Corrzg’

elzdum to A rticle BOM BAY PRESIDENCY.

P . 6 7 , l ine 7—e directly managed by Government officers ,"

read ‘ generally managed by a Court o f Regency, or by a j oin t

Administration composed of a Government officer a repre

presentative of the Native State.

’

The author regrets that to death a gentleman

in whose hands he placed the manuscript materials for

Western India, the revision of several art icles, particularly

Ahmadabad, and Bombay Ci ty and Presidency, has

not been so complete as he would have des ired

I M PERIAL GAZ ET TEER

INDIA.

V O L U M E I I I .

Birbhlim (B eerblzoom). —District of the Bardwan Divis ion , in theL ieutenant-G ovem orship of Bengal , lying between 23

°

34' and 24

°

35'

N . lat. , and between 87°

7'

30” and 88

°

4’

1 5 E. long. area, 1 756 square

miles population, according to the Census of 1 88 1 , souls. I ti s bounded on the north-west by the Santal Parganas on the east bythe Districts of Murshidabad and Bardwan ; and on the south byBardwan District, the Ajai r iver forming the boundary l ine for thewhole distance. The District takes its name

,according to the Sanskri t

etymologists,from Vir ‘ hero-land but the Santal i word Vir,

mean ing j ungle, has also been suggested as its derivation . The ad

min istrat ive head-quarters of the District are at SUR I town .

P /zysical Aspects—The eastern portion of the District is an alluvial

plain,present ing the ordinary features of the Bengal lowlands towards

the west the ground rises,the surface consist ing of undulating beds of

laterite,which rest on a bas is of rock. Granitic ve ins traverse the

District in parts,occasionally appearing on the surface. About 1 5

miles sou th-west of the Civil Station of Surf, there is a curious mass ofgranite

,ri sing to a height of 30 or

'

4o'

feet, spli t up into numerousirregular fragments by the action of sun and rain . No navigable riverflows through Birbh um the largest stream is the Ajai, which formsthe southern boundary l ine of the District. The other streams deserving notice are the Mor or M aureksha, the Bakeswar, the Hingla,and the Dwarka. The Mor , which flows i n a wide sandy bed, isnavigable during the rains

,but by descending boats only. Small canoes

are buil t on the banks, and floated down durin g the freshets theycarry charcoal to Katwa, where they are sold with the ir cargoes , asthey cannot be taken up stream again . There are no lakes or canals

i n the D is trict.VOL . 111.

B IRBHUM .

On the bank of the Bakeswarwild, about a mile south of the village ofTantipara

,occurs a group of sulphur springs, named the Bhtim Bakes

war,and numerous ho t j e ts also burst forth in the bed of the stream

itself. This spot is a noted place of pilgrimage , and the right bank of

the stream is covered wi th temples erected by pilgrims in honour o f

Mahadeo or Siva. Another warm spring breaks out near the village

of Sakarakunda. Iron and l imestone are the only minerals of anyimportance found in the District. Iron-ores have long been worked

under the rough native mode of smelting ; and within recen t years anattempt has been made to ascertain whether more extended operation s

might not profitably be carried out according to the European process

o f manufacture . The larger k inds of wi ld beasts, which formerlyinfested Birbhum

,have now almost disappeared , with the exception o f

an occasional t iger or bear which wanders into the cult ivated tractsfrom the j ungles of the Santal Parganas on the west. Small game, suchas hares

,partridges

,wild duck , quail , and sn ipe, are common .

H z'

siory .—The area of the Dis trict i s at present much more l imited

than in former times. When it first came under Bri tish administration,

the Birbhiim z aminda’

hfi occupied an area of 3858 square miles ; andthe District included in addit ion the z amz

’

nda’

n’

of Bishnupur, whichwas in the beginning o f the present century separated and formed intothe independent Collectorate of Bankura. Some years later, reduet ions were made in the remain ing portion o f Birbhtim District

,by the

separat ion from it of cons iderable tracts on the west , which now formpart of the Santal Parganas . Finally

,within the last few years

,in

order to make the different j uris dictions conterminous , further transfersof small tracts have been made to and from the District

,the present

( 1 883) area of the District be ing 1 7 56 square mile s .In the beginning of the 18th century

,the of B i

’

rbhtim was

conferred by Jafar Kha’

n on one Asad-u lla Pathan,whose family had

settled in the country a century earl ier,after the fall of the Pathan

dynasty of Bengal. The estate remained in the family until the Britishobtained, in 1 765 , the financial administration of Bengal. I t was no tt il l 1 787 , however, that the Company assumed the direct governmen tof Birbhtim. Before that year, the local au thority was suffered toremain in the hands of the Raja. Meanwhile

,bands of marauders

from the western highlands,after making frequent predatory incursions

,

had established themselves in the District. The Raj a cou ld do no thingagainst these invaders, who formed large permanent camps in strong

posit ions, intercepted the revenues on the way to the treasury, brough tthe commercial Operations of the Company to a stand-still

,and caused

many of the factories to be abandoned . I t became absolutely necessary

for the English Government to interfere ; and the firs t step in thatdirection was taken in 1 787, when the two border principalities o f

B IRBHUAI . 3

Birbhtim and Bankura were united into one District , a considerablearmed force be ing maintained to repress the bands of plunderers onthe western frontier. On one occasion , in 1 788, the Collector had tor

call out the troops against a band of marauders five hundred strong,

who had made a descent on a market town with in two hours’ ride ofthe English station , and murdered or frightened away the inhabitantsof between th irty and forty villages.In the beginning of the following year the inroads assumed

even more serious proportions,the plunderers going about sacking

villages in parties of three or four hundred men,well ' found in arms. ’

The populat ion was panic - stricken, the large villages and tradingdepot s were abandoned

,and the Collector was compe lled hastily to

recall the outposts stationed at the fro nt ier-f passes, to levy a milit iasupplementing the regular troops

,and obtain reinforcements of sold iery

from the neighbouring Districts. The marauders could not hold o ut

against the forces thus broughta gainst them ,and were driven back

into the mountains. O rder was soom established, and the country recovered with amaz ing rapidity from the disastrous effects of the ravagesto wh ich i t had been exposed . The neglected fi elds were cultivatedonce more ; the inhabitants - 1eturned to the deserted villages ; andthe people , reassured by the success of the measures taken by theGovernment

,eagerly j oined them against the marauders. In the be

ginning of the present . century,the District . was reported to be

remarkably free from robberyga nd so completely have the troubloust imes through which it passed -faded from local memory

,that

,a few

years ago,the Dis trict was desc ribed in a public document as s t il l eh

j oying‘ i ts old immunity from crime.’ The-District is now as peaceful

as any in Bengal,and the adm in istrative statis t ics; wh ich wil l be found

below,furn ish an eloquent ! commentary on the results of British rule in

Birbhiim.

