administration, and established themselves firmlyas part of the European theatre scene, hence, assuming asuperior attitude to what would be called the subordinateclasses. By making the study of Shakespeare compulsory insecondary schools, it confirmed the belief that bothEuropeans, Asians and Africans needed Shakespeare to befully educated.

One may wonder whether for many young Kenyan pupils, thestudy of Shakespeare may not hinder progress in theEnglish language rather than help it. The teaching ofShakespeare found a ouImi.nat Lon of performance at TheSchools Drama Festival in these early days.

Nevertheless I English is not the mother-tongue of theKenyan students being taught, and on this basis alone itis possible to question the educative purpose of a textwritten in 16th and 17th century English from another

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distant culture. Not surprisingly, there was eventually areaction against this dominant Shakespearean tradition.Students, like Ngugi wa Thiongo, who had been at AllianceHigh School and had been part of this tradition, moved toMakerere University: there he read African and West Indianliterature on an extracurricular basis and experienced theworks of writers like George Lemming, Balzac and Brecht.This reading resulted in his writing of the play The BlackHermit in 1961. Ngugi is one of those who did notconsider Shakespeare to be an end in itself but, while inhis secondary school, used it to understand other authorsfrom different cultures. Ngugi later influenced theteaching of Literature and Educational Drama and hiswriting has become crucial for the understanding of KenyanLiterature, as was shown in the discussion of The Trial ofDedan (1982), Kimathi, (1976), Ngaahiika Ndeenda (1977)and Maitu Njugira 1982 in Chapter Three.

In a paper, "The Problems Confronting Literary Studies inKenya's Educational System" presented to the FourthInternational Conference on the Teaching of English, heldat Carleton University, ottawa, Canada, 11th - 16th May,1986, Valerie Kibera wrote:

A whole range of dilemmas confront students andteachers of Literature in Kenya today. Some ofthese problems are national ones too, generally alegacy of our colonial past, or of our situationas a developing country ... others are peculiar to

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the formal educational process to the waythese problems are linked, some seem intractable,for the present at least; others must find theirsolutions at national policy-making levels; a feware w i.thin the scope of Ii:terature teachers toremedy. (Kibera, 1986:3)

An important move to meet some of Kibera's dilemmas and toact against the Shakespeare tradition was made by Tabal LoLiyong, Henry Owuor Anyumba, and Ngugi wa Thiongo in theEnglish Department of the Technical Royal College (nowUniversity of Nairobi). They rejected the structure ofthe syllabus and demanded that the philosophy behind thewhole Department changed. They were responding to a paperby the Acting Head of the English Department, Dr JamesStewart, as saying:

The English Department has had a long history atthis college and has built a strong syllabus whichby its study of the historic continuity of asingle culture throughout the period of emergenceof the modern West, makes it an importantcompanion to History, and to Philosophy andReligious Studies. However, it is bound to beless 'British', more open to other writing inEnglish (American, Caribbean, AfricanCommonwealth) and also to continental writing forcomparative purposes. (Ngugi, 1986:49)

stewart was prepared to admit into the English syllabus,writings from elsewhere, as long as they were rendered inEnglish and even then, for only comparative purposes.English in its entirety was the standard. Ngugi, Anyumbaand Lo Liyong argued in reply:

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Underlying the suggestions is a basic assumptionthat the English tradition and the emergence ofthe modern West is the central root of ourheritage. Africa becomes an extension of theWest •.. Hence ... the centrality of the EnglishDepartment into which other cultures can beadmitted from time to time. Here then is our mainquestion. If there is need for 'a study of thehistoric continuity of a single culture' why can'tthis be African? Why can't African Literature beat the centre so that we can view other culturesin relation to it? (Ngugi, 1986:94)

They called for the "Africanisation" of the syllabus andsuggested that African Orature be the centre of literarystudies because:

By discovering and proclaiming loyal ty toindigenous values, the new literature would, onthe one hand be set in the stream of history towhich it belongs and so be better appreciated; andon the other, be better able to embrace andassimilate other thoughts without losing itsroots. (Ngugi, 1986:95)

This led to the further call for the name of the EnglishDepartment to be changed, and after much debate in 1968and 1969 the Department became that of Literature whichemphasised the African components before radiating out tothe Caribbean, the developing world and the rest of theworld.

In relation to educational drama, this was significant inseveral ways: Firstly it opened the way for students tostudy other Literatures in the medium of English, authorssuch as Brecht, Chekhov, Miller, Moliere, Ibsen andStrindberg became available and the emerging writers from

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Africa, the Caribbean and Latin America. Secondly,performance alternatives became available and, by delvinginto African oral traditions, the scope of educationaldrama widened. Thirdly, it laid bare the need to alterfundamentally the nature of cultural practice itself, andto disengage many theatre practitioners from theoppressive, unimaginative and official structures like theKNT that they served.

This was the position in the early and mid-seventies whenOral Literature was introduced into the Universitysyllabus and effected in 1973 when the majority of thestaff in the Department of Literature were Africans. InSeptember 1974 a Conference on "The Teaching of AfricanLiterature in Kenyan Schools" was held at Nairobi School.It was well attended with representation fromeducationalists, writers, policy makers, publishers andteachers, and addressed itself to questions of languageand literature. A resolution passed at the end of the

conference stated:

The present language and literature syllabuses areinadequate and irrelevant to the needs of thecountry. They are so organised that a Kenyanchild knows himself through London and New York.Both should therefore be completely overhauled atall levels of the our educational system andparticularly in schools. (Ngugi, 1986:97)

The working committee set up by the conference came up

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with detailed recommendations on policy and on syllabusesalong the principles outlined in the conferenceresolution. The document was titled Teaching ofLiterature in Kenya Secondary Schools - Recommendations ofthe Working committee. The document underscored thecentrality of oral literature as a take-off base tocontemporary literature; arguing that "a sound educationpolicy is one which enables students to study the cultureand the environment of their society first, then set it inrelation to the culture and environment of othersocieties." (Recommendations 1973:8). The proponents oforal literature were very conscious of theinternationalist setting and contexts of the nationalexperience; it was never their intention to practicenational chauvinism in the syllabuses. Their core aim wasto:

Instil in the student, a critical love ofliterature, which will both encourage its pursuitin later years and ensure that such a pursuit isengaged in fruitfully. (Recommendations, 1974:71)

The central idea behind the suggested syllabus was clearas the continuing national liberation process and some ofthe major principles that emerged are:

i) A people's culture is an essentialdefining and revealing their outlook.mental processes can be conditioned, aswith the formal education provided bygovernments in Africa.

component inThrough it,

was the casethe colonial

ii) For the education offered today to be positive andto have creative potential for Kenya's future it must

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be seen as an essential part of the continuing nationalliberation process. (Recommendations, 1974:214)

The debate created by these recommendations became anational one, it had shifted from the corridors of theDepartment of Literature to teachers in schools,newspapers, students and many people interested in thearts. It is no coincidence that at this time the FreeTravelling Theatre (FTT) was started with the aim oftaking theatre to the people in Kenyan languages. Theimplicit aim was to reinforce the feel for oral literaturein schools as the training of teachers for the disciplinebegan. I will proceed to describe how Oral Literature wasinitially implemented alongside the Literature syllabus inthe educational system.

The Teaching of Oral Literature

At University level, the Literature syllabus is dividedinto three structures corresponding to the three

undergraduate years. A first year student studies acompulsory course of East African Literature (includingOrature and the writings from the regions), BlackAesthetics, Theory of Literature and Language Use. In thesecond year, the categories contained Theory of Literatureand stylistics, Orature, Theatre Arts, Drama in Education,Drama, European Literature, Literature of the AfricanDiaspora and Literature in Swahili. In the third year astudent studied African Literature, The Aesthetics of Oral

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Literature and one term field course in style, Performanceand Orature as a Community Discourse. Clearly there is aspecial bias towards Orature as it is offered as a corecourse through the three year period. The teachingmethodology is oriented towards field work and linking upwith current practices.

In secondary schools Orature is a core subject withinLiterature studied alongside drama, the novel" poetry andlanguage use. Before the 8-4-4 education system wasimplemented at the secondary school stage, between 1979-1987, Oral Literature formed a significant area of studyat '0' level and of the three 'A' level Literature papers,one was Oral Literature.

The 8-4-4 system introduced drastic changes, one of whichwas the merger of English and Literature in the secondaryschool syllabus and the removal of literary writing fromthe syllabus. In a nutshell the educational system couldhave gone full circle from 1965. There is no longer adepartment of Literature in the schools; but only ofEnglish though of which Literature is a part. In the samevein Oral Literature also has to be taught under theumbrella of English.

Austin Bukenya, writing on "The What, Why and How ofTeaching Orature" agrees that the subject is taught toimpart the feelings of a people and playing a therapeutic

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role:

the song satirises unacceptable behaviour andwarns community members against misdemeanour. Theproverb explores various elements of a people'swisdom expressing in a terse, but vivid manner.The characters in the oral narrative are presentedin such a way as to highlight strong qualitieswhich members of a society are called upon tostrive for and to ridicule, .•..•• (Bukenya,1992:17)

Our concern in this study is not an in-depth investigationof Oral Literature for that falls outside the scope of oursearch and recognition of work in this field isacknowledged. Our intention is to investigate how theteaching of Oral Literature in schools and theUniversities has provided drama teachers and theatrepractitioners with a source from which to draw materialfor performance and performance techniques.

Research on Orature in Kenya shows how many communitiesvalued this genre, although there is some variation in itsdefinition. In this study Orature is seen as the heart ofa people's way of life: the very soul of their culture andas· the reservoir of a people's value, it expresses asociety's world view and gives them a spring board fromwhich their day-ta-day existence is propelled. In theeducational sense, it can be seen as the foundation onwhich the cultural direction and development of a peoplestands. This must be what Okot P'Bitek had in mind whenhe said that 'Oral Literature embodies and expresses the

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political, social and moral philosophies of their people,their outlook on life and death'. (Bitek, 1973:26)

Each genre of Oral Literature has a part to play in theeducation and re-education of a particular society. Whileexpressing linguistic, literary and social skills "Thelinguistic skills include the promotion of the ability totalk (orality or orally) and the mastering of the abilityto translate from one language to another (or what hecalled 'translingual skills').(Bitek 1973:37)

The teaching of oral literature has so far givenprominence to national languages. The oral abilities andsocial skills that Bukenya talks about have found a firmbase in the plays students write and perform for the DramaFestival.

The teacher training colleges and primary schools havelocated orature within the ethics and social sciencesdiscourse; it is significant that it is used in severalareas of the curriculum as a social science subject morethan a subject in its own right. At the lower primaryschool levels where the mother tongue or Kiswahili are themediums of instruction, the interplay of the oralliterature genres is intense especially through song andthe oral narrative. Most of the plays, creative dancesand dramatised poetry from the colleges and primary

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schools in the Drama Festival draw heavily from oralsources.

Because of the expanded curriculum in the 8-4-4 systemthere has been need for restructuring the time allocationfor each subject. In the old syllabus, Literature hadnine 45-minute lessons a week at 'A' Level and five 40-minute lessons at '0' Level. In the present one, there isa total of six lessons per week for the two. Literaturetakes two and English four of the lessons. UnderLiterature are Drama, Oral Literature and Poetry. InEnglish there is Grammar, Composition andComprehension/Summary. Obviously the time allocated isnot sufficient but that has only made the teachers andstudents more determined to find the time for Drama andOral Literature. Wanjiku Kabira, Asenath Odaga, A.Akavaga, Austin Bukenya, Kavetsa Adagala, Peter Amuka andOkoth Okombo have written books and papers and heldseveral workshops for school to complement the OralLiterature discourse.

The important thing for many teachers and educationalistsis that it is being taught and there is a structure forit. In the meantime the fight is not just for more timeand for space for drama or Oral Literature but against thewhole 8-4-4 system which has brought about the wholeproblem. These marginalised areas, such as Drama and OralLiterature consistently make the most impact on students

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who come across it or have an interest. This has beenproved by the number of students who take part and thosewho get involved in Drama and Theatre activities afterschool.

DRAMA IN SCHOOLS

The following is based upon what I actually found out ashappening in educational institutions with drama andtheatre activities. The search was conducted betweenJanuary and May 1992 in several schools and othereducational institutions with teachers, students andinspectors of school.Appendix One.

Details of these findings are in

The Primary School EnQuiry

This was centred on primary schools that took part in theDrama Festivals over the last decade, some insights toowere obtained from teachers with a strong interest indrama, but did not use it in their schools. Nurseryschools received less attention than the lower primaryschools. The enquiry entailed school visits anddiscussions with head teachers and pupils during thezonal, divisional, district, provincial and the nationaldrama festivals. Advantage was taken to observe dramawork in schools, but also to pursue drama issues.A questionnaire was given to 56 primary school teachers

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with an interest in drama and who actually practiced it,and there were 49 of these returned. Some firmgeneralisations were drawn from this sample and, inconjunction with other findings and published literature,they illuminate the usage of drama in primary schools.Among the conclusions that emerged were the following:

1. Dramatic activities may be approved of by head teachersonly in theory, but if the school takes part in the Draaa

Festival these there is more support. Heads and teachersappreciate the use of role-play in enhancing learning invarious subject areas.

2. Drama at this stage was thought of generally as thedramatising of stories, myths, legends and themes thatwere easily accessible to the pupils and the kind ofmaterial that they had come across in their own homes. Itwas also apparent that storytelling as performance and alearning medium was important both at home and in school.

3. The school visits produced evidence that about 60% ofthe teachers worked in process regularly and that it wasused to teach other subjects as history, civics, ethics;aspects of performance were linked to these but not to beshown as a product. Those who took part in the DramaFestival used this process to achieve the production.

The comments of heads and teachers contacted, intimated

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that a sizeable number of primary school teachers wereinterested in drama but still lacked the knowledge andconfidence to use it. While at the Teacher TrainingCollege, they had been made to appreciate drama'spossibilities as a tool that could serve to promotelinguistic, expressive and conceptual powers across theprimary curriculum. But once in school the pressure topush ahead with other important learning areas wasoverwhelming.

Headteachers were naturally keen to have performances onthe speech day, assembly or parents day and about 50% ofthe heads interviewed indicated that they understood thatdrama methods, outside such theatrical connotations couldplay useful educational undertakings. Drama's usefulnessand potential were inhibited by several interlinkingfactors: pressure on time and space apart from theclassroom and parental concern for standards ofachievement in literacy and numeracy; the teachers ownpriorities and limited confidence. The enquiry convincedme that there were highly significant factors and teacherscould not necessarily do what they believed was in thebest interests of children. They tried to do what theycould, whilst co-operating with parents to ensure thatcreative, social, moral affective domains of understandingwere not neglected (drama was considered contributory tothese) but they could not ignore the competitive nature ofthe schools and examinations at this level.

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Nevertheless, there is evidence that the teacher's wantedto learn more about drama:

a) The teachers in the schools were interested in, andsupportive of, students on teaching practice and were keenon drama as a teaching method and a subject, and theywelcomed from these student teachers ideas that they hadnot considered themselves.

b) Heads and teachers I interviewed in connection withdemonstration lessons from teacher trainers, workshopsfrom playwrights and theatre practitioners were positivethat these, although few and far between, made asignificant difference in the actual teaching and practiceof drama in primary schools. Some of these schools had nostrong tradition in the uses of drama or participation atThe Drama Festival.

c) It was evident that teachers worked after school withchildren and went on to invite people experienced in danceand drama to assist. The research procedure I adoptedgave me little access to teachers coming out of college in1993, and it was not possible to establish whether thoseentering the primary schools had the same commitments,taking into account the apathy that now plagues thetraining of teachers in the early 1990's. In the 19

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schools I visited (several visited five or more times) thestaff I talked to were all experienced teachers with tenor more years in the field.

d) The Provincial Inspector of Schools (English) JackOlwenda, considered that the need to improve the qualityof teacher understanding and expertise in drama's uses andmethods was a matter of most concern in the primarysector. He emphasized the need not only for more teacherunderstanding, but for better practical skills and moreimagination,especiallyAugust) .

andduring

worked himself alongsideThe Dra.a Festival period

teachers(May

He is one of the few educationalists trained inDIE and has done some TIE work using these techniques totryon teachers the range of learning possibilities dramacould engender in both the classroom and the theatre.

e) Further to this, teachers and pupils interviewedgenerally concurred that factors relating to groupdynamics emerged as clearly the most important. This isnot surprising in the light of the fact that children atthis age, 7 - 13 years, do a lot of things together. Nextcame the theories of play, creativity and childdevelopment. Theorists like Imbuga, Olwenda, Were, otumbawho had encountered the practice of DIE/TIE whilst in theUK, had been influenced by the theories of Slade, Way,Heathcote, Courtney, Bolton, Banham, Hodgson and O'Toolewhose works have been used with teachers in Kenyan

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classrooms. From these theories and practices teachers inKenya have underpinned drama in the current psychologicalknowledge: have used educational drama as a learning

medium and a teaching methodology too.

The position of drama in the primary school is still fullof ambiguities and difficulties. Drama as a medium for

learning should theoretically flourish in a child-centredenvironment that encourages a more holistic approach toknowledge. This is not the case with the 8-4-4 systemthat does not encourage such development physical,intellectual and linguistic powers in an enjoyable way.As a teaching strategy in the former educational system(7-4-2-3), it seemed particularly suitable in that itcould use play methods judiciously to foster newdiscoveries and to help children to make sense of acomplex world. Nonetheless, within the limitations of the8-4-4 system, it was found out that drama activities wereprominent in the classroom and as extra-curricularpractices that cut across disciplines. In many primaryschools pupils up to 13 years socialize regularly usingstory telling, dance, music as performance; these are notyet structured and are not performed for any specificaudiences. Teachers encourage the pupils to bring outmaterial from their own homes for recreation andeducational purposes.

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Drama and Theatre Activities in Secondary School

Drama as a subject or as text taught within Literaturefits in more easily with the normal timetable of secondaryorganisation. The majority of the secondary teachers Iinterviewed recognised the importance of dra.a as asubject. About 70% of the 112 teachers interviewedcomplained of the inflexibility of school timetables, therigid methods introduced to teach English, and sometimeseven hostile attitude of some head teachers andadministrators in school.

The problem of finding suitable times for drama teachingcontinues to bother teachers. The position of drama inthe curriculum is still unclear and officials from theeducation ministry or inspectors of English have nothelped in clarifying this, nonetheless teachers andstudents engage in drama and theatre activities. certainfeatures of drama teaching in the schools emerged fromthese enquiries.

1. FaciIities : Teachers worked in assembly halls,canteens, converted classrooms, open spaces and ordinaryclassrooms. Only 10 per cent of the schools I visited hada hall with theatre facilities such as a stage, lighting,sound and curtains. Not surprisingly, these were to behigh cost schools formerly all white schools, ego

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Nairobi, Lenana, Kenya High Schools, 30 per cent of theschools used the dining hall which also served as anassembly hall, e.g. Mukumu, Waa and Menangai Schools, Inother schools, teachers worked in any available space. Somost of the drama teachers worked in fairly difficultcircumstances, but good facilities did not meannecessarily that drama practices were flourishing, ifanything it is the schools where the halls wereconvertible into a multiplicity of purposes, which seemedto work best. Indeed in some schools where conditionswere far from great, drama has thrived as in Nyatike, Waa,Garissa, Sega Primary and Secondary schools in the late1980's.

2. Arrangements: Drama is organised as a separate lessonsubject more frequently in high cost schools and schoolswith a long tradition at the Dra.a Festival. In themajority of schools it is studied as part of English, buteven here it has been gaining a clearer timetable identityin the past decade. Dra.a .ethods are being used moreoften by teachers of Ethics, History and General Studies.More recently, since the introduction of the 8-4-4 systemand drama has become organised more often within English,since this has made it more difficult to find out: (i)Drama's character and status; (ii) its regularity; or theamount of time given to active dramatizing and theatreactivities.

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In this case the definition of drama tends to be moreliterary it is strongly associated with the interpretationof dramatic texts. Timetabling policies in the 45 schoolsI visited were in theory clear, in the majority of casesdrama sessions were held twice a week and extra-time outof the formal school timetable. About 45 per cent of theEnglish teachers who also taught drama were influenced byliterature syllabuses and taught drama as text; this wasmainly because they lacked a supportive background indramatic arts. Some of these though, strongly believed inthe value of active drama studies and theatre practice andhad acquired some considerable understanding and skills inthe arts of the theatre.

My field studies suggest that effective teaching of Dramaor working with theatre skills has not been confined tothose whose original training is in Drama in Education andTheatre Arts. This suggests a growing interest by otherteachers, or other people who have specialist skills suchas story telling, choreography of dance, movement skillsand through working with students and their teachers havedeveloped various techniques.

The search indicated that 68% of the secondary schools inKenya took part in the Drama Festival. The majority ofthese English/Drama teachers said that for four months ayear they taught drama as a subject, used it as a aethod,

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and engaged intensively in theatre activities inpreparation for the Dra.a Festival. The teaching of Dramais very much encapsulated in the theatre activitiesleading to the Dra.a Festival since all the students insecondary school take English as a compulsory examinablesubject, and most of the English teachers have beentrained in dra.a .ethods; of necessity most of thestudents come in contact with drama via English or theDra.a Festival.

Theatre and Drama in Colleges

In the training colleges, The Drama Club is the focus ofmost of the theatrical activities, cross-cultural dancesand the dramatised poetry. Drama is used as a service

subject across the broad training curricular in primaryteaching colleges, and used as a teaching aethod. It hasmainly been incorporated into the Communication Module,and as this is mandatory for all, the potential teachershave some idea of drama in its various functions. In the1970's The Drama Club in many colleges, influenced by TheFree ~ravelling ~heatre of the University of Nairobi, ledthe start of aini travelling theatre established alloverthe country where the colleges are situated. It is verymuch in colleges such as Siriba, Eregi, Kaimosi, Kisii,Shanzu, Kagumo, Thogoto that re-knowned drama teachers andtheatre directors have practiced. These include Osodo,Ouko, Otumba, Dianga Obaso, J Makhulo and P Tiego.

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The Annual Colleges Drama Festival between September andDecember is taken very seriously for it is the culminationof all dramatic activities during the year. Each collegemeticulously prepares its presentation going throughseveral stages over a three month period. Most of theseteachers have this as their main practical theatricalexperience, significantly some material is used fordramatic activities during the Speech Day Graduation andalso used in some study courses. The students use theseevents as part preparation for their curricular projects.

In the colleges there are students who have come acrossdrama at secondary school or have an interest in thediscipline, so carryon with drama with a lot ofenthusiasm. What is needed is for drama and theatreskills to be taught as a curricular subject, then, whenthe student leaves college and begins teaching, theirimpact by starting from some drama teaching and theatrework, will be spread throughout the educational spectrum.At the moment the creative Dance category is evolving fromimpetus being brought in by these teachers and theirstudents.

Theatre and prama in the Universities

All the four public universities in Kenya have Drama andTheatre Arts programmes under their B.Ed and B.A.Faculties. In the early 1970's Joe de Graft started a

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Theatre Arts Programme made up of two units (Introductionto Theatre Arts and Theatre Arts Intermediate Course)taken in the second year and two units in the third year(African Drama and Non-African Drama). In the second yearthe students are introduced to 'the essence of theatre'and to the function of 'the producer and director in thetheatre'; they study 'the analysis and interpretation' ofthe play, working from short one-act plays to 'selectedfull length texts' which 'will equip the students with theability to visualise the play in stage terms' .(Literature Syllabus, 1973:16)

The students also study and participate in the craft ofthe actor and in the use of body movement. Thefundamentals of theatre are then used in the production ofmimes, improvisation, and dance. Stress is laid onpractical experience of play production through variousroles on stage, back stage, designing, and lighting cues.Seminars and workshops are held to familiarise studentswith concepts and techniques for practical projects.

In the third year the study of African Drama in itstraditional setting aims at arousing the students'appreciation of drama as a tool for social criticism andchange. The course in Non-African drama introduces thestudents to a wide range of dramatic traditions which canbe used to set against their own traditions as well as fortheir own sake.

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In 1973, by mutual agreement with the Department ofLiterature, the Department of Educational Communicationand Technology offered the course Educational Drama andDrama In Education to B.Ed students. It aimed at givingthe students 'a good practical understanding of materialsfor educational drama and techniques ofdrama with school children in mind'.syllabus, 1973:6)

improvisatory(Literature

Alongside this was the Drama and Theatre In the CommunityCourse which aimed at familiarising the students with howto look at performances in the community from aneducational point of view, and also to take drama into thecommuni ty with the aim of educating the community onvarious issues. In Educational Drama, the student studiesthe psychology of play, teaching methods and materialutilisation and dramatisation as an aid to teachingdeveloping a drama programme in the school. The studentstaking the Drama In Education component take dramateaching during their teaching practice.

The Performing and Creative Arts Centre

The Performing and Creative Arts Centre (PCAC) has from1977 supplemented these programmes as an interdisciplinarydepartment in the Faculty of Arts of Kenyatta University.

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Since its foundation the (PCAC) Centre has enjoyed theparticipation of a wide range of departments; it exists tocater for the cultural life of the University and, throughits consistent close relationship to the Ministry ofCulture and Social Services and other cultural groups, ithas played a vital role in the practical training oftheatre artists in Kenya.

The Centre's widely diversified activities can be dividedinto three main areas: Research, Performance and CreativeArts. An important aspect of the centre's research workis carried out by students who go on field courses todifferent parts of the country. In each place visited,the students conduct on the spot research by means of oraland written interviews; from these and their generalinteraction with local people in their environment theylearn as much as possible about their realities, theirmain cultural activities, beliefs, ceremonies and howthese influence their outlook on life. These field visitshave reinforced the teaching of Orature in schools and theuse of materials from the field in performance. Thestudents also collect cultural objects which are broughtback to the Centre in an endeavour to set up an effectivecuItural resource centre. From this source plays havebeen devised which have, in turn, formed the researchareas. The centre arranges workshops for teachers andsocial community workers, either in the Centre itself orwherever they tour. Many teachers of Drama and theatre

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practitioners have been trained in this Centre whichcontinues to influence the way drama is thought about andtaught in the country.

currently there are other training facilities for Dramaand Theatre practitioners. Although the Theatre School atthe Kenya National Theatre is now defunct, from 1968 untilits closure in the mid 1970's it produced graduates whoare now steadfast practitioners for the stage, televisionand film.

The Nairobi Theatre Academy (NTAl

The Nairobi Theatre Academy was formed in March 1990, withthe support of the French government and its CulturalCentre in Nairobi which is the French Cultural Centre: isone of the many foreign cultural centres that providerehearsal space and performance for Kenyan theatre groups.The Nairobi Theatre Academy opened its doors to more thanone hundred and sixty people who registered as members andfor the ensuing workshops. Workshops covered a wide rangeof topics and specialists were brought in to facilitatetext interpretation, voice, improvisation, movement,directing, stage management, theatre for development.These specialists are mainly teachers of drama and theatrepractitioners taking the above courses over a period of ayear. There may be some doubt about the philosophy of theNTA because it is largely controlled by the French

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CuItural Centre, but the teachers in the Academy havetried to impart the skills and use of space. The NairobiTheatre Academy is a useful venue that has producedgraduates for two years and their impact on contemporarytheatre is just starting to be felt.

Bomas of Kenya

The Kenya Government started the Bomas of Kenya Limited in1971 in conjunction with a company of The Kenya TouristDevelopment Corporation (KTDC). Bo.as of Kenya meanshomes of Kenya, or "An African Homestead" originallyinitiated for cultural entertainment of the touristsvisiting Kenya. At the Bomas of Kenya, there are dailylocal entertainment programmes for tourists and childrenby dancers and traditional performers. The facilities atthe Centre include an arena hall that can seat 3,500people and the circular theatre has adequate lighting, andsound equipment to cater for the most modern ofperformance groups. There is also an open air stage whichhas a seating capacity of 15,000 - 20,000 people. Thereis a hostel of 68 single rooms, dining hall, and kitchenfor those who would wish to stay at the Bomas. The Centrealso consists of traditional Kenyan homes built to depictthe diversity of the people of Kenya; there are severaldifferent ba.as, each one representing one of Kenya'smajor ethnic group and built to the original traditionalarchitecture of an African home. Here people are able to

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see and experience the rural life of its social setting.The recruitment of trainee dancers and performers wasquite an event when 3,000 'Q' Level school leavers turnedup for the historical cultural interview where only 30were selected for training. These came to be The BomasHarambee Dancers,public in 1973,

formed when the Centre opened to theand have become the most consistent

professional dance company in Kenya. It was wellremembered for its resounding performances at FESTAC inLagos, Nigeria in 1978 where it produced Bomas I and IIwhich are cross-cultural traditional musicals.

surprisingly it has catered for school children veryfairly since its inception. It has a progressive teachingunit where pupils are taken on tours, taught abouttraditional times and shown artifacts, as well as beingtold stories, shown dance and play performances.

This is one feature of the Bomas of Kenya that has beenconsistent for years: teachers generally agree that theexperience of the activities is an immense educationalexperience for students. Therefore it has not remained anexclusive cultural tourist resort but an institution withpossibilities of training and cultural construction.

It is significant that the Bomas of Kenya has far betterfacilities than other Kenyan theatre groups for trainingand performing. Apart from foreign performing groups, the

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space is used mainly by the Bomas Harambee Dancers and infact only 40% of the utilities are in full use at themoment.

other training institutions include the Kenya Informationand Mass Communication Institute (KIMC). Here, skills ofthe theatre are taught to students who are training towork in mass media, television and film; the Institute hasproduced personnel who design television and radio dramasover the years. Their impact on the masses over the yearsremain minimal, overshadowed by the Kenya Institute forEducation (KIE) that produces radio drama programmes foreducational institutions. Ironically, those working atKIE have been trained at KIMC.

THE DRAMA FESTIVAL

Different theatre writers, practitioners and theoristshave treated the Dra.a Festival under various labels andcategories. These include the Festival performance in thecommunity, the schools and colleges drama festival, theUniversities drama festival, non-formal educationalinstitutions drama festival and the District andProvincial Cultural Festival.

Here I am concerned with the Drama Festival from 1959,which started as a secondary schools event, but hasexpanded to include primary colleges and community

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festival outside the schools setting. The assimilation ofthe prosceniu. arch theatre tradition in the DramaFestival, has influenced models of performance over theyears. This event, which touches on the aspects ofcelebration and co.petition, has flourished in many partsof Kenya. I am concerned with this piece of historybecause thirty-five years later, The Drama Festival hasbecame an event that provides a range of performances andtechniques that constitute an important element of Kenyantheatre. It is part of the Kenyan tradition in acontemporary sense and has provided a breakthrough informs or idioms of acting and it is an event wherealternatives are explored and sustained.

The Dra.a Festival, from its onset in 1959, was an aspectof a much broader group of educational and culturalactivities which were expressive of the colonial educationand used to reinforce the interpretation of existingsocial and political relations. Although, initially, theevent shared most of the characteristics of expatriatetheatre groups, the lay-out and structure of the festival,the administration and performance modes were strictlymodelled on a typically British Drama Festival for HigherEducation. Its social base lay with the expatriateteachers, inspectors and staff of the British Council andthe students in the all-white and all-Asian schools inKenya in the late 1950's.

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The Schools Drama Festival, as it was initially known in1959, was initiated by the East African Theatre Guild andthe British Council which, in conjunction with theMinistry of Education at the time, worked out themodalities for its structure. In all fairness,recognition should go to those involved in theatreactivities at the time and these include Peter Allnut,Norman Montgomery and Graham Hyslop who were organisingsecretaries of the Festival between 1959 and 1963. Theyhad close links with the East African Theatre Guild andthe Kenya National Theatre which became a permanent venuefor the Schools Drama Festival between 1959 and 1981.These factors laid the foundation on which educationaldrama and its practitioners would operate in the post-independence period.

Shakespeare figured prominently, abridged versions ofthese plays became part of the Festival during thisperiod. Over the years, the study and performance ofShakespearean plays became a cultural centre-point forthose who would form the intellectual and literary class.So the fes~ival became a part of a much broader group ofeducational and cultural activities designed to reinforceand confirm existing social and political relations.

The event, at this time, mainly concentrated on secondaryschools and not other educational institutions, but

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students leaving secondary schools joined the employmentsector as teachers, the civil service and a few into theprivate sector. These were potential opinion shapers andwould influence attitudes in whatever sector they joined.

The Drama Festiyal in the Post-Independent Period 1963-

.l.21..2.

Because the institutions such as the Ministry of Educationand the British Council remained intact in personnel andpolicy they retained events such as the Dra.a Festival.

Between 1964 and 1968 Val Thornton, Robert Butler, RobertGrosshans and Meguido Zold ran the Festival until theMinistry of Education officially took it over in 1969. Itstill remained an autonomous body with close associationwith the Inspectors of English at the Ministry ofEducation and with members of the Kenya National Theatreand the East African Theatre Guild. These associationsand links reveal an attempt to keep the Schools DramaFestival close enough to the educational system, but notwithin it. This, to a large extent, has affected thepolicy towards the inclusion of drama in the curriculumand as a fully-fledged subject. Things might have beendifferent if the Festival had been taken over by theMinistry of Education at this time.

In 1965, some Inspectors of English strongly felt theMinistry of Education should take full charge of the

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Schools Drama Festival with the view to "introducing Dramaas a subject in schools, and starting a Drama School inNairobi to train the talent from schools." (FestivalProgramme, 1965:3). This could not meet with theagreement of the organisers of the Drama Festival, formany who were theatre workers felt that it would take awaytheir role in the event. This schism between The Ministryof Education and The Festival did not help in putting aphilosophy of work for the festival in place.

The Schools Drama Festival was still hosted at the KenyaNational Theatre; an annual event, over a week-longperiod, of European Theatre. Because of time constraintsthe plays in English had to be 15 minutes minimum and 45minutes playing time, with 15 minutes to prepare the setand to strike off the set. The African students whoparticipated in the Festival during the period had toco.pete with the white and Asian students in the renditionin performance of plays from Shakespeare, Miller, Ibsenand Moliere to name just a few who had become therepertoire of the festival in the mid-1960's.

The Festival laid emphasis on eloquence, articulation,enunciation, projection, poise and presence; to achievethis, rehearsal and memorisation of text was vital forthis exercise. In rehearsal, students were drilled in theuse of the proscenium arch stage, and some of the schoolhalls were built on the models of the Kenya National

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Theatre. Schools such as Duke of York (now NairobiSchool) and Gloucester (now Lenana School) and Duchess ofYork (now the Kenya High School) have these fairly complexhalls/auditoria by schools standards. The Schools DramaFestival was more a co.pe~i~ionbetween the schools than aFes~ival because of the attitude the students were taughtto have towards the event. This tension betweenco.pe~i~iveness and a ~ruly fes~ival or celebra~ory

attitude has continued through into the 1990's shaped bydifferent circumstances.

Glimpses of Change

The organisers of the Schools Drama Festival in 1968,Robert Beaumont and Kevin Lillies, appointed the Directorof the KNT, Seth Adagala, as the first African adjudicatorin the event since its inception. This action issignificant in two ways: firstly, it was a firmrecognition by the predominantly European committee, thattime had come for a change in their attitude towards theFes~ival. It was a realisation that the composition ofthe Festival had altered, the event had outlived some ofits initial tenets and the reality of Kenyans had movedon. Secondly, in a series of counter-cultural events inKenya at the time, the European theatre workers andexpatriates had to reassess their role in culturalencounters in Kenya. In the event the Ministry ofEducation took over the running of the Schools Drama

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Festival in 1969.

Dr Kisa Amateshe who was a product of the English teachingthe Schools Drama Festival in the late 1960's and early1970's, had this to say:

In our days as students, we experienced more ofthe dialogue than action in European plays. Thoseof us who were upcoming actors then memorisedlines into which we were unable to put our hearts,our whole being, our Africanness, our style ofgestures and facial expressions. Even ourmovements on stage were awkward because of themedieval Shakespearean costumes. This is what Ifel t when I was playing the role of Brutus inShakespeare's Julius Caesar in 1971 or earlier onwhen I was playing the role of Antonio in ~Merchant of Venice in 1969. Here we were innocentAfricans, playing historically inconceivable Romanroles on Kenyan stage being made to believe thatwas our humble contribution to the noble conceptof a 'Kenyan Theatre'. (Amatashe, 1992.10)

In 1971, Yinka Olumide, a Nigerian theatre practitionerand at that time working with the All-African Conferenceof churches, was appointed an adjudicator by the festivalorganisers. In the same year, Olkirkenyi (in the Maasailanguage) was the first indigenous language play to winthe national finals of the Kenya Schools Drama Festival.This marked a change of the direction the Festival wasgoing to take in the 1970's. Olkirkenyi was written, andproduced by Jonathan Falita, Elizabeth Sane, MichaelSoletai, Esther Taikon and Moses Taka who were students ofOlke juado Secondary School. Wasambo Were was a newlygraduated teacher and appointed to the school in 1970helped produce the play; he was one of the few African

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teachers replacing the expatriate teachers of English.Ngugi describes these teachers as "those students andteachers who can, by starting from their environment,freely link with the rural and urban experiences of Kenyanand African literature to that of Garcia Marquez, GeorgeLamming, Balzac, Dickens, Shakespeare and Brecht "(Ngugi, 1986:78)

The presentation of Olkirkenyi, an African play in anAfrican language, before the very conservative audiencesof the KNT, was a very courageous step in those days. Itreceived a lukewarm reception from this audience becausewhat they saw on stage did not constitute drama in theconventional sense but, as one member of the audience putit at the time, "we are used to seeing that sort ofperformance in the reserves, in the bosuu«, not at theKenya National Theatre; it lacked in intelligible dialogueand was full of movements that nobody can make a sense of.We hope it is not going to set a precedent in having manymore simplistic performances like that the KNT; it spellsdoom for Kenyan theatre" (Sunday Nation, 22.4.1971:12)

This member of the audience, also a member of the KNT anda senior figure in the theatre fraternity, gives a senseof the feelings by the predominantly European audience whopatronised the theatre and the Schools Drama Festival.His disappointment is understandable, for Olkirkenyi

signified a kind of theatre that had been hidden from theKNT. Its aesthetics of performance conventions introduced

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elements of music, dance, dialogue and mime which would beareas of exploration for the better part of the 1970's..

In the next few years the European expatriate teachers ofEnglish made an effort to write their own original playsor look for new plays, which was a major shift from thepractice of putting on known plays and establishedwriters. They were also looking for relevance, as manymore schools joined the Festival in the early 1970's, thetask of writing simple plays fell on students in theschools or students already at university. From thiscategory emerged Francis Imbuga who wrote Betrayal In TheQ.ity while still at Alliance High School, and severalplays for the stage, radio and television while at theUniversity.

The interplay between European theatre workers at the KNT,the expatriate English teachers, the few African Englishteachers and students who also engaged with the SchoolsDrama Festival is significant in several ways. Firstly,it indicated the debate about a Kenyan Theatre, secondly,it exposed the neglect in many ways the functions ofAfrican art forms. Finally, it centre-staged the need forall involved in drama/theatre activities to work togetherand map out strategies for contemporary Kenyan Theatre.

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THE 1975-1982 PHASE

From the foregoing, it is apparent that the Schools DramaFestival had become expansionist in nature. Initially itdid not consciously seek to intervene in a wide range ofeducational institutions, but the performances in theschools themselves during the speech Day, sports Day andother important occasions were starting to make a populareducational appeal to an expanding audience. In 1975 theMinistry of Education incorporated Teacher TrainingColleges and Polytechnics and tertiary colleges into theDrama Festival. This became the Colleges Drama Festivalwhich would take place in the third term of the academicyear - September-December as the Secondary School takesplace in the first term January-December.The impetus for a colleges Drama Festival came fromProfessor Joe de Graft who ran the Drama in Educationcourse at the University of Nairobi. During the SecondarySchools Drama Festival in 1974 he argued:

In order to get drama well established in schoolsit is necessary to train teachers in the skills ofthe theatre and drama theory. It is with thisview that we train teachers to go and teach dramaand work with theatre skills. This can only becomplete if drama teaching is introduced in thecolleges culminating into the Colleges DramaFestival. (De Graft, 1975:33)

This was taken up by the organising committee of theFestival who made a recommendation to the Ministry ofEducation and, in 1975, the first Colleges Drama Festival

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took place at the KNT.

Two prominent figures, who contributed to writing andproducing festival plays for schools and colleges duringthis period, were Felix Osodo and Otumba Ouko, whose playsshaped the festival style and themes into the 1980's.Osodo had a hyperactive approach to theatre according toWasambo Were (in Kasigwa, 1991:vii) who argues that thisapproach made his plays less wordy and more action-packed.The trademark for his plays was the Hajitu series writtenin Kiswahli: this was a complete shift from the verytradition and the language of theatre that Osodo grew upin. In an interview he said:

In the late 1960's under the tutelage of PhilipJones, an American who taught English, weperformed naturalistic plays tailored towardsIbsen, Miller, Pirandello. In the early 1970'swith Tirus Gathwe, a Bristol-trained theatredirector, we were influenced by the theories ofBrian Way, Richard Courteney and Dorothy Heathcoteand relied a lot on the work of Joan Littlewoodand Theatre Workshop. My work has taken intoaccount this background but, by the mid 1970's, Idrew material from folklore in terms of content.(Personal Interview with Osodo, 1992)

Osodo's work influenced many young playwrights within theColleges Drama Festival, where the debates after theperformances centred on technique. In the mid-1970'sOsodo taught at Siriba Teachers College which became amajor launching pad for future teachers of drama.

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In liaison with Joseph Dianga, a fine artist with aninterest in drama, they rehearsed the Hajitu plays in thespace that was to become Esiapala Arts Centre. In 1977the Hajitu plays were shot for television around theEsiapala Arts Centre in the Maseno hills. Many teachershave used this space to rehearse their plays, some ofwhich toured Nyanza and western Provinces in this period.

Otumba ouko is one of those who, during this period,worked with Osodo at Siriba Teachers college and thenmoved to Kisii Teachers Training College where he soonestablished himself as an accomplished playwright anddirector. He shifted from Osodo's reliance on traditionalfolklore for content and group improvisation to the use ofthe coamonplace in his writing and as a starting-point inhis rehearsals.