P opulation—The population of the District in 18 72 , as returned by

the Census of that year , but allowing for all t ransfers to a nd f from theDistrict since then

,was The Census of 1 881 . returned a

total population of be ing a decrease of or 695 percent . on the area of the Districtras at present constituted , namely ,1 7 56 square miles . This decrease i s due to the ravages of the‘

Bardwan fever,’which has been devastating the Divis ion since 186 1 .

Average density of population ( 188 1 ) 45 2 4 0 per square mile

number of towns or vil lages, 3 2 73 ; number of occupied houses,

unoccupied houses,! number of villages per square

mile,1 8 6 ; number of houses per square . mile , . 1 1 3

'

9o ; number ofpersons per occupied house

, 43 9. Divided according to sex, the males

n umbered and the females proportion of males,

48 0 per cent . This disproport ion of the sexes, which is noticeable

4 B IRBH UM

in every District of the Bardwan Divis ion , i s owing to its proximity toCalcutta ; many men go there in search of employment

,leaving the ir

wives and famil ies behind. Classified according to rel igion , the Hinduspredominate largely, numbering or 7 7 7 0 per cent. of the

population ; the Muhammadans were returned at or 204 7

per cent. Christ ians, 48 and others,

’ cons isting mainly of aboriginaltribes who still retain their primitive forms of faith , or

per cent. Of the highest and respectable castes of H indus, Brahmansnumbered Raj puts , 8344 ; Kayasth s, 8902 ; and Baniyas,

Of the Siidra castes , the most important are the Sadgops ,the chief cultivating class

,numbering The other most

numerous castes are the following —Ka’lu, Bagdi,Chamar, Dom

,Bauri, and Hari, who

form the lowest classes of the H indu social organiz ation . The M uham

madans are divided according to sect into—Sunn is, Shirts,

3565 and unSpecifi ed, 1 740. Of the 48 Chri st ians, 29were native con

verts. The population of Blrbhtim is entirely rural, the only towns withupwards of 5000 inhabitants being Sun ,

the administrative headquarters, with a population of 7848 and M ARG RAM ,

with 6008. The

32 73 villages or towns in 188 1 were classi fi ed as follows —Containingless than two hundred inhabitants , 1979 ; from two to five hundred,

945 from five hundred to a thousand,2 64 from one to two thousand ,

74 ; from two to three thousand, 5 from three to five thousand, 4 ;

and from five to ten thousand,2 . The Census Report of 188 1 classifi ed

the male population as regards occupation under the fol lowing six mainheadings Profess ional class

,including civi l and military offi cers , all

Government offi cials, and the learned profess ions, r ( 2 ) domesticservants, inn and lodging-house keepers, etc. , 835 1 ; (3) commercialclass, including bankers

, merchants , traders, carriers, etc. , 7046

(4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners,

(5) industrial class, including all manufacturers and arti sans,(6) indefinite and non-productive ( including general labourers

,

and male children,and unspecified) ,

M alerz'

al Condition of the P eople.—The general style of living in

Birbhiim District is poor. The ordinary dress of the men consists of awaistcloth the qual ity of which d iffers according to the circumstances of the wearer. The hou ses are usually mud-walled

,but one

or two substan tial brick houses are found in almost every v illage. Rice,pulse v egetables, and fi sh form the ordinary food of the people.The es t imated cost of l iving for an average-siz ed household of awell-to -do shopkeeper is about 1

, 105 . per month, and for that of

an ordinary cultivator, from 85 . to 105 . a month . A peasant’s holdingexceeding 1 7 acres in extent would be cons idered a large-s iz ed farm ;less than 5 acres is looked upon as a very small holding. The usual

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6 B IRBH UM

quanti ty.Irrigation is effected from tanks, which are very numerous

i n the District. A large proportion of the cultivators hold their lands

with rights of occupancy, and , as a rule , they are not in debt. There

i s no class o f small proprietors in the District who own, occupy, andcult ivate their hereditary lands without e i ther a superior landlord above,

o r a sub-tenant or labourer of any k ind under them . The prices o f

food-grain have greatly increased of late years . In 1 788, ordinary rice

was s elling at z s . 1 0d. a cwt. ; in 1 87 2 , the price was 33 . 5 .1; d. per

cwt. I t i s -.noticeable, however, that the price o f rice of the finest

quality, o f which -there is l ittle consumption , has not altered , beingboth in 1 7 88 and 1 87 2 , 4 5 . 3d. per cwt. The current rate of wagesfor cool ies or ordinary day-labourers is 85 . a mon th ; for carpenters

1 6s ; for bricklaye rs, 1 6s . to £ 1 ; and for blacksmiths , 1 6s. to £1, 45 .

a month.Natural C olamz

'

z‘z’

oa—The D istrict is not l iable to droughts , floods

or other natural calamities, altho ugh it has occasionally suffered fromscanty rainfall. During the famine o f 1866, the highest p rice of

common rice in Birbhtim was 1 5 5 . 8d. per cwt. , and of paddy , 6s . 10d.

p er cwt. The means of commun ication and trans it throughout theDistrict are amply sufficient to allow of easy importation in case ofscarcity

,and to prevent the danger of any tract being i solated . The

roads are good and sufficiently numerous,being 594m iles in length in

1 88 1 the East Indian Railway runs through the District from north tosouth for a distance of 68 miles

,andnthe Nalhati and Az imganj State

Railway, east and west for miles .

Commerce and Tradon—The chief export of the District is rice , which isdespatched by railway both up and down the l ine. The other exports,such as indigo

,lac

,raw s ilk

,and oil- see ds , find their way mostly to

the Calcutta market. The princ ipal imports are sal t,cotton

,cotton

cloth,pulses

,tobacco

,wheat, and metal ware . The principal trading

v il lages and seats o f commerce are Dubrajpur, Ilambazar, Bolpur,

Synthia,Purandarpur

,Krinnahar

,and Muhammad Baz ar Suri. The

head-quarters town of the District i s unimportant from a commercialpoint of view. The crops o f the District suffice to meet allthe local wants ; and in the case of rice and o il-seeds, large exportsare made to other parts of the country . The exports far exceed theimports in value

,and a considerable accumulation of money is said to

be going on .