Unlike the dominant ghost figure (Hajitu) in Osodo'scharacterisation, Otumba used the everyday idiom to makesubtle, critical comments on the social, economic,political and spiritual life of contemporary life.Symbolism in costume, set design, properties were a majorfeature of Ouko's theatre. The 45-minute scripts made animpact not only in Colleges drama, but were also verypopular with secondary schools and some amateur theatregroups. Some of these plays are discussed in more detailin Chapter Eight.

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I have singled out these two playwrights and theatrepractitioners because their work competed for performancespace in educational institutions and established theirproductions within the Drama Festival Movement. Theseproductions established Esiapala Arts Centre, Maseno, asan educational and cultural centre within the communityaround it. Esiapala Arts Centre consisted of an outdoorperformance space, fine art studios and exhibition spaceand a craft centre for the community.

The Kamiriithu Community Centre which, by this time, hadgot into full gear in educational and cultural activitiesindicate that community theatre was flourishing in Kenyain a very conventional sense. Both centres found a linkin educational drama. The influences that the Kamiriithuand Esiapala ventures had was tremendous on the part ofstudents watching performance in local languages usingfamiliar idioms in their own environments. Confidence inwriting plays in Kenyan languages gained pace amongstteachers and students and this was very recognisable inthe Drama Festivals at the closing stages of theseventies. Kasigwa asserts that "many more teachers andstudents wrote in various languages for the Festival andthe quality of the writing manifests in the performancesat The Drama Festival in the last decade". (Kasigwa,

1992:5)

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This populist impulse combined with the oppositionalintentions of the Drama Festival movement and theCommunity-based theatre movement caused a response fromthe Ministry of Education, who then appointed Wasambo Wereas the first African Organising Secretary to theSchools/Colleges Drama Festival in 1979. It issignificant to note that it took ten years to appoint thefirst African Adjudicator to the National Festival, twelveyears for an African play to win the national festivalsand twenty years to have the first African OrganisingSecretary to the Festivals.

This was a momentous event and, in 1980, Wasambo Wereintroduced the Primary schools Drama Festivals, tocomplete the educational spectrum; this established aforum in which the primary schools could celebrate theirdrama at different levels. Theatre for, by and withchildren, had been ignored for all this time but now theirperformances have become a majar feature of the dramafestival. There was no doubt, whatsoever, that it waspossible to play for and with primary school children, sothat the teachers who had been part of Osodo and Ouko'sdrama classes became the pioneers of drama in primaryschools but also the Primary School Drama Festival. Itwas structured to fit into the second term of the schoolyear between May and August.

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With the inclusion of Primary, Secondary and Colleges intothe Drama Festival and all the finals taking part at theKenya National Theatre, it became imperative that anaudience for the Drama Festival was established. Thequestions practitioners were posing was whether the KNTwas the rightful space for this venture, although it was aprestigious event to look forward to by the students andten days in the city of Nairobi was a big enough incentivefor many a pupil.

However, the whole aspect of getting all the best playsfrom different corners of Kenya to the capital city wasdescribed by one theatre critic as "cultural tourismparallel only to rural - urban migration. The attitude oflooking to bring performances to the city year in, yearout, has to cease. If we have to share our drama let usmove the national finals to all parts of the country".(The Standard Newspapers, 14.4.81:17) This observationgained credibility with the narrowed down scope of theevent in hosting the finals at the KNT. Another observercomplained of "all the nation's expression being exploitedby Nairobi every year - what undue advantage! This is anindication of how a small group of people wanted to keep ahold of the Schools Drama Festival as their exclusivereserve." (Sunday Standard, 19.5.81:32)This dilemma was not to be resolved in a hurry from thepoint of view of the KNT, so Wasambo Were the organising

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secretary, pre-empted the issue by starting a new venture.In 1981, after the National Secondary School DramaFestival, he organised a tour for the winning schools tocommunity and social halls, open spaces in different partsof the country. This was very much modelled on the FreeTravelling Theatre (FTT) tours which had become a featureof Kenyan rural life and gave Kenyans an insight into thecultures of other communities. Reinforced by schools fromdifferent parts of the country bringing their performancesto different peoples, it marked a major landmark insocialisation amongst different races and ethniccommunities. This warmed up relations between teacherswho, over a two week period, had come together and couldexchange notes on their work.

This initial tour, in 1981, was a major success in anadministrative sense and made a major impact on theaudiences to which the students performed. Huge audiencesturned out in the urban and rural areas to watchperformances in English, Kiswahili and various Kenyanlanguages. This effectively moved the Drama Festival outthe Kenya National Theatre where it had been for twenty-one years. The new organising committee of the festivalhad set a precedent that would be difficult to turn back,proving that there were real audiences for the festivalelsewhere than the KNT and that it was capable oforganising for this potential audience.

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THE 1982-1993 PERIODIn 1982 the Kamirithu Community Educational CulturalCentre (KCECC) attempted to take its place at the KenyaNational Theatre (KNT) to prove that Kenyan plays inKenyan languages should have a place there. This wasfollowed closely by Bat Dor Theatre Company from Israelbeing given a stage licence to perform their nationalmusical at the KNT amidst intense protests. At this stagethe contest was no longer at the level of theatrepractitioners jostling for space at the KNT, not just theKCECC and Bat Dor Theatre groups being Kenyan and non-Kenyan, but more a certain political clique stamping theirinfluence on the theatre scene. The powerful pOliticianshad access to the provision of stage licences, and theyintended to use this to deny public performances of whatthey did not like. This was not the start of censorship,but the reinforcement of it. In an article by Ross Kidd"Empowerment is subversive in the Eyes of the Holders ofPower: Repression and Resistance." he says

This period also saw the beginning of a remarkableincrease in oppressed class involvement intheatre. It also saw the government'sdetermination to stop performances that satirisedthe social, economic and political situation ofthe time. Just like in the colonial days, herewas a government that had snubbed and turnedagainst its people's expressions." (Kidd,1982:36)

Muntu an epic play by Joe de Graft tracing the origins ofAfrica and its peoples through the centuries, colonialism

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up to the post-independence period had been banned in thelatter part of 1981. The reason given by officials fromthe Ministry of Culture are rather hilarious. Towards theend of the play Muntu, blanks are fired by the protagonistcharacter otum and this was seen as being violent. Thatis to say Kenya, during this period, had become veryviolent and "violent effects" in the theatre was a starkreminder of the real violence in everyday life.

Hakwekwe, a play collectively written by students ofKapsabet Girls High School and produced by Tim Wandiri wasthe theatre attraction of the year 1981 and the early partof 1982. When it was performed at the KNT it won highacclaim from theatre critics, students and teachers. Whenit toured the provinces alongside other winning festivalplays, audiences in urban and rural spaces appreciated andidentified with the themes explored.

The play is about the dramas of down-trodden slumdwellerswho hope for the day when the weeds (Hakwekwe) wouldbreed, multiply and choke out the "hi-breds" of the city.It was this, rather than the historical appeal of Hajitu

by Osodo or Kuntu by Joe de Graft that, at this time,appealed to the Kenyan audiences. Because it was writtenin Kiswahili, using minimalist effects and flashbacks andforeflashes as techniques for presentation it cut acrossclass and culture.

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This did not go down well with the Government whoinstructed officials from the Ministry of Education "todiscipline the authors of such negative and pessimisticdramas amongst the youth," (Nation, 14.2.82). Tim Wandiri,the producer of Hakwekwe lost his job as a teacher and wasto suffer for his contribution to Kenyan theatre for along time. The effects of this play has been a point ofreference over the years, in 1982 the Drama Festival hadchanged the nature of its performances.

The Organising Secretary then decided that, from now on,the Schools/Colleges Drama Festival would rotate aroundthe eight provinces, being located in suitable educationalinstitutions. The argument for this was that theatretechnology would be improved in the provinces, as well asthe cross-cultural exchange across the country which wasuppermost in the minds of many who saw the Drama Festival

as a first stepcommunities. It

in achieving cohesion in thewould provide an incentive

Kenyanfor the

hosting school, district and province to make as manyentries as possible but, most importantly, it empoweredthe teachers and students being able to organise and hostthe Festival in every sense. This is something the KNTcould not do for twenty one years, over the past twelveyears the organising committee has maintained the rotationof the event to all the provinces of Kenya, except NorthEastern Province largely due to logistic problems and

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distance.

Item categorization in the Festival

It is possible at this time to categorize the four stagesin the Schools/Colleges Drama Festival operating from 1982as inter Schools/Colleges (zonal level) inter-zonals(district level), inter-district (provincial level) andinter-provincial (national level). The latter, apart frombeing the finals, carried with it the glamour and prestigeaccorded to a national event. It had been an event thathas had competition as a major feature, as an expatriateteacher since the 1960's and 1970's asserted:

the spirit of competition underscored the feel ofnot only success, but survival for the renewal ofone's contract. It is to show that the primaryobjective of the British Council is beingrealised, ie the ability to sell English to theworld. (Ram, 1974:18)

Kenyan teachers evidently agreed in 1982, saying that:

The competitive nature of the festival isnecessary for our own motivation as schools.Anyway the whole educational system is modelled oncompetition and this being an educationalactivity, it would be unrealistic to have just afestival. (personal Interview, Gogo:1992)

It is this writer's view that the festive and co.petitive

nature of the Drama Festival are the realistic ways of

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evaluating the impact of the event. The adjudication andjudgements on the artistic pieces by drama teachers andpractitioners is necessary to select a manageable numberto participate at different levels. It is a practical wayof getting performances of a worthy standard to proceed onto the next stage; in any case Kenya is a competitivenation in every strand. But the qualifying standards setby the Kenya Drama Festival committee are hardly fair toall schools and colleges because of the variousdisparities in the different institutions; although thesehave been reviewed over the years as the Festival has gotbigger. It needs to be pointed out that it is largelyprocess dra.a that has created the performances and thatthe process continues after the presentation at the DramaFestival.

At the level of schools, some of the standards set (seeAppendix Two) appear relatively high in comparison withthe many entries in the competition. Ironically, thesecondary schools have, over the years, produced qualityplays, much higher in standard than other institutions ofhigher learning. From our search it seems thateducational institutions over the years have more than metthese standards and, at several festivals, it is necessaryto re-assess the adjudication guidelines because theperformances are much more innovative than stipulated for.

The institutions can enter a play, a creative dance and

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dramatised poetry. The play category constitutes adramatic production between 15-45 minutes in Kiswahili,English and/or a Kenyan national language. An institutioncould enter two plays and the theme of the play is open tochoice as is the technique of production.The creative dance involves a dramatic piece of dance andmusic and mime. What is looked for is the drama in themusic and dance, and creativity is a major catchwordtowards making a meaning through the art forms of danceand music lasting between 5-15 minutes.

The dra.atised poetry is a short piece of poetry enactedusing skills of the theatre in its rendition. It shouldtake up to five minutes.

In comparison to the first Schools Draaa Festival, twenty-three years earlier, in 1959, with eleven schools takingpart, the well publicised event in 1982 at Mukumu GirlsHigh School "had a total of 25 plays, 33 creative dancesand 50 dramatised poetry involving some 431 teachers andabout 5,000 students over an eight day period. There was,for a start, a big audience for the festival .•." (DramaReport 1982:6) as Mukumu being part of many otherinstitutions and not too far from Kakemega town and in adensely populated rural area.

This festival will be remembered for the enthusiasm withwhich theatre practitioners expressed the feeling of being

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able to operate away from the KNT. There was a sense ofliberation and emancipation which was expressed in theplays, dances and the dramatised poetry.

Khaemba Ongeti, a teacher at Cheperit Girls High Schoolproduced visiki and Gatura Kingori and Muchiri Wahome atNairobi School wrote and produced Kilio. Both these playswere written in Kiswahili and highlighted the plight ofthe underdog. In the plays there was a feeling politicalindependence had exhausted itself and, at the economiclevel, it cannot deliver the good promised in 1963. Onthe contrary, the plots reasserted these "goods" had beenwithdrawn or were about to be withdrawn in the form offree education, medical services, living wages. Delvinginto the character's minds through introspection the playsgrope for the symbolism that shrouds the entire landscape.

visiki and Kilio caused a stir at the festival and therewas no doubt in the audience's minds that their dailyexperiences were being addressed in the plays. Theadjudicators gave their verdict that the two were amongthe winning performances, but they were asked to withdrawthe two plays from the gala night by officials from theMinistry of Education on instructions from higherpolitical authorities. This the adjudicators refused todo, which resulted in two of them fleeing to exile afterthreats of imprisonment and on their lives. The interplaybetween the fiction and the real, on and off the stage, is

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significant.

This was the sub-text of the festival and the politicalpower base and ideology seemed threatened by thisgathering of teachers and students engaged in the dramaticexposition of the false reality the former were attemptingto create. As a punitive measure Visiki and Kilio werewithdrawn from the list of plays meant to tour the countryafter the festival. The attempt to tailor these schoolproductions to the whims of the state did not end there,selected plays, dances, dramatised poems that seemed toharmonize with the dictates of the state, were chosen toperform for the President at state House, Nakuruimmediately after the festival.

The autonomy that the festival enjoyed was endangered bythis move of political patronage, it amounted totransforming festival performances into arts that paidhomage and pledged loyalty to the presidency and partyideology, exulting the presidential personage. It furthercomplicated the issue of co.petition by suspicious rewardsto teachers and performances that had visited state Housethat year. This could have been the start of the era ofproducing drama on dubious themes to enable them to getpromoted, and for the School Heads, cash rewards.However, this political interference with the festival hasnot, in the past decade, influenced the content or themesof the plays, in favour of political patronage. Most

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teachers and students have continued to write and produceplays of their own choice and have resisted these attemptsat censorship and political patronage.

From 1982 the festivals became characterised by theirlikely resistance to this kind of ideological thinking.They aimed to be popular, but at the same timeeducational, and the festivals were placed on a trickyedge between resistance to, and incorporation as a statustool for patronage. It stood at a stage where the eventwould be a significant contributor to progressive changesin the oppressive political climate of the 1980's, on theother hand it would simply be absorbed into the dominantorder through a process of repressive tolerance by theauthorities which effectively neutralises alternativeexpression like the festival performances so they can beused to reinforce the status quo. The dialectic betweensuccessful opposition to and debilitating incorporation isa constant theme of this study's argument, as the Dra.aFestival plays that we examine illustrate.

1982 was a very traumatic year for Kenyan artists, afterthe Winning Plays tour and the acclaim by country-wideaudiences, there was a clampdown on individual artists,teachers and theatre groups. To distract from what washappening on the political front, artists were arrested,some imprisoned and others fled the country in fear fortheir lives. It was the biggest onslaught on artists by

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any government in Kenya; so ruthless that the a dozen ofartists who live in exile dare not come back to Kenya.This had the effect of further alienating the Kenyanartist from the rest of society and shifting the powerbase in the arts from some educational institutions,communities back to the politicians.

This, then, meant that for the Dra.a Festival to survivewith its tenets of achieving a truly Kenyan theatre, itspractitioners had to develop exceptionally complexperformance modes and strategies. Probably the mosteffective practices evolved when the festival was held inNakuru in 1983, Mombasa in 1984 and Nyeri in 1985 andKisumu in 1988. There were no ready-made venues withautomatic audience to begin with, although it might beargued that the students were already an audience. Howeverthere was only a very tiny tradition of those schools thathad been part of the festival for some years.

Also the Dra.a Festival had to constitute itself as anannual event in relation to other drama/theatre activitiesin the provinces; this it did with Secondary Schoolstaking centre stage between January and April, the Primaryschools and the District and Provincial Cultural Festivalsbetween May and August, and the Colleges Drama Festivalsbetween September and December. This made a sensiblespread over the whole year and showed a progression withthe age-group firmly in mind. This arrangement suited the

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educational institutions and had a vision towards cateringfor various age-groups.

In response to government actions and pronouncement on thekind of drama and theatre practices they wanted to see theyoung engage in, the Ministry of Education, Science andTechnology came up with Rules to the Kenya Schools Dramaand Cultural Dance Festival (19B4) (See Appendix Two)which must be acknowledged as very well thought out andreflecting the spirit of the festival and providing apractical guide to the philosophy governing the festival.There was an attempt to censor performances by calling for"decent performances that reflect the positive images ofthe nation" and "not to depict Kenyan costume ortechnology that would destroy the Kenyan image on theinternational scene". (19B3:7) These two pronouncementssmacked of censorship, and teachers and students took noteof this, and made their performances more subtle, addingcensorship as a factor for consideration during their

devising.

The teachers involved in the Drama Festival had to takeover the vacuum that had been left by theatre andpractitioners in exile, confinement or those who had leftthe scene. In 19B3, at the National Drama Festival, thedrama teachers got the opportunity to come together andmap out future strategies for drama/theatre work inschools and communities. It was realised from the

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preceding Festivals that the outstanding featuresassociated with them was the rich Kenyan cultures thatexpress themselves as art on stage. All these had beenbrought into the schools by the students themselves whocome from diverse communities. "The symbolic features ofagony, joy, tears and smiles portray that kind of maskthat people adorn everyday in their lives and these havebeen given expression during the festival." commented TheWeekly Review (17.5.1986).

It was further realised that the Festival in a short timehad so permeated the educational landscape that no teacheror student escaped its impact. That there was a greatdeal of enthusiasm amongst teachers to develop andarticulate the broad, philosophical objectives of thefestival and other areas in education, more importantly toexplain the political framework of education and to give ameaning and a sense of direction to the details ofeducational drama and theatre activities. As one

participant put it at the time:

This is in order to be masters of our labour anddestiny; these are activities that are essentialto our survival, and if we have to thrive incultural and educational fields we have to fullyparticipate in their production. (FestivalProgramme, 1984:16)

wishful Thinking, written and directed by Barnabas Kasigwawith Kaaga Girls High School was one of these performances

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that set the stage of socia-political satire. Along withJust a Matter of Time by Charles Koinange, My People inChains by Abubaker Zein, these plays tackle the issue ofgreed for money, its effect on the immediate family andcommunity, the misuse of property that leads the youngastray and the introspection into the psychological domainof individuals. Yet, all is not pessimistic, there is aray of hope exemplified in characterisation and the use ofsimple enough language, direct and full of humour andimagery. There are glimpses of attempts to use thesurrealistic style in the plays as a lot happens in a veryshort period of time.

Some of the factors the writers and the casts took intoaccount were capitalising on the audience's knowledge offamiliar places, names and situation; leaps in characterdevelopment, with a strong examination of the centralcharacters and the minimalist use of costume andproperties. The use of Brechtian technique of alienationbecame an integral part of the festival after itseffective use by the KCECC in Ngaahika Ndeenda and MaituNjugira.

In the above plays the students added impetus from theirown lives, the communal ceremonies, ritual andfestivities, that they experienced in their homes andcommunities; elements of performance such as narration andinstrumentation became devices for use in the Festival

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plays. Epic plays such as Mwokozi (1988) A step In TheMind (1989 and A Ray of Hope (1990) made their mark on thefestival scene using these devices.

Two attempts to derail the organisation of the Festival in1985 were made by institutions close to the KNT and thePhoenix Theatre in Nairobi; Starehe Boys Centre and LoretoConvent Msongari, who had featured prominently in pastfestivals pulled out, citing "lack of serious, publishedplays and minimal use of stage effects" (Sunday Nation,23.4.84) at the festival. This was, in a sense, truebecause the festival no longer relied on published playsnor the technically equipped KNT; for some of the venuesfor the National Finals in the provinces did not havethese facilities. Starehe and Loreto schools had thesecomplex facilities and James Falkland produced, at theseschools, annual musicals that heavily relied on costumeand stage effects. Falkland and his compatriots from ThePhoenix and Denevon Maule Theatres managed to convince theHeads of Starehe and Loreto that the Drama Festival wasnot a viable drama event and this was interpreted as a wayof creating the impression that the Drama Festival hadbecome an African event. This was not the case for it isone event that incorporated all schools irrespective ofrace or economic status; even the former Asian and Whiteschools participated with a lot of commitment. It mightbe said there was a distinct racial divide in adulttheatre, the same cannot be said of the Drama Festival at

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anyone time after 1970.

After Starehe and Loreto schools pulled out of theFestivals, some private schools did the same, and thiscaused big differences between Asian, African and Europeantheatre at the Amateur and Professional level; the Dra.a

Festival survived but its course had clearly been set. Inthe mid-1980's the Drama Festival had started changing thepolitics of performance in Kenya.

Spill-oyer Effects of The Drama Festival in this Period

From the foregoing, it could be said that many of thefestival plays remained fairly consistent, with social,economic and political problems as themes, and this may bea consequence of the repressive nature of the 1980's butit should not be allowed to diminish the fact thatteachers and students were in a profoundly practical sensepopularising theatre.

The performance of poetry was, and remains, particularlysignificant at the festival and had infiltrated intoAmateur Theatre as practiced by Wanainchi Arts between1984-1987. This would take the form of a solo or choralrecitation, and would get a response, elicitingparticipation by other members of the cast who provideback-up enactment. The end of every stanza would bringforth the stock responses of encouragement and

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appreciation, which very often received a flurry of

exclamation, phrases, impromptu dances and ululations from

the performers and audience alike. Such a process of

interaction makes the dramatised poetry a fertile symbolic

resource for the affirmation of identities and

comradeship. As Manoah Esipisu, a theatre critic, put it

'it is a kind of conscience awakening in a generation that

itches to say and get done with things'. (The Standard

Newspapers 11.9.89:16) Dramatized poems such as Wahusika,

Lakini, Ny Sister, Omweri, Ni_pe Haaa are memorable during

this period.

Therefore from the very small details of how to convert an

empty classroom or a dining hall in a rehearsal and

performance space, to the grand endeavour of gradually

putting together a full production of the preliminary

rounds, the Dra.a Festival is engaged in an especially

broad educational and cultural exercise.

It takes a minimum of two months for most institutions to

come up with an idea usually in a language or literature

class, to improvisation of ideas and situation, to proper

rehearsals and production for the institutions before

taking it out of the school. Some institutions take a

year to prepare and sift their plays, dances, poe.s

through the inter-class and inter-house, drama before they

make the choice of the play for the festival.

To underpin the concept of the Drama Festival movement, it

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is essential to describe some of the plays, dances andpoems that are representative of its cultural andeducational practices. This is the task of Chapter Eightwhere these performances are investigated with otherpractices to define the cutting edge of a Kenyan theatre.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

This chapter set out to map out the terrain of educationaldrama, the teaching and performance of dramatic textsbefore 1970. The introduction of Oral Literature as asubject at the University and in schools changed the wholeoutlook of drama practices in these institutions. Thewritings of scripts, the content of the plays forperformance changed to reflect the Kenyan environment,whereas before the emphasis had been on the writings ofShakespeare and European texts.

There is a discussion of the findings of my field researchpertaining to the state of drama and theatre activities inprimary and secondary schools: colleges and theuniversities. Most of these activities cUlminate intoperformances at the Draaa Festival which provides a forumfor the performances of the creative dance, the play anddramatised poems. The historical overview of the Dra.aFestival indicates the balancing act between the theatreforms and the educational strategies implied in theconstructions of the performances. Various playwrights

242

who have influenced the theory and practice of educationaldrama are discussed and it is argued that the writing andproduction of performances by both students and teachersis a cultural and educational intervention. Concreteexamples of fes~ival plays, crea~ive dances and drama~ised

poe. are discussed in section Two.

Educational drama in Kenya has had influence fromelsewhere in the world but largely from the UK. Kenyantheorists and playrights have had close association withtraditions in the UK; one such movement is TIE. It hasinfluenced writing for the theatre, practice with schoolsand the theory of its literature. In the light of this, Ichose to study TIE critical methodology that continues toinform Educational drama in Kenya.

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CHAPTER FIVE

A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF THE NATURE AND FUNCTION OFTHEATRE IN EDUCATION IN BRITAIN

This chapter establ ishes the origins of TIE in Britainthrough a historical survey of the Belgrade TIE team. Thedevelopment of TIE theory and practice is also examinedthrough the works of the Belgrade TIE, whose personneltook leading roles in starting other teams and propellingTIE towards becoming an educational/theatre movement.Drama in Education (DIE) theory and practice in this studywill be seen as part of TIE work, although significantdifferences will be pointed out when they occur and it ismade clear that DIE did not arise out of TIE.

TIE as a learning .ediu., working .ethod, educational

service and the techniques and strategies that it employsare illustrated in the prograames discussed in the courseof the chapter. These are looked at with a special focuson their relevance to Kenyan drama and theatre forms. Theoverlaps that do exist foreground the elements of practicein TIE and educational drama in Kenya.

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THE ORIGINS OF TIE

The opening of the Belgrade Theatre in Coventry, in 1958,was instrumental in the development of the concept of TIE.It was the first civic theatre to be built for twentyyears, and was of national importance for the regenerationof professional theatre and for giving impetus to theprovincial repertory movement. TIE as a practice startedthere in 1965, as a result of the prevailing socialclimate Gordon Vallins comments:

In retrospect the factors and circumstances thatled to the formation of the first TIE team mayappear disparate and remote but their cumulativeinfluence on the genesis of TIE is undeniable.Mass education was no longer being seen as purelyinstrumental in purpose, but rather as apreparation for a culturally richer life avision which was very much part of the 1960's.Moreover, questions were being asked abouttheatre's relationship with society. (Val1ins inJackson, 1980:3)

As a consequence, a new relationship between theatre andeducation began to emerge which manifested itself incoventry at The Belgrade Theatre in 1965.

Anthony Richardson, the Director of the Belgrade Theatre,in consultation with head teachers, teachers and the LocalEducation Authority, established the first scheme in whichhe described theatre as a social necessity. The BelgradeTheatre was then given special responsibilities forschools and young people and its TIE scheme became the

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prototype for most of the schemes that have followed intothe 1980's. Richardson recognised:

the increasing i~portance of the theatre'director's' role i.n the pattern of communitylife. He wanted to integrate these into a schemeto create a whole new kind of theatre audience,reached through educational programmes. (Jackson,1980:5)

The Local Education Authority became committed toRichardson's proposals and supported the Belgrade TIEscheme to use drama in schools as an educational medium,which, though valid in itself, could also be used as avehicle of instruction and as a means of enrichment oflife through an understanding and appreciation of theatre.He had a vision and began to make policy decisions whichinvolved moving towards a closer integration of thetheatre with the society of which it was part.

Gordon Vallins, then the Assistant to the Director,developed his ideas from the Belgrade Theatre experience,but his views and attitudes were heavily influenced by thework of Joan Littlewood and Brian Way. Joan Littlewood'sapproach was direct and full of creative purpose and, asVallins says:

Beneath the theatricality, the work was singularlyalert to social change with its emphasis on theimmediate, and on seeing social problems in humanterms. (Jackson, 1980:3)

Vallins found Brian Way's approach equally exciting; whenhe read one of Way's play texts he found that:

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The play, unlike any script he had previouslyread, demanded elements of improvisation. It wasevident that Brian like Joan Littlewood, did nothave a hallowed view of a wri.tten text, butbelieved it to be a starting for creation. Theimportant thing I learnt from Brian was thatdrama, used as an educational tool could becentral to development of the individual, and thatdrama could be used as a starting point for othercreative activities. (Jackson, 1980:3-4).ls2

The name, Theatre in Education (TIE), was derived from thetitle of a memorandum prepared by Richardson and Vallinsfor the Local Education Authority and the Head teachers,explaining in detail the Belgrade plan for taking theatreinto schools. In brief, the scheme involved usingprofessional theatre practitioners, later to be known asactor/teachers, within the education system. Theseactor/teachers could assist the Local Authority to developthe use of Drama as an educational medium which was notonly valid in itself, but could also create conditionsthat helped students towards a richer understanding oflife.

A direct approach had been made by the BelgradeTheatre to coventry Education, with a declarationthat the theatre wanted to assist the authority todevelop the use of drama in schools as aneducational medium, valid in itself as a vehicleof instruction and as a means of enrichment oflife through an understanding of and appreciationof theatre. (1980:2)

As a consequence, on 1st September 1965, the work of theBelgrade team began. What is significant up to this pointis the vision, which the first proponents of TIE had,that of integrating theatre and education and the social

247

climate in which they operated was conducive toprogressive thinking and experimentation.

Nature and Aims of TIE

Theatre in Education is a form of theatre that has arisenin direct response to the needs of theatre and schools,with the intention of using the technique and imaginativepower of theatre in the service of education. O'Toolesays:

It was conceived as an attempt to bring thetechniques of theatre into the classroom, in theservice of specific educational objectives.(O'Toole, 1976:vii)

It encouraged exploration and experiment, not only ineducational theory, but also in theatrical practice.Theatre skills are brought together by actor/teachers toteach pupils a subject or concept by stirring theirimagination and deepening understanding by encouragingthem to argue for or against preconceptions.

Gordon Vallins felt that small groups were essential ifTIE was to work in depth and with greater intensity.During this period TIE teams usually consisted of 4-6professional trained actors and/or teachers. The membersof the team:

should be actors who could teach and, ideally hadsome kind of teacher-training or teachers who

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could act. The work demanded what has becomeknown as 'teaching in the role' plus an ability toimprovise a fundamental interest in the process oflearning. (Kay in Jackson, 1980:54).

The terms actor/teacher and teacher/actor have attractedtheir fair share of controversy from TIE practitioners,who have often shown a bias towards the theatre or theteacher. For many who have had a training in the theatreas actors, their impulse and thrust in TIE work is throughthe use of theatre elements, and for those who areprofessionally trained teachers, and have established acareer in the classroom, the educational elements areparamount.

In the 1980's this dichotomy, between the teacher andactor, resulted in some TIE teams, such as Language AliveTIE of Birmingham, calling themselves teacher-actors.

This debate is firmly grounded in the larger one of therelationship between classroom drama and the theatreworld.

The term 'PIE tea. came about because of the collectiveresponsibility for devising programmes by the

actor/teachers. The first TIE team in Belgrade hadexpertise in acting, designing, making properties, musicand accompaniment, writing and stage management. Their aimwith these skills was to provide an inspirational teachingservice and to discover ways of combining theatretechniques with current education methods.

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From the very beginning, the TIE team tried to develop acollective spirit and high commitment to work whichstarted with the inception of an idea and went through topresenting the programme. David Holman, in an article in"The stage" says:

First a team of performers who want to work withchildren and who want to perform material which,when formulated, becomes the Theatre in Educationprogramme. The TIE programme is one in which the,audience' is put in the situation of problemconfrontation or problem solving. A specificobjective has to be realised and the audience andactor together are involved in moving towardsthat. There is no formal dividing line between'performer' and 'audience'. Theatrical techniquesare used to create Ha structure and in all casesthe participation is stimulated by the performersin their roles as characters. (cited inRedington, 1979:67)

Instead of a play the actor/teachers present a progra..e

which highly denotes the structure for an intentionnecessary for active participation; a vital concept in TIEpractice.

By the end of October 1965, The Belgrade TIE team, thefirst TIE team, had evolved three short programmes ofwork; the work was very exploratory with theactor/teachers discovering and inventing new ways ofworking, new techniques and methods by which the pupilscould come to know more about the world around them.

The TIE teams from here, henceforth, made a decision topresent their programmes to pupils in their classrooms, or

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school halls, and a small number was considered vital foreffective interaction between the actor/teachers and thepupils. The decision to take these program.es out of thetheatre into the familiar environment was an importantindication of the importance of the learning that could bederived by the pupils from the event.

Devising a TIE Programme

The aims of TIE obviously affect the way a progra ..e isdevised. The process of creating a proqraJDle from themid-1960's to the mid 1970's underwent certain clearstages. First, material was specifically chosen andshaped by the TIE team to suit the social and cognitiveneeds of the children, who would either be audience orparticipants during the progra ..e. The tea. decided onthe content of the prograame, the problems to be examinedand the age to be catered for. Research on the subjectmatter is important, and is vital to the understanding ofevery team member, the aims of the progra1lU8eand theroles of other members in the tea..

Having selected a topic, and gathered the necessarymaterials, the teams then devise a structure forpresenting that material. This entails the awareness ofthe needs of the pupils and the likely effect of theteam's work on them. As will appear later in thischapter, the nature of the progra ..e will depend on the

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situationtechniques

for which it is intended: both themes and

circumstancestimes.

invaried from team to team, and thewhich they have operated at different

are

TIE Team structure

From the beginning TIE teams have aspired to work ascollectives, with no hierarchies so far as decisionsaffecting the work are concerned, and no tiered powerstructures. The Management Boards of most TIE teams have,by and large, distanced themselves from artistic policiesof the team and their execution; in principle they havestuck to management and financial briefs for the team.The collective nature of work has called for democraticprocedures, especially with devising; however, over theyears there have arisen real problems in bridging the gapbetween the policy of collectives and actual managementstructures.

Several factors have to be taken into account when a teamaspires to work as a collective; people's specialisms,backgrounds and interests. The thought processes, whenputting a team together have changed and developed. Mixedteams with multi-racial integrated people was a majorfeature of collectives in the 1970'S and all thesedemanded an awareness of the dynamics of global andpersonal politics, gender, class, race and sexual

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orientation. It is the linking of these variousdifferences that fed into TIE work and programmes and as amember of Theatre Centre commented:

The affirmation and celebration of our differencesas well as our links become our new culturalrevolution. (SCYPT Journal No 12, 1984:24)

By and large, those who have worked in collective andmixed teams have had challenges from different directions.It is clear that funding bodies prefer tiered powerstructures, for they argue the whole tea. might decide toleave, the whole company would collapse, and this wouldhave dire consequences on TIE work. Management Boardshave sometimes had to take over the running of the team'sactivities, when it has become apparent that thecollective had reached a stalemate.

Freelance working members of the team can also have animpact on a collective; their dedication to the process isnot as intense as a tea. members. They may work on aparticular project and probably leave. For the permanent

members this is their daily job and for many of them theycreate an enseable. As Cora Williams asserts:

The concept of ensemble-creating and ensemble-playing therefore takes on a new meaning; it iscollective working that allows and invitesdisharmony in the interest of the longer-termgoal: •.•.In such a process, true ensemble is oftenachieved in a moment of enlightenment; in thecollective discovery of the idea which will becomegermane to all the actors. (in Jackson, 1993:95)

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The concept of an ensemble working method has given TIE aunique feature as an art form with very differingpersonalities with different skills and levels ofexperience in the theatre and education brought togetherin a progra.ae. In the 1990's the concept of collectives

has waned, because team members cannot afford to staytogether for long and the difficult cultural climate amongmany reasons. The nature of funding means that there aremany freelance actors working on a project to projectbasis, and more realistically the economic and politicaltimes do not favour collectives in organisations ingeneral.

These differences in specialist skills within teams, whichhave been the core of TIE activity, can at the same timeundermine the stability of the collective once anindividual member leaves the team. Many with specialistskills have complained a lot of conflicting arguments,divergent thinking, risk taking and abrasive processes;and that this takes a lot of time in arriving at theproduct. The concept of a TIE team as a collective isvalid, but not in circumstances where material conditionswill not allow it to thrive. We proceed to examine therole of the specialists in TIE structures.

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Specialists within a TIE team

Over the past two decades TIE teams have found itnecessary to bring in various theatrical specialists.This has been particularly important in the areas ofdesigners, musicians and writers, and some of these havejoined a team as a full member sharing in the team'sdecisions and programme structure, others have worked onone project and moved on.

The Standing Conference of Young People's Theatre (SCYPT)meetings have provided a forum where these specialists canmeet and exchange ideas about their work, and it is duringthese discussions that the benefits of these skillstowards a strong theatre piece have been highlighted. TIEteams need to be skillful in their theatre, and use everyelement of theatre to achieve their ends. I shall examineeach briefly to tease out their importance and the impactthey have made in the programmes where they have beenutilised.

The Designer

At the 1977 SCYPT Conference, the discussion on thespecific problems of design and how it could enhance theimpact of a programme, saw the need for the designer to bean integral part of a TIE team. The development of

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theatre images and the control of every visual element,became a major element in the devising process of some TIEteams at the time.

In order to function effectively, the team members must bevisually literate and need an understanding of the visualelements incorporated in a piece of theatre. The designerhas, in many cases fully participated in all aspects ofthe work: to look at pictures, discover environments,develop images and to analyse TIE processes during thedevising. Anne Smart, in her article "Making TheSpectacle" says:

We have to become as expert in image presentation,in image editing as any film maker. We must knowthe potential affect of every prop, piece ofclothing, gesture. (SCYPT Journal: No 12, 1981:8)

The relationship between audience and the set and variousproperties in a performance are very symbolic in TIEprogrammes. The visual specialist in the team is givenevery kind of opportunity to understand and relate to theaudience concerned. This demands a shared understandingof the demands each audience/participants will be makingon the programmes. Therefore, the barriers betweenactor/teacher, writer, designer, .usician are brokenthrough mutual skill sharing, workshops for developingcontent and character and group research.

The work towards the construction of physical elements inmainstream theatre is left to the technicians, but in TIE

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teams there are fewer people and this demands thateveryone gets involved in the process of prograa.e making.Many a TIE member, who initially had no expertise indesign is quite competent today, because of the designer'scontinuous presence in the team. This in a way has helpedthe ac~or/teachers to make some of their hand props and touse them inventively. Anne Smart stresses that:

wi'thou't in any way denying 'the necessi'ty forspecialist skills, everything in the creation of aproject should be open to participation from, andbe seen as, the responsibility of every teammember. The creation of any project must be moresuccessful when viewed as an organic whole.(SCYPTJournal No 7, 1981:9)

This has been very effective in some TIE prograaaes that Ihave observed where it is clear, from the set and visualelements, that a specialist designer has been inoperation. In such TIE programmes such as Lancaster TIE'sWitchy Hazel (1992) Walls of Good-Bye (1991) The Crunch(1990) by the Commonwealth Institute and Pit Prop's Angel(1991). The sets created an atmosphere and mood whichharmonized with and the way the actor/teachers used them,greatly enhanced the strength and impact of theperformance, creating a dynamic interaction between theperformer and audience.

Because of the financial pressure, specialist designersare leaving TIE and going into mainstream theatre or morelucrative projects. TIE teams who can still afford a

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specialist designer only do so on a project by projectbasis. The visual element in TIE was never just anadditive that it could be done without and TIE teams willhave to find a way of replacing it.

The Music Skills in TIE

The musicians also extended the possibilities of workingin TIE and Young People's Theatre in general. In 1978,they held a conference which came up with suggestions ofteams employing musicians and introducing trainingactivities in schools and communities. This developmentbecame popular once people with musical skills startedworking in the teams and realised that the working methodof TIE often demanded specialist skills that were notnecessarily needed in the mainstream theatre.

The use of music in a progra .. e can provide variety, addto its dramatic and emotional impact, comment on theaction, create atmosphere and allude to a certainhistorical time or geographical place. Bringing in amusician into a TIE team also serves to demystify thenotion of technical problems in handling theaccompaniments.

As the team become familiar with the instruments it mightask itself the question "What sort of style or formsshould the music take in the programme?" (SCYPT Journal,

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1982:46). Many musicians have some dance skills as well,which in many TIE programmes is very effective. The Dancein Education team Ludus, with the programme Power (1981),is a good case in point. In this progra1lUlle the "powerrelations" are woven into the fabric of the music anddance sequences and the musical accompaniments andmovements express the power of sex and of authority. Thefusion of dance music and chant to express thought andachieves a merging of feeling, form and content. Thecreativity of the musicians and dancers very often enablesthe audience to interact, and sometimes to participate ina programme.

Over the years, in creating a new style of music in TIEprogrammes, the musicians and the team have had to posethese questions to clarify for themselves the function ofthe music in the context of theatre and education:

i) What is the music trying to do or say?ii) Is it being used to comment on the action, put overideas or merely create atmosphere?

An attempt was made to do this by pit Prop Theatre intheir programme Angel (1990). One of the most potent waysof putting across sensitive ideas such as racism, orcommenting on such action, is through songs, and sometimesa chorus and using musical accompaniments. All theseshould merge with the text of the performance, and in

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cases where theatre slides, dance and movement and designhave been used, they have given an added meaning to theprogramme: this may also produce more powerful andeconomic theatrical effects than the use of spoken wordand actions.

Some TIE teams have had permanent musicians working inthem, but this is expensive. Musicians, just like thedesigners in the 1990's, are leaving TIE to look for workelsewhere. What this means is that remaining TIE memberswill, at times, combine the work of the designer andmusician, and so become a jack of all trades. This canhave a positive affect up to a point, but can also benegative for it draws the actor/teacher away fromconcentrating on his/her own skills. But there can nolonger be lengthy period of experiments as the musicianworks with the team.

The writer in a TIE TeamOne member of the team with no specialist writing skill,might make an attempt to write down the whole experienceof the programme, but this was only satisfactory in termsof records and building up an archive of plays andprogrammes. Pam Schweitzer, in her three editions ofTheatre in Education Programmes for Infants, Juniors andSecondary in 1980, attempted to fill this gap by puttingtogether the scripts of the programmes already presented.

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As the TIE movement progressed, it became clear that awriter was a vital part of the TIE process and couldassist in sharpening the theatrical piece.

A writer joining a TIE team has to be very aware of thetheatrical and educational implications; she/he mustrecognise the topical, social and political issues thatconcern the team and the way the team's dynamic might bebiased towards collectivism. These tensions formulate thebasic questions that will influence the creation of thescript. His/her own position in the team is also crucial,most writers tend to work in isolation but in this casethere will be constant contact and rapport with the teamduring the devising and rehearsal. Furthermore, s/he hasto shape a script with many characters and few people toplay these roles; the multiplicity of characterisation isa prime consideration in determining form. On the otherhand s/he may create the basic script in advance and shapeits content as the team works.

The collaboration between TIE teams and writers cannot besustained for long periods because most writers arefreelance and tend to move on. There has been a tendency,over the past decade, to rely on a few specialist writerswho have made a name for themselves in TIE work, I have inmind Maureen Lawrence, Edward Bond, Geoff Gilham and PaulSwift to mention a few. The collective authorship remains

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a major TIE element reflecting the dynamics of the team.

At this stage,development of

it may be useful to briefly trace theone TIE team from its early days. This

will provide an insight into the generic nature of TIE asa movement, and lead us into the workings of TIE as amethod and into a discussion of the development of thefirst TIE team, of which a little has been mentioned priorto this. The Belgrade TIE team was the first tea. and isstill amongst the very few left and it is through the wayit has functioned that TIE as a movement and as practicecan be understood. This is indicative of its centralityto the workings of TIE over the years.

The Belgrade TIE in the Early Years

By the end of 1965, The Belgrade TIE team had presentedthree TIE programmes to about 3,000 children in schools.The second term of work presented a number of challengesfor the team: primarily, how to progress without losingthe knowledge gained in the initial stages: so forinstance whilst some new projects were created, otherssuch as The Balloon Man and the Runaway Balloons wererehearsed and developed, and improvements made based uponthe team's self-analysis of its original work in schools.The above programme was presented in two parts, based on astory with a strong element of fantasy and this structurewas important as a participatory technique.

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In the first part, the members of the team tell the story,and encourage the pupils to contribute to parts of thestory. In the second part, the team facilitates theenactment of the story by both the pupils and theactor/teachers. The two-part technique became a salientfeature of many TIE teams in the 1970's, following theimpact of this progra..e which was continally shaped bythe suggestions and criticisms of the teachers and pupils.

In the Spring of 1966 the work of the team was progressingwith great strides: Baldur the God of Light. or how themistletoe came to grow on trees, a progra..e for juniorsusing the two-part structure, created a learning situationwhich was described by Vallins as:

Its function has been to explore problems withintegrity, challenge assumptions and createcondi tions for a thorough investigation of thehuman condition - the condition of being alive.(Vallins in Jackson, 1980:12)

In Baldur the God of Light, the myth of a land where

everything is possible, is used as a stylistic device toenable elements of drama to be foregrounded in theprogramme framework. From this programme a balancebetween educational and theatre elements became a majorissue in TIE devising work. Redington cites certaingeneral points which emerge as educational and theatreelements:

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A) Educational Elementsi) A clear educational aim;ii) A child-centred approach;iii)Utilisation of the ideas that children can learnthrough play;iv) Through personal experience and doing, pupils willlearn certain facts and could gain an understanding ofcomplex situations;v) The programme provides motivation to learn during andafter the event.

B) Theatrical Elements

i) The use of dramatic elements like tension; creation ofmood; conflict between characters; suspension ofdisbelief;ii) The use of music accompaniment; costume; make up andset; sound effect;iii) The participatory approach, withactor-audience relationships, actors in(1979:14-15)

emphasis onrole etc.

These elements became the basis of TIE strategies indesigning programmes.

In the early years, 1965 - 1975, the Belgrade TIE teamextended and developed the scope of its work, bothbuilding on and maintaining many of its originalfoundation stones. Its philosophy, during this period,rested on the premises of:

i) A free service to all Coventry schools;ii) Working intensively with small numbers of children;iii)Developing a progressive, child centred methodology;

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iv) Active participation of young people;v) Developing techniques of Actor/Teacher in role;vi) Exploring the use of theatre for its ability to revealtruths about the human conditions;vii) Involving teachers directly in the work in aparticipatory advisory and in-service capacity.The Belgrade TIE report for 1966-1967, says that this lastdevelopment was fully established in 1966:

A drama course for Teachers in Infant Schools washeld at Elm Bank Teachers' Centre on WednesdayOctober 12th, 1966. 83 teachers, from 48 schoolsin the City, attended and, led by the TIE team ofactor/teachers, they worked in groups on a numberof approaches to drama work at Infant level. Thegroup came together at the end of the course toillustrate and discuss the shape of the lessonsthey had planned. (NATO Broadsheets 9:3.1992:14)

within this period, the team expanded and by 1970 therewere nine tea. members, which increased to twelve by 1973,including a designer and a writer. It is significant tonote that in spite of all the specialist skills theactor/teacher had, they still felt they needed people withartistic and technical skills in the theatre, becausethese skills would enhance the impact of the performancepiece of the TIE prograa.e.

New TIE teams were being created allover the country,either with the direct involvement of former Belgrademembers, these include Bolton (1969), Leeds (1970),Edinburgh (1969), or through practitioners drawinginspiration from Belgrade TIE and using its workingmethods as a model for example Nottingham, Watford and

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Peterborough. Between 1965-1970, most of these companieswere funded by a combination of money from LocalAuthorities, and either the Arts Councilor The RegionalArts Associations.

This was made possible by an increasing awareness, forthis short period of time, of a shift towards theatre foryoung people. Many TIE teaas registered as limitedliability companies, with boards of directors whocontrolled the management side of things, anddistinguished it from the 'parent' theatre as a distinctbody. Many of the TIE teams were based in mainstreamtheatres, as the Belgrade TIE was based in the BelgradeTheatre; this allowed them to use the resources, props,stage managers etc. This, as Jackson (1980) points out,enables the tea. to establish for itself a healthy measureof organisational independence, from the EducationAuthority.

the other hand, as a separate department of thetheatre, with funds earmarked for work in localschools, it was afforded the opportunity to buildclose liaison by the appointment of personnelwhose background was, at least in part,educational.(1980:13)

These TIE teams or companies thus had a good deal offreedom, both in administrative and artistic forms,although they were still generally accountable to themainstream company.

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New Directions for the Belgrade TIE and the TIE Movement:

The Early 1970'sFor the Belgrade TIE, the early 1970's was a period whichmarked a leap in its development in a number of ways.Firstly, the team made the TIE scheme known to teachers,and how they were adapting the programmes to the syllabusin schools and using the space accorded by the school.stuart Bennet described the work as follows:

The work expanded in two ways. We would hold aday course for teachers before we went out, andfollow up sessions for them after the visit. Thiswas basic to the concept of the work we haddeveloped. Our aim was to provide a meaningfulexperience for the children, and to leave ateacher stimulated to continue with the work. Theprojects began in the classroom using theresources of a drama teacher to create a situationin which all the pupils had a role of their own.The sequence then moved to the hall where theresources of the actors extended the situation andprovided a vivid experience. The class teachercould continue the activity after our visit usinghis own method. (Redington, 1979:214)

The emphasis at this stage was clearly on the relationshipof the TIE programme, the pupil and the teacher. AsRedington observes 'this provided an experience throughwhich the pupils could learn, and be motivated to pursuethe subject. For the teachers it was both a resource anda constant source of stimulus on drama methods, andtechniques of working with the pupils' (1983:41). Theteam also considered: the best method of working withinfants; the nature of participation and how to work as

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both actor and teacher.

Out of this area of challenge, work of stature emergedthe most famous of which was the Rare Earth, a three-part

prograa.e, dealing with pollution by a chemical company inJapan. The programme raised political questions about theactions and responsibilities of private enterprise, inrelation to the victims of the pollution it had caused.

This programme shows a shift towards concern for immediatesocial issues and set the scene for other TIE teams, whorealized the importance of subject-matter for theatricalimpact in the classroom.

The work of this period began to join hands with thedevelopments of Drama in Education. Several programmesput together around this time by The Belgrade TIE had beeninfluenced by the writings and work of Peter Slade, JoanLittlewood and Brian Way in the late 1960 I S and early1970 I s such as Examgle, The Case of Craig and Bentley(1975), Pow Wow (1973), Who Was To Blame (1970).

During this period, a growing number of TIE teams werefounded, included the Cockpit TIE (1971) and TheatreCentre in London, which were fully funded by their LocalEducation Authority (ILEA). This showed the interestbeing shown by LEA towards TIE work in terms of both formand content and this period can be said to have a

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favourable response by funding bodies on TIE teams.

Although the working method of TIE was much clearer, andTIE teams continued to ask and explore the mostfundamental questions about their work, and the contextsin which they worked, nationally as a movement, there wasalso an increasing confusion of aims and lack of unity ofpurpose. At this time there was no body that acted as aforum for TIE teams for articulate theoretical, practicaland administrative concerns.

THE BELGRADE TIE; Through Growth and Change 1975 - 1985

It became clear that the TIE movement, as it became,needed a forum for all TIE practitioners and theorists inthe UK to debate and if possible, to determine an agreedTIE terminology and to resolve theoretical confusions.Thus, with considerable input from leading members of theBelgrade TIE, the Standing Conference of Young People'sTheatre - SCYPT - was formed in 1976. Its aim at thatpoint was:

To encourage the improvement of current artisticstandards in young people's theatre andtheatre-in-education, writing, designing,directing and performing of work for young people.It will also represent YPT/TIE Companies in GreatBritain and liaise with other appropriate bodies,especially those concerned vith the growth ofdrama and theatre for young people.(SCYPT constitution 1975)

TIE teams in the mid-1970's had taken a lead from The

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Belgrade TIE on the structure of the team, which hadbecome broad-based and allowed internal consultations andcollective decisions amongst the team members. SCYPT,taking example from TIE teams in existence, decided thatthe organisation would have a democratically electedcommittee, which would organise an annual forum for theshowing and exploration of TIE theory and practice. TheSCYPT Conferences have over the years served as trainingevents for actor/teachers, and the debates have informedthe discourse of TIE methodology.

This period of the Belgrade TIE work was one ofconsolidation in the face of a high level of turnover ofpersonnel; many team members moved on to other companies.On the one hand, while this made for difficulties incontinuity at the Belgrade, it did serve to providestarting young TIE teams with personnel who had someskills and thus served as a training ground for TIEpractitioners. However, the late 1970's saw a greaterproportion of the team's work was more children's theatreoriented, this is because a greater proportion of the workwas performed in The Belgrade Theatre, main house to largeschool audiences.

By 1984, the Belgrade TIE did a lot of work in secondaryschools in the form of residencies, in which the teamwould be in one school for a number of days, working forexample, with a whole year group, and thus enabling much

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more contact and cross-fertilisation between the team andthe whole teaching staff in a particular school.

The central aim of residencies was to complement on-goingwork in schools and assist in the exploration of thetaught syllabus. It was not meant to present 'rivalteaching' although it is known that in some schools,tensions were apparent among teachers who felt'threatened' and 'uneasy' with TIE methods or teams.While it was generally agreed by a majority of theteachers during this period, that TIE as an educationalservice and a learning tool, was invaluable, some teacherswho did not grasp the theoretical assumptions in TIE workdid not encourage the work in their schools. Therefore,it became necessary for TIE teams to explain their work toteachers by way of pre and post-perforaance workshops andthe provision of materials related to the programme.

special schools work had also become much more firmlyplaced in the team's annual programme, including a numberof projects at Southfields School, the team's rehearsalspace at that time. This had allowed for greater scope inthe creation of a designed environ.ent for students withspecial needs than that which could be toured.Residencies service an essential role in the specialschools where the pupils were in their own environment andhad access to necessary facilities.

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In 1984, the Arts Council of Great Britain (ACGB) conveneda conference in warwick to showcase the then current workof the TIE movement. This was an occasion when theserious training of the movement, by the movement, reallydemonstrated how far the quality of the work had developedin form and content. The Belgrade TIE performed LivesWorth Liying, a programme that was acclaimed, byconference participants, for its ability to evokedisturbing human questions and the educational andaesthetic balance. This was significant because of therapport that existed between ACGB and TIE teams, and alsofor the fact that actual creative and educational work wasbeing exhibited to both practitioners and funding bodies.

The Belgrade TIE team, both as a team and as individuals,has taken a leading role in these developments. The teamhas been helped by meeting up with other TIE team memberswith whom they have developed the body of knowledge andmethodology of practice in TIE work. This is enhanced bythe fact that the team still follows closely the foundingprinciples of the initial TIE team, and seem determined tocontinue to feed their practice through examination anduse of "current progressive educational methods" asespoused by Gordon Vallins (1966). Although there havebeen significant changes in personnel, orientation andphilosophy within the team over the years, they havemaintained links with the public and schools.

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The long-standing progressive stance of Coventry EducationAuthority has further provided a context for the growth ofTIE in Coventry over the years linking the team and theschools and community. The recent LEA policy documentEntitlement and Achieyement - A Policy For the SchoolCurriculum, and the recent work done by the Belgrade TIE,coincides with, and reflects the philosophy behind, andpractice demanded by this document which in part states:

Amid all the changes in our schools and collegesover the past few years, it has been easy to missthat what happens between teachers and learners isactually the central and all important aspect ofthe education system. (Cited in The Belgrade TIEReview Document, 1993:11)

This is indicative of the LEA's firm relationship to thefree public provisions of a broad balanced curriculum anda full equal educational entitlement for all its children,in recognition of the centrality of the teacher/learner

relationship. The team does not receive its grant fromthe LEA, but the logistic support especially in schools issignificant.

However, in the 1990's questions arose such as 'How canyou justify Coventry City Council spending £150,000 on afree Theatre in Education service, when it is having tocut £5,500,000 as a result of government restriction?'This shows that a TIE service has to present a case as apriority over others, and to provide excellent value for

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money for what it can deliver. Thus:

a loaf of bread, a railway journey, the safedelivery of a baby, learning how to do quadraticequations, the necessary care by a childminder toensure your family can eat, a TIE team member hasto leave to save the company - ALL - come down tothe same thing - something that can be bought andsold as a commodity if the "customer demand" forit is there, and if someone/some people considerit worth the investment of their money and time todeliver it. (Belgrade TIE Review Document,1993:2)

These are the economic, social and ideological changes andconditions that have gripped institutions, organisationsand individuals. The TIE movement, teams, practitionersand theorists are part of this environment. The BelgradeTIE has continued to do TIE work for schools, in spite ofthese conditions and not because they have been spared thecuts, but have had to adapt the workings of TIE. Thiswriter is familiar with some of their TIE programmes Ianalyse Blood and Honey in the next part.

Also, the most exclusive focus on the Belgrade TIE teamshould not debar from the acknowledgement of otherdevelopments and contrary trends. It, however, sets thescene for an exploration of TIE work by other teams whohave in the meantime developed into formidable workingunits. The educational and theatrical strategies used inthe programmes that I discuss intend to confirm TIE as aflexible medium that has responded to changes through theadaptability of its methodology. To provide a link, I

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analyse a programme by The Belgrade TIE. These devisedin the 1990's reflect theatre's relationship with societyand how these themes have had a central role in TIE'sstruggle to exist as a movement and a criticalmethodology.

The Belgrade TIE:- Practice in the 1990's

In the 1990's the Belgrade TIE team have worked incircumstances made more complex by world occurances, suchas the fall of the Berlin Wall, the Iraq War, the UNinvasion of Somalia, the War of Bosnia and have drawntheir material from these events. Their artistic andeducational aims have been fashioned by the questions:

i) 'What are the means by which these paradoxes can beunderstood and resolved?'

ii) 'How do we equip ourselves and young people with suchmeans which will enable us all to understand ourworld?'(The Belgrade Review Report, 1993:13)

In considering these questions the team's artistic andeducational statement has asserted the following as abasis for their work in the 1990's:

i) the world is knowable;ii) In order to know it, we have to engage our whole

beings: intellectual, emotional and physical.iii)Knowledge always begins from the examination of a

particular phenomenon, action or event and it proceedson the understanding that all phenomena, action andevents, whether in the past or present interconnect to

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form a whole, the world we live in. (1993:15)

It is with this in mind that Belgrade TIE devised andproduced the programme Blood and Honey in 1991. It wasstaged for young people and adults after it had had a longrun in secondary schools for years 7 and 8. Thisprogramme reveals some interesting explorations of theconcepts of participation and role.

BLOOD AND BORBY: A Fully Participatory TIE Programme

The programme in schools was for a full day. In theintroductory session with the class, which in the case ofthe performance I witnessed in May, 1992 was a group oftwenty-five in years seven and eight, it was explainedthat both actor/teachers and students would be engaged ina joint exploration of the question, "what do human beingsneed in order to survive?" At the very start thefaciIitator hands over a role to the students who inaccepting this role, make a contract with the subject tobe explored.

To achieve this the facilitator tells the story of a womanwho did not survive. At this point her name is only givenas Anna and it is related that yesterday she committedsuicide; part of the room in which she killed herself isshown to the class. All they can see is a rug, acomfortable arm chair and a coffee table with an envelope

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and sealed cardboard box placed upon it. The facilitatorused the feelings and ideas evoked by these objects tocreate the reality of Anna, the world that surrounded herand her relationship to it. By using these objects the.aaning of the context was made available and the studentsstarted moving slowly into the event.

Key aspects were offered by the facilitator to extend anddeepen the metaphorical possibilities: What can she seefrom her window? What object in the room might beprecious to her? Is there a favourite book she could keepclose by and often return to? These questions keptbringing the thoughts of the participants back to Anna,the significance that opens up the world of .aaning, andthe start of a draaatic idea which then turns into theworld of draaatic action as they proceeded to watch amoment of theatre.

An actor/teacher took on the role of Anna's best friendBarry. He enters the room the day after her suicide tofind the letter and the box that she has left for him.The letter described her fears for the future of humanityand asks Barry to take her unfinished sculptures, unlockthem for others to understand; a key is left with theletter. Through this interaction with Barry reading wediscovered more information about Anna. She had come fromCzechoslovakia to Britain thirty years ago, is in herlate sixties and a widow, and had worked as a part-time

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nurse in the local hospital. She is a likeable person andher death remains a mystery to Barry although we are toldthat she committed suicide by giving herself a lethalinjection. Barry has no knowledge of any sculpturesalthough she did attend evening art classes and haddabbled in painting landscapes and still life.

Barry proceeds to open the box and three objects arerevealed:

a fresh green apple wrapped in barbed wire,an old broken 1978 record, "Dancing the Hours Away",a small black and white line drawing of a tree set ina barren landscape.

Barry cannot make any sense of these objects and thestudents are invited to offer up their own suggestions.The facilitator helped to develop the student's responses;the syabolic and .ataphorical .aanings, for example, appleas the fruit of the tree of knowledge wrapped in wire toprevent others from obtaining it; Anna, herself, istrapped by the circumstances. This is the gateway to thefull depth of exploration which will follow as thestudents get involved in issues of the drama. It was thenrevealed that the key will open a locked room in whichAnna has left her unfinished work and the students wereinvited to take on the task Anna has left to Barry.As the students took on the role of investigators a fra.a

for the drama was being set. The frame had become the

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main agent in providingstudents in appreciating

tension and meaning for thethe experience. In social

encounters two aspects of fra.ung are present; one is theaction necessary for the event to progress forward towardsconclusions and the other is the perspective from whichpeople are coming to enter the event. In this case thestudents take on the role of the investigator.

Because this is a whole day's programme, it has beenstructured to fit in with the normal school break. Afterthe break the students are taken to the locked room (alarge black canvas tent erected in the school hall). Thefacilitator tells them that Anna has given her work thecollective title "The World War".

Before entering, great care was taken to evoke theappropriate mood and significance for this event. Theparticipants have entered into a full signing syste. whichas Heathcote points out 'in drama time, automatica 11yplaces the rest of the people present, into rolesthemselves for they must be addressed as if they are so'.(Drama Broadsheet 7.3.1990:3) In entering the contract

with the subject and becoming part of a fraae the studentshave taken on certain tasks towards interpreting what theyhave explored: signing is a significant part ofparticipation. However, a signing system is notsynonymous with role playas we shall notice in thesubsequent chapters. The students have now become full

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participants in the event. O'Toole identifies threecategories of participation.

i) Extrinsic participation, where the element ofparticipation is separated from theatricality.

ii) Peripheral participation, where the audience isinvited to contribute in order to add to thetheatricality without affecting either the structureand the nature of the play or its own function as theaudience.

iii)Integral participation, where the audience workstogether with the character within the drama and theperspectives of both become the same. (1976:88)

The students have gone through these levels ofparticipation from the start of the programme up to thisstage. As they were led inside the room by the

facilitator, they find five sculptures Anna has put

together, and although they are constructed mostly from

everyday familiar objects their configuration is striking

and disturbing. To describe them briefly:

i) A table covered with faded gold resembling an altar.Placed on this are candles, a shattered mirror, flowersboth alive and dead, and a teddy bear bandaged andpierced through the heart by a large nail which impalesit on a block of wood.

ii) A mound of sand through which protrudes a human handreaching upwards, on opposite sides of the hand atest tube and a Bible faced down.

iii)A stack of old suitcases topped by a wooden cage andfronted by a childlike drawing of a figure in a sunnylandscape.

iv) An area painted in vivid crimson and black surrounded awooden rostrum resembling a bed with plush velvetdrapes, cushions, a shard of glass sticks up betweenthe cushions and a papier mache fish with its gutsripped out lies on the bed.

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v) A plinth wrapped in white muslin topped by a loaf ofbread with a sharp knife plunged into it.

(Blood and Honey, 1991:17)

The participants moved freely about the room exploring themeanings of the sculptures. There are constraints to theunderstanding of the relationship between the sculptures,not just by the way they are positioned in the room, butwhat they represent and the perception level of theparticipants.

These constraints may be, physical, psychological, socialor cultural, and what each person is seeing and hearing inthe room is perceived differently for each interpretationis very individual. The participants are asked to recordsome observations on paper after a few minutes of theatre,the team, on the set, occupied the sculptures. Theydramatise flashbacks of Anna's life which relate toobjects in the room and to various diary entries on to thewalls to which attention has been drawn. Anna is seen asa young woman in Prague living under the Nazi occupation,in a post war Russia labour camp, and in Britain 1991during the Gulf War at home with her grandchildren andworking as a nurse.

This reinforced the information already gained about Anna,both in the cogni~ive and affec~ive sense. As the

Teacher's Pack asserts

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They are exercising the twin features ofsensibility, perspicuity and poignancy to matchsignificant form with appropriate meaning.(Blood and Honey, 1991:10)

The whole event resonated with dra.atic .eaning and theinitial questions were put to the participants by thefacilitator.

After lunch the students come into the hall and arereminded of Anna's wishes that her work should be shownand they assist in the creation of the role of 'JohnBarron', the director of the National Gallery to whomBarry has written in the hope of having the sculpturesexhibited. Their agreement was obtained to develop thework in the locked room in preparation for inspection byMr Barron and at this stage the participants are splitinto three groups to create:

1) Titles for each of the sculptures.2) Dramatic presentations of moments from Anna's life.3) New sculptures from the items left in the box and

objects used as part of the theatre in the locked room.

The fra.e that the facilitator has signalled to theparticipants requires their complete involve.ant, whichmeans they have to take over and shape the nature of the

events.

It was apparent to me that there was no struggle to

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sustain role-play authentically in the way that Bolton hasdescribed: that is, "making the role credible to (one's)self and to (one's) classmates" by acting "with integrityand spontaneity" or "living through the events". (Davisand Lawrence, eds, 1986:94) Therefore, although the taskthe participants were going to carry out could not makeany claims to authenticity, the tasks provided the groundfor further input. This was evident in the briefdiscussions that participants had in small groups.

What the sculptures had done was to enable theparticipants to work through these issues in a creative

.ade, but at the same level of their daily experiences aspeople living in the real world. During the hot-seating

session when John Barron challenges the diversity of theparticipants own artistic and dramatic representations ofmoments of Anna's life, one participant repliedvehemently I and emphatically, "we can know what it waslike because we are human beings too". The tasks taken onas part of the development of the exhibition enabled themthrough the fictional context to transform what was givenand add their own representations of the objective world.It was apparent from the snatches of conversations thatthe students were talking about things they knew well andrelated to but were willing to find out more.Towards the end of the programme, the facilitator gave tothe groups the task of assembling a completed sculpturefrom the objects Anna had left her friend Barry in the

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box. The sculpture constructed can be described asfollows: the apple wrapped in the barbed wire on top ofthe upturned box; the key inserted half turned into theapple; the record slicing the apple in halfi the brokenrecord protruding from the back of the apple with pipes(gouged out from inside) on it. The pupils then explainedthat the key represented people trying to make things inthe world better but not noticing that, as they did this,the mushroom cloud (the record) continued to grow andsplit (destroy the world). The pips were the seedrepresenting the new being born from the old which was thehope for the future.

For the final session, 'John Barron' arrived to see thework. Through his responses to the work the participantshad done, he attempted to communicate with them. Thefacilitator controlled the proceedings and would freezeand bring him to life when required and the participantswere able to question him in role as to the content ofAnna's work and the participants' development of it, andits relevance and meaning for people today. The dramaticconventions of the tableau or freeze frame and hot-seating

were brought into play by the facilitator and

actor/teacher.

The participants assumed the roles of interpreters ofAnna's art and put Mr Barron in the hot seat. They askedhim all manner of questions and at one point a flashback

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was required by the pupils as the other actor/teachers

enacted a scene. A brief exhibition by the group ofparticipants brought lively debates amongst the groups andfreed more issues for discussion. Some participantsenquired from each other, Mr Barron or members of the teamon topical issues today.

Significance of the Programme Blood and Honey

Blood and Honey extends the opportunity for theparticipants to experience and learn through drama,poetry, visual art and in this case, music. Its methodinvolved the understanding of symbol, metaphor, resonance,and tension which accorded the participant a framework inwhich to observe, reflect, enquire and take so.a action.

Access to the narrative was available to the participantfrom the start of the programme and as it developed aconscious source of power and ownership emerged indicatinga certain willingness to change events if the need arose.In the dra.atic encounter that ensues the participant havea voice because they have become part of the action of theprogramme.

Dorothy Heathcote says that 'This total acceptance ofsigning allows children to bring their profound experienceto bear in interpreting the scene Many kinds ofinformation are available simultaneously when role is

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induced, especially that of frame and attitude.'Journal: No 9, 1982:22)

(SCYPT

When the participants eventually take over the event andthey hot-seat the gallery director in a variety ofcontexts, they explore issues at variance in the programmeand take actual responsibility for what to do with Anna'swork. The use of dramatic devices and theatricalstrategies, such as hot-seating and the tableau - freeze

frame, provide the flexibility to stop the action and re-direct it and give the participants time to deconstructits significance and meaning. This can be an effectivemeans of offering participants a forum in which they canbegin to engage with and understand the complexities ofthe real world and the construction of their own.

These conventions in TIE practice have often afforded theaudience/participant the opportunity to adopt a particularpoint of view by providing them with the necessarymotivation to take significant action, i.e. to becomeinterpreters of Anna's works. This entails carefully-considered decisions as the programme proceeds. All thetime, the concepts of belief/disbelief, unreal/real, isapparent in the drama, the moving to and fro, seeming tobe and seeming-not-to-be are the moments that speciallearning can occur. As Bolton says, "for them to be ableto believe in the drama, it must not seem too real. Ithas to be 'real enough' to believe but not so 'real' that

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they lose the sense of reality". (SCYPT Journal, No 23,1992:28) Using objects, role, gesture and performances

the participants are given access to aeaning.

This programme used Dorothy Heathcote's participatorymethods especially with regard to the facilitator andmantle of the expert. This was fused with hot-seating

and the creation of the forum towards the end of theprogramme as an enabling context and structure. Thesimilari ties between these strategies and that of thenarrator in a story-telling context are numerous anddeserve in-depth discussion, a task for Chapter Eight.

There are other programmes by The Belgrade TIE teamdevised and presented in 1991 and 1992 using some of theabove conventions, these include Liying a Lie (1990), ~Black and Ignorant (1991) From the Cradle (1992) and ~of Change (1993)

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The history of the TIE movement is largely grounded withinthe work of The Belgrade TIE team which started to workwith schools and young people from 1965. The patternestablished by The Belgrade TIE team was repeated in otherparts of the UK as personnel moved from existing teaas tostart others. The structure of the TIE team has been amajor element in determining the philosophy of its work,

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and specialist skills such as the musician, the writer,

and the designer are other elements that have enhanced thetheatrical impact of TIE programmes. There are largedifferences in the way TIE teams use form and content, andsome teams are almost exclusively concerned withperformance based work, others use a combination ofperformance, workshops, hot seating and forum theatre, buta relatively small number are concerned almost exclusivelywith devising full participation programmes.

In the next chapter examples of TIE programmes from twoTIE teams indicates further the various dramatic devices

and educational strategies that are used in the practiceof TIE and to provide an insight into the ecletic natureof TIE methodology.

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CHAPTER SIX

FURTHER INSIGHT INTO TIE PRACTICE

In this chapter there is a deeper analysis of TIEprogrammes by two different teams. This is to establishits diversified nature and at the same time point out therelevance to educational drama practices in Kenya. Theconcepts used in TIE work, the acting styles andmethodologies are an integral part of educational dramapractices. This chapter serves to offer some commonground as resources for learning and teaching in the twoprogrammes analysed. Indigo by the Lancaster TIE team isfully participatory programme and the pit Prop TIE team'sAngel is partly workshopped and fully performance basedand these largely influenced the criteria in which theywere chosen for study.

LANCASTER TIE; A Brief History

Lancaster TIE has been based at the Duke's PlayhouseTheatre since its inception in 1975. It has had a strongcommitment to working in schools and with teachers usingTIE methods but has remained part of the Duke's Theatrewhich also contains a repertory theatre, a regional filmtheatre and a youth arts workshop. This is in keeping

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with a current three-year plan which states that part ofthe brief of The Duke's Theatre is to work with youngpeople both in schools and in the theatre itself.

One of the objects of the theatre, as set out in theMemorandum of Association, states that it is necessary topromote and advance an aesthetic education. The closerelationship between the Lancaster TIE and the Duke'sTheatre has been beneficial to the former in forging closelinks with the community in Lancaster who hold the team inhigh esteem.

The Lancaster TIE team takes theatre and TIE programmesinto schools and local communities across the whole ofLancashire seeking to develop new audiences and maintain atheatre-going-public. The team has also worked in specialschools with the play Living Bolts in 1976 and Maxi andMini Show in 1977, which were participatory programmes andtaking the pupils through a series of environmental andphysical stimuli.

In the late 1970s the team emphasized on contemporarysocial themes, for instance Trayellers was a fullyparticipatory piece for 8-9 year olds about the problemsof the Gypsy community with prejudice and legaldiscrimination being highlighted.

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Over the years the team has sought to make developments inthree directions: artistic, educational and political.These have been manifested in their programmes Breakingthe Magic Spell for 7-9 year olds, The Judge's Lodgings(1987) and Black and Blue (1988).

The Lancaster TIE team currently consists of a director,five actor/teachers, a stage manager and an educationdevelopment officer; the present staffing and structuralarrangements derive from its close relationship with theDuke's Theatre. The facilities at The Duke's Theatreenable the team to offer good theatre with strongproduction values; expertise in a wide range of dramamethodologies; high quality educational resource materialsand in-service opportunities for teachers.

The Lancashire Curriculum Policy for Drama identifies anumber of aims which contribute to a balanced dramacurriculum and the Lancaster TIE team strives to fulfilthese aims. In particular, young people who see theperformance work will have the opportunity to:

experience the art form of theatre; progress intheir ability to understand and appreciatedifferent forms of dramatic expression; recognise,respond to, and appreciate complexity in dramaticideas; and, develop an appropriate vocabulary forthe expression of personal response,interpretation and judgement. (SCYPT Journal No24, 1992:17)

This statement goes on to say,

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Participation in the team's workshop activitieswill facili tate an appreciation of the use of:drama process to explore, represent and reflectupon their own and others experience; any dramaticforms and conventions appropriate for thepresentation of that experience.(1992:17)

This is very similar to the approach taken by the BelgradeTIE team, although, initially they did not emphasisecontact with the theatre-going public; keeping artseducation in schools has been a major priority for them.The Lancaster TIE team offers residencies in schools andprovides in-service for teachers in drama linked to theirtouring programme. A member of the team claimed that thestimulus for their work and the methods and techniquesthey employ are guided by:

(i) 'An informed, intuitive sense of how art feeds andnourishes us as human beings.

(ii)A theoretical and practical understanding of how toundertake an artistic exploration within an educationalframework'. (Personal Interview, July 1992)

The team seemed to me to have a strong orientation towardsi.provisa~ion, ~eacher and pupil in role and the use of afacili~a~or in a programme, these they use in programmeswith a strong performance base, such as Walls of Goodbye(1991) and Witchy Hazel (1992).

Through an explication of Indigo by Lancaster TIE, anattempt is made to see how the team has gone about tryingto achieve the above intentions, through various

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educational and theatrical strategies. Clearly, the roleof the facilitator in the programmes emerges as central tothe working of the programme.

INDIGO

Indigo is a TIE programme for lower secondary schoolstudents designed to explore the concept of nationalism.

I participated in this whole day fully participatoryprogramme with thirty 12-14 year old students of FearnsHigh School.

One of the actor/teachers who facilitated the programmetold us that during the programme we would play the rolesof a delegation from the International Council of Nations,ICON, which was to study the socio/economic situation ofand draw up a charter of human rights for the small nationof Borovnia.

The facilitator posed simply and directly the question"When I say the words 'human rights' what do youimmediately think about?" The facilitator put as littleof herself as possible into the words and the moments ofsilence before the first tentative responses were offeredby the participants. Here the facilitator came outstrongly as somebody who during the programme was to settasks for us and guide our responses.

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The ICON Delegates who were supposed to be experts in thefield of Human Rights received their officialidentification badges which serviced as a contract maker

in the process of negotiating a fictional context in whichall would participate. This identification acted as asigning system which became apparent as the drama wasshaped and this experience fraaed.

We then moved to the centre of the school hall andBorovnia, we are told is name of the nation, wasencapsulated in the form of a small Tailor's workroom:there are no walls but portals of a window, a door, aportrait frame and a full length mirror. Each of theseportals was connected, the whole nation girdled andembraced by rich swathes of brilliant indigo cloth.Inside there were simple workman like furniture, the toolsof the tailoring trade, and a tailor's dummy upon whichrested the recently completed ceremonial jacket with itsIndigo sash. In another corner a second dummy, held workin progress.

MOVING INTO THE PLAY

The actor/teachers now moved into Borovnia and our objectof enquiry came alive. An old tailor and his youngapprentice entered the room and began to cut and sew; justoutside the room a man sat huddled beneath the window and

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a woman sat on bulky bags of laundry.

The delegation was informed by the facilitator that theyhad been invited to Borovnia by the Prince, who hadrecently returned from a life in exile and was now readyto grasp and shape the future of his beloved and newlyindependent nation Borovnia. The prince was therecognised leader of the emerging INDIGO party. He says:

INDIGO the colour of my Nation's Flag, the colourof the very blood that runs in Borovnian veins.(Indigo, 1992:6)

The Prince greets the delegation and invites them on aninitial tour of his country. His is the only voice tospeak on behalf of Borovnia, and he tells the delegation

of his fears, hopes and aspirations. He asks for theirhelp.

At this stage, those playing the delegates have taken uptheir roles and are helping to build the narrative frame.

They pause by the window through which comes a voice:

A window on my Nation. For so long the window hasbeen boarded up. No light has spilled through towarm the hearts or guide the footsteps of mypeople. INDIGO will tear down the shutters .....the light and air will enter Borovnia again.(Indigo, 1992:8)

As they enter the tailor's room, the five actors, and thedelegates with the facilitator constitute the whole that

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is Borovnia. The facilitator informs the delegates thatthis will be the context in which their fictional enquiry

would start.

The Tailor is a highly skilled man and proud to make thejacket for the Prince. Although he is Jewish he isdelighted that Borovnia has gained independence, andalthough there is little cloth left in his shop, he isoptimistic about the future as he waits for payment fromthe Prince. The young Borovnian apprentice loves hismaster and is willing to learn. He welcomes the Princeand longs to learn the stories and songs of his nationthat have been denied him in the past, but he is a littleuncertain of the future.

The laundry woman is one of the mountain people ofBorovnia and with a very distinct ethnic identity. Shehas done the laundry for the tailor for a long time andhas worked hard. She senses the impact of the Prince'sreturn on the community but is unwilling to talk very muchwith the delegation. The man in the street has no work,although he tells the delegation that under the empire hehad work and the return of the Prince has had no materialeffect on the quality of life. He is waiting,

disenfranchised.

The facilitator stops the drama and use any of theavailable conventions to change to various roles during

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the course of the programme.

As the drama develops the delegation meet and interactwith the characters, that are in a sense archetypesembodying the joint conflicting aspirations in Borovniansociety. The delegates investigate as the whole ofBorovnia is revealed in the interaction with thecharacters. There are underlying tensions which are notapparent to the delegation.

There was hardly any pre-determined dialogue or action anddelegates decided what to say to the characters, and sothe development of the action depended very much on whatthe delegation brought to it. The actors interactdirectly with the delegates who after some time take abreak at their hotel (another corner of the hall): therethey analyse in three groups the Borovnian predicament.

Back on set, the team perform a scene in which the tailorgoes to the Prince to ask for his payment, but the Princerefuses to pay and instead threatens to deport him becausehe is a foreigner. This intimidation by the Princeconfounds the apprentice whose loyalty to his master andcountry cannot be questioned. At this point the tailoraddresses the delegates, and asks for their assistance toresolve his problem; the world must know what is going onin Borovnia. The delegates, prompted by the facilitatortry to explain to the Prince the predicaments they have

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witnessed.

In these attempts issues from the real world byimplication kept coming from the delegates e.g. The formerSoviet Republics, Bosnia, South Africa, the Kurds in Iraq,the Pit closure programme etc. Because the Prince and thedelegates are in character, there is meaning making withinthe drama.

A portrait of the Prince is now placed at the centre ofthe hall, and its stylized form speaks revealing that thePrince himself is becoming a threat to the people ofBorovnia and he begins to manifest himself as potentiallya brutal dictator.

Let me be the truth of your tomorrow.strength be your strength. For I am morethan your most powerful Father, Ibeautiful than nature itself. Believethe world will be your playground.1992:23)

Let mypowerfulam more

in me and(Indigo

The delegation then exit and resolve to create theircharter for Human Rights, which cannot remain simply astatement of principle, but must have the quality of aprogramme of actions. The next day is a national holidayon which the Prince will address the nation, thedelegation and the International media will be there too.The delegates decide to exhibit their charter but firstwatched each others images, these include:

i) The apprentice sings the Borovnian NationalAnthem,

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as the tailor stares confusedly at his image inthe mirror.

ii) The man from the street is measured for a newsuit, an Indigo one with a new white collar.

iii) In the street, the Mountain woman 'cleansed' liesface down in a pile of dirty laundry. In theroom the tailor is covering the windows.

In the last part of the programme the actor/teachers arecalled upon to enact the above images and as they freeze,

members of each delegate went and placed the charter forHuman Rights in each of the images.

The facilitator then invites the delegation to drop theirrules as delegates and just be themselves and let theimages have an effect on them, to reflect quietly and todiscuss out of role.

Indigo's Implications

What struck me as the real significance of the programmeIndigo was that it was created at a time when TIE teams ingeneral and Lancaster TIE in particular were experiencinggreat artistic, educational and political crises. In avery real way the struggle within the programme is thestruggle for the very survival of the TIE movement and theLancaster TIE team. Therefore the team devised theprogramme for themselves as a rich and enabling experienceand to affirm their belief in the integrity of youngpeople manifested in educational and artistic pursuits.

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However, Indigo presented the pupils with a fictional

context in which they could explore their own needs asyoung people in the world today. In particular, thecharacter of the Apprentice raised doubts and questions inthe minds of the students from his experiences andknowledge. This is an example of a TIE programme thatforegrounds Drama and Theatre as creative mode of learningand while it is not possible to realise this immediatelythe participants did undergo a shift in appraisal andattitude as they engaged with the tasks during theprogramme.

The process included orientating the drama, developing the

content through drama skills and slowing the drama and

co.ing out of role to reflect on the paradoxes andproblems that emerged. The Drama was built by theexperiences the students themselves added to it and theeducational value of the programme was apparent at everystage in these interactions. The dramatic nature of theprogramme was both appropriate to the theme and accessibleto the participants, as the actor/teachers focused thewhole group on the tensions and symbols inherent in theperformance pacts.

Again Indigo is not exhaustive of Lancaster TIE team I spractices and not wholly representative of its range ofwork. It provides an indication of the skills developed

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by the team and that it can sti11 work in this way isimportant for the furtherance of TIE methods. Theprogramme clarified for me the concepts of meaning making,

signing system, negotiating a fictional context and theuse of role. Their participatory nature avail usefulworking instruments in the quest for creative education.

pit Prop Theatre

pit Prop Theatre was founded in 1979 and is based in Leighwithin the district of Wigan; its fundamental principle isto respond to educational and artistic needs in schools.It does not operate as part of a theatre but has a Boardof Directors that has overall responsibility for its goodfinancial and legal standing and for its broad artisticeducational policy. The team maintains a fairlyautonomous artistic independence but its employees' workis accountable to the board of Directors. It is one ofthe few TIE teams that still exists as a 'free service' toschools in the Wigan Education Authority and has beenfunded by Wigan LEA, the North West Arts Board, andManchester City Council and Health Education at differenttimes and in different projects.

Over the years pit Prop has concentrated on TIE programmesthat advocate social change working with small numbers ofstudents and audiences. It has established a strongcreative base from which to communicate with pupils,

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teachers, parents and community audiences; it seeks toinvolve these audiences in creative processes.

In this way, the team members began to create a new kindof performer/artist who is able to respond and adapt to awide variety of contexts. Tis performer/artist can developworkshop, creative and improvisatory skills in theclassroom space, and foster a diversity of educationaland artistic interest amongst the pupils. The team'spriorities have been to develop strong artistic skills,supported by appropriate technical skills so that they cancreate and explore artistic forms which encourage greatercommunication between the team and the participants. PitProp TIE has tried, as far as possible, to work as acollective, but like other TIE teams, has found thisdifficul t, because of factors affecting the whole TIEmovement.

pit Prop has emphasised the choice of the subject matterfor their programmes and, as the Artistic Director CoraWilliams says,

At Pit Prop Theatre many ideas emanate from socialand political change: for example, the break up ofthe soviet block; the world crises of refugeescaused by natural disaster, such as cyclone andflooding in Bangladesh; the Gulf War; economiccollapse of a country; Nicaraguan Revolution.Many productions are prompted by actual awarenessof oppression, racism and sexism. (Williams inJackson, 1993:96)

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From this background Pit Prop TIE devised and presentedtheir production Angel in 1990/1991. The followingfactors influenced my judgement in the choice of Angel asa TIE programme:

i) Role-playing where the audience have aprecise task from the workshop to engage and focustheir attention.

ii) The use of changing perspectives in the playas atechnique to enable the audience to see thingsfrom a number of view points.

iii) The choice of the subject matter identity andracism is a matter of interest to this study.

ANGEL; Workshop and Performance Programme

The TIE programme was targeted at 15-16 year olds whowould normally be fifth formers. It included a preliminarymorning workshop followed by a performance; it is a half-day programme. According to members of the Pit-Prop TIE,the overall aim of the programme was to enable the 15-16year old students to explore themes such as racistattitudes, law and justice, education, parents andchildren, money, marriage and relationships and commonground and separation. These are concepts that make upthe performance part of the programme.