M om/fad ures : Silk—The principal manufacture o f Birbhtim iss ilk, which is produced in the eastern part of the District ; the villageo f Ganutia, on the north bank of the M or

,being the head—quarters of

the industry . Here is the factory which,established nearly a century

ago by Mr. Frushard, under a contract for the supply of silk to theEast India Company, is now owned by an English fi rm in Calcutta,

B IRBH UM

and gives employment to a large number of people. The story of theannoyances to which this pioneer of si lk cul tivation was exposed at thehands of the Company’s officers , and the manner in which he wasdefrauded by the Raja, will be found at length in my Annals of Rural

B engal. I t can only be briefly stated here that,being charged for the

land he bought more than four times it s market value,he soon fell

into arrears with the Raja, who made his non-payment an excuse for

be ing h imself beh ind wi th hi s land-tax. The Collector could notdistrain the factory lands

,as such a step would have interfered with

the regular supply of the silk investment,and Mr. Frushard secured

himself from arrest by l iving beyond his j urisdiction . The case wasat length brought before the Court of D irectors and eventually, L ord

Cornwall is , in 1 791 , ordered that all h is past arrears should be for

given, that h is rent should for the future be reduced by nearly one

half, and that the Collector should deduct whatever this sum amounted

to from the land-tax payable by the Raj a. S ince that t ime th ings havegone smoothly

,and Mr. Frushard’s factory, several t imes renewed ,

i s now one o f the most important build ings in the District. Theannual outlay averages and the value of the general s ilk

manu factures exceeds The silk is usually sold in a raw

s tate , and finds its way to the Calcutta and European markets. The

factory at Ganutia i s surrounded by numbers of smaller fi latures, thes ilk reeled in these being e ither consumed in the local manufacture ofpiece-goods

,or sent to Mursh idabad, and the s ilk-consuming towns of

the North-West Provinces and the Punjab.

Four variet ies of domest icated or regularly bred silkworms areknown in Birbhiim, the best s ilk being obtained from the bara palu ,an annual worm. The breeding of the worm is conducted in the foll owing manner. The cocoons are formed in March , the earl iestformed being reserved for breeding purposes . The moths begin toemerge on the eighth day after the formation of the cocoon, and con

tinue to emerge ti ll the eleventh day. As the moths make their way

out of the cocoons, they are put into other baskets , and the males andfemales for the most part pair spontaneously and at once. About the

middle o f the day, the males and females are separated, the malesbe ing thrown away, and the females placed on a cloth in a large basket .

An hour afterwards, they begin to lay eggs , and continue laying during

the night and till the afternoon of the following day. The eggs arethen wrapped in three or four folds of cloth and put in an earthenpot

,which is covered over with a plastering of earth and cow-dung.

In the following January or February the pots are opened , and theeggs begin to hatch , those hatched each day being kept separate. Thehatching extends over a period varying from 1 5 to 25 days according

to the temperature . The worms are fed as soon as hatched,—during

8 B IRBH UM .

the first stage on the tenderest leaves chopped fine , then on wholele aves

,and in the last stage the twigs are thrown in whole . Food i s

given three t imes a day. The worms are kept in baskets which areplaced in a wooden stand, one above the other ; as the worm s grow,

they are placed in larger baskets with fewer worms to each . The fullgrown larva is about an inch long and three-quarters of an inch ingirth

,generally of a white colour with the usual black markings, but

the white is tinged with varying shades of yellow and red in differentworms. From about twelve to eight days after the last moult, according to the temperature

,the worms begin to form the ir cocoons. They

are then placed in a tray which i s partit ioned off into spinning holesby slips of bamboo

,and placed with i ts back to the sun

,the warmth

promoting the formation of the cocoon . After formation,the chrysal ides

which are not wanted for propagat ion are kil led by exposure to thesun, and the cocoons are then ready for the market. Of th is kind ofs ilkworm, twelve ka/za

’

m ( 1 2 80 x 1 2 of cocoons will yieldone local rer or 1 § lbs. avoirdupo is of spun s ilk. Another variety ofs ilkworm, the m

’

rlrz’

worm,is smaller than the above

,and five breed

ings or crops (lands ) are obtained in the course of the year, of whichthose obtained in January and July are the best. T wo crops out o fthe five seem to be altogether neglected

,and are called c/z/zora or

refuse bands in consequence. The cocoon of the m’

rtrz’

is of a goldencolour, but the yield is less than that o f the bow g ala—s ixteen ka/za

’

ns

( 1 2 80 x 16 of cocoons only produce one local ser or

lbs. of silk. The eggs hatch in nine or ten days. In the cold weatherthe cycle of the worm is about s ixty days

,reduced in the hot weather

to forty. The deal or c/z/zotla palu also yields some five or six cropsduring the year. In most respects it is very like the fzzlrtri

,and its

yield of s ilk is about the same.No estimate exists showing the total out-turn of cocoons

,but it is

considerably less now than formerly,owing partly to the depressed

state of the s ilk trade , and part ly to the prevalence of di sease amongthe worms . The insect suffers from three maladie s in Birbhiim District

, known as ( 1) clzz'

t f og , 2 ) ”arm/a rag , and (3 ) katase rog . Thefi rst-named disease seiz es the worm in its final stage

.Those attacked

turn quite hard and die ; and it is said that even the crows, whogreedily devour the worms whenever they get a chance

,wil l not eat

those which have died of this d isorder. The second attacks the wormwhen about to spin . L i ttle white spots or pustules break out on the

body, and the worm becomes torp id,and in two or three days melts

away in corruption . The third disease may come at any stage of

growth. The worms seiz ed turn a greyish colour,water runs from the

mouth , and they ultimately rot away. All three diseases are believedto be eminently contagious. The description of the disease does not

B IRBHUM . 9

seem to correspond with that of e ither peprine or gattine, the maladiesmost dreaded in Europe. No remedies are adopted , and it i s saidthat none have ever been tried .