I attended the workshop held in the library of LeighWestleigh High School at 10.15am - deliberately timed forthe start of the next lesson. This is one of TIE's

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strategies in working within the school timetable,affording students the opportunity to view a programme asone of the other lessons.

In the Library are the large sheets which read "SelectingIdentity" and as a group of thirty-three students were ledby their teacher, they were immediately divided into threegroups of eleven each by the facilitator and positionedbefore the large sheets which read:

We are going to see a drama - there are charactersin the play and this bag belongs to them, examinethe bag and its contents. Discuss together as agroup the identity of the (character) person anduse the large sheet to jot down in rough notesyour observations as a group. (Angel, TeachersPack, 1990:1)

Cora Williams was the facilitator during this workshop andwas not working in-role nor had the students been asked tomove into any role - but were examining what was before

them as the.selves. Cora asked the students in variousgroups to open the bags and to have individual and groupobservations and then to have a discussion, finallyjotting down their observations. The resources that wereavailable for the students as part of the workshop were:

the bagthe bag's contents,large sheets of paper,felt-tipped pens,whole group and,individual observations.

The task of each group was to check through, observing thecontent of the bag and the clues as to the gender, class,

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age, public image of the would be owner of the bag.

Cora then brought all the groups together, who in turnread to the rest what their observations were, of thecharacter they had identified. There was a briefdiscussion of the character traits and the students had anopportuni ty to talk to each other. As one teacherinvolved in the project later told this writer, thethirty-three students had never worked together as a groupbefore and the team took advantage of this fore knowledge,and used the workshop as a forum of sharing amongst thestudents.

At this stage, not all the students took this exerciseseriously, but it served to focus their attention on someof the properties that would later be used in theperformance.

The play Angel took place in the drama studio and as thestudents were led into the performance space, what wasactually striking was the solid and deliberatelystructured set, semi-circled by the exact number of chairsfor the audience expected and the sound/lighting equipmentfor the performance positioned at the back of theaudience. This set an atmosphere of intimacy, whichdemanded some investment in the performance from theaudience; the set also enabled the performers to mingleand merge with the audience at relevant times. The

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background music established a mood for the fast paceddramatic images presented as the audience settled in.These images gave some background to the play andreinforced the identity of the characters in it.

Angel is performed by five actors: they play among otherstwo policemen, Christine, Ruth and Diane. It is set in apolice cell where Christine, Ruth and Diane meet asprisoners remanded for different offences and it isthrough what they say to each other and to the policementhat plots the narrative of the play.

Christine is a black, middle-aged firm believer inChristianity who has severe problems with her family andis brought in because of an attempt to kill her son.Ruth, white, in her thirties and casual has had problemswith her marriages and is brought into the cell forattempting to burn down her husband's house. Diane,black, aged eighteen and adopted by rich white parents, isarrested in an area for prostitutes and for prostitution.

There are instant tensions between Christine who exhibitsa "holier than thou" attitude once she hears Diane wasarrested for intended prostitution. Ruth who is whitebecomes the mediator as she is at home in the cell anddoes not attempt to judge any of them. The two policemenalso respond differently to the three women and becauseall five actors play multiple characters. As the five

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characters relate to each other, they all undergotransformations of emotions and self-examinations of theirattitude to one another.

As the play develops, it is more than obvious thatChristine and Ruth cannot be released because of who theyare in the social economic sense, while Diane can bereleased because she is adopted by the white parents withstatus in the society.

Diane claims she is eighteen, but we find out she isyounger and therefore the audience, which is made up of15-16 year olds, can relate to her behaviour and level ofreasoning. The use of this age related strategy enablesthe audience to start questioning the fa.iliar, that is,Diane's actions. Through dialogue, between the actors andsometimes the audience narration, question - answer, rapp

sessions, interspersed with .usic and song, certaingeneral themes and issues are brought out. By the use ofthese theatrical techniques, the play attempts to raisequestions, and provoke attitudes about racism for the

students.

The views put across by juxtaposing the issues of thecolours white and black and some important componentswhich contribute to this imbalance, enables the studentsto realise and acknowledge where racism exists, how itoperates and what effects it has. The students are

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therefore able to consider issues raised from more thanone point of view and make comparisons. The followingextracts from the play illustrate this point:

DianeRuthDianeRuthDiane

ChristineRuthChristineRuthChristineRuthChristineChristineRuth

ChristineRuth

:You live somewhere nice:Yeah:I don't believe you:Why:You look like some beggar off the streets

(Angel, 1990:4)or

:Don't touch me. I said don't touch me. Idon't want none of you people touching me:What do you mean you people? You people?who's you people?:You! You! I am talking about you.:I'm one person, I am not you peopleor:African. They are rich all kings andprincess:You're an Ethiopian princess then:Might be:The girl doesn't know who she is or what sheis:Back to her again are we? Loads of peopleadopted you know. Doesn't mean they have abad life. I mean she's lucky isn't she?They are loaded:She's black:Can't say that I notice

(Angel 1990:17)

These raise questions such as "How do the judgements ofothers affect us? How do we define, and defend, our ownself image?" From these extracts it will be seen thatthere are several contradictions in the charactersthemselves intended to get the students to a level wherethey view other characters from a different perspective.Some of the images that emerge as very strong and no doubtimpact on this audience are as follows.

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a)the constant banging of the prison wall becomes a motiffor law and justice and as it is repeated each time, thecell doors open to allow the policemen to get into thecell or for the prisoners to leave is as irritating as itis emphatic of the dispensation of law and justice. Thebrutality with which the cell doors are opened begs thequestions which recur during the performance:

i) Can justice be separate from vengeanceor retribution?

ii) Where does our sense of justice come from?iii) Does the legal system dispense justice even

handedly?

The rattling metallic sound of the door indicates thepolicemen's high status and their position of power: andthe final clap as it shuts, depicts the helplessness of thethree prisoners and this theatrical image comes out sovividly in the following extract from the performance.

ChristineRuthChristineRuthChristine

Ruth

Diane

:1 know what is right and what is wrong.she isnt 18. And she is not very clever.:Course she isn't:You know:Wouldn't be in here otherwise would she?None of us is very clever.:Not after the loud opening and shutting ofthat door. A white person calls you names,throws things at you, your life's a misery,puts filth in your letter box, you thinkthey do anything? No. If you want to dosomething, you must do it yourself.:You get hit and abused and put down. Sothey do anything? No. They just look aftertheir own. Just a domestic they say. Youare right though. You want to do somethingyou do it yourself.:You're wrong. I don't believe you. It'snot like that.

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Ruth toChristineChristineRuth

:What did you do?:1 stabbed him:1 tried to burn his house down.

(Angel, 1990:13)

This scene comes on so strongly that many studentsindividually and collectively interviewed long after theperformance concurred that it is one that had lastingimpressions, which is indicative of the weight of thewomen's admissions to each other.

b) Another moving image is when Ruth and Christine talkabout their children and Ruth says she lost her child, whowas taken away from her by Paul, her former husband. Thisscene was designed to touch on the feelings, values,emotions and beliefs of the audience. Diane doesn't takepart in the conversation between Christine and Ruth andshe sits very close to the audience, with her back tothem, it is as if they are watching a private conversationbut waiting to pass judgement on it. She then leads therest into a song which is mainly commentary about thesituation she has found herself in.

The songs in this playas one teacher puts it "are notcondescending and patronising, but well thought out andplaced within the structure of the performance. "(Personal Interview, 1991) This song builds to a climaxas Diane is about to be released due to the interventionof her foster parents and in the discussion amongst them,

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insists that she is different from Ruth and Christine whohave to remain in the cells.

Christine :1 don't expect anything better from you.If you associate yourself with her, thenyou'll be like her. Right?:I've got nothing to do with her I'vegot nothing to do with you either. Ishouldn't be here. I am not like you.You've both been bad as each other.You've both been bad mothers.

Diane

Christine &Ruth :You keep out of this.(Angel, 1990:24)

This firmly foregrounds the issues of race and status insociety and the way they are brought to the fore by thecharacters disturb and upset the audience.

Whichever way the students solve these contradictions forthemselves, they would both be making both cognitive andaffective judgements stimulated by the performance. In sodoing, their own experiences enhance their decisions. Inthe play, it is shown by the characters that people'sthoughts, feelings and relationships with others are verymuch determined by social and economic circumstances insociety, but ultimately individuals do have control on thedirections these relationships take.

The choice of the title play Angel was clarified towardsthe end of the performance as the three characters sit inself-examination wondering as to who 'the angel' is

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amongst them: at the start of the play the threecharacters thought themselves to be the best, the mostbeautiful, the purest, at the end they, and the audience,are not so certain. The struggle for inner knowledgewhich had been evoked by the contents of the bags at theworkshop. At the end of the play Diane, elevated on therostra displays the black leather bag - one of the bagsexamined by the students at the workshop. The question itposes as they recall its contents is "Who is Angel?"

The programme is accompanied by a teacher's pack forfollow-up purposes, in which activities for furtherexploration of the issues raised in the performance. Thefollow-up section, designed by the team, is to enable thestudents to look at these issues in their classrooms, andby using what they recall of the performance of Angel,

they can relate the sensitivity of racism to their ownenvironment. The classroom work would involve:i) Discussion of the workshop and performance and how the

students responded to them - recounting theirexperiences what they felt most about it and thecharacters.

ii) Extending the work on racism, identity, law and justiceand personal relationships.

iii)Concepts of fairness and relations with parents andchildren.

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I can deduce from the foregoing that the broad aims of the

Pit-Prop programme Angel can be summarised as:

i) To deepen the students' understanding of racism and its

present day manifestations

ii) To personalise this information so that each student

begins to integrate it into the world they create

around themselves at school and at home.

iii)To use the potential of theatre and its elements as an

educational tool.

What was significant in Angel as a TIE programme was its

starting point detecting identity as a concept engendered

in racism. The choice of the concepts in the collectively

devised workshop-cu. perforaance reflected a trend within

the TIE movement, when teams moved more towards

performance. Pit-Prop TIE chose to have a strong

performance based programme, its impact reinforced by the

conscious use of the set, music and accompaniments.

Notable is the fact that the performance was for a

prescribed small audience, indicative of the team's

emphasis on involvement and some form of participation.

More importantly, devising for a participating programme

takes a lot more time and in the 1990's teams such as pit-

Prop TIE have faced internal pressure to move away from

the participatory method. Added to the debate on process

and product, many practitioners are at a cross-roads with

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the participatory method and opt for the strongperformance base. Angel could also be put up for largeaudiences in theatre spaces.

Pit-Prop TIE resisted the move towards playing for largeaudiences for a long time arguing that:

Group creativity and deep understanding of theaudience which comes from close working withteachers and children, the use of a wider range offorms, styles and relationships between actor andaudience. All in all, stronger links between theplay, the spectator and the real world. (Williamsin Jackson, 1993:102)

The economic pressures have had their impact and Pit-Prop's next project was Fighting for Our Liyes a TIEproduction on the politics of HIV and AIDS and itsconsequences for our world, playing to Year 9 (13-14 yearolds). The choice of this subject was largely determinedby its attraction to potential funders. But still theteam managed to perform for one class at a time and withconsiderable freedom over style of presentation andcontent.

From the interviews I had with teachers and pupils at theschool, it was apparent the message came across to themand both the workshop and perforaance were effective.

The exploration of the theme of identity and racis.

engaged its audience and a learning experience created by

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the task set up in the workshop. Cora Williams in Jackson(1993:pl07), stresses that:

TIE cantransformsknowledge,generationinjustices.

contribute to an education whichinformation, via analysis, intoa powerful tool enabling the nextof adults to challenge present

This is what Angel aspired to do and this is part of themajor thrust of the importance of TIE's Educational DramaPractice.

The Relevance of TIE to Kenya

I want to provide a brief reminder as to why TIE waschosen as a movement for study and to point out cases ofrelevance with educational drama practices in Kenya.These parallels will manifest in the exposition of theDrama Festival performances detai led in Chapter Eight.The purpose of this is to provide a link between sectionsI and II of the thesis.

Writing on TIE methods have been read by Kenyan teachersand students of Drama. There are practitioners too whohave been influenced by TIE methodology and these haveshaped their work. More importantly the historicaloccurance of the TIE movement and educational drama aspracticed in Kenya coincide and this provides anaffiliation in the philosophical and political orientation

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in the practices.

The child-centred approach practiced by various TIE teamsis significant in two ways; it would change the rigidstructure of the school environment and make up for thelimitations of the facilities inherent in schools.Similar programmes to Witchy Hazel by Lancaster can bedevised and because they do not require much set, providesthe flexibility with staging in a school hall orplayground. The structure of TIE programmes and theirpresentation in a creative way is conducive toentertainment and learning.

Some TIE methods and strategies can also be used in non-formal education, such as the incorporation of audio-visual materials, the creation of a participatory learningenvironment and the emphasis on the learner-centred

approach with the instructor as the facilitator. In non-formal education dramatic activities that use the idiom ofthe learner have to be utilised for it is these songs,dances, and poems that capture the imagination of thelearner.

The other important factor lies in the non-naturalisticstyle of presentation of TIE programmes, with much more ofa symbolic slant; Kenyan drama and theatre is developingwork along similar lines with emphasis on metaphor andsymbol. The adaptation of stories from legends and folk

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tales in devising TIE programmes, the use of story telling

techniques, the incorporation of popular music, mime,singing and dancing is a common factor in educationaldrama practiced in Kenya, particularly the Drama Festival.

Techniques such as i.provisation, in role work, teacher in

role, fra.ing, signing, foru. and hot seating in TIE havebeen used by the narrator figure in Kenyan performancesand bear startling similarities. It is the understandingof the dynamics of these techniques by practitioners anddrama teachers in Kenya that will enhance theirperformances and I am convinced that a lot can be learntfrom the TIE programmes studied.

TIE teams have devised programmes from such importantissues as racism, unemployment, discrimination, democracy,freedom and a whole range of themes. These are verypertinent issues allover the world and all countries,Kenya included, need to address, especially through themedium of drama. It illustrates the attitude by the teamsto their work and their commitment to education, drama and

theatre.

From the discussion in Chapter Five, it is obvious thatthe TIE team's administrative and funding structure as itis practiced in the UK can hardly work in the same way inKenya. Various groups involved with educational dramapractices will use TIE theory and critical methodology,

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but along different lines. The TIE team structure wouldhave to develop from within the educational system if itwere to work.

Kenya has no experience of an arts council, and this is anarea that needs to be explored in much more depth. Itneeds the kind of grassroot organisational mode that cansustain different art forms with different needs. Beforethe idea of an arts council can be implemented, areas ofcultural legislation and censorship need to be addressed.The reservations about the implementation of an ArtsCouncil expressed by various artists and educators wouldmake for an area worthy of future research in Kenya.

TIE's innovativeness creates a context where pupils canask questions and concentrate on fundamental aspects oflife. The evidence of learning ranges from the way inwhich the pupils think, form and maintain their own pointsof view. This gives TIE its eclectic nature; its claim torelevance, retention and the power of awareness.

The fact that pupils actually get physically involved bytaking on roles, puts them through experiences orexperience which make them learn effectively. This is avery relevant area for Kenyan education and theatre.

TIE's influence on Kenyan playwrights and theatrepractitioners is significant, these influences have spread

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to teachers, schools and in workshops over the past twentyyears. Waigwa, De Graft, Imbuga, Otumba, Osodo, Gathwe,Wasambo, Obyerodhyambo, Ciarunji, Gacugu and Lundi; allhave had an immense influence on Educational drama inKenya: all have close links and orientation with TIEpractice and critical methodology.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

In the two TIE programmes Indigo and Angel theparticipants were presented with a fictional context inwhich the possibilities for artistic and educationalexplorations could be made. The educational strategiesand dramatic devices used illustrates the diversity in TIEpractices.

The concepts used in TIE programmes have similar valueswith those used in popular and participatory education. Iproceed to examine how drama and theatre programmes inKenya can operate side by side with TIE programmes inorder to achieve creative learning.

In section Two I do not set out to design guidelines forthe future, but examine what exists, how it is carried outand the possibilities that manifest in the performances.

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Extract from 'SONG OF YOUTH' (Rendra Poem)

"We are the timid generationmade childish by the arrogant generationWe don't know very much about justiceNo one taught us about politicsor the rule of lawWe are confused about what it meansto be humanNo one taught us spiritual valuesWe can't follow an argument for longNo one taught us philosophyWE LEARNT TO OBEYNOT TO DISCUSSWe learnt to repeatNot to understandIt's hard to tell what's trueThe symptoms appear so seldomwe scarcely recognize themWe're angry about ourselvesand sullen about the futureIn the end ..... most of usdon't care any more."

"The question is not how to survive, but howto thrive, with passion, compassion, humourand style."

Maya Angelou

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SECTION TWO

CHAPTER SEVENDRAMA AND THEATRE AS MODES OF CREATIVE LEARNING

In the section One, I have discussed Drama/Theatre,Culture and Education in Kenya over the last four decades.I have argued that this historical period has had a majorinfluence on educational drama, whereby different theatremovements and trends have had firm links with educationalinstitutions. From these institutions have emerged dramateachers, actors, directors, playwrights and animators

that have shaped the theory and practice of educationaldrama in Kenya. Their playtexts have been studied inschools and institutions of higher learning and have alsobeen performed by amateur and professional groups.

In that section, links between educational drama practicesin Kenya and TIE as practiced in the U.K.; have beenpointed out and how various playwrights, animators anddrama teachers have related to the movement. Therationale for grounding my theoretical construct withinTIE critical methodology has been established and I havesuggested how the strategies used in TIE as a workingmethod have parallels with the concept of the story-

telling tradition in Kenya.

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In section Two, I will explore the extent to whichlearning is concerned with social change in a dramaticcontext. This will focus on the meaning and nature ofthis change arising from the dramatic events and momentsexperienced by the participants. I will use the evidenceI have gathered to show that drama prepares children andyoung people for living and consider to what extent anintention to change the pupil's attitudes is legitimateand achievable as an aim of a drama teacher or a theatregroup.

The extent to which techniques used in community theatrediffer from those used in classrooms and how dramateachers have benefited from collaborative work withcommunity groups in learning ventures is also consideredin this section. The parallels between Kenyan forms oftheatre and TIE techniques will become apparent in caseswhere they are applied.

LEARNING AND CHANGE

The meaning and nature of learning and change embrace awide range of issues and are difficult to define. Herelearning is used to denote the process that results in achange in a pupil or an audience during or after adramatic event.every dramatic

Change in a person may not occur afterexperience, but learning from any

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experience can be carried out at varying levels of depth.The change in attitude and understanding can be realisedin the process.

Smith J.C. suggests that, whereas learning defies aprecise definition, it is used to refer to change. smithsays that learning can be used to refer to product (theoutcome of an experience), process (what happens whenlearning takes place) and function (what is believed to belearning) . Therefore, whether we describe learning interms of acquisition of abilities, outcomes, process orfunction, the important point is that there is analteration of position from the 'old' to the 'new', thepresent to the 'future'. As aptly put by smith J.C.

Reflecting on the wide array of available theoriesand definitions of learning, one finds perhapsonly one common feature: awareness (my emphasis).(cited in Bruner, 1966:73)

These broad principles have been applied at both the micro(individual) and macro (group) levels in the experience ofthe Drama Festival, in the community theatre scene inKenya and in TIE programmes. These experiences haveconstantly been initiating dynamic changes throughperformances and participation therein. Participation inthese events implies the fundamental reversal where 'thosewho are explorers and multidisciplinarians ask again andagain, who will benefit and who will lose from theirchoices and actions' (Chambers, 1983 iv). This means that

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the participants must be willing to adapt and develop;ideally, a fully participatory event ought to facilitatethe learning and transformation in both the event and theparticipant, i.e. within the event and beyond it.

Learners can also be a resource assuming that they corneinto the event with a wide variety of life experiences andmotivation and a willingness to support each other. Thesecan be used to develop further understanding of theirsituations and give them the ability to act.

Epistemology is the theory of knowledge, the criticalstudy of its validity, method and scope, and seeks toexplain the individual in relation to the world. It isconcerned with the methods and scope of knowledge and howthese are acquired. Educationalists are also concernedwith the definition of truth and the explanation of whatis meant by truth. TIE, YPT practitioners and theatreworkers in educational institutions have used theories ofknowledge in their programmes and plays; and most favourprogressive approach to learning and are often opposed topassive learning, wanting their methods to develop thepupil's capacity for action.

An educator's attitude to learning theory has considerableimplications for his view of

i) the nature of the learner

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ii) his strategy for teaching/learning andiii)the nature of the

teaching/learning.resources he employs for

In educational drama a synthesis of learning theories hasbeen essential to create a situation in which pupils arewilling to ask questions and seek answers for themselves.This is called discovery learning where the learner isactive in discovering important facts of life frompractical example in an aesthetic context. Both Heathcoteand Boal agree that discovery learning involves not somuch the process of leading students to discover what isout there, but, rather, what is in their heads. These aremanifested in Heathcote's dramatic method of role inteaching and Boal's forum theatre.

Discovery learning seeks to make pupils think forthemselves, to create situations which are directlyrelevant to their experience and to make relationshipsinto a meaningful whole. This is exemplified in theLancaster TIE programme Indigo (1991) and pit Prop's Angel(1990): in these programmes, the pupils collect clues asthe plays unfold, make sense of the clues and arrive atmeaningful realisations on the themes of social injusticeand racism respectively.

In The Belgrade TIE programme Ways of Change (1993) andKamirithu Community Theatre's play Ngaahiika Ndeenda

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(1977) in the subject-matter and form of the performancestry to link historical times, and so establishrelationships between the past and present. These playspresent new information through an inquiry into thehistorical past and through an exposition of character andcircumstances. Although the two plays have functioned asprogrammes tied to the pupil-centred learning involvingparticipation, they have a strong performance base.

As we have seen, in TIE programmes, pupils look atdifferent events from different angles because of thestructure of the programmes. The material is presented insuch a way that two pupils can watch an identical sceneand perceive it in very different ways. This issignificant, so far as the interpretation of thetheoretical event is concerned in that the pupil'spersonal view is often changing as the programme presentsnew people and events so that alternative perceptionsemerge. There is also a deliberate structuring so as toproduce different perceptions and this occurs in bothperformance and part performance programmes.

John Dewey (1934) in trying to explain experiential

learning, laid down two principles. The first he calledprinciple of interaction whereby inner experience andobject conditions are both incorporated. In his secondprinciple he argues that learning should grow out of pastexperience; the process of learning is an effective

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cognitive one, and for it to be meaningful, the learnermust make sense of what has been observed or participatedin.

Vygotsky argues that experiences can be had through playwhich are not possible in day-to-day life. The consciousability of the child to move into the world of imaginationfrom the everyday world marks a new stage in the mentaldevelopment of the child. For in play, "he creates animaginary situation which enables him to explore themeaning of an object or action without being bound by theattributes which this object or action would have ineveryday life". (Vygotski, 1976:63) Vygotsky's theorieson play, mental development, play and theatre, have beenused by various TIE teams such as Lancaster TIE in theirfully-participatory programme Witchy Hazel (1992) for 5-7year olds which takes them on a fantastical journey duringwhich they see what and have feelings about what theyexperience. When the children participate in theprogramme, their immediate perception of objects and theactions of the characters have an effect on them furtherreinforced by the meaning of these objects or actions.

Fro. the Cradle (1992), a TIE programme for 7-9 year oldsby Belgrade TIE explores the question"how do the past andthe future exist in the moment?" The action of the wholeprogramme is located within a dried-up river bed - thebirthing place of the Pashoma people and it is the

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tradition of these people that a birthing map is producedfor the birth of every child; traditionally this is theresponsibility of 7-9 year old members of the community.In this programme the team makes an attempt to highlightword and the objects used which then act as pivots of

reference for the children. Here meaning predominatesover play and the feelings and emotions expressed by thecharacters make the children stretch themselves, go beyondnormal behaviour, and to act and possibly change inthought or behaviour.

Dewey's and Vygotsky's theories of learning as manifestedin these two programmes gives an indication of child-

centred learning in which the learners are trained inskills that are within their capabilities: thefacilitators select what is presented according to theinterests and capabilities of the learner and the methodsused are appropriate to the comprehension and experienceof the learner. This principle has been used by animatorsin community theatre practice in Kenya and underpins thenotion of participatory learning.

Popular and Participatory education

In the Esiapala Community Theatre Programme The Merger in1984, the issue of social justice was foremost in the mindof the adult participants who explored the causes of theundesirable conditions of their lives; they realised the

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artificial administrative boundaries that separated themfrom their neighbours and went further to become aware ofthe potential they had to change things for theircommunity.

In participatory education within a dramatic context,there are different forms in which human beings come toknow the world; knowledge does not exist for its own sakebut has a dynamic side to it

which necessitates the curious presence ofsubjects confronted with the world. It requirestheir transforming action on reality. It demandsa constant searching. It implies invention andre-invention. It claims from each person acritical reflection on the very act of knowing(Freire: 1973 p.101).

In this context, education includes the communicating ofknowledge, skill and the shaping of values which can besynonymous with socialisation. Dubbeldam says that

"education is the main agent of transfer and continuity ofcu l,ture and it has the potential to support essentialcultural elements as well as to alter them". (cited inKidd, 1978:17) Such transference varies from the use offolk media strategies, Theatre for Development (TFD), andpopular Theatre in societal development. These, however,are not educational activities provided within the formal

schooling set-up.

My concerns with educational drama activities is based in

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the informal education which is "the truly lifelongprocess whereby every individual acquires attitudes,values, skills and knowledge from daily experience and theeducative influences and resources in his or herenvironment". (Anderson, 1968:314) This is in contrastto formal education where "the hierarchically structurechoronologically graded 'education system' running fromprimary school through the university and including inaddition to general academic studies, a variety ofspecialised programmes and institutions for full timetechnical and professional training". (1968:373) Non-

formal education would constitute "any organised activityoutside the establishment formal system whetheroperating separate or as an important feature of somebroader activity - that is intended to serve identifiablelearning clienteles and learning objectives" (1968:517).This forms the basic scope for the investigation ofparticipatory education within a dramatic context andalthough there is interaction and overlap between them,the one thing they have in common is the concept oflearning.

An education can never be neutral: it seeks to maintainthe existing situation and will impose on people the kindof values of a socially divided society of inequalities,as I attempted to illustrate in Chapter Two in mydiscussion of the 8-4-4 Education System and itsimplications for Kenya in the 1990's. But education for

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transformation will help people to become critically

creative, free and active responsible members of society.In participatory education participants are recognised asthinking, creative people with the capacity for action andhence, it poses problems in its dialogue andco_unication. To discover valid solutions, everyoneneeds to be both a learner and a teacher and this providesfor a mutual learning process.

The two considerations of this process are: first thatconventional performance modes in Kenya amplify certainsocial discrepancies and these lead to a misconception ofthe collective nature of drama and theatre activities.The second is that participatory education provides astrategy towards communal analysis of knowledge and whichit helps the participants to realise from the dramaticcontext their own reality. This lies at the heart of myargument that in educational drama programmes in schoolsand community institutions, creative learning must bemanifested in the transfer of knowledge, skills andattitudes. Examples of these include KCECC, Esiapala and

KWAHO.

The Kamiriithu Community Drama (KCECC) was the first welldocumented and publicised community initiative in the late1970's and early 1980's and its impact on contemporaryKenyan theatre was considerable. As performance piecesNgaahika Ndeeoda (1977) and Kaitu Njungira (1982)

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challenged the conventions of main-stream theatre in Kenyaand as educational programmes, the subject-matterchallenged dominant and accepted values. The discourse ofthe dominant culture was challenged by the languages usedin the performance and where the people were encouraged tomake a sense of their history and to realise that certainvalues had been interiorised in the labour conditions ofthe time.

The participants and community through these performancessought to reclaim their language, personality andidentity. The literary and educational input by Ngugi waThiongo and Ngugi wa Mirii into the programme, fusing theinfluences of Freire, Brecht and Boal were offered as analternative to the established educational institutions.From the start the Kamiriithu experience was structuredfor learning purposes and, by the time the two plays hadbeen devised and performed over a period of five years,the participants and the people of the community hadcertainly used drama activities and theatre performancesas practice for living.

Between 1976 and 1986, theatre was used by Non-Governmental Organs, the Ministries of Health, Environmentand Adult Education as an agent to change attitudes incommunities. I have cited the Esiapala Community Centre,Kenya Water for Health (KWAHO) Kenya Environmental Non-Governmental Organisation (KENGO) and the Adult Literacy

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Projects under whose auspices the KCCEC was started. Iwill look at specific case studies where the theories ofparticipatory education were used in order to causechange.

Aminata; A Case study

Aminata (1985) by Francis Imbuga started off as a'reconstruction' specifically written for the world'sWomen's Conference in Nairobi. It was commissioned to beperformed as part of the Conference in July 1985 and lateras an end in itself. Aminata was performed by wellrenowned Kenyan actors and actresses but it did not riseto be an event to rejuvenate the Kenyan theatre scene,which needed impetus and direction after the onslaught onthe arts by the government in the early 1980's.

ADinata can be accurately examined for what it was made tobecome by directors and performers in schools, communityspaces and theatres between 1988 to 1993. It is what theplay was to encapsulate and the meanings read by variousaudiences that is our central concern.

In the original Aminata (1985), Imbuga had selected thoseaspects of tradition that were most meaningful to him, towhich he added his own contribution and manipulation. Inthe revised Aminatawomen's future in

(1988) he expressed his vision forKenya. The fusion between the

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traditional and modern elements contributed to importantperspectives of costume and stage craft. Imbuga did not'reconstruct' Aminata in an antiquarian mode, but found apoint of stimulation for performance as he envisioned itin the world today.

This impulse to confront tradition in order to concretisea personal vision was a departure from Imbuga's past worksbut pointed to an intensity of his convictions. It was bya redefinition of the content in the revised edition thatImbuga was able to make some of his most controversialchanges.

A brief synopsis of the play Aminata may help clarify thispoint. Aminata the protagonist in the play is a brilliantyoung lawyer who has a bright future for her work, familyand community. Her father, a former pastor, has died andleft her in his will land in her village. It is notcustomary for a woman to do this in the community andJumba, Aminata's uncle and brother, Ababio are totallyopposed to this and see Aminata as a woman who cannotinherit land. Through Aminata' s relationship with herhusband, brother, uncle and other people, we see thetensions, norms , limitations and possibilities in thiscommunity.

Significantly, Imbuga does not merely locate this contentin the narrative, but in the rhythmic life of the urban

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and rural areas of Kenya. The links between the two andtheir impact on each other is juxtaposed with dialoguebetween characters from both settings. In order to attaina 'harmonious aesthetic experience' Imbuga eliminated theimprovised dialogue between particular characters, whichmaybe one of the most popular elements in his works, andalthough suchpopular dialogue may at times be considerednon-aesthetic, Imbuga managed to transcend this in severalways. Aminata can be a straight piece of theatre or canfunction as a dance-drama and there are possibilities oftransition from music to prose. The narrative anddialogue together with the monologues by Aminata'shusband, the doctor and Aminata herself, are what givesAminata its theatrical immediacy.

Although Imbuga eliminated much of thedialogue, the element of improvisationmainstay of the production in performance.

improvisedremains the

Characterslike Agege and Ababio carry humour which requires intenseimprovisation and so, while the text seems to have noplace for it the performers have constantly found itauseful device in performance. Aminata was first performedin 1985 at the All saints' Cathedral and subsequently atThe Kenya National Theatre, both proscenium stages thatallowed little room for the physical mobility whichcharacterises a significant part of the play.

The revised version of Aminata in 1988 was performed by

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the Free Travelling Thea~re in Education Theatre II at theUniversity of Nairobi, church compounds, school halls andcommunity spaces over the period 1988/1989 in sixty-threeperformances. The strength of Aminata proved to be in itsflexibility in performance spaces; sometimes theperformances were just part of many other activities suchas meetings, prayer, eating, teaching, playing, andsleeping; the performance became one of these activities.

The educational potential of ADlinata lay in it beingneither an 'authentic' nor a 'tourist show' but a well-structured piece, accessible to various age groups anddifferent spaces and eminently relevant in the issues itexplores. The structural changes were made witheducational institutions and with some learning intentionsin mind. For instance, the themes of family planning,inheritance and successions to property and education aretargeted towards the attention of audiences with aneducation background.

The inclusion of a dart board, violin, and modern medicinetends towards an accommodation of the elite spectrum ofthe society, but this is made up for by the utilisation ofartifacts from rural life as props and costumes: bothserve as alienating and attracting devices according tothe audiences present. The Free Travelling Thea~re in itstour with AlIlinata in 1988/1989 favoured a more'traditional' approach to the presentation of hminata and

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utilized both movement and speech to the full.

At the level of performance Aminata invited passiveconsumption by its audiences; in some of the performances,especially in urban theatres it seemed to dilute ratherthan strengthen the energies of its audiences with some ofthe issues raised; it needed to be stopped to allow debateamong the audiences. So in 1989 The Free TravellingTheatre decided to include the workshop element. The castwhich numbered twenty-six often had pre-performance chatswith the audience involving a personal introduction and anexplanation of the characters they were playing. Througha series of experiments, the cast introduced three issue-based games they played on the stage lasting five or sixminutes, intended to focus the audience on the centralissues of the play.

The convention of a facilitator/commentator to invite theaudience into the action and motion of the play was alsoadded. The facilitator filled in with sharp crispcomments in between the acts and indicated modes thatwould be employed by the performers. On some occasionsaudiences did establish some dialogue with the cast beforethe performance. This would be followed by theperformance lasting one and a half hours and then a shortinterval where the audience would be invited to the set bythe cast in role and usually a forum would be created andsome issues discussed. The last part of the play took an

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hour and in some venues the cast stayed on the set to talkto the audiences.

I must acknowledge that the very accessibility of Aminata

to all strands of audiences did not seem to lend itself toa process of commodification and restriction; the issuesthat are in it are so diverse. In 1988/89 theperformances concentrated on highlighting the law ofsuccession and this became a central metaphor at the endof 1991 when Aminata toured again after a two-year break.

AMINATA; A Means of Change

In 1991 Kenya was looking forward to political change.The case of Aminata now devised by Theatre WorkshopProductions (TWP) stumbled on this politicalinterpretation of the play after a performance in Nyerifor mixed age audiences. During the post-performance

discussion, there was a lot of excitement amongst theaudience and for many who had not seen it before, Aainata

seemed to be a new play specially written for this period.

The cast then reflected on this latest interpretation andhow they could revise with this in mind; they focused onthe link between A1IJinata's inner energy and the concept ofchange. The framed picture of Aminata at the end,grieving for the loss of her father, but rejoicing in theprospects raised by the transformations in people that

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have come about, was a good starting point forunderstanding change.

Aminata became very popular with audiences wheneverTheatre Workshop Production (TWP) performed and there wasanimated discussion on the notion of change. It seemedAminata started to carve out an audience who understoodthe form in which it was presented and the issues beingraised. A member of the audience commented that "ADlinataconfronts tradition in us that has been dislocated throughyears of political manipulations, and Aminata theprotagonist shows the way ahead by striking a balancebetween the old and new but with change very much inmind." (Personal Interview, Okumba 1992) Imbuga, theauthor, when interviewed about this development of theplay said:

Let us not be tempted by popular sentiment,particularly at this time of pluralism. Let usrather turn away from externalisation to a moreinward, more searching examination of the problemsbesetting us. Furthermore, if Aainata has beeninterpreted by audience as political, let us notshy away from the fact that we are partners in thebattle to establish the right to justice and equalopportunity, the right to be good and honestcitizens and if that is what Aainata embodies thenart is on its way forward. (Interview withauthor, 1992»

Imbuga argued that Aainata had never been intended as anagent for political change nor did it seek to overtlyserve political issues, but the audiences read in itissues in the political system that needed addressing. In

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the play Pastor Ngoya, who comes back to Jumba hisbrother, in a dream says:

God The time tested waysof our people are bestYet Oh Lord make us wiseThat we may accept change. Amen

(Aminata, 1988:44)The audience responded strongly to these lines: concerningland and property inheritance, the use of medicine infamilies and the relationship between customs andreligion. It is a dilemma for many people in Kenya todayhow to free themselves from tradition or live with itwithout compromising their own truth. The performances ofAminata expressed this tension by incorporating elementsof traditional Kenyan dance within a contemporary setting.

The details of the last scene, in which Aminata receivessoil that denotes her father's land, moves the performanceinto the comprehensible world of the spectators and it ispossible that some of the audience who come repeatedly towatch the show identified with the idiom of acting inAminata and developed ways of seeing their world.

Theatre workshop Productions also encouraged sustainedmeetings between the performers and spectators. Aminataitself took a leading role in getting artists together fordebates on the "role of the artist in time of politicalchange". Excerpts from hminata were enacted and used asthe basis for discussions of new writing, the role of

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language and current theatre themes. In 1992 this startedoff a series of debates on organisation of Kenyan theatreand the utilisation of resources, so that a new vision oftheatre as an instrument of social and political changebegan to emerge.

Nevertheless, in this period of intense ideologicalindoctrination by Government agencies such initiatives asAminata were suspect and at the same .t:;._ '"'7 ~ l"~" c<cl ox/u;,.I/j

beneficial,and in 1992 attempts were made to incorporateit into Government election propaganda; this was resistedby TWP which stopped performing the play until it hadweathered the storm of attempts to accommodate within thestatus quo. It decided to put Am.inata back on itsrepertoire for its tour in 1993, but this time re-writtenas an educational theatre piece for schools andcommunities. This part of Aminata's performance cannot bepart of the discussion in this study; thus far Aminata hadmade its impact as a theatre production in search ofchange and its potential seen through performances duringdifferent periods. It is significant in this study in themanner in which it touched on the lives of its audienceand how the playwright and performing cast had to re-workthe script to achieve this.

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THE ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION PROJECT: The Use of DramaMethods to Raise Awareness

This was an on-going educational project initiated in 1984in a very deprived slum area of Nairobi, Mathare Valley;where there was a high rate of poverty, crime, illiteracy,health problems and environmental concerns. Animators

with drama/theatre skills were invited to run threeworkshops and then introduced puppetry as a means ofvisual communication. They used shadow puppets and lifesized rod puppets, which were interesting enough toattract attention and catch the imagination of about 80participants. Shadow puppetry seemed an ideal mediumwhere there was no electricity; so it could be used in theday time with sunlight or at night with simple oil lampsor candles. The equipment was quite simple: a whitecotton screen behind which the puppets worked, a fewlengths of cloth for "wings" to hide the puppeteers andthe flat puppets themselves made out local materials.

The facilitators used cardboard cartons, scraps oftransparent coloured paper and some polythene sweet andbiscuit wrappers, banana leaves, palm and bamboo raffiaand twigs all of which added colour and made it moreattractive. The life-sized rods were made out of stickscut from nearby bushes, old newspapers crumpled and gluedwith local cassara starch, and painted with the paints

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made out of local earth pigments and vegetable dyes; forthis element, the facilitators had to seek the help of alocal artist/painter. The puppets were dressed in theordinary clothes of the area.

The emphasis on the local materials became a point ofreference during the workshop as an aspect of the socialstruggle. During the programme the puppets did thetalking and the puppet sequences expressed the varioustensions that the participants experienced in their lives,especially the environment in Mathere and its effect onthe health of the community.

The facilitators used the metaphor of a basket being wovenand one of the facilitators acts the voice over and says"God gave two baskets saying one is for you and one foryour neighbour, choose which you will". (Dynamite,1988:13) There are several references to actual andmetaphorical baskets, and the principle images that emergeare connected to what is gathered into them - garbage andelemental fears contained in their effects.

The puppets proceed to a mimed tug-of-war which isobviously an uneven struggle with one puppet putting in agreat effort at winning the struggle. A masked dove isheld up and sings a bar of the theme song before breakingup the tug-of-war link, the dove sings:

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Treat the earth rightOr you are sitting on dynamiteI say treat the earth rightOr you are playing with dynamite.

To which one of the puppets echoes:

With your indiscriminate felling of treesDestruction of water catchment sourcesThe mighty desert continues to encroachAs you act sit on your shrivelled haunches.

The other puppet simply retorts:

Oh yeah, oh yeah, what do you say •••?

The first puppet, agitated, retorts back saying:

We need fuel for cooking our foodUntreated effluent from industry and sewersUnfiltered gasses from factories and dwellingsYou dump allover the place •.•

(Sitting on Dynamite, 1988:11)As the dialogue happened, issues arose which needed to bediscussed, and the puppets then confronted the workshopparticipants and addressed them directly; opportunity wasprovided now and again for a forum of discussion.

If controversy arose and debate became too heated, thesituation was easily diffused through referring back tothe action of the puppets. The puppets thus provided afra.e distancing as a way of entering the drama for theparticipants who I was able to observe debated with eachother and the puppets without much inhibition.

The workshops did not provide any conclusive solutions,

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but foregrounded health and environmental issues whichwere then depicted as matters of concern to the community.The same facilitators took the workshops to schools aroundthis neighbourhood with the aim of creating furtherenvironmental awareness in students and teachers and todevelop a National Educational strategy. The use of thepuppets enthralled the students, who seemed to identifywith them and their actions. Many who I interviewed,during the three week long school visits, felt this was aconstructive way in which the school could play abeneficial role in the whole community.

I consider this programme essential to the understandingof participatory education in two ways. Firstly, itutilised facilitators with theatre skills with anintention to use them in the service of education, that isto change attitudes towards the environment of thecommunity and the schools. Secondly, the use of puppetry,and participatory strategies to cause the desired changewas indication that drama/theatre can be practice forliving particularly in the schools context. Thisprogramme is significant because it has spread to otherareas of the country, and in Mathare itself there iscommunity action to clean up the area for three days everythird month. This is centrally, because the project fromthe start took the community participants seriously; itrespected their experiences and wisdom and throughdifferent educational strategies, helped them to

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articulate the environmental concerns. Over the past fiveyears the same three facilitators have formulated aconsistent theoretical framework and a functional methodof applying it in their workshops.

Drama and Environmental Education

Environmental education is concerned with awareness,understanding and concern for the world in which we live.Relationships between living organisms, between people andthe natural world are an essential feature of theunderstanding. Drama has a direct relevance toenvironmental education in a number of ways:

1) Much environmental education is enquiry based; drama isa form of enquiry as illustrated by the use of puppetryin the Mathere Environmental Education Project.

2) The setting of this project in an environmentallydeprived area, encapsulates important problems, issuesand conflicts which were brought to the surface in theDrama workshop.

3) Drama is about engaging the emotional feeling as wellas the intellect to give shape to the deep experiencesand responses to life and the environment. The symbolsof environmental degradation presented by the puppets,and dramatised by the facilitators, touched the

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feelings of the participants as exemplified in theheated debates on the causes, effects and action thatcan be taken to reduce garbage.

4) Thinking within a situation created by the dramaticcontext, leads to deeper understanding of the subject.

5) The use of illlages,facilitator in role, the use ofsimulation, forum theatre and hot seating, which aretechniques largely used in educational drama practicescontributed to the effectiveness of these participatorymethods in community education and schools

The strategies and techniques that have been used in theprogrammes I have described,with adults in mind and

have largely been devisedin the popular education

programmes participatory methods have been emphasised. Itis the utilization of participation that is the focus ofthe Lie of the Land programme.

An Example of a Programme to develop Language Skills

Lie of the Land

My interest in the issue of language as it is used andlearnt greatly influenced the decision to take part in theprogramme Lie of the Land. This was reinforced by thefact that the programme was to be designed to aid the

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teaching of English as a foreign language to Finnishpupils, because English language teaching plays a centralrole in the Kenyan educational curriculum and in severaltheatrical performances.I had a free-wheeling role in theparticipated in the researching of the

programme ; Imaterial, the

devising process, the rehearsal sessions, the workshops,seminar and all the discussions pertaining to theprogramme. I was part of the decision making process, butdid not take part in the theatrical event nor in thepresentation of the programme to the pupils in theschools. At the point of performance I remained anobserver, so as to retain a certain objective view to thewhole programme, and most important, because this was aclass project for the Third Year Drama Students, andreally not my specific brief.

The aims of my investigation were

1) How the qualities of a TIE performance can be observedand measured in the interaction with the pupils.

2) The pupil's perception and interpretation of theprogramme and the immediate emotional response to it.

3) The increase in cognitive and emotional experiencewhich the programme would cause, and the change in thepupil's opinions and attitudes towards the English

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language.

4) The process of mounting the performance by the team,from the start to the post-performance stage.

I tried to restrict my research questions to major areasof theatre and the learning process in the programme.

Background to the Programme

The third year Drama students of Manchester University, aspart of the TIE course, decided to devise a programme toaid in the teaching of English. They started gettingacquainted with TIE theory and methodology in October,1990. The programme was projected to tour Finland inMarch 1991. The team consisted of seven students, the TIEtutor, Mr Jackson and Taru Bacon, a language teacher fromFinland, during the programme was a consultant on languagelearning and the overall co-ordination of the Finlandtour. I helped the team in stage management work as partof my observation.

Except for one student, the rest had devised a TIEprogramme earlier in the year, and were well acquaintedwith TIE methodology. Seminars and tutorials on TIEtheory help ground the students in critical methodology.

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The team then proceeded to set objectives for the pupilsthey were devising for, the issues of age, background andcompetence in English determined these, which were:

i) Put the pupils at their ease using drama games.ii) Improve the pupils' English through having them

watch and participate in the programme.iii) Motivate the pupils to participate in

communicating in English through listening,writing, speech and movement.

In making these decisions, the team took into account theschool time tables, the number of visits and the spacesthat were going to be used for the programme presentation.In the event, the team itself underwent rigorous selfeducation, through research, the self questioning andcritical analysis. These revolved around the subjectmatter to be chosen for the programme, which woulddetermine its structure and technique to be used inpresentation.

The Devising Process

Even TIE teams that have been in operation for a longtime, take a while before they choose a subject for theprogramme; wide ranging themes came up during thediscussions, research and workshops and the whole team

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took part in the clarifying of the aims throughimprovisations and simulation techniques.

During this period of devising, it became apparent, someof the members were "doers" others "thinkers","implementors" and "contributors" of ideas. For effectiveresearch work, the team was divided into two groups, toobtain as much material as possible on migration andimperialism.

David Pammenter stresses that the TIE programme is:

an experience provided for children or youngpeople in their own right. It demands thereforean understanding of its potentialaudiences/participants; objectivity, clarity andanalysis in the researching process; creativity,vision, objectivity in the structuring and writingprocess; and at every stage a sense of theatre anddramatic order

(In Jackson, 1980:45)

Therefore, the team in their devising called on both theskills and resources of the theatre and of education; theprogramme had to have a strong theatrical base and scopefor learning. After a four weeks research period, theteam made more specific decisions on content, structureand form of the programme.

The use of story telling gave rise to The Green Valley

which became the land that is taken away from thevillagers, this provided a dramatic scene and provided asituation base for reference. It also gave the idea of a

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lifestyle dominated by agriculture, working throughvarious seasons with stress on ceremonies; events such asthe spring dances, the sharing of food in the cold wintermonths and Nary's death as re-enacted by Grandmother. Themystery that surrounds Mary's death merits aninvestigation, and needed a clarification from theauthority figures - the journeymen who do not want thesefacts to be known.

As the programme shaped, the team was careful to usesimple and suitably chosen language for the pupiIs tograsp the content; more importantly, to get them to learnand improve their English language.structure which they felt gave

Having established athe pupils varying

abilities to participate at their own pace, it wasimportant to provide a prime motivation for participating.The narrative had to have a strong plot and the contextcredible, so that pupils would relate to the villager'spast history.

Final Preparations before Presentation

In ideal situation, TIE team include a teacher's workshopat the start of the programme, this had not been possiblefor the team to do because of the distances involvedbetween Manchester and Tampere in Finland. Aware of theselimitations, the team decided to have two dry-runs to testand gauge the impact of these on the programme.

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The dry-run for the Finnish Undergraduate students inManchester was aimed at getting the team in a suitableframe of mind in working with Finnish people, but moreimportantly to test the structure of Part I of theprogramme. As it were, the young Finnish adults gavelittle away and did not attempt to participate, however,the team deduced from the presentation some observations.It was felt that the level of language being used wouldstill be above the full comprehension of the pupils andhad to be re-worked. That the character of journalist,Jackie Ford needed focus and her role as the facilitatorof events with the pupils needed to be clearly signed atthe start.

The second dry-run for the Drama students took the abovefactors into account, but there was a general consensusthat key facts in the narrative needed highlighting, forexample, Anna's knowledge of her mother's death or therole of Whitworth and his scheme with the Green Valley.

Although, in this run, the emphasis was on using veryclear characterisation; the pupils would have to beabsolutely clear of their roles, as undercover journalists

and 'surrogate villagers' if they were to unravel the plotof the journeymen. Pupil activities, such as working insmall groups, buying produce at the market, or supporting

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individual endeavours needed to have an educational, skillacquiring thrust.

Presentation of Lie of the Land

The devising went on after the dry runs of the first part;the team prepared the broad positions of the aestheticstructure of part two. Theoretically, TIE programmesexpect about 70% of the material for the play to berehearsed and about 30% to be changed and moved on inresponse to the reactions of the participants. Thisrationale was used by the team in presenting part one ofthe programme and coming back a week later and utilisingthe material the pupils acting as journalis~s have come upwith together to present par~ two.

TIE warm-up games devised for the pupils which took theform of a workshop were intended to relax them and to giveinsights into some of the theatrical techniques that weregoing to be used in the programme. In the three schools,Normaali, Sampo and Kissan Maan where the programme waspresented, the workshop element was integral, as an entrypoint for the pupils into the programme.

Moving into the Drama and Performance

The pupils walk into a funeral situation, it is tense as

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the coffin is brought in. The solemnity of the occasionis overwhelming even to the pupils who have just got in:Jackie whispers to them to pay reverence as the hearsepasses by Fisher in an army uniform then makes his wayfrom behind the curtain on the raised stage. The pupilswho are on the auditorium floor of the hall where thefuneral is taking place are shocked at his threatening andaggressive behaviour.

As the funeral proceeds, he steps forward and orders it tostop, in the impending confusion, he steps forward againsnatches the coffin and makes off with it. As the othercharacters, Miller, Anna, Grandmother all villagers set tocompose themselves, Jackie asks the pupils to gatheraround her; she explains to them that Green Valley has hadproblems and it is important that they all get informationby carefully observing what is going on here, but thatthey have to be very careful. In the meantime:

Miller: My wife is dead. For you the death of amother, for you the death of a daughter andtoday I have come to bury my wife •.. yourdaughter ... your mother .•.

Grandmother: And all they can tell us (mimicking GeneralFisher) I am in charge of the journeymen.Today I have come to stop you burying yourwife ... you will not bury your wife in thisfield.

Miller: ... they killed you, they shot you allbecause you spoke the truth. But I do notwant to say more. (Lie of The Land 1991:6)

The pupils then notice Anna who is standing apart from theothers and gesticulating with her fingers, it is clear she

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has something to say, but Miller, her father simplydismisses her. The pupils realise she cannot speak norhear, and this draws their attention to her. Jackie thengathers the pupils again and asks them if they are readyto help her tell the story of the villagers to the world.Most of the pupils accept that they would like to. Verypatiently she draws on the sympathy they have developedfor the villagers from the theatrical piece of thefuneral, and then says she will take them through ajourney as fellow journalists and this is when the storytelling starts. She reminds them to take their pens andnotebooks and note anything they observe; the pupils indoing this are getting involved in the as if role play andthey accepted to enter into the contract Jackie extends tothem. This is the first step towards in-extrinsic

participation; they will then proceed to meet thevillagers at a market place where there is trading.

At the market they meet the farmers, the spinners, thewood cutters and finally the journeymen. Apart from thetrading going on, the villagers are willing to explain tothe visitors the process of their trade. The limited

character Anna using sign language explains to thevisitors how to knit, and through the mime sequence it isclear there is more she wants to tell them. The characterof Grandmother through a story tells them how theoccupations of their people evolved. The visitors startedto develop sympathises with the various characters, the

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woodcutters, the spinners, Miller, Anna or Grandmother anddivided themselves into four groups as this exchange went.At this point Charles Whitworth, who introduces himself asthe Secretary of state makes his entrance. He says hewants to help these people; provide good jobs, new housesand a new town. However, he says, it is only fair to askthem to pay for the improvements, and so it has beendecided by the government that they pay 50% more rates forliving in the Green Valley or they have to leave. Thepupils, I observed, were cynical of Whitworth and what hehad to say, as journalists it was difficult to detect whatthey were thinking.

As Whitworth makes his exit, General Fisher makes anaggressive entrance and says:

I have come to collect the tax that you have topay to trade here, for your products and to livein Hibernia.(1991:8)

All the other villagers react with shock to this as Fisherattempts to collect the tax but he is unsure of what to dobecause of the presence of the visitors, and so he says hewill come back at a more appropriate time.

In each group, debates initiated by the various charactersas to whether they should continue paying taxes, or go andlive elsewhere. It was very noticeable that the pupils asthemselves were thinking very seriously about how far to

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involve themselves in what was going on. Jackie Fordplayed a central role in exploring, confiding and re-assuring them. At this point one of the woodcutters whohad left with Whitworth comes back in new clothes andother things that he has been given, he tells them:

My friends, I have a new life in Newtown. Youmust all come to Newtown for they are all thingsyou have always wished to have. (1990:11)

Perfectly timed, Sir Charles Whitworth makes his entrancewith slides in order to visually show them what Newtownreally looks like. The slide added a new dimension towhat was going on. It led some of them to start makingtheir observations known to each other as Grandmotherloudly protests, saying that they are not going to leavethe land that their ancestors had lived in.

The Tensions and Conflicts

The tension that is developing is both between the peopleof Green Valley and the government authorities and amongstthemselves too. Miller says his life is hard enoughanyway, and he might tryout a new life.

Jackie comes forward and calls all the visitors to oneside, and asks them what they think and what could bedone. Various suggestions came up, and it is decided toattend a public meeting where all are asked to write down,paint, think about and, if possible, talk at the meeting.

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This gave the pupils of varying abilities, a chance toparticipate at their own pace. As the lunch-break cameclose, it was apparent from what some of the pupils weretelling Jackie and Anna, that they had involved themselvesin a story, in a manner which went beyond the team'soriginal objectives. It would be misleading to suggestthat all the children were motivated and participated inthe same way and this indicated a major flaw in theoriginal list of objectives in not emphasising enough astructure for pupils with mixed abilities.

In both Kisaan Maan and Noormali, the lunch-break for thepupils was almost met with reluctance, and many pupilsdashed out and came back to the hall and went to workstraight away on what to do or say at the meeting convenedin the Green Valley.

At the start of this phase, General Fisher and Sir CharlesWhitworth enter and find everybody seated waiting for themeeting to start. Whitworth then instead of talking tothe people assembled asks them to sign a piece of paperindicating they are willing to leave Green Valley, onceagain there is a protest at this, which the pupils joinin. As the confusion became more apparent General Fisherand Whitworth walk out and an argument begins in which thepupils got involved. At Normaali School when asked byJackie how many wanted to protest against this fourteenassented, six wanted to go and live in Newtown and eight

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were not sure. At which point Jackie asks those whosupport the demonstration to prepare, the children whowant to go to live in Newtown are asked to go with Kevinone of the villagers who has already taken up life there.The ones who are not sure stay with Grandmother and shestarts to tell them about life in the past in the GreenValley. As the pupils who were preparing for the protestsstart making posters, General Fisher marches in and says:

All of you stop what you are doing. (1991:18)

Grandmother replies to him:

You have refused to talk to us, and so we aredoing what you want to hear! (1991:18)

He then marches through the hall, snatches the madeposters of paper that the pupils have made and destroysthem and then walks away. The pupils were shocked beyondbelief, but before he could make a complete exit, twopupils confronted him angrily and said:

You cannot do that, we made them, they are ours

(1991:18)

General Fisher: (turns)

I will do what I like and if you make anymore Iwill destroy them. (1991:19)

Some of the pupils:

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No! No! Never! (1991:19)

This indicated that the pupils were motivated enough toparticipate. The pupils really began to take over theownership of the programme. Jackie and Anna had to do alot of persuasion to calm down the pupils. In the endGrandmother tells them that in a week's time, there isgoing to be a big ceremony by the government at which theeyes of the world would be focused on Hibernia. They areasked to prepare to tell the world by exhibitions,posters, interviews what has been happening and tochallenge the journeymen in case they attempted to lie.

At this stage the pupils were then led back to theclassroom and in the hall a game to de-role them wasinitiated by Jackie and Anna, and the First Part ended onthis note.

The presentation of Part II of The Programme in all thethree schools took place exactly a week later for theschools respectively. It was not easy for the team toenvisage what sort of questions the pupils would ask,therefore the important ideas behind Part II were in termsof evidence, characters and direction within the structureof the ceremony. The key dramatic moments that wererehearsed by the team used i.age, forum theatre and hot-

seating as devices; for it was expected that the pupils

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would present some of their evidence using these forms.

Image ~hea~re games had been used in the previous week,and it was intended to give the pupils confidence to workfrom the photographs taken by Jackie in Part I, and topresent these in the form of images later in the ceremony.The team in this phase, balanced key dramatic moments suchas the entry of General Fisher, Charles Whitworth, theworld media in the form of a video camera and Grandmotherwith allowing the pupils to make an entry into theoccurrences of the ceremony. Forum ~hea~re is structuredsuch that a supportive context is provided for the pupilsto present their evidence which is to be debated, and theunderstanding of the plot leads to highlighting of thecentral issues.

As Sir Charles Whiteworth starts to read his speech, thepupils who come to the sessions with a lot of evidence inthe form of pictures, notes, photographs and taperecordings, start a chant. The ceremony subversion whichthe pupils have planned excites them, because it is as ifthe world is truly watching; their allegiances are clear,and in Finnish they say so. Obviously, the repetition ofthe chanting at the ceremony takes the journeymen bysurprise and the more antagonistic, General Fisherattempts to hush them up, but Jackie Ford makes herentrance and takes a photograph. Fisher proceeds to takeaway the camera from Jackie amid intense protests from the

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pupils, some of whom demands that the truth is told. AsFisher tries to arrest Jackie, some three students move into defend her, at the same time, the other pupils bringout their posters, photographs and tapes that they have.Charles Whitworth on seeing this, asks General Fisher toleave Jackie alone and tries to clam the situation; it isonly Anna that the students listen to. It is then agreedthat the pupils present their evidence in public view ofthe world represented by the journalists.

The pupils begin by challenging Miller's decision to go toNewtown, saying that the houses are fake. This isfollowed by other pupils depicting their images, and onemember of the team facilitated the session of questions toWhitworth, Fisher, Jackie, Anna and Grandmother. Thefacilitator taking up the joker role to keep up themomentum and interest in what they were enacting. Theevidence was provided in groups and in flashbacks the teamenacted some of the scenes that were called in evidence.These are, Fisher taking Mary's body away during thefuneral, Whitworth's coercion of the people of GreenValley to leave, and Fisher bribing the journalist.

When one of the pupils comes up with a placard that reads"No Dam No Flood" the issue of the evacuation of thevillagers in order to build a dam comes up strongly. Thepupils at this stage are confident in their roles, and areable to ask important questions as part of their decision

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making process. When Anna volunteers to give informationon the death of her mother Mary, the pupils urge her on,and her mime sequence is a significant factor in some ofthe intrinsic participation by the pupils; they understandthe sign language and are willing to assist hercommunicate it to the rest. The purpose of her input hasthe purpose of dyna.isation of the participants andempowering them to articulate their own thoughts and onoccasions change various situations. This strategy workedeffectively for most of the pupils were willing tocommunicate with Anna at this point. Her story withsparse comments from Grandmother builds up the tension andwhen it becomes apparent General Fisher killed Mary and itis because of shock that lost her speech faculties. Thesympathy was unbearable and when the question "what shallbe do with him" not many pupils respond to this for, Annaand Grandmother are weeping in each other's arms. When

Miller, who all along wanted to join the journeymen,realises that it is one of them who has killed his wife,he crosses over. At which point Fisher is led away to facetrial. The scene ends with the pupils clapping in joy andothers quietly saying:

This is our land, you cannot touch our dead, leaveus in peace.

The pupils have completely taken over the action and allthe team are doing are responding to what they want andask of them to do. The sequencing of events in the

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programme has developed feelings, attitudes and thoughtsin the pupils.

Evaluation of the Programme

In assessing whether The Lie of The Land was worthwhile, Iconsidered the objectives of the team and whether thesewere achieved, the TIE strategies used and their impact asleaning mediums and the theory of TIE criticalmethodology. The research period and the collection ofmaterial was extremely beneficial to the team, in thesense that the range of material was broad anddiversified. This enabled the team to structure thenarrative, allowing for personal bias which attested tothe team's democratic principles in choosing material thatwas appropriate, without letting subjectivity get in theway. This convinced me of the integral role the research

phase has on the impact of a programme.

I.provisation and si.ulation were used regularly asdramatic devices during the devising and this manifesteditself during the warm-up games conducted by the team forthe pupils which worked particularly well in NormaaliSchool.

The decision to have a narrator, to merge the sequencesand the facilitator joker figure to guide the session wassignificant for it cleared the confusion that could be

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created by the multiplicity of roles that members of theteam played. The symbols used during the story telling

sequences were quite strong, and for an older age-groupwould have meant much more; the plants, the fires, thefence all had strong issues to portray. Narration andstory telling were used to give background information andthe use of flash-backs as a device provided the suspenseand moments of reflection on the present.The characters who told the stories were quite capable ofboth telling and dramatising the story; but they largelydid the narration. The added technique of song and dance,did a lot to make accessible the key dramatic moments andlaid to a strong theatrical base. In the stories ideaswere not simplified and the ambiguity inherent in them wasa good way to challenge knowledge being examined.

It was a well judged decision to have the pupils becomereporters, for it would have been practically impossibleto get the pupils to attempt to live authentically by theminute the lives of the villagers, responding in characterto the changing turn of events. In a nutshell, the teamhad to play several roles: as the artist to transform theevents; as the critic to interpret the event; as reportersto tell about the event; as recorder to encode the eventbecause it occurred; as authority responsible for theevent; as demonstrator to re-enact the event to beunderstood by the pupils; as guide to show how it was andas participant in the events. All these determined the

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theatrical frame of the two-part programme.

The period of devising was devoted mainly to the creationof specific characters with very definite roles andrequirements for the programme. The less able character,

Anna was depicted as a positive character, whose handicapdid not limit other capabilities, and her perception ofideas and vital information always became a point ofreference for the pupils. The thinking behind this isthat the pupils meet Anna who is not able to speak norhear and so they have to take the mantle on themselves, inso doing discover how much they already know. In thiscase, there was also the positive role reversal from beinga pupil to being, in effect, a teacher. It is the pupilswho can transform Anna's mime about the events precedingher mother's killing into a linguistic form.

Grandmother in many cases during the programme took thepupils into her confidence and created an atmosphere ofinterest, respect and concentration on what she wassaying. The manner and tone in which she talked to themand the simple manner in which she used language,sometimes made the pupils sit down and listen in intenseconcentration.

Sir Charles Whitworth is depicted as reasonable andlogical, the older pupils listened to him, but did notaccept his arguments, the younger children hardly listened

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and while they were challenged to believe of his evildeeds, they had no evidence of these. The contrasts hepresents with the people of Green Valley highlights thepower differences that do exist in Hibernia. Whitworthand Fisher at the very end are the embodiment of graft andauthoritarianism; the people who played these twocharacters and took upon others have to be versati le,flexible in relationship to the subject and ready tochange roles.

Jackie Ford, the journalist who also facilitates many ofthe activities that the pupils undertake, was created toprovide a channel for communication between the pupils,the team and the events. In going to get them from theclassroom and telling that she needs help, she is gainingtheir confidence and creating rapport. As the pupils arealso journalists, there is reason for this and Jackiecomes to the aid of the pupils time and again.

It is through these characters that the action of theprogramme runs as the pupils are led through ideas, eventsand the characters they meet. The hot-seating deviceenabled the pupils to question the characters directlyand in the process thoughts, feelings and ideas areexpressed. It is through such devices such as siaulation

that both the team and pupils took on the roles which wererepresentative of the real world, and in the warm-up gamesmade decisions in response to their assessment of the

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setting in which they found themselves.

The use of leaflets and poster/placards at the publicmeeting, with the pupils in groups acted as educationalstimuli. These the pupils could write on, read, associatethe written and spoken word. The leaflets plus thephotographs were used as firm evidence in the trial sceneas part of the i_age ~hea~re technique. These enabled thepupils to get involved in some activity and e_poweredthem to ac~ion in cases such as a protest picket.

The projector and TV cameras used at the ceremony aremediums that the pupils are familiar with, and that are inenvironments close to them, be it their homes orclassrooms. These provided them with an apparatus to workwith. In language learning this is important and depictsTIE's strength as a form able to incorporate other mediumsfor educational purposes.

Using Boal's technique of i.age theatre, the pupilsthrough a workshop at the start of each programme wereshown how to use s~ill-images,freeze frames and tableaux

in re-enacting a scene. The pupils found i.age ~hea~re

easy to work with, and many of the groups used it with thephotographs during the trial which provided somefascinating dramatic moments, bringing together both theteam and the pupils in a period of full participation.This led on to ho~-sea~ing and a case in point was when

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Fisher attempted to bribe the pupils into going to Newton,Whitworth presented reasoned and logical arguments forprogress and Miller showed the benefits of his new life.The pupils asked questions of these three, tried toclarify their inner conflicts, argued with them and in theevent developed familiarity with the EnglishHot-seating as a device provides a stronglanguage learning.

language.base for

The team attempted throughout the process to function asactor/teachers, and were guided by both aesthetic andeducational theories. The desire to meet the needs ofthese particular pupils was central to the devising andproduction work; the structure of the programme did notallow for long periods of performance. Emotion was usedas a creative input to gain an emotional response from thepupils and also to stir feelings which led to thought.Educational elements used to structure the programme wereintended to motivate the pupils' actions and decisions andchannel this experience towards the affective andcognitive domains. The team as actor/teachers were quitesensitive to the various responses from the pupils, beingclear and specific as to when they were in and out ofrole.

My observations showed the marked differences betweenthose pupils with an interest in English, and those whopreferred to learn at their own pace, and those who would

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not grapple with it at all. In Kisaanmaan School, thiswas indicated during the warm-up games in the hall, wheresome pupils decided to remain on the periphery of theevent. There were others who preferred to have a look atthe dictionary from time to time, when a new word wasmentioned.

In the presentation of the programme most of the youngerpupils in the three schools were not able to pursue someof the lines of arguments presented to them. The attemptby the programme to open the pupils to questions, to voiceopinions had to be worked at and at the end their inputcame in response to the whole programme. The slide showwas not entirely successful nor was the pupils meeting thecharacters personally, however the use of photo evidence,the making of banners and posters provided an alternativelanguage for the pupils. The multiple use of media wasthe mainstay of this as a TIE programme, for these enhancethe learning and improvement of language in this case,

English.

The varying abilities of the pupils in the Englishlanguage created a linguistic bias for the team members;in some small groups there was a tendency to concentrateon the linguistically more able, who in turn tended tocommunicate with Anna in sign language. Provision wasmade for the pupils to speak to each other in Finnish atlength, and I must acknowledge, I noted hardly any tension

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amongst the pupils in shifting between the two languages.Although some of the pupils hesitated to speak or as theyspoke, it was clear they were willing to make in-roadsinto the language. The pupils spoke to one another inEnglish and with the other characters, their speaking hadno constraints of grammatical accuracy and was very oftenoff-the-cuff, but within the ambit of the programme.

The indirect objectives were intended to put pupils attheir ease, provoking thought and discussion. Once theyhad established a stance, the pupils were ready tochallenge the characters within the role-ques~ioning

groups and in the forum. There were times when the pupilstook the initiative and made some very complex decisions,for example during the housing simulation scene. Added tothis, from the list of comments the pupils were making, itis notable that the judgements were in the long term notjust concerned with immediate solutions. The extent towhich the i.age mechanism as a reflection of theirobservations was controlled by the pupils was amazing. Itconfirmed to their belief in the programme theirrecognition and that some of the issues do occur in reallife and need changing.

The creation of a fic~ional con~ex~ for the inves~iga~ion

into imperialism enhanced the development of characters,the situations and the exploration of a number of issueswithout the constrictions of place, time and space.

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This programme puts in a nutshell the fact that: throughthe work they do as Drama teachers or TIE workers, peopleworking artistically with young people, provide anopportuni ty for young people to see the world, to seethemselves as human beings and as human beings to findtheir connection with the world.

Drama happens inside a fiction using metaphors which drawupon what we know of the real world, and thereforeallowing us to understand other events withcharacteristics in common. For example the pupils in Lie

of The Land are journalists investigating what is going onin Hibernia and they confront the use of "the fence" as ametaphor for imperialism and the divide between thejourneymen and the people. The team drew on theirknowledge of real life situations to build the programme'scontent. Drama happens in "now" time, so that whatevertask the participants are engaged in, they always behavedas if the fiction was their real setting. In this case,the pupils took up the roles of reporters, but identifiedwith the aspirations of the people of Green Valley andwished to put these in perspective.

The strategy of the teacher in role by the facilitator inLie of The Land, provided the best learning moments whenthe programme was presented. The facilitator workedalongside the class, but this does not mean that she took

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on fully the characteristics of a role, but took on thepowers, responsibilities and concerns of a role. Thefacilitator, in many cases during the programme, was in

role as the guide who takes them across the rivers andvalleys towards their destination. This gave thefacilitator the power to pass on instructions, clarify andquestion the participants. Also, to demand for example,that the pupils participate in the community's activitiesto emphasise the importance of such task as taking care ofthe animals, being on the watchout and the facilitator hasthe responsibility for ensuring that the tasks are donewell and with enthusiasm.

In this programme, the facilitator guided the participantsthrough the community's concerns and problems, making surethat they got the resources that they needed, althoughthese, of course, were limited by the fictional setting.In parallel to the roles teachers take in the classroomwhich are usually intermediate roles like the one givenabove; a teacher in role should always be responsible to ahigher authority for the whole task, rather than in chargeof it. This way, the class are empowered to take onresponsibility for decision .aking and proble.-solving.

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CONCLUpING REMARKS

This chapter broughtprogrammes, but alllearning operated at

together different drama/theatreconcerned with creative modes of

the affective as well as theThey illustrated individuals and

learning situations, attempting tocognitive levels.groups involved inparticipate in creative activities often stimulated by atheatre performance. Discovery learning is given as thefocus for the participants whether in a TIE programme, aPopular Education Event or a Performance which enables anexploration of knowledge or skill and in the event makinga transforaation. It is suggested that drama methods anddevices create a dialogue and communication towards beingcritically creative.

As participatory progra..es they provided numerousopportunities to engage active learning. In Lie of The

Land, the pupils are involved in speaking and listening,discussing and role playas individuals in small groupsand as a whole class. The dramatic conventions used inthe 'Environmental Education Programme' maximiseparticipation through several strands. In Aminataalthough it cannot be said that all members of theaudience understood and engaged with the stylistic devicesused; it was more than apparent they identified with theform and content.

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Theatre practitioners and groups are continuing tointensify work on Popular Education, Popular Theatre andTheatre For Development and constitute crucial areas incultural and developmental concerns.

In Chapter Eight The Drama Festival Concept is explainedby way of examples from the 1990s and the story tellingmedium acts as a starting point.

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CHAPTER EIGHT

THE CUTTING EDGE OF KENYAN THEATRE

The Drama Festival has changed the modes of performance ineducational institutions over the last twenty years. Inthis chapter I will discuss the genesis of the DramaFestival performances; the gathering of oral literaturematerial as an educational exercise; the use of thesematerials to devise a piece of drama, creative dance ordramatized poetry and the presentation of these at theDrama Festival. The nature and cultures of theconventions used in these performances will be establishedto provide an understanding of the relationship of theiraesthetic and the cultural elements.

An analysis of the events, their contexts, performancestyles and content will be done. This is with the view tolocating an indication of the vision for a Kenyan theatrefor the future. Defining a Theatrical Educational Modelindicates the use and scope of participatory drama methodsfused with story telling and narration in workshopsituations with different age groups. From the workshopsalready undertaken the process nature of story telling andnarration can be shown to be valuable to learning and theeducational system.

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In the following section, I will describe in an anecdotalform, a ceremonial event I observed which involvedstudents and teachers from Bunyore Girls High School whohad gone to the event with the brief of gathering materialfor the Oral Literature Course. L. Nyambok, their teachertold me that they would later use this material to devisea performance for the Drama Festival. The occasion was awedding ceremony that combines traditional and modernChristian forms. The students were interested in theorality of the occasion, I as the researcher wasinterested in the event from the performance point ofview.

The Eyent

The research for the students starts on the wedding dayand at the bride's home. The pre-wedding activities havealready taken place, introductions and negotiations forpayments of bride price and most interestingly the singingand dancing rehearsals which started about a month before.

The groom and his group assemble outside her house,waiting for her to come out. But she will not leave thehouse until money is given by the groom's party; moreoverher people impose a fine on the groom because he was late.As they come out with her, the older women burst intosong; a sad, melancholy song, and it is clear that the

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bride's eyes are red from weeping. The song tells of thepain of leaving home for the bride to start a new lifewith new people in a new place. This form reinforces thetragic elements in an otherwise happy occasion. The womenthen sing a more neutral song: Hwana wa Hbili: a curiousmixture of sadness and joy at giving away a favouritechild.

The groom is of course listening to these songs and tryingto look as composed as possible. A group of girls crackjokes at his expense; they comment that he was dying fortheir sister, and that he could not find a better girl;that he is ill-mannered and greedy. The girls then startsinging and dancing. Like the jokes, the songs areintended to make fun of the groom and the best man,exaggerating the groom's impatience.

Clearly the girls have rehearsed thoroughly as a certainpattern emerges. In their subsequent songs, they commenton the values of matrimony, hard work, economicindependence and satirize the groom for not possessingthese qualities. He is alleged to have borrowed a pair oftrousers and a tie from his father for the wedding. Allthese cast doubts on his 'pretentions' to maturity andeconomic independence.

There is a definite build-up in the performance to thelast song, a parting shot which is sung just before the

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wedding party enter their different cars to travel to thegroom's home where the bride is finally given away. Therelentless satire continues as the girls imagine that theyhave seen lust in the groom's eyes and disparage himphysically suggesting that he has boils; this suggestionis so incongruous that the groom can only smile.

At the groom's home, the singing girls meet their rivalswho are itching to make fun of the bride. Their songs aredifferent but perform the same function, to despise. Theperformance of the two groups take place simultaneously.

The wedding party then proceeds to the nearby church andwestern country music is played. The romantic musiccontrasts sharply with the unrelieved satire in the girls'folk songs. The contrast persists as all walk into thechurch where the Christian marriage rituals are going totake place.

These traditional wedding songs are products of a peasantculture and counter any romantic illusions, producing aBrechtian alienation effect, as one is compelled to seeand contemplate the comic or even the grotesque undersideof the solemn ritual. The performance unmasks andundresses both the groom and the bride revealing them asreal human beings.

The students will have recorded whatever they could of the

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wedding and proceed to use the material to write an oralliterature report for the class and to devise a play.

They would start with the songs that did not refer to anyparticular groom or bride, but are sung at other weddingceremonies. The main function of these songs is tosubvert the solemnity of the marriage ritual and give thespectators a new perspective. In turns, the students willbe asked to retell as thelllSelves the tragic and comicelement, the moments of happiness or sadness, praise orsatire, respect and disrespect. This brings out thegeneral knowledge that the students have acquired byrecognising some of the values of this community, and sothey come to some understanding of what the principles ofperformance should be.

The girls and women created a structured performanceduring a ceremonial event that allowed the students toengage in the critical evaluation of the nature andconsequences of people's actions. From their role asperfor.ars using this material to devise, obviously aftera number of rehearsals will emerge a performance of dance,DUsic and dra.a.

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Methodological Implications

The picture created so far is that of the oral literaturedrama students finding a way of re-working material theyhave gathered from a field trip. Each human engages insocial activities and at the same time observes itself andmakes value judgements on its behaviour. In this case,the performance by the students who are not necessarilyfrom this community looks at what the community does andprovides a context in which the community can describe andevaluate its activities.

From this the Bunyore Girls proceeded to devise andproduce a musical entitled Ngao that starts with the brideand groom just married and then 17 years later the couplehas ten children, all of them girls, but the man wants ason. The dilemma and tension in the musical turn on theworth of children. In creating the musical, the studentsstressed certain aspects of people during the eventintensifying the dances and songs so as to relate them toother activities.

62 students from Forms 1-4 aged 13 to 19 years took partin the project. There were four students who came fromthe community of the wedding ceremony, and they wereresponsible for explaining to the other students thenature of the intuitions that constitute the community's

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artistic sense. However, one cannot explain suchprinciples merely by being an indigenous member of thecommunity, any more than a native speaker of a languagecan explain the grammatical rules of that language withoutengaging in deep reflection on the way the language works.

At this stage the teacher has to help the students in aminimal way because at the start of the rehearsals, it isclear that many of the students do not realise clearly therules governing their artistic creation. The Dramateacher L. Nyambok explained to me:

....I do not involve myself in the rehearsals forthe first 3 weeks in order to leave the studentsto express themselves freely and spontaneouslyand, once this has found a meaning for them, mybrief is to structure the performance piece in theDrama Festival Format. The students rehearsetheir own dances, create their own stories, andwrite their own scripts, I only guide theseactivities from the learning point of view.....(Interview, Nyambok, February 1992)

In about 55% of the schools I visited that take part inthe Drama festival, the teachers and students confirmedthis observation. In 15% of the schools, the teacherbrought a ready script and guided the students through ituntil production time. These are normally teachers whoare not trained in drama, but either have an interest orare put in a position to be in charge of it.

In a nutshell, the knowledge these students have of therules of playwriting is tacit and experi.ental. The

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success of the performances depends crucially on its formgetting the approval of all:

Every text must, at some time or other, havereceived the formal approval of a group. Thisapplies not only to the form of a literary work,but even more to the method by which it isproduced or performed.

(Gunn in Okombo & Nandwa, 1992:63)Therefore, the formal properties of a performance, itsmethod of production, its moral content, the success ofits performance are judged with reference to the studentswho have brought the text to life and the artistic normsof the community where the material was derived from.

Texture of The Drama Festival Performance

Over ten years, I have observed students and teachersgrappling with material for the Drama Festival and haveseen the gradual evolution of new idioms of writing andnew styles of performance specifically based on Kenyanenvironments. The plays, dances, and poems are alwaysmade up of inputs from different backgrounds: but all jointogether in what becomes their event. It is not possibleto identify distinct cultural collisions, but most of thetime these tensions are expressed and manifested in theirperformances.

Many Drama Festival plays are performed in English, but aneven bigger proportion are done in Kiswahili and somenational languages. I am convinced that there should be

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many more performances in Kenyan languages which canprovide an added dimension to the impact of the language.The students are involved in several language systems andperformance conventions, English, Kiswahili and theirmother tongues: but these do not appear to causeunnecessary tensions nor become and source of confusion.This is a major justification for the Drama Festivalperformances. The English used is very "Kenyan English"because it has not been cultivated to function as inamateur and professional theatres: but was expressingKenyan material. Through the languages used are embodiedcertain philosophies but the English of the 1950's is notthe same as later English, especially after 1982, whenthe Drama Festival moved into the schools in the Provincesof Kenya.

Over the last decade the festival has developed its ownpattern of sensations, gestures, rhythms in its plays,creative dances and dramatised poetry. Many voicescontribute to the Festival and many elements arerepresented. This makes the events difficult to describe.The singers and dancers with their accompaniments ofdrums, jingles and whistles are at the very centre of theperformance. The movements and gestures of the actors arealso greatly influenced by the dance rhythm. So thatfinally the perfor.ance text has little to do with thedra.atic text. About 60% of the scripts are eitherindividually or collectively written by the students, and

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about 65% of the choreography of the singers and dancersis done by the students themselves.

A teacher who had participated in the Festival for manyyears emphasised that the performances are not meant tofollow the text because improvisation and spontaneity arecrucial. The students would have studied the dramatic

text in class and during rehearsals. The drama teacherwill help to relate narrative and choreography while thestudents experiment with the spoken words and differentmovements.

The Creative Dance Performance

In two creative dances at the 1992 Drama Festival Hlidala

by Nairobi Girls and Reconciliation by Kawangware PrimarySchool, there was an underlying social message about agedifferences and economic status. The singers in Hlidala

perform in the esekuti tradition closely associated withthe esekuti drum, where the singers vibrate and stamp onthe ground to the beat of the drum; their gestures,movement, and tableaux are based on cues from the words ofthe narrator and from the esekuti player. Through therhythmic beats of isizizi and the esekuti the dancerscreate their choreography.

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Reconciliation is a constituent dance of a large epicperformance. The pupils between 8 and 13 years danced andsang the text about a mythical heroin Moraa of theAbagusii who resists colonial domination on her people.The dance performance a 45 minute theatrical piece ofimmense stature introduced the audience to a merging ofdifferent conventions and the songs, dances andinstruments were used to communicate the message. Inlater performances in Nairobi, the audiences established aparticipatory bond with the dancers and one woman from theaudience was so overcome with emotion and need to getinvolved that she took over the playing of the Orutuinstrument for the rest of the performance.

Yet, none of the teachers or students I talked to from theschool, could exactly recall the integration of the orutuand kipkandit instruments into the dance. One thing theyagree on is that as the dance evolved and there wasincorporation of costume, make up and back drops tovisually enhance the impact of the performance, thishelped them place in context the instruments. The handand other simple gestures and the choral parts helped someof the students to master the different languages in whichthe songs were rendered.

The orutu and kipkandit conventions of dance performancehave a detailed choreography and the performers have to be

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alert to the emotions of the piece. Reconciliation provedto be a rich learning experience for the 50 pupils whoparticipated and for the audiences.

One of the strengths of the dance was that it did awaywith divisions between themes and entrances of charactersand solo singers so as to create a strong sense ofcontinuity. The piece can be recalled for its delicatechoreography, its intricate blending of the orutu,kipkandit and all the resounding variety of traditionalstrings instruments from different communities.

There is always a potential clash between the views of thecreative artist and the power of the establishment. In1980 the General Service unit forced the pastoral Pokotpeople to remove their skin garments and beaded ornamentswhich symbolise their oneness and sense of dignity. Theybegan to develop a genre of resistance poetry condemningthe state's lack of respect for the Pokot culture andpraising their expression of it through the visual arts.This feeling found its way into educational institutionsin North-western Kenya and has been part of their creativedance mode in the Drama Festival from 1983 to the present.

The Pokot creative Dance argues for the freedom to expresstheir traditional arts and aesthetic values. In 1992Kakamega High School composed a poem which led to a dancedrama reflecting the spirit of a life and the right to

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human existence. Lubwari explores in a dance the socio-political situation in the mid 1980's when the provincialadministration banned the use of ochre as body decorationsfor being primitive and damaging Kenya's image withtourists. To this day the Pokot and Maasai arepressurized by the state to give up their customs,especially some key ritual rites of passage.

The Drama Festiyal Play and its Performance Modes

Plot development in many of these plays move along thelines of the analytic story with the economic differencesserving as a point and all the complexities as the targettowards which the plot is directed. The plays tend toplant their middle part of the plotline with a maze ofmystifications, intrigues and counter-intrigues. Theyhave also used the technique of inves'tiga'tion so thatthere are side tracks and asides to distract the audiencesattention at various points of the play.

Institutions based in urban areas foreground characterswho are sharp-witted, full of tricks, some in the upper-class; professional and business career people, juxtaposedto characters from the bottom rank of the social ladder.These are characters from a rural background, servants,traders mainly developed for their humorous potential.The Ladder (1992) by Bungoma High School and Pigo (1992)

by Waa High School have used such plotlines and characters

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in their plays ..

The play Speeding Eagles by Mama Ngina Girls Secondary in1992, deplores the carnage on roads. The play's logicaldevelopment allows dancers or sometimes musicians to makean appearance and present an interlude in the action tomake a relevant comment. The lyrics of these songs arecomposed to fit the plotline. The mix of characters fromdifferent social groups give an opportunity for socialcomment and satirical criticism.