From the s i lkworm traders the cocoon s pass to the fi latures . Somet imes a cult ivatorwho grows the mulberry keeps worms as well, and alsoreels off th e cocoon s himself ; but more generally the three operationsof growing the mulberry

,rearing worms

,and reel ing s ilk, are kept qui te

distinct, and are performed by different persons. The cocoons usedat the factories are ei ther bought by contract d irect from the breeders,or through commiss ion agents. The European factory at Ganutia, and

i ts branch fi latures, have been alluded to above. But in addit ion to

these there are numerous little village fi latures, worked by nativefamil ies . These village fi latures, with perhaps one pairof bas ins apiece ,are s ituated in the peasant’s homestead , and worked in a very rudeway. The raw s ilk from the English factory finds i ts way to th eCalcutta and European markets. That reeled in the villages is part lyconsumed locally, and partly sent to the Murshidabad market, and to

the s ilk-c onsuming towns of the North-Western Provinces and thePunj ab . Some part also finds its way to the looms of Surat andAhmadabad in Bombay

, or i s worked up into dlzutz'

fringes in theCentral Provinces . The Bombay weavers buy a kind of raw silk calledoaurrut woven from ten cocoons

,and therefore thicker than the five

or six cocoon thread which finds favour in the Calcutta market . Thelocal fabrics of s ilk are plain piece-goods ; but very little s ilk-weavingi s carried on. The weavers who manufacture silk fabrics generallywork under a system of advances from the Murshidabad silk dealers.A few, however, are sufliciently enterprising to invest the ir l ittlecapital on the i r own account.Tasar silk is manufactured in the western parts of the District, and

at Ilambazar on the north bank of the Ajai. The trade in lasar s ilkcloth has declined of late years

,owing to a fall ing off in the demand in

the Calcutta market. Cotton-weaving is carried on to a considerableextent

,giving employment to 7 500 cotton-weavers, and thi s industry

appears to have more vital ity in Birbhiim than in some other BengalDistricts. The cult ivators buy in the market the cotton of the North

Western Provinces, have i t spun into rude yarn by the women, andtake the yarn to the village weaver, who weaves i t up into coarse cloth ,under th e eye of the owner or a representat ive, who always sits by to

see that the yarn is no t stolen . Some widows eke out a l ivel ihood byspinning cotton

,and spinning the Brahmanical thread is an occupat ion

usually confined to Brahman widows . The preparation of indigo andshel l-lac are among the other industries, and attempts have recentlybeen made to utiliz e the local supply of iron. The ores have longbeen worked on the rough native mode of smelting and the object of

10 B IRBHUM

the recen t at tempts was to ascertain whether more extended operations

m ight not be profitably carried out according to European processes ,under competent supervision . Although the iron produced seems to

have been of good quality and well suited for manufacturing purposes,the experiment was not a financial success , and the enterprise

dropped .

—The administrat ive staff of the District in 188 1—82consisted of a Magistrate-Collector, Joint Magistrate, and European

Deputy Collector, 4 native Deputy Collectors , District superintendent o f

police with an assistant, civil and sessions j udge and sub-j udge, 4 subor

dinate civil j udges civil surgeon , district engineer, 1 2 honorary

magistrates, 4 rural sub - registrars,etc. In consequence of the

numerous changes which have taken place from time to time in the

area of Birbhtim District , it is impo ssible to compare with any accuracythe revenue and expendi ture at different periods ; but the figures at ourdisposal show

,in a very distinct way, the prosperity which the D istrict

has enj oyed under Brit ish rule . In 1 790—91 , the net revenue of the

Dis trict,which then consisted of Birbhiim ( including the greater part o f

the Santa l Pargana'

s) and Bishnupur, was and the net civilexpenditure £62 8 1 . At the t ime o f the Permanent SettlementBishnupur or Bankura was separated from Birbhum , and in 1820—2 1the revenue had fallen to the expenditure beingIn 1850

—5 1 , the revenue was and the expenditure

In 1860—6 1 , the revenue amounted to and the expenditureto Subsequent to 1860 the area of the District was furtherreduced by the transfer of several parg ana

’

s,but the revenue and ex

penditure continued to increase ; and in 1 870—7 1 the total net revenue

was or nearly the same as that of the united District in1 790, while the net civil expend iture was or more than fourt imes what i t was in 1 790 . In 1 88 1—8 2 , after the area of the Districthad been increased by the transfer of Rampur-hat pol ice circle fromMurshidabad , the total revenue of Birbhum amounted toand the net civil expenditure to or seven t imes the amounto f expenditure in 1 790 . In 1 7 90

—91 , the j oin t land revenue of

Birbhtim and Bankura amounted to in 1870—7 1 , the land

revenue of Birbhum alone was and in 188 1 ,

Wi th the increasing prosperity of the D istrict,the machinery for the

protect ion of person and property has been improved . The policeforce employed for this purpose in 1 88 1 consisted of ( 1 ) a regularpolice , composed of 2 superior and 47 subordinate oflicers and 208

constables ; (2 ) a small municipal force of 1 native officer and 1 6 men

for the protection of Surf; and 3) a village watch of 76 14 g/za’

twals andtotal

, 7898 officers and men , or 1 man to every 100 of

the population . The cost of maintain ing th e District and mun icipal

B IRCHI G A01V. 1 1

pol ice in 1 88 1 was £5749, of which £5589 was derived from

imperial funds , equal to an average of 3gd. per head of the populationand exclusive of an estimated sum of contributed in money or

lands by the z ami/zda’

rs and villagers . In 1 88 1,804 persons were con

v ic ted of ‘ cognisable ’ and 533 of‘ non-cognisable ’ offences, or 1 person

to every 594 of the population .

There are seven t/za’

rzds or police circles in the District , namelySuri

’

, Dubraj pur, Sékulipur, Rampur-hat, M aureswar, and Nalhat i ,bes ides n ine outpost stations. There are two j ails in Birbhum , one

at Surf, and the other (a lock-up) at Rampur-hat. The daily averagej ail population in 1 88 1 was 1 85 1 6, or 1 person always in j ail toevery 4 294 of the popu lat ion of the District. These figures are

,

however, i llusory, as they include a large proportion of prisoners sentfrom the Santa] Parganas

,where there is no proper j ail. Educat ion

has made rapid progress of late years. In 1856—5 7 , there were only

3 Government and aided schools in the whole District ; by 1 87 2—7 3 ,

the number of Government and aided schools had risen to 1 29,

attended by 4439 pupils. In addition to these , there were 1 7

inspected unaided schools,attended by 445 pupils, and about 550

un inspected, with an estimated attendance of more than 7000 more .