The apparent complexity allows for the simple design andintent of the plays to come through in performance. Theyconsist essentially of a montage of themes and structuralelements well-known to Kenyan audiences. Music and danceare used to bridge the temporal gap between scenes or totransfer the audience from one locality to another. Butmost of these plays promise more on the level of contentand meaning than they could deliver on the level oftechnical presentation.

In plays such as Hbegu Hbaya by Wabera Primary School in1991, Kosa Ni La Nini by Kimathi Primary school in 1991and The Search by Ulanda Girls High in 1991, sUbstantialparts occur in public places; the police station; thehospital, the office, while the crucial scenes of the plottake place in private homes, the living rooms or bed roomsof well-to-do people. The scenes in the public places

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very often depart from the plotline in order toaccommodate social criticism.

For instance in Kosa La Bini the opening scenes at thepolice station present a set of cases intended to berepresentative of the social situation in the country: afraudulent businessman arrested for the illegal export ofgoods and a lawyer arrested for offences against currencyregulations; a landlord accuses his house girl of theft,while she complains of sexual harassment. The officerrecognizes that the landlord is in the wrong but a briberesolves the case in his favour. The Search opens with abeggar arrested on a minor offence being beaten up by thepolice. The search that follows by the market women givingan opportunity for social comment and satirical criticism.

The production of Farakano Ya urithi by st Mary's GirlsPrimary School was a combination of divergent traditionsand conventions. Forms of biblical drama; and dance,song, mime and presentational style of the electronicmedia. It opens with an extended musical prelude in whichthe performers introduce themselves to the audiencethrough songs. These songs, which seemed unrelated,helped to create the atmosphere for the ensuingperformance.

In Farakano Ya Urithi, the call and response pattern, theinterplay between all the characters, emphasises that the

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individuals in the play are firmly embedded in thecollective production. The songs and tunes are familiarand designed to draw the audience into the tonalatmosphere created. The musical prelude does not aim tocreate a Brechtian alienation type effect, but rather tocreate a solidarity between the performers and theaudience. Its most important function is to be seen inits appeal to and its affirmation of, a common culturaltradition. These folk tunes and songs and the use of folkinstruments have been largely transplanted from the ruralschools and merged with those of the urban contexts andthe festival.

Farakano Ya Urithi traces the fate of a young man whomoves from the village to the city looking for work.There is a mixture of western dramatic conventions such asthe morality play of The Prodigal Son and elements ofsocial comedy. The fate of the boy, trapped in the townby bad company, is presented on two levels. First we seewhat really happens on the stage; then the whole plot isrepeated as it is seen by those who have remained in thevillage. The village community had high hopes for the boybut when he ends up in prison his mother travels to thecity and bribes a corrupt policeman to release him. Hereturns to the village, disillusioned and poorer butricher in experience.

The scenes and the overall plot structure are simple and

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facilitate improvisation and interaction with theaudience, which has had experiences of similar stories.This kind of didactic social comedy aims not only at comicrelief but also providing experience for the studentsthemselves.

In Pangani Girls School's Hzalendo KiJllathi ( 1989) onescene presents a TV news show in which the news readerplaces her chair immediately in front of the first row ofthe audience. One news items concerns the imprisonment ofthe protagonist, Kimathi; but other items provide ampleopportunity for critical and ironic comments on historicaland political issues. Because the reports are distancedfrom the immediate, there is room for improvisation andspontaneous interaction with the audience.

The aim of this kind of presentation seemed to be to makethe performance resemble a live TV show of the kindbroadcast by the Kenya Broadcasting Corporation. Theperformances in Hzalendo Kimathi seemed to be continuallyasking the audience to assume the position of judges.Most of the action was mimed except for thecommentator/newscaster. This was a new technique as faras Festival performance was concerned. It may suggest tothe audience not only an identity of standards between thescreen and the stage, but an identity between the mediareality of the TV show and the fictitious reality on thestage.

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Members of the cast who I interviewed explained thatinitially they drafted a short script which left a lot ofroom for improvisation and put it on stage after a shortspell of rehearsals They were also influenced to use theTV convention after a workshop conducted over a week longperiod on Newspaper, Invisible Image and Forum Thea'tre

Forms as espoused by Augusto Boal. These were led byKangaara wa Njaambi, a fine arts teacher who uses his widespectrum of art work in his theatre practice.

Festival Themes

In the last six years, health education, in particular theprevention of AIDS and other sexually-transmitted diseaseshas become a prime theme in festival plays and educationaldrama. In Kenya poor sanitation and high infant mortalityrates have always affected the urban as well as the ruralpopulace. The killer diseases, malaria, diarrhoea,measles and cholera, have been major concerns in schoolsand communities at large. Teachers and health authoritieshave sought to instruct people about the most acceptablesolutions.

Health education programmes differ from the usual topicsat the Festival because it involves people with expertiseand knowledge. Educational institutions have taken thelead in using their plays to propagate health issues. In

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the late 1980's students put on plays dealing with thecleaning up of wells, digging pit latrines, and other suchtopics.

In the Kenya Science Teachers' College's play Hajuto Ni

Hjukuu in 1980 the aims, procedures and methods of healthcampaigns were spelt out clearly and simply. The medicalfacts are presented in the language of drama with vividimagery appealing to the eye and ear. The dramaticstructure was simple and tended to be repetitive. Throughsong and action it presented information about theidentification of the symptoms of diseases and theirtransmission and prevention.

The main thrust of the play was to make the audiencesaware of the health risks. It is significant that afterthe Colleges Drama Festival, the Kenya Science Teachers'College decided to tour this playas a project orientededucational theatre piece aimed at specific audiences inthe peri-urban communities of Nairobi; Dagoretti, Uthiru,Riruta and Kabete.

They performed in the open air in between houses in Rirutawith the auditorium and stage fenced off by a simplewooden fence. At the far end of the yard loose earth waspiled up to form a slightly raised stage from which theperformers could easily step down to extend theperformance into the audience area. These arrangements

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were not derived from any dramatic designs but from whatwas possible. A piece of cloth strung between two fencepoles served as curtain for the changing space. Theaudience sat on benches or on boards placed on empty beercrates. The atmosphere was one of improvisation andinformality.

The play succeeded in getting the message across to theaudiences for it became a talking point in the community;for the 3 weeks of performance, the venues were alwaysfilled up and the follow-up workshops were very wellattended. The play addressed both the young and old peopleand the dialogue-based theatrical action conveyed thelesson that one can learn from the personal experience ofothers.

Plays about AIDS, like Ukimwi by Shanzu Teachers Collegein 1990, use personal testimonial to carry dramaticconviction, as well as the convention of allegorical dramawhere vices and virtues are identified. The use of masksand cartoons particularly appeal to the young. Both thestudents and adults understood that they themselves wouldplay an important part in checking the spread of the

disease.

Uki.wi is at the same time a projection into the futureand a depiction of the present: at the start a placard iscarried across the stage with the inscription 'In the Year

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2005' followed by a question-and-answer dialogue betweenthe representative antagonists of "good" and "evil".There follows a flashback into the past, using a mimedance sequence to depict the consequences of AIDS.

This dramatic exploration of AIDS borrows from thestrategies of Biblical plays in which human sin endangerssalvation. The sense of having arrived at the edge oflife, physical and spiritual infuses both forms. Sincethe AIDS epidemic has grown into such proportions that ithas become a moral issue, these plays naturally resort totraditional moral forms of character representation andplot development using didactic dialogue and thedemystification of these issues.

Interfaces with Other Experiences

The Drama Festival has not limited itself to materialexclusively from Kenya. For instance Dereck Walcott'sDream On Monkey Mountain, although Caribbean in originspeaks very directly to Africans, about Africa andAfrican-ness. Its content whilst universal is concernedwith the triangular relationship between Europe, Africaand the Americans. It is about a journey back to Africa,which raises questions of a profound philosophical,racial, political and ideological nature.

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It was performed by Maseno National School for the DramaFestival in 1993. Dream on Monkey Mountain providesconsiderable imaginative scope using symbol, image andmetaphor. It was a huge, epic I spectacular work thatcalled upon a large cast of singers, drummers, dancers,musicians and actors. The adaptability of the pieceenabled the students to add Kenyan folk songs and dances.This became a huge extended and intensive workshop onevery conceivable aspect of staging a major contemporaryplay. After the festival several teachers and studentsfrom other schools expressed an interest in the subjectmatter of the play and the form in which Maseno NationalSchool had rendered it.

The Drama Teacher and the students decided to hold aneducational exhibition of the props, set, costume, as partof the performance. This exhibition was carefullystructured so as to take the other students through theconceptual stages of designing a play from the initialsketches to detailed designs and models, prop and mask-making techniques, to finished products, all clearlyannotated to the line of the script that had inspired thatparticular idea. Because of the immense educational andartistic potential realised from this exhibition MasenoNational school toured the performance and exhibition for6 weeks in 1993 and these were treated with acclaim by theaudiences.

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other Practices of Educational Drama: Lessons from CaseStudies

Kifo eha Ujinga, translated as "The Death of Ignorance", acommunity Theatre Project by the Theatre Arts Class at theUniversity of Nairobi evolved from the intention toexplore the value and importance of adult literacy. Thisinvolved the students in working with Adult Literacyclasses on the outskirts of Nairobi and their experiencesprovided material for the play script, which was to beperformed to adult audiences in several parts of thecountry. They aimed to change attitudes to adult literacyand learning in general.

The play was created through a series of improvisationsessions, which determined characterisation and language.Adult literacy was considered as a way of obtaining skillsfor a community. The group chose a rural setting and theaction of the play centred on the natural rhythms of lifein conflict with the rigidity of the formal classstructure. The balance in the plot was between theacquisition of a working knowledge and the utilization oflocal concepts to acquire skills. Which language was tobe used was debated at length and decided on a mixture ofEnglish, Kiswahili and Gikuyu; special emphasis was laidon the accents of other languages such as Luo, Kalenjinand Giriama. These served to foreground the multi-lingual

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character of the society.

The characters chosen imitated the speech mannerisms ofparticular occupations such as a farmer and a fishermanwhich was hilariously authentic and considered thestrongest performance element when the play was finallyperformed. The Nation Newspaper described it as 'ahilarious comedy with no holds barred for the adults inthe quest for knowledge' (1989:23)

The plot of Kifo Cha Ujinga, is in three scenes:

Scene I: A government officer addresses the community andurges them to enrol for the classes. Various levels ofacceptance and resistance are manifested and tensions arevery apparent in the families.

Scene II: In the classroom, Maths is being taught, butthe discussion centres on what the adults already knowfrom their own lives. The contrast between formaleducation and the lives of the people in the community isclearly drawn. The scene questions the essence andpurpose of the classes.

Scene III: An agricultural officer addresses thecommunity through the sub-chief who is semi-illiterate; itleads to farcical break-down in communication.

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Although the play was devised for adults, it was decidedto perform it for schools and youth groups as well.The focus was on three of the major characters, thefarmer, the mother, and the agricultural officer, whorepresent the play's concerns and the group concentratedon one particular scene giving the audience a chance tomatch the performance and hot-seat the characters.

The hot-seating method was very popular with Youth Groupswho were neither school children or adults. The Role-on-

the-wall drama convention was very popular with adultcommunity audiences. This involved making a rough outlineof the characters on a large piece of paper on the wall,members of the participants wrote or drew pictures ofcertain characters or things that appeared important tothem arising from the session. Inspired by this the groupsuggested that the participants chose a ritual from theirown community that would parallel Adult Education. Thetalk of vows, pacts, oaths were common and functioned asinsights for them to the understanding of the play.

In Schools and with Youth groups the concept of theteacher-in-role was introduced. One from amongst themvolunteered to function as an organizer, co-ordinator, oreven narrator, and they reminded the participants of thecentral plot of the play and controlled the direction ofthe in-puts. Improvisation seemed to work quite easily

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with several of the groups. The performances andworkshops experimented with properties, costumes andsounds from different communities. The availability of alocal musician in most of the venues they visited, gave anadded element to the event.

From my interviews thereafter, it appeared that the Kifo

eha Ujinga project worked effectively as an educationaldrama piece. It broke down the top-down notion ofdelivery and involved the participants in an active

process of learning. It also influenced the view offormal schooling of teachers and students. The techniquesused in the community did not differ very much from thosethat the group used in the schools: both audiences andparticipants seemed well versed with the devices. I willdiscuss another project that started with different aimsbut ended with similar goals as Kifo eha Ujinga.

Rugendo or "journey" was Nairobi Schools project for theDrama Festival. The students had created twelve piecesthemselves and then with the help of the English/Dramateacher, Odera Outa, they selected RUgendo mainly becauseit was in a Kenyan language, Gikuyu.

The initial rehearsal propagated the family planningmessage. The simple plot contrasted two families: one arich successful man with only two children of school-goingage; the other the rich man's houseboy, Kamande, who lives

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in a slum area but is the father of ten children allcrammed in a shanty house.

Kamande is harassed by debt, none of his children go toschool and his wife is expecting another child. So hesteals from his employer and is sacked. He thendramatically leads his entire family to invade his boss'shouse and the last act explores the consequences of thisact. At the end of the play Kemande says 'down with two'in the realization that he has learnt a double lesson.

Rugendo was well received at the Nairobi Provincial DramaFestival in 1988 because of its authenticity of languageand the topicality of the subject. In May 1988 theNational Council for Population Development (NCPD) wantedsomething to help with their "mobilization crusade" andRugendo had been strongly recommended for this purpose.Odera outa was approached by NCPD to co-ordinate theadaptation of the play for urban community audiences.

The adaptation period was short and Outa and the NairobiSchool students did their best to arrange the text fornon-proscenium arch performances. The text of Rugendo wasstructured into brief 8 minute scenes focussing on suchthemes as identity and modern society; the free and therestricted; the family and the state. The language washoped to create curiosity and enhance the effect. Theminimal props used were intended to make the communities

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respond creatively.

Rugendo toured several community venues for 23 days. Eachperformance was preceded by an historical presentationabout that particular community by the narrator. Most ofthe communities were composed of people working infactories in Nairobi. These areas of Nairobi arecharacterised by lack of employment opportunities, highcrime rate and violence. Before performing the studentstoured the areas making contact with members of thecommunity to help to make links, they put on brief shotsin the streets and played drama games of various types.The school band played during the performances.

All the performances were done in community spaces andthere was one big performance to which several ofcommunities came; two hours before this performance, thestudents walked through the streets announcing theperformance. Since they were on days when people did notgo to work or to school, children joined the procession,then the women; the men were at first reluctant to joinbut eventually came too. After the performance outa Oderaencouraged discussions which made clear that the peoplehad identified the issues in the play and were willing toconsider some solutions.

The language, the environment of performance and theproblem being addressed; the participatory nature of the

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event; the use of song, music, costume and mime, and theappropriate time to engage the participants in theperformance made for an immense educational andentertaining event. The creative process went on verymuch within the community, the performing group havinggained acceptance in the community. Although the issue offamily planning is a contentious one, in most of thecommunities there was a general willingness to watch theperformance and engage in discussions. As Okoth Okomboputs it:

They must hear familiar voices, if not theirown. (1992:1)

The group learnt about issues which touched on the deepcodes of the community's cultural attitudes. For example,age - relationships had to be respected even in playsituations and role playing or participatory actions hadto recognize existing social relations within thecommunity. The group became very aware of variousinhibitions and taboos which had to be addressed withcaution. Such cultural taboos are by far the greatestobstacle to change.

To sum up, the first thing that the group did was to puton a spectacle that aroused the curiosity of the peopleand promised to be entertaining. For instance at achief's Daraza and open-air performances the show wasintroduced by a brief workshop which indicated the aim.

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After the performances as many local members as possiblewere enlisted in the poet: performance workshop and indecision making roles; this gave them the chance to act asexperts in explaining the message.

This succeeded, because the topic was so immediate thatthe people ardently got involved in the discussions.Kamande's invasion of his boss's house was re-presented

sometimes by community members and proved to be veryprovocative but productive. The search for some kind ofcompromise between Kemande and his boss showed that therole of drama is not to provide a finished view of theworld, to provide the answers, but to engage the audienceitself in the production of meaning.

The performances that I have discussed all have a link insome way with the Drama Fes'tival and educational dramapractices in Kenya. In my argument they point clearlytowards a Kenyan theatre in the language and thetraditions of performance. It will provide some insightto provide what it is that consitutes an au'then'tic Kenyantheatre.

IS THERE AN AUTHENTIC KENYAN THEATRE TRADITION?

This is a pertinent question implicitly and explicitlyraised in this search. Authentici ty is a category of

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thought that has been linked to post-colonialpreoccupation of education and culture which themselvesconstrained by the polarities of politics in Kenya.This study indicates, for instance that it is possible todistinguish the Drama Fes~ival as solely presented on theproscenium arch stage of the National Theatre between1959-1981 and that presented on different spaces in schoolhalls and in the round between 1982-1993.

Most Kenyan playwrights and theatre practitioners werenurtured in the use of the proscenium arch, however, somehave rejected this tradition as seen in the practice ofNgugi wa Thiongo and Ngugi wa Mirii in the Ka.irii~hu

Experi.an~s 1977 and 1982, and Osodo Osodo and Ouko Otumbain the Schools Drama Festival. In all the conventionsthat they used as described in Chapter Three stronglyuphold the illusion of the fourth wall i.e. the way inwhich the action is framed in Osodo Osodo's Naji~u Drama

Series in 1982/83. Ouko Otumba's style in which hisnarrative is never broken and the audience is not directlyaddressed in his Ghos~ dominated scripts of 1983-1986.

What is apparent is that the content and forms of theirplays are authentic to the Kenyan context and audiencesread in them certain traditions that are inherentlyKenyan. When Ngugi wa Thiongo and Ngugi wa Mirii workedin the round at KaJairi~hu in 1977 and 1982. HgahikaHdeenda (1977) and Maitu Hjugira (1982 addressed

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historical circumstances that alluded to the community'spresent conditions. This altered the angle of perceptionfrom which these two performances were viewed by theiraudiences and confirmed that this nature of a musicalbelonged to the interminglings of the performance space

and the audience space which belong to the environments ofpeople in their real contexts.

stylization in the numerous performances of AlIlinatain1989 by The Free Travelling Theatre brought about atransformation in the performances and the dramatic textdue to the differing spaces and audiences it was presentedto. The impact of staging songs that were familiar toaudiences in certain of the scenes and the use of symbolicartifacts and sculptures from different cultures were notlost on audiences in terms of the intended meanings.

The use of the sing-song delivery of religious andtraditional messages; the entry of certain characters tothe accompaniment of drums and jingles; and the movementsof the dancers in the last scene of Aminata, being basedon the ritual dance of the Luyia, community are allauthentic aspects of stylizations in linking the innerenergy of the cast and illuminating the text of Aminata insome way.

The concerns of The Free Travelling Theatre at this timewere shaped by what these traditional forms meant in

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decontextualization of tradition in Kenyan theatre today.Just as they were interested in the form of Aminata as anartistic piece, they were just as concerned about thehistorical impulses and mutations underlying these forms.

In many productions during this period such as The Third

Testament (1985) by Wanainchi Arts and Iftu Ifzuri Wa

Zetzuan (1986), what for many was memorable in theirperformances, was the craft of the proscenium traditionsfused with aspects of ethnicity.

In The Free Travelling Theatre's performances of The

Exodus (1990) the presentation of the protagonist had tobe done in accordance to what the myth of Gor Mahia meantfor the group today and not as the ritual was enacted inthe past four hundred years. What was significant in thiswidely performed epic is that the cast did not imitatetraditional performances as if long in the past nor seek afalse lineage in the Kenyan that has been dislocated andtransformed through years of history.

But in the category of the creative dance and thedramatized poetry a cultivation over the years of thehistorical sense provides a perception, not only of thepast, but of the present. This presence must live in theindissolubility of form and content in Kenyan theatricalrepresentations over the years.

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The Creative Dance goes further in that although itacknowledges movements from different peoples of Kenya, itdoes not sentimentalize their traditionalness and thusdevelops more current movements in the dance-drama. Thephilosophy of the Draaa Festival as a whole over the pastdecade has been to combine the complexities of traditionwith the historical and ever changing truths in Kenyatoday through its drama, dance and poetry.

There are two images from Kenyan mythological traditionthat seem relevant to this discussion and which have madean intervention in the history of performance in Kenya inthe 19908. One is creation of of Druabeats Fro. Kirinyaga

(1991) by Theatre Workshop Productions and The Wuod Thuon

Series (1992).

In Druabeats Fro. Kirinyaga there is the memorable momentwhen the nine daughters of the figure Woyengi receivepermission to carve out more territory and get married.The father legitimizes his own exit from the centre ofthings and this receives divine blessing in a ritualisticcontext. In Wuod Thuon, Luanda Magere the hero characteron being killed in battle returns in a huge rock; when hisadversaries discover that his secret strength lies in hisshadow which they pierce and thereby cause his death. Thereverence with which the rock symbol is treated makes it atheatrical motif. These two traditional images indicate a

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strong association by artists to some conventions thathave evolved from traditional theatre practices in Kenya.

Defining a Theatrical Educational Model

My views on the kind of performancespractical drama and theatre mosteducational goals have largely been

and methodsappropriate

shaped by

oftomy

experience working as a drama teacher and using drama tofacilitate workshops on various discourses. This ismainly through using story telling and linking thenarrative to performance through chant, song, dance, .i.e

and music. These have provided material for reflection onthe nature of process in drama. I have also beeninterested to explore through these workshops, the way inwhich stories, proverbs and riddles, define the world ofdrama and link up with other experiences elsewhere.

My conviction is that story telling is a significantelement of process drama and it can be a significantvehicle for experi.ental encounters with other culturesthrough the workshop method. Because it is such ani.provisatory event without a pre-written text, anoriginal text is thus generated through participation.This is its potency when used with the various age rangegroups and in diverse learning contexts.

The story telling medium while remaining apparently

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formless and undefined by a previous plan or script has aspecial capacity to lay bare the basic dramatic structuresthat give it life. The story teller links incidents andevents into a narrative construct that echoes withsimilarities and a certain meaning. It allows theparticipants to at once become the story, the constructors

of the story, and the people living through the story. Itinvolves making, shaping and appreciating a dramatic

experience.

Engaging in this range of complex and challengingactivities may throw light on a particular theme or issue,highlight specific theatrical forms and exerciseindividual competencies. In telling the story , it canalso be performed and although the context is fictional,

the responses given and often received are real. Theemotion of the storyteller/performer may not be the sameemotion felt in the actual event, but it can be asintense. If the story gives form to thought and feeling,the audience may engage with it, and if a structure forimprovisation is catered for, the narrative can be builtcollaboratively.

Through this workshop method the aim is to demonstratethat elements of story telling as process drama may bestructured and developed through the same means used tocreate the dramatic world in the theatre and to show thatparticipation in the creation of these worlds can be

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intrinsically satisfying, dramatically significant andeducationally worthwhile.

The workshop will often start in a circle and this is donesitting or standing, followed by a clear introduction ofoneself as the facilitator who then briefs theparticipants on the structure and tasks of the workshop.This applies to all age ranges. Because there is no priortext, a stimulus has to be provided for the group whichwill set up expectations, establish patterns, imply rolesand suggest a setting; these are its structural functions,it operates as an animating current.

The Narrator

The narrator is an important figure in performance dramain many parts of Kenya. She/he tells and enacts thestory: having the creative skill to develop a narrativeline in a coherent structure and to adapt a story todifferent age groups. The narrator relies on cueing andscanning during the performance; this is the artist'sability:

•••to recall each core image in a core cliche: ashort song, chant or saying.

(Vansina in Degh 1969:32)

with this skill, the narrator in a performance recalls theimage and given the recall of the image and recall of the

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themes to the story, the narration takes a double edgeddimension. That is, the narrator is ~elling the story andon occasion performing it.

Skilled narrators can scan the stock of their images forcore cliches, for details or attributes that are useful inexpanding the image sjhe uses. The narrator also uses thedevice of syabolising, which consists of using unrelatedcontent materials with similar attributes. Vansina says:

When several core images have to be recalled,stereotypes passages appear between them to allowfor time, exactly as in epic, to produce the nextcue and in many case the true mnemonic scanningtakes place. The performer recalls items followingthe first cue over time as slhe committed them tomemory, even though slhe learned nothing byheart." (1969:43)

The narrator therefore seeks a variety of ways in which toinvolve the audience so as to enhance the impact ofperformance. This means sjhe functions as a di.roatior ,

coaaentator and developer of the plot of the story. It isbecause of the closeness with the audience, that thenarrator will refer to their immediate and familiarenvironment; sjhe will point a tree to illustrate a pointabout height; distance to emphasis distance and even referto various members of the audience to illustrate harmony,conditions or beauty. The narrator-audience rapport whichthe narrator develops, gives the performance substance inthe process of the re-creation of artistic material tosuit the needs and purposes of the audience. This ability

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is enhanced by the narrator using the skill to capture andre-capture the core images of the core cliche in any pieceof artistic performance.

The narrator tells the story, gets in and out of character

as slhe enacts some parts of it. The environment andsituation of the performance determines the authenticity

of the narrative. The narrator gives the performance asense of proportion; very much like the facilitator in TIEprogrammes and the Joker in the Forum Theatre. They have aspecific function in activating the audience towards someform of participation. The narrator's delivery depends onthe license slhe takes to create a piece of oralperformance. The notion of the artistic license has beenasserted by Sorson:

The carrier of oral folk traditions continuallyalters the tale, song or saying he has heard; suchchange is at the very heart of oral, unrehearsednarration. (In Okombo & Nandwa, 1992:73)

The audience shares the knowledge of the cultural contextof the narrative, song, poem or saying and the narrator isvery much aware of this and has to be very flexible andadaptable in the way material is shaped. Sihe isinterested in the humour, the jokes, the condemnation thatthey will bring into the story and how their reference tothe real world determine the meaning. The narrator willbe keen to know the implications of his story andperformance and whether there is real persuasion in theperformance.

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Performing the story:-

To establish a contact between the story, the audience andthe narrator, chant which is the creative element thatstarts the story, is used to bind the event and theparticipants. The chants that I have used have rhythm andallow the participants to get involved in repeating threeor four simple words. Rhythmic music accompaniments andinstruments of some sort could be included as a means ofwidening the scope of expression.

Rhythm in the chants Akdolsho, Rumba Kata Ya Ya and Tubo

Tubo lead towards a more universal language asparticipants that have used it, find it to be a way ofaccessing into the story. The rhythmic chants lead theparticipants into something enlarging, wide and moreexpansive.

Here are some examples of excerpts from the chants:

a) Narrator AkdolshoParticipants Panda!Narrator AkdolshoParticipants Panda Panda

b) Narrator Tubo TuboParticipants Tubo!Narrator SesaParticipants Sa!Narrator SatumaParticipants Tuma Yele YeleNarrator Saboko!Participants Boko Push, push, push!

c) Narrator Rumba Kata Yaya - Rumba Kata ya

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Participants Ya!

These can be repeated several times and the rhythmicnature of the chants makes it possible to move to thebeat. In turns the participants may be asked to lead thechant, choose a movement which the rest will pick up anddevelop. This has normally taken the shape of repeatedclapping or stamping the feet on the ground.

The use of chants enables the participants to watch,listen and learn. The differences in timing, repeatedpatterns of dance and the accent of the movements areuseful factors for the participants to acknowledge theirlimitations and potential and this is a conducive learningatmosphere.

If the facilitator chooses to use movement, then the storyof the chant and meaning of the movements are introduced:all the instructions are in the story of the dance. Theparticipants are encouraged to move as suits their bodies,and in the movement information is passed around whichallows each individual to learn at their own pace, safe inthe knowledge that it will come around again.

The facilitator can lead the chant sitting theparticipants down in a circle and move into the story.This would be the pre-tert that sets in motion the .aaning

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of the drama. This excerpt from the narration of the playDrumbeats on Kirinyaga provides an example of somematerial used and the form it takes. The story of Opienand Apiyo is used to illustrate the narration andperformance possibilities. It is adaptable for diversesituations.

Wife: The bud bursts into flower,caterpillar into a butterfly,both, more beautiful and seeds of continuance,What is ours, grows from our sustaining handand bursts forthto give more life to our world (Pause)Bear, as before, the pain of parting,the only opening to lifes happiness.

God: This season's bird sings a different tune,complimenting companion,this sun rises with a different call (Pause)On the wings of different winds,we've set home in Koumbi-Salehand the fathers in unison said: "Akwaaba".Upon the sandy gales of Misri,we set home on pyramids astridethe Great Nile.In Ethiopia, land of Ahaggar Mountains,water-head of the Blue Nile too.The ruins of our home in Zimbabwe,soon shall sprout afresh.Yet, yet my complimenting companion,to our daughters this once we bequeaththe very seat of our fathers.

wife:rock uponinstance,tell me.

Ah! You mean, my friend, the very restingwhich both head and feet repose. But why thisand to them, I ask? I fear ...our daughters

God: In bygone days, when our father, Tshi tabweMukana, still dwelt amidst us, the same father told mea story of a man called Opien wuon Abonyo. His wife wasApiyo Nyagot. They had ten children, a herd of cattleand twelve dogs (Wife sits)Now it happened that famine struck their land, and theold man had to slaughter all his cows. The faminetightened its grip, claiming many lives among the clan.

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Opien's wife was a very intelligent woman. She learntthat Rat and his friends had uncovered a store ofmillet from which they always stole. She called on Ratto try and persuade him to share the secret. He atfirst refused, but Apiyo's patience and persistence wonthe day. He at last told her, "The grain comes fromKondiegi", but quickly added, "but I warn you, don'tget caught there otherwise you'll see hot ashesraining." Apiyo's heart had no thought of danger, thishad been killed by the pain of her childrens sufferingof hunger and for want of shelter, while others enjoy alife of largesse.

By luck that ensures the poor man's dhow stays afloatin turbulent seas, she arrived at Kondiegi when thehyaenas were fast asleep. She stole as much corn asshe could carry and fled. Soon, through regularvisits, her children were eating enough. While thefamine raged, Apiyo was tireless and when needdemanded, she went to Kondiegi and her children gotfatter.

One day on a similar errand Opien joined her. Whenthey reached Kondiegi, Apiyo showed him the granarieswith their different contents. This tour of inspectiontired the old man and he dropped onto the granary floorto eat some corn. Meanwhile Apiyo helped herself tosome millet and when she had gathered as much as shecould carry, she returned to the granary and shouted,"Wuon Abonyo!, Wuon Abonyo!, it's time to leave, let'sgo! There was no reply, in fact there could not be,the old man had over eaten and was now shittingfuriously on the granary floor. Apiyo knowing theconsequences of being caught there, quickly set offhome. Waking at dusk, the hyaenas heard strange noisesin the granary and rushed for their rungus, but beforetheir clubs could fall to beat Opien to death, they sawit was a human victim before them. They screamed andlaughed with delight. "This will be a tasty dish!There's a feast in store for us today. "They danced andwhooped, whooped and danced.

opien wept begging forgiveness and mercy, but thehyaenas dragged him roughly from the granary. "PleaseI beg you leave me. I can't satisfy you all. Let mereturn to my family.

I've lots of children, there you can have enough tofill you all."

The thought of more food tempted the greedy beasts andthey agreed. They approached Opien's house. Apiyo wastold that the hyaenas would call each day for onenicely cooked child, served up with a big mound ofugali.

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Apiyo racked her brains for a way of saving herchildren.. At last she hit upon an ingenious plan.Whenever the hyaenas were due, she boiled a pot ofwater and cooked one of her twelve dogs and hid one ofher children in a hollow tree. This was done withoutOpien's knowledge, and the plan continued until all theten children had been hidden and ten of the twelve dogsdevoured. But the families problems were not yet over,for with all the children now gone the hyaenas orderedOpien to boil his wife. Apiyo was alarmed. WhileOpien was away from the village she boiled water andcooked one of the remaining dogs. Then after cooking abig mound of kuon, she served the food and fled intohiding. The hyaenas called and ate then slept soundly.When they next called, they ordered Opien to cookhimself (Pause).

Opien left alone in this greedy world which hadswallowed his family cooked kuon and boiled water. Hekept walking away, turning and running full tilttowards the bubbling water. But always within jumpingrange of the cooking pot he would stop, open his eyesand cry: "Tho! son of Abonyo, today it's your turn!"Running to and fro, he tried to jump but in vain, hebegan to sob, "Apiyo, my wife, how did you cookyourself?"

Apiyo heard his cry from the hiding place and rushed tothe house. She asked him to flee into the bush andjoin the children in the tree. Opien was stupefied atthis, but fled at once. Apiyo meanwhile cooked thelast dog and served it up as usual before fleeing backinto the forest to join her children and husband.

When the hyaenas reached opien's, they yelled: "whoeverheard of a man cooking himself and serving himself up."They however ate the dog and then following Opine'stracks reached the hollow tree. They screamed withjoy.

The ferocious beasts rushed at the tree and begansavagely kicking the door. Only when it seemed thatthe door would collapse did Apiyo coolly remark "Wait amoment, I'm coming to let you in." Down she went andopened the door. "There, now it's open, but our littlehouse is too small to let you in all together. When weenter we back our way in, and turn round once we'reinside." Apiyo's frankness impressed the hyaenas andthe first brute came forward, turned and backed intothe doorway. As he did so, Apiyo seized a red hot ironrod she'd kept in the fire and thrust it up the beastsarseJ A death grimace spread over his face, causingthe others to abuse him, "look at him, the fool, he'sgone to laugh with food." Meanwhile Apiyo dragged the

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hyaena's carcass into the tree. One by one they backedin and "tswiiJ" went Apiyo's rod, each died grinning.When all were dead, Apiyo ordered her family out. Herchildren danced with joy and sang their mother'spraise. Opien was deeply ashamed for his greed, andimpressed by his wife's courage, he gave the childrenan everlasting word of advice: "Never despise a womanjust because she's a woman."

(Drumbeats 91, 2-4)

Performance within NarrationRepetition of certain parts like this season's birds sing

a different tune or Opien saying give lots of children tofill you all up focus the participants onto certain partsof the story. Recollection is vital for the participantso the narrator organizes episodic units and makes linksbetween them in a particular manner, for instance in thisstory the ingenuity of Apiyo providing a sharp contrast toOpien I S stark greed. It will be noticeable that eachepisode contains a specific incident whose message doesnot depend on a preceding or subsequent episode, but whichtogether with other episodes bring out clearly and muchstrongly, the concern of the whole narration/performance.

The plot is not linear and made even less so by theincorporation of song and dance, and as the opening of thestory indicates it starts at a very fast pace and thenslows down and these are the temporal qualities that thestory allows for. The dynamics of these episodes are ableto open out to intervention from the participants in anyway, and the notions of participation can come quite earlyon. For instance when wife in the story poses ••••I ask?I fear our daughters tell me·: this can be

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addressed directly to the audience who then start some of

sort of engagement with the story.

It needs to be pointed out that the narrator should have a

mastery of technique such that the same story can be told

with appropriate adaptation to different age groups. The

story of Apiyo and Opien has been creatively built and re-

arranged to cater for children, young people and adults;

new ideas are created to suit the occasion and the

participants, which very much depends on the narrator.

The narrator uses the techniques of engageaent, detachaent

distancing to suspend belief and disbelief at appropriate

points such as when the hyenas ·screamed and laughed with

delight- saying -This will be a tasty dishl- -There is a

feast in store for us today.- The narrator takes the part

of these characters and sometimes the character from whose

point of view the story is being told that is the hyenas.

Dra.atic irony is a crucial part of the narrator's

function when in role. with this device the narrator is

able to provide private and public dimensions with the

narrative. The conspiracy between Apiyo and opien and the

public betrayal of Opien is all engrained in the saying

-Apiyo, ay wife, how did you cook yourself?- and -Whoever

heard of a .an cooking hiaself and serving hiaself up?-

These are caught in allusions to death but are resonant of

life as the narrator tells and performs the scenario.

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To explain the world of the narrative, the story relies onthe knowledge of real things. For example, Apiyo iscalled the daughter of the hill (Nyagot), the monsterswere as tall as trees and Opien as strong as an iron bark.From these developed metaphors which encompasses thenegative and positive simultaneously. The rat, the hyenasall have a vocabulary for the different stages andseasons. In the story there is an integration of animals,people and nature and this suggests a context andatmosphere of the story very much within the animal-humandomain tensions and struggles.

Participants in Groups

In groups of say five, a moment that impressed theparticipants is created and i.ages that seemed to recurare highlighted and the normality of one iaage versus thestrangeness of a separate i.age is picked, for example theimage of the hungry emaciated Apiyo begging from the fat

round rat. This might suggest to some the domestic worldand to others an understanding of some other world.

It is less useful to work right through the narrative,than to do so in very small doses so that meanings startto resonate and unravel over a period of time. The wholeexercise is about recognising a deeper meaning without

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trying to identify what it is and not trying to pin downthe narrative.

With children, a tableau can be a useful way ofcommunicating, as it presents an opportunity to observeclosely. Tableaux is the best way of sharing what thechildren know. If at the start the children do not knowwhat a tableau from the narrative is, the facilitatorshould pick one and use it to demonstrate the importantaspects of tableau by example. For instance the image ofOpien lying prostrate and the hyenas standing over him orApiyo bringing in the food to the hungry children.

For young people and adults it is possible to separate

distinctly the images and create a continuum of the imagesin a chronological order. The tensions in the originalimages from the narrative should be built and sustained.The participants can try the activity and find a form inwhich they can sum up their feeling. This can be througha word, a short song, or a poem, a gesture, a picture, amovement or a chant.

At this stage improvisation can be initiated I and theparticipants are reminded of what has been done so far,the narration - the story telling, the tableaux and itscreation and the establishment text from these creations.Because the facilitator would normally be non-specific interms of time it is a long ti.e ago is the reference to

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the time and is not abstract but does not descend tospecific cases. This allows the participants to begintheir own narrative through the physicalisation of amoment and creating a sequence. These can be bestdescribed as modes, strategies or activities not theatreconventions or devices.

Reference can be made by the facilitator to outsidecontact with birds, animals, and trees so that animationcan be introduced as a device. The tone by the narratorhas to change. The use of sounds, movements, music andwords is important for the credibility of the animation.These sounds can evolve from being calm into tormented,frustrated sounds which can then be turned into a song bythe facilitator.

There are stories such as Simbi, Oganda, Nyamgondho wuonOmbare, Tekayo which are incredibly rich in dramaticimages and of things and people that the participants know

about. Details of a story entitled A story of Our Timewhich is still being written and has been used in dramateaching or as a workshop stimulus is provided in AppendixFour.

It is interesting to reflect on the extent to which theparticipants have told the story or performed it. When wehear a story, we experience it by casting it, it becomesdifferent and the original story should not constrain the

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imagination of the participants. By working in this waya story is not appropriated from another culture and thistype of exploration does not demolish it. My convictionis that it is possible to take strands from a particularculture and use them in a theatrical presentation whichtries to reconcile the irreconcilable and finds newinternal avenues for the settling of underlying tensionsin the narrative.

story telling provides a form of negotiation which canintroduce a debate between all participants, while at thesame time safeguarding contributions from participants.This is due to the double phenomenon of identification sothat the story-telling medium allows for the unspoken tobe said and a certain distancing from harsh realitieswithout the risk of offending participants.

When story telling involves performances and uses mime,song and dance elements, through the mediation of atheatrical context a negotiation on the rules and norms ofperformance takes place without there being necessarily aquestioning of certain theatrical conventions. Operatingin a mythical world and through metaphor provides a safearea of dramatic exploration and a conducive context forlearning.

The facilitator can move the participants into adiscussion of the two worlds, the mythical world and what

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the symbols represents in this world. It illustrates thatthe story is rich in allusion, depths, layers anduniversal resonance and for different age ranges isaesthetically satisfying. It also indicates the variouspossibilities within the story telling medium. Inchoosing stories for performance, or whose material canbe re-worked for a narrative, a content that is rich withsharing, empathy, questioning and challenging is vital, asis a form that provides an education, a structure that isfull of imagery and symbolism, and the intention to bereflective, careful and valued.

There has been a constant search for theatre beyond theproscenium arch stage; the otherness of contemporarytheatre which employs influences from traditional modes ofperformance merging them with contemporary trends towardscross-cultural practices. It explores the popular, theeducational and the dialectic between opposition anddelibilitating incorporation which is a constant motif in

this search.

This is found in the process of dialogue created by thestory telling movement which provides a participatoryapproach towards a collective result, and by this informsthe critical methodology of other educational dramamovements.

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CONCLUDING REMARKS

In this chapter I started off with an anecdotalexplanation to the collection of oral literature materialused for teaching purposes, and, often by students todevise a performance for the Drama Festival. There is anexploration of the nature and textures of the differentperformances and their themes and performance modes areanalyzed. The elements used in the Drama Festivalperformances may appear disparate, but we are dealing withthe whole of the educational spectrum in Kenya and thuscultured diversities are manifest in these events. Theauthenticity of a Kenyan Theatre is addressed and examplesof drama/theatre works are given as providing potentialfor development. story telling, it is argued encapsulatesthe concepts of process and product and defines it as aneducational cultural model which informs the understandingof educational drama in Kenya.

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CONCLUSION

The conclusion aims to pull together various arguments inthe study and to expose parallels between the variouseducational drama practices discussed. The study focusedon the social and educational purpose of process in theteaching of drama, devising for a production and theexploration of the meaning of the performances. Theprimary aim was to arrive at a greater understanding ofhow learning in its widest sense can be realised in drama,and more specifically to point out the learning potentialthrough drama and the performance prospects.

within educational drama there has developed an extensivebody of literature both in the fields of theory andpractice and all these provide for a more informedunderstanding of drama as education. strands ofeducational drama, such as DIE, TIE, TFD, The DramaFestival, and the story telling movements, occupy diversepositions regarding intention/content, .essage/learning,

target group/participation group, venue/arena; but allconstitute examples of dramatic expressions and workswhich exhibit interesting similarities. All areprocessual genres and have didactic aims, which are basedon the dissolution of the dichotomy between perfor.ar andspectator and which take place in locations not normally

429

associated with theatre. In exploring their similaritiesand differences the aim has been to provide a clearerunderstanding of the influence they exert on each other -ideologically, artistically and pedagogically.

In the literature on educational drama it is commonlyagreed that participation in an experience of dramatic

play provides considerable learning potential. Thisargument has been used to rationalize and legitimate theplace of the drama subject within the educational systemand as a resource for teaching and learning. The place ofdrama in schools to create a child centred context inwhich there is a focus on the personal development of theindividual and the use of drama to create newunderstanding and insight is a central concern of thisstudy. Also the need to give theatre performances a moreeffective social role and apply the pedagogical potentialof the theatre in educational institution is emphasised.A central premise for the learning potential in drama isthat it is from the interplay between experiences in thefiction and experiences in reality that new understandingarises.

It was not the intention of the study to propose aprogramme, but rather identify the potential for change inexisting educational drama practices and to point out theprinciples and theories on which these changes should bebased.

430

The discussion and analysis of formal education in thepost independent period shows some of the problems thatwere inherited from Kenya's colonial past; the state ofeducation now and how drama has been part and parcel ofthe educational community. There also emerges thebackground of the people's own way of life and culturalnorms and how they have used educational drama to changethe politics of performance.

One of the most important features of theatre in Kenya hasbeen the development of genuine community theatre. Before1970 performance in theatre was reserved for an exclusiveclass "gifted with acting abilities". But in the 1970'sthere began to emerge community theatre that reflected thelives and concerns of the ordinary people. Presentationof projects such as health, water, the environment andother matters of immediate concern to the communities hadan enormous effect in educational terms.

The performances were approached from the totality of thepeople's way of life. Whereas western theatre wasperformed to entertain a particular audience, this kind oftheatre was controlled by the concerns of the people whoparticipated in the creative activity. In comparableeducational drama, the teachers and students are incontrol of the medium. The use of story telling, ausic,

dance and lIi.e helped the students express themselves.

431

The challenge of these practices lies in their ability tochannel emotions into concrete and objective actiontowards learning and change; they help people to definetheir problems and exchange ideas about how to solve them.

Cultural Legislation has largely hampered culturalactivities in the past 70 years; it is emphasised in thestudy that a complete understanding of these legislativeacts by artists is vital. It is the demystification andeventual removal of these acts that will pave the way forthe development of cultural and educational activities,and this is an area that needs further research; it issuch a crucial area in the discourse of culture.

In TIE programmes cited the context allows for theanalysis of problems which affords the students theopportuni ty to get another view of them as well as tocontribute their own view to the cause and effects ofproblems. The result is a communal concretisation of theproblems and a sharing of the interpretation of the wholescheme of things. The pre and post workshop technique inTIE programmes is meant to mobilise the intentions of theparticipants into a commitment to come to a solution oftheir own choice.

Each stage of this process is important to learning. Thestrategies used in educational drama practices such asresearch, discussion, analysis, devising, rehearsal,

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presentation, pre and post performance workshop are allimportant to the realisation of an effective theatricalpiece. The dramatic devices used such as narration,

freeze frame, tableau, participation, image, forum, in

role mantle of the expert, hot seating all aim at and makefor fully participatory programmes. Educational dramafunctioning across the curriculum, might partly educatepeople outside a specific subject, through structuringcontexts which will bring about deeper understanding.Drama is emphasised as the art of the drama teacher whouses dramatic process and drama as a method of educatingteachers to educate children. In-role drama operatesinside the more widely defined area of education andprovides a language genre that allows for a different formof interaction between teachers and pupils. It alsoencourages a different range of teaching strategies andultimately a different form of learning to take place.This is exemplified in the exposition of Lie of the Land.

Above all, in educational drama, the language of drama isaccessible to the participants themselves so that there isa certain understanding how they are progressing. withinthe educational/theatrical/context, provides for a vehicleof participation and a forum and focus for raising andanalysing problems; decision making and collective action.

Role-play, story telling, song, dance, instrumentation,

aimeas practiced in educational drama and popular

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education practices which use art forms that areappropriate to the environment. In their function as aform of popular communication, in schools, they arecontrolled by the students and teachers and in thecommunities, by the people who draw on the community-basedcreative resources of the people. It is within the storytelling mode that participation and perfor.ance isengendered by the integration of various art forms workingas an educational and cultural intervention.

In the context of popular education, the dramas are leftunfinished, but they are presented and discussed in wayswhich provoke a critical analysis of the problems and thevarious possibilities for action. The object is not toimpose a narrow reading of reality or to prescribe readymade solutions but to challenge people to ask their ownquestions about the political-economic structure whichconditions their oppression. This can be seen in severalof the performances I discussed, notably Rugendo, Kifo Cha" d Uk' ,U)lnga anlrnwl.

This approach involves the process of rediscoveringgenuine popular elements and returning them systematicallyto the people. Drama happens inside a fiction usingmetaphors which draw upon what we know of the real world,and therefore allowing us to understand other events withcharacteristics in common. Educational drama as a socialprocess cuts across many curriculum areas, and as a

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learning medium can become part of the teachers approachesin the classroom. Students gain valuable literaryknowledge and skills in the study of dramatic literaturebut make a claim to diversified theatrical skills whenthey present performances at the Drama Festival. In thesetheatrical undertakings, writing and performance modes areon the upsurge and the search for content and form is aquest in which educational drama leads the way towards avision for a future Kenyan theatre.

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A Source Book in Kenyan Literature and Resistance, Kent:Hanze Zell Publishers.

Slade, P. (1954) Child Drama, London: University of London Press.____ (1958) An Introduction to Child Drama, London:

University of London Press.Soyinka, W. (1976) Myth, Literature and the African World,

Cambridge University Press.Thiongo, W.T. & Mirii, W. N. (1977) Ngaahika Ndeenda, Nairobi:

Heinemann.____ (19~) Maitu Njygira, Nairobi:

Heinemann.Thiongo, W.N. & Mugo M.G. (1975) writers In Politics, London:

Heinemann.(1977) The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, London: Heinemann.(1981) Writers In Politics, London, Heinemann.(1986) Decolonizing the Mind, London: James Currey

& Heinemann.____ (1993) Moying the Centre Currey & Heinemann.Vallins, G. (1980) 'The Beginnings of TIE' in Learning Through

Theatre, Jackson, A.: Manchester University Press.Vygotsky, L. (1976) 'Play and Its Role in The Mental Development

of the Child' in ElAY (eds) G.S. BrownlyWagner, B.J. (1976) porothy Heathcote: prama as a Learning

Medium, Washington DC: National Education Association.Wanjala, C. (ed)(1973) Standpoints on African Literature,

Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau.Way, B. (1967) Deyelopment Through Drama, London: Longman.

444

Willet, J. (1966) Brecht on Theatre: The Development of anAesthetic, London: Eyre Methuen.

Williams, R. (1961) Culture and Society 1700-1950, Hammondsworth:Penguin.

____ (1975) Drama in a Dramatised Society, CambridgeUniversity Press.

____ (1976) Keywords, Glasgow: Croom Helm.Witkin, R. (1974) The Intelligence of Feeling, London:

Heinemann.Woolland, B. (1993) The Teaching of Drama In The Primary

School, London: Longman.wright L. (1984) Professional Theatre for Young

Audiences, Temple, AZ: Arizona state University Press.Zirimu, P. and Gurr, A. (1973) Black Aesthetics Nairobi:

East African Literature Bureau.

445

Unpublished Works

ThesesAbah, O.S. (1987) 'Popular Theatre as a Strategy for Education

and development. The example of some African countries'Unpublished Ph.D.Thesis, University of Leeds.

Asagba O.A. (1986) 'Festival Drama: Aspects of continuity andChange in Contemporary Nigerian Theatre'. Unpublished Ph.D.Thesis, University of Leeds.

Ball, H.L. (1983) 'A critical Evaluation of The Nature andFunction of Drama in Education and the Training of Teachers'Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Wales.

Ball, S. (1993) 'Drama and Theatre In Education with SpecificReference To Personal, Social and Health Education'Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Manchester.

Barhanpurkar S.N. (1992) 'A Study of Aspects of Indian Theatreand Its Educational Role and A Consideration of Strategiesfor Developing Theatre In Education in India.' UnpublishedPh.D. Thesis, University of Manchester.

Carrol, J. (1987) 'Taking the initiative: Role of drama inpupil/teacher talk' Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, university ofNewcast1e-upon-Tyne.

Ciarunji Chesaina (1989) 'Women in Drama: Representation andRole' Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Leeds.

Kapiyo, J.A. (1986) 'Technology In The School Curriculum'Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Leeds.

Lakoju, B.J. (1985) 'A Critical Evaluation of The Nature and

446

Function of Theatre in Education in Britain and a ProposedModel for Nigeria.' Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University ofWales.

Mumma, O.J. (1987) 'An Examination of the British Model ofTheatre In Education and A Proposed Model for Kenya'Unpublished M.A. Thesis, University of Wales.

Olatoye, C. (1991) 'A study of Educational Strategies used in TIEand Their Potential for TIE in Nigeria.' Unpublished Ph.D.Thesis, University of Manchester.

Plastow, J. (1991) 'The Development of Theatre In Relation tothe states and societies of Ethiopia, Tanzania, andZimbabwe'. Unpublished Ph.D.Thesis, University ofManchester.

Redington, C. (1979) 'Theatre in Education: An historical andAnalytical Study', A thesis submitted to the Universityof Glasgow for the Degree of Ph.D.

Whittle, M.P. (1985) 'A Survey and Comparison of the Teaching ofDrama in Universities, Polytechnics, Colleges of Educationand Drama Schools, particularly as it affects the trainingof school teachers.' Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, universityof Glasgow.

447

Unpublished PapersAfrican Literature Conference (197~), 'The Teaching of

Literature in Kenyan Schools'. Unpublished Recommendationsand Report, Nairobi.

Alembi, E. (1991) 'Trends in Kenyan Theatre' (Nairobi)____ (1992) 'The Question of Language in Kenyan Theatre'

(Nairobi)chifunyise, S.J. (1985)'Theatre for Development in Zimbabwe'

unpublished paper presented at the International Conferenceon Theatre for Development, Maseru, Lesotho, 24 February-2 March.

Democratic Institutions' Unpublished Paper presented at theKola Conference, Nairobi.

Imbuga, F. (1992) 'The Role of Theatre and The Status of theTheatre Artist in Kenya Today', (Nairobi)

Kakai, K. (1990) 'Popular Theatre Trends in Kenya, (Nairobi).Minutes of The Governing Council of the KCC, November 1968.Obyerodhyambo, O. (1992) 'Siwindhe and Duol as Pedagogical

Institutions' (Nairobi)Odhuno, K.T. (1993) 'Taking Theatre to the People', (Nairobi).Okumba, M. (1991) 'The Grave of Oral Literature', (Nairobi).Report of the Governing Council of the KCC, 1968.SCYPT Constitution as amended November, 1984.Outa, O.G. (1990) 'Writing for Theatre' (Nairobi)Outa, O.G. & Ojwang, H. (1991) 'sociolinguistic Aspects of

Theatre' (Nairobi).

448

Journals and NewspapersThe Daily National Newspapers of 29th May 1968.Esipisu, M. (1987) 'Theatre In The Doldrums', Article in ~

Daily National Newspaper Nairobi.Kerr, D. (1981) 'Didactic Theatre In Africa', in Harvard

Educational Review, Vol 15, No 1.Margaretta, G. (1993) 'It is Happening Qn Stage' An Article in

The Daily National Newspapers.Mutahi, W. (1992) 'Two Laughs Not Enough For The Theatre', The

Standard Newspapers, Nairobi.Smart, A. (1984) 'Making The spectacle' in SCYPT Journal No 9.Spencer, S.J. (1990) 'Storytelling Theatre in Sierra Leone: the

Example of Lele Gkomba New Theatre Quarterly Vol VI,No 24: Cambridge University Press.

Thiongo, N.W. & Mugo G.M. (1983) 'Language and Literature' inThe Classic, Vol 2, No 1.

Unpublished Plays and ProgrammesBelgrade TIE (1991) 'Blood and Honey', A fully participatory

TIE Programme, Coventry.(1992) 'From The Cradle', Coventry.(1993) 'Ways of Change' A Multi-Purpose Theatrical

Programme, Coventry.Bungoma High School (1992) 'The Ladder', unpublished script

performed at the Drama Festival, Ngandu.Bunyore Girls (1992) 'Ngai'. Unpublished script performed at the

449

Drama Festival, Mombasa.The Commonwealth Institute (1990) 'The Crunch' a TIE programme

devised by actor/teachers from the UK and theatrepractitioners from Tanzania.

Drama Department (1991) 'Lie of the Land', Manchester.Esiapala Community Theatre (1984) 'The Merger', Maseno.Gilham, G. (1979) 'Ways of Change', Cardiff.

(1986) 'Rise and Fall', London.(1982) 'Lessons', London(1991) 'Logos', Cardiff.

Kenya High School (1992) 'The Turning Point' Ngandu.Kimathi Primary School (1995) 'Kosa La Nini', Mombasa.Koinange, C. (1983) 'Just a Matter of Time' Unpublished script

performed at The Drama Festival.K.S.T.C. (1988) 'Majuto Ni Mjukuu' Nairobi.Lancaster TIE (1991) 'Walks of Goodbye' A fully participatory TIE

Programme, Lancaster.____ (1992) 'Witchy Hazel' Part performance and part

participatory programme, Lancaster.____ (1992) 'Indigo', A fully participatory programme

for High School.Leys, Bernadette (1945-1954) Romo, Ler Marwa, Chako Kendo,

Nyabondo. Unpublished scripts.Mama Ngina Girls (1992) 'Speeding Eagles' Ngandu.Mumma, O.J. (1990) 'A Ray of Hope' performed at the Drama

Festival, Nairobi.(1992) 'Wasps in Creation', Manchester.

450

Nairobi School (1988) 'Rugendo' Nairobi and Kisumu.Osodo, O. (1982) 'Majitu'.Obyerodhyambo, O. (1992) 'Drumbeats on Kirinyaga' (Nairobi)Pangani Girls (1989) 'Mzalendo Kimathi' Nairobi.pit Prop TIE (1990) 'Angel'____ (1992) 'Fighting For Our Lives'Shanzu Teachers College (1989) Kifo Cha Ujingo, Baringo,

Rift Valley, Nairobi.st Mary's Girls Primary (1991) Farakana Ya Urithi, Mombasa.Theatre Van TIE (1992) 'Dressing Up, Stripping Down', Harlow.Ulanda Girls High (1991) 'The Search'Waa High School (1992) 'Pigo' Unpublished script performed for

the Drama Festival, Ngandu.Wabera primary School (1991) 'Mbegu Mbaya, Mombasa.Wahome, M. (1982) 'Kilio'Wandiri, T. (1982) 'Makwekwe' Unpublished script performed

at the Drama Festival

451

A. THEORY AND PRACTICE QUESTIONNAIRE

Below are a number of questions relating to Drama/Theatre theory and practice.Please read them thoroughly and respond to them as indicated in the instruction for eachquestion. Please answer individually and from. your own theory and practice.There are no right and wrong answers.RATE ALL OF THE ITEMS BELOW OUT OF 10

1. Theoretical influences-upon Drama/Theatre.Please indicate the importance of some knowledge of each of the following to yourwork: '

=Social psychology»Theories of theatre 10

=Theories of imagination 5«Group dynamics 4 ro=Dieabilitv \.~rortU'''' tJq_UH ~,aded '

=Educationai drama 0=Theories of creativity ~

2.

«Object relations play Lj

-Rituar,-::fi'.-«:»Psvchodrama-cut« drama 5'»Theories of play«Child development T-Sociology

Please indicate the importance of each of the following authorities to your practice ofdrama and theatre-in-education:

»[olin Ruganda »Francis Imbuga-Ngugi wa Thiong'o \"o\\u.<:.,,"c (\..:>~\"\UI »Dauid Muluia

~ 'I\\.t.t.L~

-Ali Ainin Mazrui »Peninah Mlama ~d. I.u.o;- tL.:r'v._

S-Brian l'Vay lUud Cl. le .. - 11 ~~~~ cc..) »Peninali Muhando«Cauin Bolton S.u..~'-V·I!.O{" (-Peter Slade ~c.' l\;~ lA.:"" V.

l-Dorothy Heathcote ) Ltc;.l"vrtd l-Richard COllrtneyl- Wale Sovinka «Bertolt Brecht \..",\l.J..uI.,uJ iV' c.,("'; L\ et \-1_,.:(.t;', c;

«Augustus Baal -Okot P'Bitek- Waigwa Wachira =Micere Mugo«Oluoch Obura «[ames Falkland=Gachugu Makin! «Lusugu Ayodo»Rutli Kaman «Crace Ogot«Elrnma Zirimu «Austin Bukenya»Rebeka Njau «Chacha Nyaigo Chacha»Dauid Muluua ~ «Francis Kamau , , ~l\IC)\-,e

) • JCVY\~s tCl'V-.\t>-v"l.o., - ~VCl.l Vi u:. "J,;-

Please indicate the importance of each of the following people to your understandingof drama and theatre-in-education:

[

- Berlo! t Brecht - - ', - Peter Brook ..*. ~o~ ,,-,0.'"' o..~\.,\~~"

\ .....,Il{5'li (.\.V\'T" J d G ft . -, -t\~ -'> c...,..,~H.<"U '"_ - oe e ra ,,", ' ~~-David Rubadiri b~ _s11"1..O.-adem Oulei '

S'-"L\..F c.t..t.\<\ \:l-\-C.

r.\.t..L -r\.\ ...~" c.tc\,·cit

3

-Barnabas Kasigwa-OcJzieng- Konyatrgo-Nyambura Mposha

, -Kenneth Watene>,',--MukotamiRugye;dd,

• ":,"'~. I. _.:;;..... •

~, •. ~:-,;;.:-.}J. •• ~- _': 'I'~''- " ,,-

452, ,r

"

-Gery Grotawosky-\I'\~(lL"("\-t.~,'\r-Constantin Stanislavisky-Francis Imbuga \~"-'\',U'Itc.l~\"'-Seth Adagala-Asenath Bole Odagol-Cichora Mwangi-Aloys Odhiam~o-Isaac Waweru-Khaemba Wangeti "-Micere Mugo

• , •• :_' • t

. ".,.-

4. Please rate each of the following creative arts in terms of its importance to drarn.inndthea tre-in-ed uca tion:

'1 «Pointing Z. ·Play performance(r() ·Modelling 9 «Sculpturer; ·Poetry g ·Photography~ ·Video I ·WritingLt ·M1Isic ?J.Dance

B. SUITABILITY FOR DRAMA/THEATRE IN EDUCATION

1. Indicate how the following groups benefit from drama/theatre-in-education:»The mentally disabled·Single parents»The visually impairedsThe emotionally disturbed•Pre-ad 01escen ts• /sdclescen is·Family-rfelinqllent-AIDS Victims»Drug addicts·Those with infertility problems

»The physically disabledsThe hearing impairedsThoee with marriage problems»The sexually abused»Those with a sexual problem»Tlie socially isolated»Neurotics»Tliose who are depressedsThose in special education«Alcoholics

C. INITIAL ASSESSMENT IN DRAMA/THEATRE-IN-EDUCATION

? Please rate the following in terms of its importance in your initial assessment of youraudiences:

»PersonaljScciu! background•Previa us experience in drama/theatre»Moiioation - reasonable ability to articulate• Willingness to play creatively _• Willingness to observe limits and boundaries·Willingness to use creative media and understanding of the creativeprocess

D. TECHNIQUES AND SCALES

1. Please rate the following in terms offrequency views/theatre sessions:·Mj'i;t~ games «Breathing exercises»Sculpting 5·Relaxation exercises

t~ «Script work »Comnnmication games3 sIrnprouisation e «Sensitioiiv exercises

»Mooement to music »Musical instruments·Sessions - evaluations «Sub-group work=Laban techniques 4 ·Syl1lbols and imagery

2..»Role play »Dream accountsb ·Role reversal :J ·Myths and legends7 .Play ·MirroringI sSimuiaticn ·Spectograms

453

·Visual imagery«Theatre games•Pctiormance·Puppetry·!v1ake-up

«Projection·Voice work·Story making·Mask work

2. Please rate each of the following in terms of its importance to your groups drama/theatre sessions:

I •Warm-up activityZ- ·Main activityit «Crounding5=Closure-:s • Eraiua t ion

E. THE ROLE OF THE DRAl\1A/THEA TRE PRACTITIONERfTEACHER

1. Please rate each of the following in terms of importance to your role as a drama /thea tre practi tioner / teacher:

2. ,·Listening3 (·Having supervisionII«Accepting uncriticallyon ·Staying calm in a crisis2-~ «Support ing1O-Guidillg'J_ 7 «Conjronting(3 »Protcking'-Self- iII,C. iSh t

3z..Colltact with emotionsCj__ - SPOI1 ta nei tyJ':7.Bodyawarellcsser ·Motivation?- \·Intl~itiol1I ~-Gellerosity

34: «Sociabititv[rl-Elll'rgy

J «Identiiving issuesI 0:.Facilitating change.2~ «Creating atmosphere12 ·Question ing:;. Bel ieuing3> »Taking a role.2y.InterpretingJ4-·ubserving7·HlIl/zility{Cl «Openness{1·E17lpathy'}_ ·Deep feelings20.lmagina t ion22!Sensi t ivi ty.23·Reflectiong «Humour

F. THE PROCESS OF THEATRE/DRAl'vfA

How important is it for you and your audiences to do each of the following c:::ringthe drama/theatre process?:a) ~ • Research

7·Consultationl' -Devising and rehearsalI ( ·MlIsic and song) 2,Story-buildingS =Hot-seatino

9.Story-fellillgq «TextI »Perjonnance

r 0 «Comes and exercisesZ: =lmprooisation3 ·Role play

454

«Simulatu»;•Fer: 11/1- t 17ea!re·Texl:ing materials

«Depictionslimage theatrerDiscussion and analysis·Assessment and evaluation

b) •Become acquain ted1 _J >I'(«Share autercnces

·Play.7 single role effeClj'(.·eIy

·Identlfy potential personal contributions«Find communalitv with audiences

H. BIOGRAPHICAL DETAILS. '.--

The researcher 'would be grateful if you 'would please supply the following details:- »Drcmahhcatre qualifications (dates, places)' f3 . b ci - I 0; ') b - - Dt__~

.?.;..,- Er-n

«Other qtwlljical ions - _

«Lengt]: of qualified experience in dr amalthcatre _'-'/!:>:::::..~_'-t-+4JV_~ _

=Prrsent post - /Ytf3ptA- S re-c. /»-c.i : I,

- P reuious post s f+fct_tf__ s-_c_~ (_E-T-t-c_ _:c_t-h_'_'__'_rv~( _

,( t r:£-r..J~,• Pre) errei age of audience Vf-=-- _

• Prefer red sex of aiu: ience IJ_o_I_H _

»The person who has most injiuenced YOllr toot]: i11 drama/theatre >6-'f t IV teA .

«Your name

«Your age

·Yollr sex------------------------------_·Yrlllr ar.dres5. -----

=Cenerai comments ----~--------------------------

455

Please feel free to comment further.

Thank you very much for your invaluable help.

Contact: Opiyo MummaOept. of Literature,University of Nairobi,P.O. Box 30197,Nairobi.Tel: 334244, ext. 2070.

or: Dept. of DramaUniversity of ManchesterOxford Rand,Manchester M13 9PLU.K.Tel: (061) 2"735183

456

A. Role of DramaJTheatre PractitionerlTeacher

The variables here should relate to those skills which Practitioner /Teacher uses whenrelating to audiences/Clients.

Variable: Rank order Qr means:

ListeningObservingSupportingIdentifying lossesStaying calm in a crisisAccepting uncriticallyFacili tating changeHaving supervisionBelievingCreating atmosphereGuidingQuestioningConfrontingExperience in theatreTaking a roleInterpretingProvoking

Indicate prominence and priority given.

457

B. Qualities of the Drama/Theatre Practitioner/Teacher

Variable: Rank order or means:

Self-insightMotivationEmpathySensi tivi tySpontaneityContact with own emotionsIrnagina tionEnergyIntuitionOpenessHumanReflectionClear thinkingBody awarenessHumilityGenerosityDeep feelingsSociability

Need for the facilitator to be aware of himself Ithemselves

458

/

c. Theoretical Influences on DramaJTheories in Education

These should be from within all the cultural processes embracing techniques andsystems of thought.

Variable: Rank order or means:

Group dynamicsPsychotherapyTheories of playsTheories of creativityChild developmentClient centered therapyTheories of imaginationPsychodramaRi tualDisa bili tiesChild dramaTheories of thea treEducational dramaPsycho analysisObject relations playAn thropologyCognitive psychologyPhilosophyBehaviourismExistentialism

459

Q:JE:::TTC~NAIRE-FORSCH(:GLS FARTICIPATING IN THE KENYA S{-Eonr S :l_.C'~_If_!___

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grauphave? Students:

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(\1)ESTICI~F~ALKS_.E_CJ'L'--::;:,~~-'.:___2bIT1LL.ELI_L\;:J IN THE V'£~:YA. SCl-JonLS DEANA

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artist?

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Section I: Anyango and Omondi Conversing after

Absconding from school.

1. Should Omondi and Anyango be meeting at such a time?

Yes No

2. What do you think made them do this?

J. Should they tell their parents? Yes No

4. Why?

Section II: Economic state of Anyango's mother.

1. Do you agree with the way Anyango1s mother sought help?

Yes No

2. Why?

Section III Pregnancy News - Anyango suspects Pregnancy

1. Do you agree the way Anyango approached her problem?

Yes No

2. Why?k...-r«3. How could ba¥e AnyangoAavoided being i~ such situation?

4. Is Omondi correct to give Anyango pills? Yes No

5. Why?

Section IV : The Discussion o£ Teachers.

1. Do you agree with the suggestions the teachers gave?(Read -them) • Yes No

~. Why?

465

2

3. What do you think parents should do to avoid such

happenings?

~~. l{hat should teachers do?

54. What should Hinistry of Education do?

~~. 1{ho should actually teach Anyango facts of life?

"7 t(;. 1{ho should do the same to Omondi?

Section V : General Opinions

1. How can such situations be prevented?

20 What should happen to Anyango?

3. 'Yhat should happen to Omondi?

4. If Anyango gives birth ,...ho should take care of the

child?

-Section V

10 Age

Demographic Information

2. Sex Male Female

Education Std. Reached Years of education

4. Occupation

Marita~ Status Married, Single, Separated,

Widowed, Divorced

466

For comparative aria Ly s i::3, qu e s tionnair0s ,...ere

a dmi.ri is t.c r-c d to te:J.chcrs an d , thL::l Has ba~ed on Control

Group and Experimen t aL Group :~'8Sign. }/o 11111ited ques tion-

ria ir-e s to teclehers on Ly b ecau s e the c r-cwds "ere so larr:e

thus Illaking it impossible to I'ill in tho qu c s rLormaLr-es

by everybody. Al though there w cr e marry teachers o t.her-s

did not :fill in the quostioTInaires. In sUDlfllary we had:

-

Group Teacher.:..!._

Co nt r-o L G'r-o u p 38 nespondents

Experilllental Group 51~ nespondent::;

-Total 9J Respondents

: Tho que stLormaf.r-n s are r.ow being edited and coded t'o i-

Simi] ar-Ly the vLdoo tapes arc be i.ng edited.

Tuble 1 '1'11(;P211ld Lt tioD tlw t Partie; petted

.~s Partnts POlicy Totn.lHakers

-Ih - T)').__'-

74 - 6096 - 356

10 - h957 ,

39'1-30 60 In4

11~1 60

Sito:J Teachert; Studen

Scga 27 681Haranda 35 500Christian 10 31~0

Ramba 18 h67Rang-ala J_O 380SiayaAdmin. 21l- 400

rrO'I'AL 124 2768

467

RESEARCH C~:JFSTIONNAJRESTO THEATRE C001PAl'<IESAND PERFORi\1TNG GROUPS

1. l\'(~:;'lCof Theatre Company E ~E~ TO N (_ fZG A I \ V f. V L.A "I (;f< ~ ._.Address ~o l-ll --+ l-1f-j!Aj4t-Arv((-S I~Ql~LuVN_\'L'+NJorzD_p_TelcjJhor:e Number (Q 31) fO \ "20

2.

·3.

J.

6.

7.

8.

9,

1(\-l'.2.~ is the number of members in the company? __ __:_l+'-O=-- _

\\,l12t are the criteria used in recruiting members into the company? _!,\C~~. t--1E. M (3.f~S U $"U AL.L'1 rb AS.E J}-t8~ ENI(o<'{__1-E:Cx-l"1 I M AC"I 0 N It-ST £A.E5.T () ft.. eftST e A-12--1\ 0 P A-Tj_Q_~u11'\ m~AT_@CAL- AC\lVI TIES 51\.'1 IN \-\-l ~I-\ S(_\+~9_L::-: __a~ ___A~ vt,JI~A-\N f-\) TGA..G\4E~S. ~ _

Vvhat is the range of skills of the members of the company? _:L_j__JS Ar3,\\ DIF+\CuL-T ID QuA-NTIF'i. ALf\AOSTb_\J U.f E." S. K-\ LLS E v_LQ Gr--ST IN TB€ lliD \IfLQ~_6:-i-:-..$__\N'/O;_\JE-v A~G. INtO«..MAl1..'i Ac...Q'JI«b1) 08... D~Awl>J-"F~t~ rv, )? \R.G"c.\ \ ONS 6. \V& ~ \N PAS:T P ~rZ.Fo~iV\ A-N ~

HO'N are these skills used? N DT \N A :S"i S T GN AT I CN...L:)(.0- Oe..DI N A-\b"D M A-N~ I (..LA.iHE-f<.._ T~ J)oG~ N::> 'f5.G~\ Ta GxiST A cENTI2.AL l+t0K:1 '\8-AI ~Urt-.) DLAo,;: VA-«.\o\J5 >K\u SIN A(JJ( I2-b~«.\A-Tt::: SL..OTSlti-Ki A~£. SefO+=Ic. ~NDU(rtr TO MA'LS life tbes..=_\____~() io~ 1"\--i-'f. lD~ nt=l G-D .s.KJ LLS .

How many members of the company have been to Drama School, J-,;wsic Colleges orthe University? C)NE

How rnany have done theatre arts courses? __ ~t-J-=-=D:_:_N=_=E --

- -- ..------.-- -- --_._-----

.vhat is the number of directors on the board? o N IS (._1._)---

\Vi",at are the criteria used in selecting directors of the board? (RAI N I tV eri;;)<...e ea.\GN c..c J \ NT~ES\ AND W \U.l ~~§~S_ j_.\:)_lAKE uP A CH-AlL£:N Grb \N AN .Q'J\J (@.~NMGrJrhl~ MO~'(" <;~lOr2... UNlvGR.slJ'-{ rr~6 t-JALI TIg;-_J)b NoT Crlv( MoftA-~ C>~ Gfj6UGDj B ~A-NQA-L. .s,ueeDK.,[.

What is the working relationship between the company and members of the bcc".rc1 ~

-'-N~I'=A:--.___:.W-=--=E-=c.o~o~\..."!}..L..--'Qo!-N:--:--:l.'j:.L.'---,Tc..LA.J..2L~K~:_I'!...!:1e:,~b~():::..T~_,,:~~c.X:,~~H___'A'_!___~y.2-=_l;:.~-Uft1or0 S ~~~'-lw G£-N -rtr€ f'.-\eMrt.6:f2..5 J Tttt:: D \ c<..G-c.ID~ .A-fS D-rH-f e>\A~Ust\-M8JT~ IT )'& ~cT WELL Dt::FJrsG-D.T~f )(.ES~Gc..\'H-A-T wou4) .&EFl T ,\+OS£: PA-f2- TJ G~\-t-,a~-s N DT (:,.;eN C\.H..\" lVA T~ ..

. 468

10, vvhat is/a:-e the sourcets) of funding of the company? ~Ild:f' \)N vv E:QS 11'-1______ _L~---~~~~~~____________ ----------

11, \Vhat is the artistic policy of the company? __jJ)__ £p'-~ M 0 -c t,;:. 1l±&A l'r2..E A-N D [1 S 1) U E _b_er_E-_t;_c./ A-T I~ tJlC':!_J..ttE LUM.@IA I~ Lofv\rv\\) tV 1-\''1 A1V'O S~£ __"I_~tXt t=T of AvAI 1-1-\ ~u= TA LG-NT w \TI-\- "T t-t-t?ATrz..t l-oUt?,e..<; E~6t..l~

:2, V/he i .ire the broad ai:11Sand objectives of the C0111pany? __ ___~ TD~_9_~Ql6._~:D S-TIMVLA-l"E: TALe-Nl' D<. \ "N1Gf<.~T

l!-L t1:tE-h 1 ~~ . ~ To kD oK.. t=-.) ~ A a..G-A L1..'f l_ttI.,)M_~ ,t:_t)_~ __ Qj=__ E-tJ L ~ T,.,_lNM &N I Ff?_D M" LD c../'rLL'1_ A-uAI l....Ji1bu;-, -~-------.~ ... ---

TAi_,£::~~r <1> Ie (_<:l~T~\Q;.uTf. IN I±JMJrNISI/oJ Cr' A-fJ 011+&r<_Wi.s~'t>u~L rv\AO-H 10E. c,AsED ""\'"A~\CULTUrU: 0 I(tf--~~T~.D c..U-LTl..Tre.G

13, D,>~s [:-,2 t2a:1.1 have ~,la:'lguage policy? t-J~T A Ca N U2..6 Tb {J t--rG '

~!.~, O';c'; l;-,;? P2St five )l:'z"rs what has been "our typical audience? __ _Q_~~~__ IS

_.Il)~=L __ 12., o L TA-~( 0 (x- 6F;-·

---------- ~ !CSVv'h,-:t is the "'ge range of the audience? .2.0 - 50" Mo..s. Tl'1 .A E~H __~ - Is '\~

OI-'D AI liMe s15, \\';-:Z-,: r.orrna.ly is your audience size and 'why? ___5_0 ~_~~~ 0 ~ __Gv_ E-N

_M_O_B..£__n_~I__ __j_iME_S___. D EPE-Nli I N' (;c;- C___N_. TH-E. e_lJ_f2:._kl (,\ 1'''1_~6_~L~ __ I±:_{::d'ri N__ _Q_~6-V At J...A.G> t k Iti Ilt- _~_f'.~.

16, Vhl2.t governs the corr.pany's choice of script?Mf;M..~~ __ ~ rv\AJor2-IT'1 V()1'6

\Vho wri tes the script - an individual, or the whole tearn? ._So r-..t€ e ~ fMS A-NJ b ~.l.'j ~f ~ SIto ~...-r

_SC'hLt1"S GM A-t-l A-L f; fi?..C>M.. ~ M E-M ~ GTLC.---- ----- -----

1"'I, • \ I~('Are t.icre restrictions on content of the script? "-\_:_....__:__"' _If there are, what are these sources? _(1) Itt€- ~(:t.J> ( I"I_VIT'i c...A-u oS fj) ~'1 (x1J IJ 6'2-N-MEN -c c,8J~u__ r<. -

$'r\\P THou ~ N 6T ProS Aw -rr=. A-~ W liH- ~DQ~ __i5UfSl1~e'CH£ \J N\ v 82$ , l' t t:s . _

~1>Ia..E'-\o~ k 6Ff-lc..I~.L.S et-:) p~CtJA-LSbc::....LJ(2IL~ {;n2..DJrJ~

How often does the group work as a whole?~D L'1 8\J ef.,. .

18,

lVhat is the nature of the heirarchy of the team? =C~,e_'6' Pt12.:t:- () f-;:'l (_j A-l.SWH-9 hi-€. \J N fO (l.\,tJ N A \"E1-'i D€> S ~ s:>" f-j) IN (Jl± __]}L~ -OF\=-\Ubl.. IN~lq::" ..HA A<? IN pue::.Uc...... 8lA~L\St\MGI-..rTS'.,_M()~T A{?.E NOT ·fi:d? ~NIJ\t--Jl&J6 A-.5. 1 r !l5 'A-CToltlLY4~"C Th B. b:. I

_T .. )IV is the rehearsal period structured? P (2..b F 6:.%\ 0 N A LL"f (?, '1 T t--f17»\r<..,&c...IC~ TItcuGtH 6XE(_~\8> IN AN 'JrJLCMMIn:ql)MIYN N ~ ~~ T H-t M EM e:ds .1rt'E'l Db rJ 0 T kJivt-O

~ (i.\.{ L ~ '1 <; ~ U L)) {2..e;J?)ac.T A s: TA-Nb triW !..E~ 4CJ

oSClh?D () ~ .r

20.

21. Are individuals in the conlpany given specific duties. If so, why?\Q S ~ € 0 u..\" v2...Es 11t) Ns:., Y'S \ L \ II c-sM_,wE. AS fV\.frN'i h-S ~DS$\ ~LEMD~ ce_uc( A-lL'I I\-TrA-c.J:t£1) To

.' V\ E-S'--" ~ Tc:,FEEL

T\-TC::

22. JO YO;J hold workshops for your intended audience/ teachers? For what purpose?

\.JOT _ '--tEl' _lL-o N~ t? Lt\ 1S::l>

13. How are the teachers workshops structured? _

--------~

24. Whc:.t is the prcpar atir n that goes into the teachers notes? _

25. How does this pack of resources for teachers get used?

26. 1-:0'1"1 does the workshop influence preparation for the Schools/Colleges DramaFestival? ~ _

27. At one point of the year did you find these workshops useful? _

28. Over the past five years what are the rules and conventions governing yourperformances -'--- _

470

2l). V/hat do the performances combine? (Visual theatre, dance, live music. ..) . _

Vvt,o of the drama theorists have influenced the \\'or~;ng of the cornpt: :'/') _..9_f'-!~L"i_g'1__.~'j..'j ID 'M.GM~GiU- V IA_ ..__lttf_D_lgf~\tl (2...~_.~tto Gcr~r-..\t;,ItvE5 CoN\l.GN-rLhlJA-L Ittf'A=Ir?-t: k ..J__l.D_·I._~TI-+Ear2...I~\S A.I 7-Ef>6.l ~t-t-ENt;?Jf1C_ ~\JOUR.A-BU:::

34. Do you hold follow-up meetings for par ticular performances zprogr.un.r.cs? \\,;-,),:ND

30.

31.

32.

33.

-.-----------=-------------------:---- -~---~-~~XGc..llA-J tDru K Er-..)AC.TMENl' OF f/aEl~\.{)~w CA "(' D fu'J C€ . 5. 0 U N 1:> t.: f Ft= eT S . V L? V. ALIH-""dl et. i UN Pr2..bc6:S1 ~ _ VV\ l ME ~ 1~=v~i~;+l~;(JrJ5:.

Ho'.v much time is Si-; en to particpJtion in cll1Y.,?!.le programlT,e? ~(...:='T S Tfr~K~Qu.3 ~ ({.oJECf· ()~DJ£CTt.:.-V lIM£. \5 A:-b!0,J)s.\,__A-L~fI-'-t$~ENDEi1.fj) I J2 eA- .bvt:: Tb VC C> ~ __ L9M_~~TIV\£;0-C.

1-I;,:)\\' often does the team have performance, or participation. or both? \ J2_t::i!_LL~~~ U_tntl -- Cl~I ~ u..G:_~ E_-> Es.s:-l C~ J]±Q_~_~_8: _£_~ ktv\.S__ £SJ' Eel A-LL~ 12 rt.E-A-K I t+€_~Q_g__Q_~ __6C~8_f -~J2..c..-t\-1ViST+t€ Fk..D~ Dr- AC.IIV(T'-(

Em'>' :ong is a programme? _~C:>'}ECI ? ~~f'. 'TlN'b M 9__NTrtSt-D--R A M ~oR 000 N f.. uJ__tt6T _____l N ~ f2..~ 0 r2.AI_~ __~\-:'

_V A::-t2...leI'l D':::' A-c-n v l I':L . ~~ ..

_______ -00__ 00_- ----- __ ... --~----- ..-__ .--.~

------~-~-----

W~ S_~ ~A-NT" To Gro r£A-Gl<' TDM AA1 TD MGMS E-R.S ~N -r ~_E_EE_T __ k A--- ..-~_-~_=~__~fv\l<i.$lVtJ Ac.c..D\AF'L~S tr~ ?

35. How do you evaluate the impact of your performances/programmes? ~ ~ _A VPkf2-~'t" 1-,/ TQ GMG tJ:bSJ$

How do you go abou. .his? UJ N>. oM.~ CbM.M&Nt"~ 'f6{2.-h (2.M Gr<S.$OGL A B.IL \l'--{ ~ Sou AL \ M AU. Eo MA-W_~l11i~\L~~S.co,JA-EI~ "( ~1t-NGC5 ~ ~1+-\~S:(h-sM IN_ATf~MC£(lh:_Jf":b 6rJ0f? s,uc.<:: ESSllJ£ St+ow$. IttE ~~~ALL'f H-cc P<.. I1uLLA r>A-/.ja If'-) TH~ h(k 1)1J12..( NG;- "'t'" >CON 4-F~

36. WhJ.t is the balance between the theatre, enter tainrnent, and educational element, ji+f'StIow.;used in your performace/programme? I\-t-EAJ. (.2_£ 0eR S ~ __-;-_iX.~ _1\) _~_~ - 8<TeN GNT82.TAIN M8VT .._W_EL*_M_t:u1J; -~ A ~ . c..o NS PI (_<rl) S L'i ~ \ ~ ~ v ~~~

37. How has the change in the educational system affected your relationship wi th D;-,-.:--~,:as a subject, and theatre as performance? ~_--:;;; -:-- --:-M\.{ ASS8S-M.t?tJr WaUk]) Y2-GQu \ r2.£ C> Nb M.~g:E'-{~ To V\ €-A-N M.a (2...8 -hJ LL'/· A LL I t+t ~ tTM 6 00&. It;. 4- ~s. opwGJ) MD(l.E A-v~uG.s I ~ ~ ..~N~:t:~tt~ 6i€t~F;W~~~e. A ~5Wt-t::i_.s-?A£:An'iefc~:DMIe~

~at are your relationships WIth other theatre companies? _r2..E-MOT I:£. . (\J D THo( tJ Et \ f\J \ l M 041£ EN r:uLn:J- .