The total number o f pupils attending inspected schools in that year was

4884. By 188 1,the total number of Government aided and inspected

schools had risen to 6 13 , attended by pupils,or 1 to every 6 7 o f

the populat ion. The number of schools no t inspected by the Department had fallen to 2 0 in 1 88 1

,wi th 399 pupils .

M edical Aspects.—The mean annual temperature of Birbhiim,accord

ing to the late st calcu lat ion, i s 5°

F.

,and the average annual rain

fall 56 4 9 inches . The District has long been famous for its salubri ty ;but unhappily with in the las t few years the epidemic fever o f Bardwan,

after effecting so much devastation in adj oin ing Districts , has extendedto Birbhiim

,causing great mortal i ty

,which has resulted in a de

crease of the population to the extent of per cen t. during thenine years between 1 87 2 and 188 1 . An account of th is fever wil l befound in the article on BARDWAN . The only endemic diseases prevalent

i n the District are leprosy and elephantiasis cholera has of late yearsbecome more general. [For further information regard ing BirbhtimDistrict

,see my Statistical Account of B engal, vol. iv. pp . 3 1 1 to 45 7

(T riibner Co . , L ondon , Also Report on M e D istrict of B ir

lzlzzim,by Captain W. S . Sherwill , Revenue Surveyor ( 1855) Census

Report of B engal for 1 88 1 and the P rovincial Administration Reports

from 1 880 to

Birchig éon.—Mountain pass in Kumaun District , North-Western

Provinces on the route from Almora by the river Gori and the Untha

Dhiira Pass to South-Western Tibet . L at. 30°

1 2’

N.,long. 80

°

1 7’ E .

1 2 B IRDA HI L L S—B IRKUL .

Di stant 1 14 miles north-east of Almora. L ies over the skirts of twopeaks

,with heights o f and feet above the sea respec

tively ; elevation of crest of pass, abou t feet .

BirdaHills—See BARDA H ILLS .

Birganj .—Village and police station in Dinajpur D istrict, Bengals ituated on the Dhapa, a tributary o f the Purnabhaba river. L at. 2 5

5 1’

30"

N. ,long. 88

°

4 1'

40" E. Small local trade.

Birhar.

—P arg arzd in Faiz abad (Fyzabad) District , Oudh boundedon the north by the river Gogra

,separat ing i t from Bast i District in the

North-Western Provinces ; on the east by Az amgarh District ; and on

the south and west by Surharpur, Akbarpur, and Tanda pargana’

s .

Picturesquely studded with clumps o f bamboos, and groves of mangoand maimed trees. Area

,2 2 1 square miles, of which 1 2 2 are cultivated.

Of the 387 villages which const i tute the parg ana’

,no less than 3 76 form

the Birhar estate,held by eigh t Palwar Rajput proprietors, pay ing an

aggregate Government land revenue of ou t of a total o f

All the villages except 1 2 are held under ta’lzxkdcirz’

tenure.

Population according to the Census of 1 88 1—Hindus,Muhammadans , total , namely , males and

females . Brahmans comprise 1 5 per cent . of the populationRaj puts , 5 per cent ; Koris and Kurmis, altogether 4 per cent ;other H indus, 64 per cent . Muhammadans

, 9 per cent . Markets heldin 19 villages .

Birié. —Town in Ball ia District,North -Western Provinces

,

s ituated in lat . 2 5°

46’

N . ,long. 84

°

3 1’

35 E, on the high road from

Ball ia to Chhapra, and is almost equid istant from the Ganges andGogra rivers. Population ( 188 1 ) 9160 ,

namely, 7 564 Hindus, and

1 596 Muhammadans area o f town site, 82 acres. A small mun icipal

income is realiz ed for police and conservancy purposes,under the pro

visions of Act xx . o f 1 856. The town is l ittle more than a conglomera

t ion of mud-built houses , traversed from east to west by one goodstreet. The import trade is of no importance

,bu t there are consider

able exports of sugar and coarse cloth . The town contains anumber o f sugar-refi neries , the produce of which , together with thato f the surrounding villages , is exported to Agra and Calcutta . Weavinglooms number 350 ; the cloth manufactured is exported to L owerBengal . Shoes and leather work are sent to Ball ia

,Ghaz ipur

,and

Dumraon . Market twice a week. The nearest railway station isRaghunathganj , on the East Indian Railway

,1 6 miles south of the

town, on the opposite side of the Ganges .Birkul (B eercool) .—Village in Midnapur District, Bengal ; situated

on the sea-coast in the south of the District close to the north boundaryo f Balasor. L at. 2 1

“

40’

40 N.,long. 8 7 3 2

' E . Population ( 1 88 1 )1 50 . Birkul has long been known as a pleasant hot-weather retreat

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14 B [ SAL l—BI SAL P UR .

( 1 87 2 ) 36 1 7 , namely , 3 254 Hindus , 36 1 Muhammadans, and 2 Jains ;number of houses, 629. L arge trafii c i n cocoa-nuts, areca-nuts ,grain

,and other produce ; annual value o f transact ions, nearly 50 la

’

ktzs

of rupees

Bisali. Pass in South Kanara District , M adras Pres idency.

L at. 1 2°

44'

N. , long. 75°

4 1' E. Formerly of some importance as

connecting Mangalore with Seringapatam , but now fallen into disrepair,and practicable for pack-bullocks only. As being the shortest route toSubramani

,where a great annual fair is held , the cattle-breeders on the

other s ide use th is route. A village of the same name stands at oneend of the pass , on the road from Bangalore to Mangalore lat. 1 2 °

45’

N.,long 75

°

45’

E.

Bisalnagar ( Vis izagar or Vz’

salzzagar).—Sub-division of the KadiDistrict of Baroda, in the G a

'

ekwar’

s territories area, 2 2 7 square milesnumber o f towns and villages, 58. Population ( 188 1 )namely

,Hindus

,Muhammadans, 4203 ; Jains, 2858 ;

‘ others,

’

4.

In the north and east, the country is bare and treeless, but towardsthe west and south trees are numerous, and the aspect of the country i smore cheerful. The surface soil is l ight and sandy, and the Sub-divisionis watered by the Rupen river. At the village of G othiva i s a wel lwhich has attained a wide celebrity for the medicinal properties of itswater

,considered excellent for fever patien ts.

Bisalnagar.—Town in the Kad i’. District of the Gaekwar’s territories

of Baroda, Bombay Presidency, and head-quarters of Bisalnagar Sub

divis ion ; on the route from Mhau (Mhow) to Disa'

,2 20 miles north

west of former, 50 miles south-west o f latter, also 14 miles north-east

o f Unja, and 1 1 miles eas t of Mesana. L at. 2 3°

2’

2 0”

N.,long. 7 2

°

4 2'

50 E. populat ion ( 188 1 ) 19,60 c,namely

, 96 15 males and 9987females. Bisalnagar i s the original seat of one of the s ix classes ofNagar Brahmans, many

' of whom are now followers of Swami Narayan,

the rel igious reformer, whom Bishopi Heber me t in Guj arat in 1825.

There is a considerable transi t trade in iron and other heavy goods forMarwar. Manufacture of cotton cloth and copper vessels . Containsthe public offi ces of the District and assistant j udges

,several d/zarm

refla’

r,police station, j ail, a pub l ic garden with a bungalow in it, and two

schools.

Bisalpur.—Ta/zril of Pil ibhi t District

,North-Western Provinces.

Area, 3 70 square miles , of which 2 28 are cult ivated population ( 1 88 1 )

land revenue, total revenue,

rental paid

by cultivators, The ta/zs z’

l contain s 1 civi l and 1 criminalcourt, w ith police stations (ttzctnas ) at Bisalpur, Balsanda, and Barkhera .

Strength of regular pol ice, 37 men municipal pol ice, 70 village watchmen 457 .

Bisalpur.—Town in Pil ibhit District

,North-Western Provinces, and

B I SAM BH/I—B I SAUL ]. I 5

h ead-quarters of Bisalpur ta/zsz'

l ; distant 24 miles east from Barel i, and2 miles east of the river Deoha. L at. 28

°

1 7’

35”

N ., long. 79°

50'

33"

E . ; population ( 188 1 ) 8903, namely, 6 1 59 Hindus and 2 744

Muhammadans area, 142 acres. Municipal income in 1880—8 1

,

£333 ; expenditure , £298 ; average incidence of taxation , 85rd. perhead of mun icipal population . The town is skirted with shady groveson all s ides except the south . I t has the general appearance of an

overgrown agricultural village of mud huts, with a few scattered brickbuild ings . But of late years i ts centre has been adorned with a neatmarket—place , in which 4 well-kept metalled roads meet. The officialquarter is to the south , where are situated the sub-divis ional courtsand build ings

,police station , school, branch dispensary, and pos t

offi ce . North of the town is a fine square masonry tank surroundedby temples

,and other H indu build ings. An annual fair

for cattle and country produce i s held in the villag e. A weeklymarket i s also held

,grain and coarse sugar being the principal staples

of trade.

Bisambha —Town in Maswana ta/zrz’

l, Meerut Distric t ,

North-Western Provinces,situated on the Bij naur road , 2 3 miles from

Meerut town. The populat ion consists for the most part of Jats,Guj ars

,

and Baniyas. Manufacture of saddlery and leather ware of excellentqual ity. Police stat ion

,post-offi ce, and weekly market. Good encamp

ing ground for troops .

Bisauli—Talia? of Budaun Dis tric t, North-Western Provinces ;t raversed by Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway, and comprising the

parg anas of Satas i, Bisauli, and Islamnagar. Area, 343 square miles,o f which 2 89 are cult ivated ; populat ion ( 1 88 1 ) landrevenue

,total revenue , rental paid by cult ivators ,

The tatzsil contained 1 c ivil and 1 crim inal court strength

of regular pol ice, 39 men village watchme n 43 7 .

Bisauli—Town in Budaun District, North-Western Provinces, andhead-quarters of Bisaul i talm

’

l, si tuated 2 4

1 m iles north-west of Budauntown , on the high road between Budaun and Chandausi, in lat . 2 8

°

1 8’

N . , long. 7 8°

59’ E. Population ( 1 88 1 ) 448 2 , namely, 2 691

Hindus,1 785 Muhammadans, and 6 Christian s. A small municipal

revenue,in the shape of a house-tax, i s levied for police and conser

vancy purposes , under the provisions of Act xrc of 1856 , amounting to

£1 05 in 1 88 1—8 2 . The town is s ituated on a commanding spot,over

looking the valley of the Sot,and contains a fine fort bu ilt in 1 7 50 by

Dundi Khan,l ieutenant of the famous Rohilla chief Hafiz Rahmat

Khan. A rest-house

,mosque, and ruined palace built at the same

t ime stil l survive. The town contain s the ordinary Government buildings

,mumifi ,

police stat ion, post-offi ce , dispensary, etc . Bisaul i

decl ined in importance after the fall of the Rohilla power, but s ince the

1 6 B I SA UL I—B I SHN UP UR.

opening of the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway, trade has begun to

revive. Weekly market .

Bisauli—District and town in Kashmir State, Punjab—SeeBASOHL I .

Bisawar.

—Town in Muttra (Mathura) District, North-Western Provinces

,lying on the road from Kandauli to Muttra, 6 miles north of the

Jumna. L at. 2 7°

2 3’

30”

N . , long. 7 7°

56’

30 E. ; area, 57 acres ;population ( 188 1 ) 4 7 74. Originally surrounded by dense jungle

, of

which scarcely a vestige now remains ; partly cleared about 1 100 A.D .

by Ram Jadun Thakur, whose descendants sti ll hold two-thirds of thevillage lands. Agricultural centre of l ittle commercial importance.

Bishangarh.

—Town in Chhibramau ta/zs z’

l, Farukhabad District

,

North-Western Provinces, si tuated at the intersection of two roads, 6miles south-west of Chhibramau town . The town contains a Districtpost-oflice , village school , and a castle or fort, the res idence of therichest landholder of the District. Stat ion of the Great TrigonometricalSurvey

, 5 18 feet above sea-level. Market twice a week.