471

39. Do you belong to any theatre/drama movements? __ Y__._,Es~_?_.I _Give an opinion on the Kenya Schools/Colleges Drama Festival Committee? _At> J U1) I CA-l 0 R..~ W Ou 1-]) '\-tAu t-= 1"Dr?,£: L E-s~ _~N£ &g_1/A-ll V'f_,._M Q (2_ t= N.J ITNT 0rA{?D f:? __~ _tk-o L'D TD &u CMOJ) A-Tt:" (\.)~VI:;L t D ~ ll _MPrk(E TH-:t- Sc.61\)l:= M~ R.b CCJLt) <.SY2.HI- (__S.fJ10 L~ c... rZ.Gt\-lt~~. 'P8? \±tr£s -M ~Ie..~ '--IDUI\) (:r-_~lDM)NDT N E"c..ES3-A-e1 L'f J N INS,' {:)f- 1-\16.. ~ L~A-(2NI~

V/ho funds your tours? .s \--to U L.D TA-J<. {; a U'~ . __

.} n±:E VN\v~I\'i PA-RIL':J _~) AT liMEs :rt-t-t= ~uP :fi<.t)M 'lTS tMACI-_G_Q__t:_-Foe.. S

40.

Please feel free to commen t further.

Many thanks for your invaluable assistance.

Contact: Opiyo MummaDept. of Literature,University of Nairobi,P.O. Box 30197,Nairobi.Tel: 334244, ext. 2070.

or: Dept. oj DramaUniversity of MonchesterOxford Road,Manchester M13 9PLU.K.Tel: (061) 2735183

472

Students of the Performing Arts Questionnaire

Name -------------------------------Address

Tel. No. __

What instrument do you play/What roles do you perform? _

How long have you been playing/ acting? _

Do you have any previous experience in playing jazz/musicals? If so, to what extent?

Wha t do you expect to gain from this course? _

Are you interested in a career in music/theatre? _

What areas of performance are you particularly interested in? _

What areas of performance interest you? _

How did you here about this course:ConcertAdvertisement __

Bands/Musicians _Article __

Any other source (Please state) ---;- _

Any other comments? _

473

RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

(A) To Th ea t re in Education 'I'e ams .

(B) To Te schers and Pupi Is,

(C) To T, 1. E, Teams cn psr t i culer pr csrammes.

(D) Methods of gathering information,

Name of T, I. E, teamAddressTelephone NoPost code

2 \·lhatis the number of members in the team?

3 \·lh::ltare the criteria USEd in recr-uiting members to the team?

4 What is the range of skills of the members of the team?

5 How are thEse skills used~

6 HOI-Imany members of the tearn have been to Or- 3m3 scheol, I'1usic call Egesor are t rai ned espec t aLl y for T, 1. E,?

7 What is the number of directors on the b03rd?

8 What are the criteria used in selecting directors of the board?

9 vlhat is the wor k t r.g relati or.sh i p beLJeen tho::T. 1. E, t earn and thedirectors of the board?

10 \lIh atis the T. I. E. t e3m I s ar t i stic po I I cY ?

11 What are the broad aims and objectives?

12 Does the I.eam have a language policy?

13 Over the P3st five years what has been your typical audience? What ist he age range,

14 What normally is your 3udience size 3nd why?

15 \.,Thatgoverns the team' 5 choice of script":'

16 Who writes the script:' i'.rl Ind t v idua I or- the whole team?

17 Are there restrictions on content of the script?

474

18 vlh:=t is the be Le n c o between the theatre and education elements us e d r'Which are these elements?

19 How do you select the subject matter of a programme?

20 vJhat is the n s t ur e ot grol,'p dE"isirl:3 irl y our t e a m an d ho·.-! is t h ediscussion handled?

21 How is your pro,3ramme pr ep ar a t i on and rehearsal period structur-ed?

22 Are individuals in the team given specific duties if so why, if notwhy not?

23 vlh:Jt :II-e YC','!' rna t e r i e I rescurces fo r rehearsal and b3cksrcIIl1dresearch ~'

24 Do YOll hold wor k s hc.p s for teachers and for wh a t pur-pose?

25 Ho"] e r e the t e e c h e r s viorkshops struc t ur e d ?

26 What is the pr e p a r a t I on t h a t goes into the t e c c h er e n o t e s ?

27 How does the p:Jck of resour-ces for teachers set used?

28 Give :moutline c f those involved and r-esponsible ter th e pr ac tf c a lworking in the T, I. E, team,

29 Over the past five years what are the rules and conventions governingyour performances?

30 \·lhe'lt do the performances combine - e . g, visual theatre, dance, livemusic?

31 How much time is give to participation in anyone programme?

32 How often does the team have performance or participation programmes?What are the reasons t or this?

33 Does the tean combine touring and in residences?

34 How long is a typical programme?

35 Gf ve ex amp l.e s at h ow T, 1. E, methods and skills have wet-ked for- yourteam.

36 Who 0 t the f o l l owi n8 ho ve in f 1uenced t he wad: ing of your- t e am?Dorot hy Heat heat e, Gavin Bol t on, Augusto Baal. Why?

37 Do you hold follow-up meetings for particular programmes and why?

38 How do you evaluate the impact of your prograrrunes? Ho» do yOIJ goabout this?

475

39 ~lh:::t cr i t eri a has the Lo caI author-ity us ed when considering the velueof your wor k?

40 Have you felt the need to clarify your aims, their relationship toeducation and your political stance to local authorities 3nd tofunding agencies?

41 1~3t has your funding situation been over the past five years?

42 Whst is your reaction to changes in funding to T.1. E. teams, how hasit affected T. 1. E. development and what are the long termimplications.

43 How has the team be en affected by The Nations] Curr j c t il t nn.

44 Are you a member of SCYPT? If so why, if not why not?

45 Are you a member of any other movemEnts? Which ones are these andwhy?

46 ~lhat are your future st rs t eg i es >

47 ~lhat are the training opportunities/possibilities for members of theteams in their various skills? How often do these occur?

48 What is your relationship v;ith other T. I. E. teams?

49 I>lhatare the changes in the practice and theory of T. 1. E over the past5 years, and how have these affected your team's practice and thoughton theatre and educ3tion

50 Any other comments.

B & C illLE~.JIQ~NAIR!LI.Q_I.I:;ACHERS __M~R_..PUPILS ON PIT PROP'S PROGRAMME_• ANGEL'

eT) Teachers

Did you do any preparatory work for this programme with Pit PropT,I.E.? (T)

2 Why was the programme booked and by ....hi ch department? cn

3 How often do T. I. E. teams visit your school and what has the impactbeen on t.he students, staff and the curriculum? <T)

4 What did you feel when you were divided into groups and the wor-kshopwith the handbags began? ep)

5 DId you make any me an ing of '"hat went on with the handbags? ep)

476

6 How did you set involved in the performance of 'Angel' ? CT & P)

7 Did you understand all the issues raised in the performance of'Angel'? (f' & P)

8 How did you react to different situ~tions, especially the tensions thecharacters faced? eT & P)

9 Which cherac t sr affected you most? Who did you identify andsympathise \·;ith? l>lhy?

10 What did you think the play was all about? ep)

11 What was your o~erall impression of the play? ep)

12 BeforE: yell wat ched the performance had you experienced any of theissues raised in the p13y? For example racial predjudice, familyconflict, en-rest etc, etc, ? ep)

13 Since then hJ~e you used the experience or facts in the performance inany ',.Jayin your life? ep)

14 Would you like to see anything like this again? ep)

15 Do you think you learnt more from the performance than you would h3vedone in a series of lessons? ep)

16 Which is the school subject that could be best linked t.o thisperformance? (P)

17 Did you have time to talk about the performancealOollSsl. y our selve s 01-

with your teachers? (P)

18 ~~3t work did you do with your students 3S a tallow-up to thepr-og r nmrne ? (T)

19 How viou Ld you have liked it t olLot-ed up:' er)

20 Have you had :3 c hanc e to talk to Pit Prop T. I. E.? If so, whatSUSgEst I on s h ave you mad er en

21 What was the organisation and value of the week' 5 performance in yourschool'? (T at PEMBERTON COMMUNITY HIGH)

22 Has any cross-curricular work been stimulated in your school 3S 3

result of the performnnce? (T)

23 Any other comments?

-----------------------------_._--------

477

AUDIENCE QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Name _

2. Age _

3. Where do you live?

4. Are you with a friendrelativea group

by yourself

DDDD

5. How often do you go to the theatre?: Never /hardly DOnce a year D

2-3 times a year D4+ times a year D

6. How did you know about the performance?: Advert in NewspaperArticle in leaflet

RadioTelevision

Letter through the postA friend

Word of mou thPoster

Table literature

DDDDDDDDD

7. What comments do you have regarding the level of engagement of the audience bytheperforrnance? __

8. Did you feel in-role during the performance?

9. What was your main reason for coming to watch the play?Knew the companies D

Interested in the publicity DFor professional reasons D

10. What did you enjoy about the play?

11. What did you least enjoy about the play?

- 478

12. Was the venue accessible with regard to:Location D

Access into the theatre DAccess into auditorium D

Layout of foyer DLayout of auditorium DLayoutofbar/eating

facility DConsumer care and general

comfort D

Please feel free to comment further.

Thankyou for your co-operation and your time

Contact: Opiyo MummaDept. of Literature,University of Nairobi,P.O. Box 30197,Nairobi.Tel: 334244, ext. 2070.

or: Dept. of DramaUniversity of ManchesterOxford Road,Manchester M13 9FLU.K.Tel: (061) 273 5183

"

479

{A" '/(vJV

(' f'! r" 'J ' __

A..' r~ __ ._._-

--------- -

REPUBLIC OF KENYA

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION,SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (SECONDARY)

~ENYA SECONDARY SCHOOLS DRAMA FESTIVAL

RULES

THIRD EDITION 1984

~ ~::l

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(iii) _7 Hest Play in Swahili (i)

(ii) _(iii) _

8 Adjudicators Award __ •9 Best Actress (i)

(ii) __ ......,..... _(iii) _

10 Best Actor (i)(ii) _(iii) _(i)(ii) _(iii) _

II Best Costume & Decor

12 Most CulturallyA ut hcntic Play _

DANCE AWARDSI Winning Dance _2 2nd Runners up _3 3rdRunnersup _4 Best Costume

and Decor (i)(ii) _

. (iii) _5 Best Presentation . (i)

(ii)(iii)

6 Adjudicators Award _ __ ------7 Most Culturally

A uthentic Dance _

Printed by Afropress Ltd., Lusaka Close, off Lusaka Road.P.O. Box 30502. Nairobi, Kenya

J;

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, ,

...._---

A DRAFT HATIONAL CULTURl\L POLICY fOR KENYJ\.

1.0: Preamble:

CuI t u rei 5 the art iCu 1a t i0 II 0 f 1 i f e t 11r 0 \I r:h t h e 1 imh s

of creativity, wh ic h empowe r s a people in d i v i dun Ll y

and collectively to be themselves as they c c l.c b ra t.ethe totality of life ma t e ri n l l y and spiritually f r orn

generation to peneration. /l.g Sllch it :Is the sum t(lt-;ll

of a people's wa y of life :1THl va l ue s . /\ p e op le t s c u l t u r eis ex pre sse cl inn 11 :15P er: t ~ 0 f the i r pol itt c a l , j ud I c in 1 ,

social, econom ic ,HId sp lr i t un l systems ;1J1l1va lue s . Itfinds expression in ;1nd ie; sYf.1bolised by n peopJ("s

language, art, song dance, and dram a , It 15 expresse-I

in and is identified 'with a people~ mnt('rinl trnit5,science and t echno l.or-y • Cu Lt n re is the t o t a lLt y of Cl

people's Hily of life and vnlues as influenced by theprocess of continuity and chan ge and as t cnprr ed by

the dictates of their environment.

,That reality for us Kenyans sprinp,s from far beyondcolonialism. Our culture expresses itself JTlainly throllp,hour Oral Traditions. We need, therefore, to lin~ hnck toit o rgan lc a Ll y bec aus e it is the main sp r i.npboard aridthe only reservoir of confidence, sustennnce and hopefor us nOH and for our future deve}opr.lent.

This view steins from and is reLnfo rc ed by a stronr.r. .

belief that A people without a strong foundation intheir relevant cul.ture cannot have a viable nationnlidentity which is a prerequisite for national unity,dignity and l1ationhood.

. H.491 3D

/ If I I2 .:~" /., I

!

2.0: Kenya's Cultural Heritag~:Kenya does not owe its origin to the Berlin Conferenceof 1884 h'hich partitionecl Africa into different 5pheresof European influence.

Kenya is a community of diverse ethnic cultures whichhave been shaped by a common history and geography.The conmon roots of the Kenyan people Hhich haveexisted for thousands of years have forged a culturalbond and n common response to our environment.

When Western European ColoninliSrJ arrived en our land-scape in the 19th Century, it found strong ond,richcultural tradition. /\ tradition which was thrlvinp,without bein_g patronised by the whiteman. We havedeveloped. technology which had enabled. us to liveunder difficult environmental conditions. Wepractised rredicine, tilled the land, organised ourPRstoral activities, fished and hunted successfully.We were not taught ha", to live by the whiteman. We,in fact, taught the whiteman how to live on our land.We had evolved a total human econogy.

The colonial portioning of Africa which \'le opposed hadno regard for tIle composite diversity of our indegenouscultural heritage. Through its rni~sionary attach andadministration the colonial policy deliberately refusedto recognise the existence of an indegenoug culture.Instead, the colonial policy was directed towards n.process of con9cious evn~uation of our Africanne!s.The resulting expe~ience left those of who pertook of

492

. · · · · .;es. i5(

3

these alien ideas hrllj~P0 Ano depersonalised.

The failute on the part of the colonisers to draw fromrich Lnd e.g enous cult ural:,heritage of our people and thearbitrary juxtaposition bf conflicting cultura~ valuesbecame a further push towards our realising the need tobe one. The common enemy brought a common bond. All ofus Kenyans have come together. Only tllrough our culturecare our freedom and dignity as a people survive.

2.01: It is against this backrround that the p,overnment is now,therefore, convinc~d tha~:-

(a) time has come ~o create the"atmosphere in which ourpeople can express themselves as a free people,

(b) tJle survival and unity of our nation are groundedin our cultural hcri.t age ,

(c) there is n need fora framework to revive, rehabilitateand promote development throuRh artf~tic, scientificand technological aGtivities without sacrificing ourcultural heritage.

2.02: In consideration of the above, the Government is guidedby the following policy statements made by it!~, KANU,

,Kenyan Leaders and by various international organisationswhose charters Kenya is a signatory:-

(a) the late President Kenyatta said on National culture:-"Songs and~dances are the roots of nationalculture an~ culture i~ the foundation ofany nation in the world. In my vi!it~ to

.....~.493 '

4

the countryside, I find a reawakening ofthe arts 311d expressions of our culture.The value of a people lies in theirculture",

(b) President Daniel arap Mo i has made several statementson Culture:

"To ensure that our national culture ispreserved and enabled to flower more freely,\Ye have now to codify things and introducecertain di~ciplines, and start deliberatelyteaching at least the fundamentals in allthe fields of arts" .

"Culture is not for the youth alone. Allage groups can and JIlustbe involved and noliJllitation~ or circulllstances must exist topreven t t he f10\'1of ins pi ration which mayenrich the national heritage" .•••••••• ,

"A nu t IonaI orches t ra and a national choirto supp leue n t wo rld renowned national dancetroupes an~ the work of the national theatre" •••••

" all these could enrich our own lives whileallowing K~nya to make better contribution tothe global fund of culture by playing a fullerpart in int;ernational festivals of arts".

"Culture could and must become a reflectionof Kenya's nationhood".

494

5

(c) I t has also been sa id here and there by otherKenyan leaders thC'lt:

"Culture is the bouy and soul of a people.The bringing of Culture into its aNn inthis country is intenJcd to bring respectto our t rad i t ion s as Keny ans ':,

and also that:"All f:en y cn c t Ln ic f,r 0 ups 5 h 0 U 1cl cl r ClW thebest f rom their respective cuLtures in orderto shape a future in which all Kenyansun de rs t-a nd 2.n d a PIirecia tee Cl C 11 o t h er scultural hcritnge".

i ) t11e con s tituti 0 Tl 0 f ~AN U ( 19 74) (E d it ion) whichstatcs:-

"our nation must grow organically from what

is indigenous" ,.

ii) KANU manifesto 1979, says that:"the KANU Government will deliberatelyencou rage and preserve all expression ofAfrican Culture",

iii) the Report to the National Committee on Educationalobjectives and polic~es (19~6) which states, that:-

"the education ·system which has in manycases been iris~rurnental as an agent ofsocial alienatlon must therefore be madeto make the ne~es~ary social correctionsby teaching a ~ational culture and basic

495~__,_~~~~~~~ 1Ht.~

6

family and social life education. The aimof such a step will be to ensure nationalunity, survival and an enhanced Clualityof life in an increasingly international~yinterdependent patter of human :tife",

Iv) the Organisation of /I,fri<.anUnit)' CultUl'al Charter forAfrica ,""hich st<Jtes:

" any human society is necessarily governedLy rt il~ sail d p rinc i 111 e s has e d ()1I t r a d i t ion s ,

1 a II g IJ Clg e s , w Cl }' 5 0 [ 1 J f ~ R Tlf 1 t h o II ~'. 11, ina the r

words, on n set of cultural v alue s whichreflect its d Ls t inc t i.v e character andpersonality",

v) the Con st i t u t ion of U;JESCt) vzh ich states that:I' the wide d i f fusLon o f cu Iture, and theeducation of humanity fer justice andliberty and peace arc indispensable to thedip,nity of man".

2.03: The Cove rrmen t conv inc ed ,by the seriousness w i t h whichour leaders have viewed cu lture and the efforts theyhave put in to direct this nation towards the revivalof the Kenyan Culture; r~solves to draw-up a Cultui~lPolicy whose main ob j ec t Ive s are:-

i) to structure all development pronramrnes so thatthey are relevant to the culture of this country;

•••••• /Jt :] _{

496

7

il) to encourage the utilisation of local materl~l in"~ll the development process;, I

iii) to exploit the sense of Community as drawn fromour history and culture and to create appropriatefacilities and structures as an ess~ntial part ofthe planning process;

iv) to create a suitable environment in which thepeople's cultural revival and aspirations willbe fully realised;

v) to protect and preserve our cultural and naturalheritage.

2.04: In order to accomplish the foregoing, it is neces!aryJI to provide a framework and machinery for the develop-

ment and preservation of our national cultural heritage.The aims of the cultural policy are as follows:-

(a) the revival and enhancement of the dip,nity and therelevance of the Kenyan Cultural lIeritage.

(b) the identification, .retrieval and preservation ofmaterial and non-material culture of our people.

(c) the promotion and di!semination of the culturalwealth of our country within and out~ide the Republic.

(d) the creation of better under!tanding among our peoplethrough sharing of our cultural h~rita~e.

(e) the re!toration, re~abilitation and enhancement oftho!e values which~ve always given moral guidsnceto our society;

497"

)I!;••.•••• Ill.:;

8

(f) the re-discovery of .honesty, integrity, and self-confidence, which values are a pre-requisite of anystable society.

(g) the creation of an atmosphere that will enable theKenyan to respond adequately to forces, both foreignand local, which in one way or another affect hisvalues and his very.self.

(h) harnessing the creative potential of our peopletowards relevance and self-reliance.

(i) revival and support for indegenous traditio~alcultural institutions as a source of authentic inform-ation for the nation's cultural action.

Dichotomy of Culture -See Appendix'J\.".

3.0: NATIONAL LANGUAGES.

3.01: Language i! the repository, the embodiment and themedium of transmission o~ a people's culture. It i~

also the form outward id~ntlty of a people. Peopleare more innovative and Qriginal when they expresBthemselves in a language _that springs from theircultural environment.

. .... /9. (j_J

498

9

In view of thi~ the gove~nment will:-Ca) develop and promote .Kenya National languages,

Cb) Promote the use of Kiswahili as a medium ofcommunication.

(c) Encourage and promote the teaching of KisHahili asa national and official language.

\

(d) Organise periodic sem lnars and conferences on thedevelopment and t each l.rig of Kiswahili and otherAfrican languages.

(e) Encourage the writing of creative and scientific~ork9 in Ki~wah!li.

(f) Promote the tran~lation of technical and ~cientific"works in Kiswahili.

(g) Encourage and promote language developing agencie! ••••••.

4.0: ORAL TRADITIONS.4.01: Oral Traditiori is the ma~nspring and embodiment of the

African experience, and ~onsensus. It is the compo.iteof belief systems, tradit.ional ethics, customary law,traditional medicine, or~l history and oral literature.Oral communication is th~ mo~t appropriate method bywhich we can have access ..to the authentic sources ofthis information.

..4.02: In recognition of th~ ab~ve the government will:-(a) finance and proMote .research in religious observances,

traditional medicin~, cu.~omary law!, ethics andidealogy, oral history.and oral literature;

499 .. /1O.~~

10

(b) identify, recogn i ze and support the individuals andgrouJlg who have the relevant informRoon, in orner toencourage the development of their talentg;

(c) introduce measures ~o protect the intellectualproperties of local experts in oral tradition.

5.0: PERFOR1lIN G ARTS.

5.01: Performing Arts include music, dance and drama. Theyconstitute the soul of a people's culture. They Arethe outward expression of n people's joy, sorrow, andexperience. The performing arts, R~e R vehicle ofeducation, entertainme~tand development. In additionthey serve the purpose of.mOUlding the human character.They help to foster cohe~iveness and R sense of~longingwithin a community.

5.02: In view of the above, the Government will:-(a) Encourage and support the preservation, development,

and promotion of our traditional music, dan~e anddrama with R view of reviving and ~trengthening theirtraditional aesthetic and cultural vAlues;

(b) finance and promote research in these fields;

(c) Encourage and develop traditional recreationalentertainment and sport s ;

(d) Encourage and promote local music by limiting foreignmus ic in publ ic pLace s and the medi a,

(e) Encourage drama wh ich aims at promoting our culturalvalue! and dramatic _technique~;

500If......... ttl .

11

(f) establish 11 board which will be responsible forscrutinizinr nnd n1aintnining the standard of qualityand content of music, dance and drana that will b emade availnb1e at puhlic functions nnel the media.

6.0: PU13Lle L I DRARIES NW l'VDL,ICA TIOlL6.01: Public libraries aIld publications are a crucial agency

in the prono t lon of literacy, continuing education, anddissemination of cu lt.ural va lues and know lcd ge .

6.02: In view of the above, the government ",111:-(n) establish culturnl centres which shall include. .

libraries and f~cilities for visunl and perfonninp.arts;

(b) sponsor and sub sld Lz e research and publicationprojects on national relevance and value;

(c) give incentives through the est ab lishmen t of anaward system whereby meritorious up-coming andestablished artists will be recognised, andfinancial assistance to competent artists toproduce quality works of art for cultural centre.

6.03: ON ARTISTS IN SOCIETY.Art is the expression of ,R people's culture. Theimportance of the creative artist cannot thereforebe over-remphas!zed. The Government will therefore:~(a) encourage the creation of Artists Asgociation~ to

facilitate Rnd promote artistic creativity •

•••• • /J:1.. <ID

501

12

(b) provide the legal framework t hat will protect 'Andsustain the artist thus enabling him to engage increative activities .without LnhLb it ions and/oreconomic strains;

(c) further create the opportunities for exposure andappreciation of crea_tive art thus boosting theimage and status of the artist in society.

7.0: ON THE FRUEDOH OP EXPRESSION.

7.01: Freedom of expression isa fundamental requirement ofany d~veloping society such as ours. Artistic activities

.are essentially an aspect of investigating truth andreality. As these artistic activities aim at inve~ti-gating the conditions of societies they neces~arilycontribute to the development of society.

The Government will:-

7.02: Enhance and safeguard the.freedom of expression in allits facets as a cardinal prln~iple of our culturaldevelopment as a whole.

8.0: ~lATERIAL EXPRESSION OF ClLLTURB.

8.01: Sin~e material expression of any culture constitutes animportant segment of the ~ultural heritage of a peopie,an understanding and app~eciation of it does provide acountry with the cumulative achievements and experienceswhich constitute the m~t~rial foundation upon whichfurther te~hnological developm~nt rests, and throughwhich a people derive th~ir,insplrRtion, culturalidentity and 5elf-con!ci~usnes!.

502 V/....... / rs.

13

The Government ~Ji11:··(a) provide Lnc en t ivo s to t31 en tE'!,l Keny an sculptor sAnd

paintersj(b) provide exhibition facilties flnd copyrip,ht protection

to Kenyan sculptors and painters,

(c) co ll.ect , study and pr eserve for posterity our tradition;mn t e r ia I cu lt ur e ;

(d) produce and promote the mnking of Kenyan culturalfilms and p rov Lde Inc ent i.ves to Kenyans who areinterested in the produr:tion of films and incinema t ography.;

(e) ensure that every fUm rnade :in Y.enY8 :Js de pos itedwith the f,overnment;

(f) ensure that any film, imported or locally made doesnot contradict the moral ethical princ\ples of ourculture;

(g) encourage local artlsts to study and improve uponthe traditional costume~ with a view to allowing foran evolution of national dress;

(h) facilitate research ,and development and populari-sation of tridition.l dishes;

(I) finance and promote ,research in the conservationmeth~ds of material ~ulture;

(j) protect archeological and palaeontological objectsof this country from .illegal exportation;

LI(••••. /1-4.503

14

(k) preserve and exhibit ohjects of our cultural andnatural heritage for educational purposes;

(1) research in order to ide-ntify, acquire and preservehistorico - cultural sites and objects;

(m) present to the public rhe historico-cultural sitesaIld monuments;

(n) continue to protect. preserve, and constructcommemorative structures in recognition of thepeople who played important roles in the hi~toryof t hLs country".

9.0: TOURIST INDUSTRY, ) 'y ~,. -~ .'.

Tourism has and continue~ to cohtribute a great deal to

economic development of tb is coun t ry , . '. ,f

f"".

The Government cannot ign.ore !Some I)f tho adverse culturaland moral effects,whicll undermine the very cultural tenetsof our society. In this .regar d , the Government willtherefore ensure that va Lues which conflict with ourbasic African traditions .ar e not introduced.

10.Os ADVERTISING:Advertising has become a _major instrument in our commercialactivity. The nation is _called upon not only to promotethe creation ~f goods and provide services but also to

•.•..•• /lIr. uJ

504

15

promote their consump t Lo n as well. The Government willtherefore:-(a) ende::tvour to develop a respon~ible odvertisillg

industry,

(b) endeavour to see that the aJvertising media carriesout it! act.ivities ~11 a manner that uoes not misleadthe pub ILe or endanger the irhea 1til but rn ther theyenhance the dignity .ond respect of a Ll r(loples

e specLally women and children.

11.0: CULTURAL EXCHANGE AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS.

Culture is the bn~i~ of human relations within andacross ~ocieties. As such it is an importantaspect of a country's relations with other nations.For this reason the gove~nment will:-

(a) ensure'that every f~reign mission has cultural·.'r

attache;(b) negotiate and sign ~greements on cultural exchanges

with other friendly.nations as a eoncrete expressionof our commitment t~ t~e policy of internationalunderstanding and g~od neighbourliness.

12.0: MASS-MEDIA.

12.01:The mas~-medi4 has come to form an important part ofour modern life. It is ~ot only an essential vehicleof information, cornmunie~.tion, education and entertainmentbut it could al!o playa .vital role in our country'scultural development and.expression •

••• ••••/l6.505

16

12.02: The Government will, t h e re I'o r e t >

~3.0:13.01:

13.02:

14.0t

: '

(a) €Jlcourar;ethe na ss e rnerl i.a -::0 sup po rt efforts insenrching for genuine African cultural expression,

(b) '\support the mass-me4ia to carry out its ~ctivitiesin 9 manner th at w i lI enhance the d i gnLty andrespect of all pe opLes including the youth an dchildren. \

\

NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR ARTS AND CULTURE.CREATION OF THE NATIOUAL COUNCIL paR ARTS AND CULTURE,In view of the vi tn 1 Lmpor t anc o of CuI t.u re in .Kenya t sSocial and EClI.1l0m"ic .lJevcl,opmentand in vieh' of\the need

\

to monitor and co-ordinate cultural activities \throughout the country, the Government will creat~'.a

\The Council ':.\ -,

will provide a framework _for carrying out dec Is Ions \ \

in the effort to develop t. encour age , Impr ove , t:01'1.ler~e,"I"

.Na t i.onaI Council for Ar t s and Culture.

and disseminate the nationnl Cultural Her ltcge"',,I, "

\

\FUNCTIONS.the maIn Tunc t Ion 0:( the Council will be to \advise the Minister yesponsible for Culture \,

\.on researeh into an4 scope for development \of Kenya's cultural _heritage, . .. \

\Cb) The Council will moqitor and eo-ordinate all the \

(a)

cultural activities _in the tountry within theframework of the cu~tur81 policy.

(c) The Council, will mike it! own estimate! foradministrative serv~~e. and apply for {inaneia1grants to the !(RWern.men t. ,.. -

17

(d) The Council will receive applications for financialassistance in tIle form of grants for approvedprojects from the registered and affiliated culturalorganisations and recommend such application~ tothe Government.

(e) The Council maYt when necessary and through theappropriate Government machinery, raise fundslocally and internationally. Such funds will beused solely on the approved cultural activitie~.

(f) The Counc Il a-nd its ,branches w LlI advise t inconsultation with the Department of Culture, onthe running of cultural centres in the country.

(g) The Council will define the functions of it~

branches within the provision of itgconstitution.

15.0: MEMBERSHIP:15.01: Me~ber! of the Council will be drawn from prominent

men and women in the Rep~blic who have distinguishedthemsel ves in the field~ .0£ Ar ts and CuI ture . Provinces,major Institutions and Mini!tries involved in culturalactivities, 'Women Religio_u~,'cultural organisation'S andindustries will also be ~epresented. Member!hip to theCouncil and its branches ~ill be by appointment by th~Minister responsible for.Culture. The Councilor it!branches may, sub] ect to ,approval' by the ~Hnister,co-opt additional member~. The Minister may al~onomihate additional memb~rs as necessary. The Director

....5.1l2. ub

18

of Culture will be a mem~er of the Council. TheProvincial Director of Culture Rnd the DistrictCuI tural Officer will be .mernb e r s of the Provincialand District branches of the Council respectiv~ly.Chairmen and Secretaries .of the ProvinciRl branche~of the Council will be members of the Council and theChairmen and Secretaries _of the Di~trict branches ofthe Council will be members of the Provincial branche~of the Councii.

16.0: BRANCHES.16.01: The Coun~il will establi~h branches at the Provincial

and District levels. Membdrs in the branches of theCouncil will be drawn f rorn the Ds LtrLcts , Divisionsand Registered affiliate~ Cultural bodies.

11.0: SPECIAL COMMITTEES AND PANNELS.

17.01: The Council may form pro~e!~ional pannel! orCommittees to deal with ~ny .pecific matterg'itdeems necessary.

Chairmen of such pannels .or committees shall be membersof the Council. Members .01 such pannel! or committeesneed not necessarily be ~ember5 of the Council. The

Secretarielt of such pannet s and commi t t ees will be'-professionals of the !pe~ific matter to be dealt withand 5hall be provided by.the Department of Culture.

18.01 SECRETARIAL SERVICES TO tHE COUNCIL.18.01: The Department of Cultur~ ghall set up a unit, under

its direction, headed by.8 Senior Government Officer508

19.0:

~O.OI

19

to provide secretarial services for the Council.

THE DEPARTHENT OF CULTURE.In order to provide a structure for the implementationof the cultural policy, the government created aDepartment of Culture in ~he Ministry of Culture andSocial servIce s whose respons Ib ilLtLes cover amongother things research, d~velopment, conservation anddissemination of Kenya's .Cultural Heritage. In orderto do this, the Departme~t has set up the followingDivisions:-

i) Cultural Heritage;ii) Visual Arts;

iii) Performing Arts;iv) Oral Tradition;v) Ki~wahili and other National Languages.

vi) Training and Research.

FUNCTIONS OF THE DlRECTOP;.ATBOF CULTURE.

(a) General admlnistrati~n of the Department.Cb) SponsOTship of cult~r~l activities (festival. and

exhibitions, book f~irsJ etc.). Sponsoring ·~ulturalresearch4

(c) Providing funds for.individual arti~ts with an aimof encouraging arti~tic development in the eountry.

(d) Publishing cultural ~ooka including books on oraltradition, literatu~e, Xiswahili and Africanlanguage ••

509 •••••••• /lO.

21.0:

20

(e) Providing trophies ~nu awards for the be~tcontribution in the fields of Art and Culture.

(£) Organising annual n~tional cultural festival~.

(g) Providing grants for non-governmental culturalorganisations.

(h) E9tabli~hing and de~eloping cultural centresthroughout the Republic.

FUNCTIONS OF THfl DIVISION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE.Conservatiqn and Development 6f the

following':-(a) Immovable material c_ulture,historical buildings,

landmarks, districts and structures.

(b) Historical and other culturally reLated sites andmonument~.

- ..,(c) Cultural museumS an~ archaeological mate~ial!

(relics),

(d) Cave and rock art•. -

.(e) Scientific research -both on material culture5 andcultural conservatiQn.

(£) In liai~on with the ~eleYant authorities, con~tructmemorial ltructure'~ ~~tabli!h a central laboratoryfor the conservatio~ of cultural properties.

(g) Carry out studies of Traditional African Architec-ture and settlem~nt ~atternJ a~ a ba~is fot creativeapproach ·tomodern ~uild~ng an? town planning.

/ u7• • • • •• 2-1.510

21

(h) Co-ordinate historic. p reservat ion , researchand preservation of work undertaken byparastatAI Cultural Organisations, private.bodies, Bnd individ~Rlg.

(1) COlltrol of rnbvernentof articles including Antiquities.in and outside the Republic •

. ~ _FUNCTIO~~S-9-FVISUAL ARTS DIVISION.(a) Acquisi ion And rre~ervAtlon of cultural object~

as paintings and sc~lptures, culinary arts objects,material culture and costumes.. .

(b) Establish photogTap~s Rnd cinp-matographic studiofor the processing of cultural film~.

(c) Establish art galleries in the country for thepreservation and exhibition of visual art! objects.

(d) Carry out r esea rch In all asp ec t s of visual arts.

~~ rBNGT~~lPERFORMING ARTS DIVISION.

(a) Undertake research on Ethno musicology of Kenya.

(b) Collect, study, transcribe and maintain record ofmusic and dances of~ll Ethnic groups in thecountry for posteri~y.

(c) Encourage and develQp traditional recreationalentertainment and s~orts.

(d) Train musiciAn!, mu~ieologi!ts, choreographers,cut tura! animators and adminis trators.

511JD

••••• /2-2.

22

( e) lPli t i ,H e nTIcl Co - o nli. 11::1.t (' the n.et 1vi t j ego f a 11

music and d a nc e c lub s , op~niJ1r. tip of new clubs wherethey do not exi!'lt.

(f) Assist in thp. estnhlishment of th~atres in thecountry, Hesearch into and d~velorl1ent eft rad i t Lonn l forms of drama.

(g) Co-ordinatE' nIl nctivities on drC'lmaand theirperformRnces.

(h) Encourage and develop mus ic , dance and drama inthe country.

(1) Organize music, danc e , festivals a nd competitions.

(j) Bs t ab l f sh n national cu ltur nl troupe.

(k) Establish Kenya School of Performing Art~.

(1) Study and 5 t:l nn<J rd i zoe t radI tiona 1 dance form~for teaching rurpose,.

(m) Collect, study and improve the traditional musicalinstruments, c09tume~ Rnd props used in traditionaldramatic performanc~~.

FlmI:!IONS"Q1 ()~ 'fRADIT!.ON DIVISION.(s) Bs tabl i.~h research tonto all aspects of oral t rnd ltion

including laws, ethlnic! and normative belief ~ystems,Traditional medicin~, customarylaw9, religion, oralliterature, and ora~ history.

Cb) Evaluate oral traditions for their relevance to. .

contemporary development~.

512• .••• /1:3. _(I

23

(c) Liai!e with the Minlstries of Educ?tion for theincillsion of the te~ching of oral traclition inthis country's' educ~tional Institutions.

(d) Establish Libraries ~f oral tradition ond Folklore.

(e) Preserve and publish materi~ls on oral tradition,for use' in educational Institutions Rnd the~Iass-Media•

SUa) Encourage and promo~e the teaching of Kiswahili as

a National Language ,Bt all 'levels of education inthe Republic and develop it into an official language.

Promote the use of ~~iSHllhiliBS a medium of commu-nication.

h (..e')' Cnrry out research on Kiswa!lili and other AfricanLanguages.

I~) Organize periodic s~mlnar! and conferences on thede ve lopmen t and t.each Ing of Kiswahili and otherAfrican Languages.

\J~ Encourage the writing of creative and scLen t If Lcwork in Klswahili.Promote the translation of technical and geientificwork in Kiswahili.

HncourEtge and assist National Language promotingagencies.

26.0: THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TRAINING AND RESEARCH DIVISION.(a) T•• in personnel in the var Lous specialities for

'1 -;;••••••••• / ~ 4 •

513

24

the Depar tnen t of Cu.Iture.

(b) Develop curriculum for thE' training of culturalAdministrations aad_animator!.

(c) Organize in-serviee ~our~es for Cultural Otficetsat all levels.

(d) In liaison with the ~ini!trles of Education,participate in the cur rLcu l.um fQr.Ac.}1ool! in

""'_' .'

the Keny~ In!titute pf Education.

(e) D~velop curriculum teaching of dramatie arts.... '" :~.'

C£) Establi!lh a central, .!chool fot the tt'aining ofCulturalPerBonnel.

,,..,,-,,'"

Department of Culture Organi!ution Chart (See Appendix ~

514:" ..

A I' /' L - /V LI ' "

A STORY FOR OUR TIME

Once upon a time there was a country that was very scaredof the future. The people were scared that civilisationwas coming to an end. Every day there was news of a newwar or another ecological disaster. Already there werehuge holes in the sky where the sun's rays came and burntthe people. The waters in and around the country werepoisoned with industrial and human waste. The people hadbuilt huge, dangerous machines that could destroy theworld if necessary. The people knew all these things fromthe information on their television screens and printmedia. All the grown ups felt this fear for millions hadno job to go to and not enough money to pay the rent; itmade them start behaving in strange ways.When they looked at the children, they were reminded oftheir own mortality; that in fact they would not be aroundforever. It made them panic and think that they hadfailed in their jobs as caretakers. What was it they werehaving leaving for their children? No longer could theylook them straight in the eyes and promise them a long andmeaningful life, for life had lost its meaning for them.So they stopped looking at their children or watching howthey grew. This made it easier to lie to them while theydesperately clung to the ideas and ways of doing thingsthat had made them so fearful in the first place: oldideas and old ways of doing things. It seemed thatuncomfortable as these were, they were preferable to theupheaval that finding a new way forward might bring.So throughout the land, the grown ups, who felt sopowerless I shrugged their shoulders and lowered theirheads, resigning themselves to the old ways and ideas,ways that safeguarded and advanced a few people'sinterests at the expense of all others. They did thiseven though their reason and compassion told them that allpeople were human beings with the same needs and interests- those that developed and supported their humanity - andthat therefore to advance some at the expense of otherswas unjust and dangerous for everyone in that age ofdwindling natural resources and increased population.The leaders of the country who owned the land, water, andenergy supplies were particularly irritated by the problemof the children. Their training and welfare were tooexpensive. They needed to ban most children, but realisedthat would admit their own failure to secure a certainfuture. But the children kept asking annoying questionsabout the meaning of life, because they were human andneeded to be able to explain to themselves; themselves and

515

the environment they found themselves in.

The leaders answered the children's questions by talkingabout opportunity, choice and freedom as long as the waysof doing things stay the same.But the answers did not help the children understandthemselves as human beings nor did they seem to have thechoice, opportunity and freedom that were talked about.They were left feeling empty and betrayed. And it wasn'tjust the children. Across all ages, anger and confusionwere building inside people. Not everybody knew what todo about how they were feeling inside, but the feelingswere difficult to contain. They had to get rid of themsomehow, so they turned against themselves and thosearound them, doing violence to themselves and others;abusing themselves and others; killing themselves andothers.It seemed things were getting out of control. Theleaders, desperate to maintain themselves blamed thechildren; blamed the parents of the children; blamed theteachers of the children; blamed the teachers of theteachers of the children.BUT MOST OF ALL THEY BLAMED THE CHILDREN....The leaders pointed to the children who stole the goodsthe advertisers worked so hard at making them want, makingthem think they needed, but which were too expensive forthem to buy. The grown ups shook their heads and demandedtougher sentencing. Others despaired. Others stayedsilent.The leaders pointed to the children who sought challengeand excitement in driving cars as fast as they were builtto go; other people's cars; cars they could never hope toown. The grown ups shook their heads and cursed thechildren for bringing danger into other people's lives.others despaired. Others stayed silent.The leaders pointed to the children who for brief momentsof intensely felt living numbed their minds and hastenedtheir deaths by taking drugs, the leaders had proclaimedillegal. The grown ups shook their heads and told thechildren "just say no". Others despaired. others stayedsilent.The leaders pointed to the children who sought to becreative through destroying the things around them; theirown and other people's. The grown ups shook their headsand spent money on tighter security. Others despaired.Others stayed silent.

516

The leaders pointed to the children who turned to tortureand killing so little had they been enabled to understandof what it is to be human. The grown ups shook theirheads and called for the children to be hanged. Othersshook their heads. Others stayed silent.The leaders pointed to the children who copied the leadersand used insults and threats, pain and hurt to get theirway. The grown-ups shook their heads and imagined ways ofgetting their own back. Others shook their heads. Othersstayed silent.The leaders pointed to the children and called them evil,public enemy number one. The leaders said the childrenneeded to be taught the difference between right andwrong. The grown ups started to look at the childrenagain, but they had fear and hatred in their eyes. Thegrown ups started to look at their children again, butthey didn't see children. They saw monsters.The leaders knew the time was no longer when they couldafford to provide a worthwhile future for the children.Now they had a reason for not even pretending to provide afuture for the children beyond containment within the fourwalls of a classroom, a detention centre, a prison cell ora labour camp.The story is still being written. How it develops and itsoutcomes depend on how you have read it. Threefundamentalist questions arise:

i) What are the conditions that we need so thatwe can look our children straight in the eyeand know we do not lie to them?

ii) How do we act as responsible caretakers?iii) How do we provide a future for our children?

A story of Our Time: In Defence of The Young.

!517