Bishanpur Nathan Elias — Village in Darbhangah District ,Bengal ; si tuated near the west bank of the L it tle Gandak. L at. 2 5

°

4 2'

N .,long. 86

°

3' E. Population ( 188 1 ) 5963 , namely

, 5 7 94

Hindus and 1 69 Muhammadans . Contain s a stone temple and five

brick temples dedicated to Siva, built by the Narhan Babus , relatives ofthe Maharaja o f Benares, who have their residence here, and help tosupport an aided school in the village . Road to Dalsinh-sarai andRu sera. T wo fairs are held during the year.

Bishenpur.

—Town in Bankura District , Bengal—See B ISHNUPUR.

Bishkha'

li.—A river of the Bakarganj Sundarbans , Bengal. Flows

fro m north-east to south-west , from Nayamati Hat to the sea, a distanceof 45 miles ; average width in dry season , 1000 yards. L at. 2 1

°

59'

45—2 2 °

34'

1 5”

N., long. 90

°

2’

45—90

°

24’

E . Navigable by nat iveboats throughout the year.

Bishnupur.

—Sub-division of Bankura District , Bengal ; formed in1 8 79, and consisting of the police circles of Bishnupur

,

Kotalpur,Indas, and Sona

’

mukhi . Area, 700 square miles ; townsand villages

,1 504 ; number of houses, of which are

occupied and 91 24 unoccupied. Population ( 188 1 ) namely,

Hindus, Muhammadans , Christ ians, 9 ; Sonthals,4 1 54 ; and

‘ others ,’

1 7 ; average density of populat ion, 5638 1 persquare mile ; number of vil lages per square mile, 2 1 5 ; number ofpersons per village, 564 ; houses per square mile , 1 10 ; persons peroccupied house , The Sub-divis ion contained in 1883, 1 criminaland 2 civil courts strength of regular police

,164 men village watch

men and road pol ice (cfi aakz’

da’

rs and g izdtzocfls ) , 13 1 5 .

Bishnupur—The ancient cap ital of Bankura District,

B ISON RAN G E—B ISRAM P UR CGAL -FI ELD . 1 7

Bengal, under its native Rajas ; now a municipality,and the most

populous town in the D istrict situated a few miles south of theDhalkisor r iver. L at. 2 3

°

4’

40 N. , long. 87°

2 2'

45” E. Population

( 188 1 ) namely, Hindus, 639 Muhammadans,and

86 ‘ others.’ Municipal income in 1 88 1—82 , £4 1 6 incidence of

municipal taxat ion, 45d. per head of population within municipal limits .

Bishnupur is one o f the principal seats of commerce in BankuraDistrict. Chief exports—rice

,oil-seeds , lac, cotton and silk cloth , s ilk

cocoons , etc. imports —English piece~

goods, salt, tobacco , spices,cocoa-nuts , pulse s, etc. There are several marketp laces in the town .

I t contains a large weaving populat ion , and is noted for the manufactureo f cotton and silk cloth of fine quality. Besides the usual publicoffices, there are several schools, a number of Hindu temples, and someMuhammadan mosques . The old mil itary high road from Calcutta to theNorth-Western Provinces passed through the town . Ancient Bishnupur,i f we may put any trust in the native chroniclers

, was a magnificent city ,more beautiful than the beautifu l house of Indra in heaven .

’ I t wasfortified by a connected l ine of curtains and bastions , 7 miles in length ,wi th small circular ravel ins coveringmanyof the curtains. The citadel l ieswi th in the fortificat ions, and here was situated the palace of the Rajas.The ruins are very curious and interest ing. Near the south gatewayare the remains of an extens ive series of granaries and ins ide the fort

,

which is overgrown with j ungle, l ies an immense iron gun, 103 feet long,the gift

,according to tradit ion , of a dei ty to one of the Rajas. In the

las t century, the Raj a of Bishnupur figures in the Company’s recordsas one o f the most important of the Hindu nobility of Bengal . Inthe map to the Abbé Raynal

’

s H istory of tile E ast and I/Vest I ndies

(L ondon edition , Bissenpour’ and Calcutta are the only two

c i t ies which appear in large letters in the present L ieutenant-Governorship of Bengal . For further information based on the local records

,

see my Annals of Rural B engal.

Bison Rang e (native name, Papl onda) .—The highest part of theh ills which form the northern frontier of G odaivarr

’

District,Madras

Presidency. Height, about 3000 feet. S ituated to the west of themagnificent gorge by which the Godavari en ters the District ; the rangeis remarkable for i ts fine scenery and abundance of large game ; itss ides are clothed wi th luxuriant teak forest .

Bisrémpur.

—Village in Sarg tijaState ,Chutia Nagpur. L at. 2 3°

2’

N. ,

long. 83°

14’

10 E. The residence of the ch ief,Maharaja Indrajit

S ingh . Contain s a s chool supported by the Raja and the principallandholders. A weekly market i s held in the village, attended only bypeople l iving in the immediate neighbourhood .

Bisrampur Coal-Field. The name given to an area of coal

measure rocks,s ituated in the eastern portion of the comparatively low

VOL . 111. B

1 8 B ISSAU—BJ S IVAN.

lying ground in the centre of SargujaState, Chutia Nagpur. I t occup ies

an area of about 400 square miles , throughout wh ich, except in theriver-beds or the ir immediate neighbourhood , and on a few smal l h ills

,

no rocks are exposed,a covering of alluvium concealing oil. Good

coal exists in abundance , and in a suitable cond it ion for working, butborings (which could alone furn ish facts suffi ciently trustworthy forestimat ing the extent and thickness of individual seams

,and generally

the total amount of coal exist ing in the field ) have not ye t been made.I t is

,however

,ve ry probable that when the series of railways it is

proposed to cons truct on and near the Chutia Nagpur plateau,are

completed,that these mines wil l be extensively worked . A road could

be eas ily made from the L ohardaga plateau to Sarg tija. A detailedaccount of the field has been given by Mr. V. Ball, from whose paper,

quoted in the Statistical Account of B engal, vol. xvii . pp . 2 2 5—2 28

, theabove information is taken .

Bissau —Town in Shaikhawati District , Jaipur (Jeypore )State

, Raj putana, about 1 2 0 miles north—west of Jaipur town . Fopulation ( 1 88 1 ) 6546, namely, Hindus , 5 1 2 1 and Muhammadans

,1425 .

The town is walled, and possesses a fort of some pre tens ions post-offi ce .

Bissemkatak .

—Town in Jaipur (Jeypore) estate , Viz agapatam District, Madras Pres idency . L at. 19

°

30'

30 N. , long . 83°

33’ E. houses

,

4 15 ; populat ion ( 188 1 ) 1 7 26, principally retainers and servants of theTat Raja, the feudatory at the head of the mil itary force of Jaipur. Theonly build ing of any importance is the Raja

’s fort,an erection of mud .

The inhabitants being suspected of the prac t ice of human sacrifice , thistown was included in the proscribed circle of the Meriah Agency in1 85 1 .—See JA1PUR.

Bissemkatak .—One of the 7 Kandh muttas of Viz agapatam District,

Madras Pres idency, proscribed by the oflicers of the Meriah Agency in1 85 1 as addicted to human sacrifice . I t contain s 497 villages dividedinto 8 sub—muttas Kanakaladi, J igada, Sogata, Koj iri, Ambodalu,Bhangoda, Jagdalpur, and Kutragoda. S ituated wes t of Rayabigi, inthe highly cultivated country of the Deshya or

‘ outer ’Kandhs (as distinguished from the Kotiya or mountaineer Kandhs, who inhabit onlya few villages), wi th Bissemkatak, the cap ital of the Tat Raja, as itsch ief town. All the villages are under supervis ion . The ta

’

luk enjoysconsiderable trade, exporting grain

,tobacco

,saffron

,mustard and

gingelly seeds , and unrefined sugar in exchange for iron , clo ths, and salt .Biswan.

—Ta/zsz’l or Sub—divis ion of Sitapur Dist rict, Oudh ; bounded

north by N ighasan, east by Bahraich , south by Bari, and west bySitapur ta/zsz

’

ls . Area, 5 73 square miles , of which 389 are cult ivated.

Government land revenue, Popula t ion ( 188 1 )namely, Hindus , Muhammadans

,Jains

,2 2 . Number

o f villages or towns, 508 average dens ity of population, 430 per square

B]5 WAN—B]TH UR. r9

mile. The tonsil comprises the 3 pargancis of Biswan , T ambaur, andKundri (North) . The administrative staff cons ists of a ta/zsz

’

ldcir andmunsif at Biswan town , and two honorary Assis tant-Commiss ioners at

Mallanpur and Rampur-Muttra . These oflicers pres ide over 2 civil and

3 criminal courts ; strength of regular pol ice , 6 2 men ; village watchmen 1049.

Biswan.—Pargand in Sitapur District, Oudh ; bounded on the north

by L aharpur and T ambaur, on the east by Kundri , on the south by Mahmuda

'

bad and Bari,and on the west by Pirnagar and Khairabad. The

land in the east of the pargana is very low, and much cut up by smallstreams leading to the Chauka, which marks the boundary l ine. Westof th is l ies a rich tract of country, always green , owing to the proximityof water to the surface

,and bearing fine crops . A high ridge

of land, which appears to have formed once the right bank of the

Chauka, runs through the pargana. The extreme west l ies high.

Area,2 20 square miles

,or acres , of which are cult i

vated,and cult ivable but not under t illage. Of the 2 1 5 village s

composing the pargana’

, 99 are held under ta’

luleda’

rz’

and 1 16 underz ami

’

nda’

ri tenure : 8 1 villages are owned by Raj put landlords, 5 7 byMuhammadans

, 46 by Kayasths, and 29 by Seths. Population ( 188 1 )average density of population

, 479 per square mile .

Bi-weekly markets held in 1 6 villages.

Biswén.—Town in Sitapur District , Oudh , and head-quarters of

Biswan ta/zs z’

l and pargana’

; 2 1 m iles east of Sitapur, on the road toGonda and Faiz abad . L at. 2 7

°

29'

N . ,long. 8 1

°

2’ E. Said to have

been founded about 500 years ago, by an ascetic named Biswanath .

Population including Jalalpur, 8 148, of whom 460 1 are Hindus ,principally Brahmans , or belonging to artisan castes ; Muhammadansnumber 3525 , and Jains 2 2 ; area of town site, 355 acres . Municipal

income -in 1 880—8 1 , 3 1 1 , or an average of 93d. per head of mun icipalpopulation . Daily market ; annual sales, about Principalbuildings—palace , mosque, tomb, and caravanserai

,erected by one

Shaikh Bari 2 1 Muhammadan mosques ; 1 7 Hindu temples. TheGovernment bu ildings consist of the usual courts, police station , post

oflice , registrat ion office, school.

Bithar.

—Town in Una'

o District, Oudh 10 m iles south-east of Unaotown

,on the road from that place to Rai Bareli . Lat. 26

°

2 5’

20”N . ,

long. 80°

36’

2 5” E. The head - quarters of the Rawat tribe

,who

formerly owned the whole of the large f argand of Harha, in which thevillage i s s ituated . Population ( 188 1 ) 3 18 7 , namely, Hindus , 300 1 ;and Muhammadans

,186. Ten Sivaite temp les ; bi-weekly market ;

Government school .

Bithlir -Town in Cawnpur District,North-Wes tern

Provinces,ly ing on the south bank of the Ganges, 1 2 miles north-west

00 B1TRAGAN TA—B OBBIL I .

of Cawnpur City. L at. 26°

36’

50 N. , long. 80°

19' E. populat ion

( 188 1) 6685, namely, 5970 Hindus and 7 15 Muhammadans ; area of

town site,2 1 7 acres. A smal l municipal revenue for police and

conservancy purposes is raised under the provis ions of Act xx. of 1 856.

Picturesque front facing the river, adorned by g ltcits or bathing steps,temples

,and handsome res idences . The principal g/za

’

t, buil t by Raja

T ikait Rai, minister of Ghaz i-ud-di’

n Haidar, Nawab of Oudh , with animposing Saracenic arcade on i ts upper platform, is known as theBrahma g itoit, being sacred to that god and a bath ing fair is held there

on the full moon in November. Baj i Rao, the last of the Peshwas,was banished to B ithur

,and had extensive palaces in the town . His

adopted son, B andhu Panth, better known as the Nana Séhib, was theinstigator of the massacre at CAWNPUR. The town was capturedby Havelock’s force on the l gth of J uly 1 857 , when the Nana

’spalaces were utterly destroyed ; but he himself succeeded in makinggood his escape. On the 16th of Augus t, after Havelock

’s firs t unsuc

cessful attempt to reach L ucknow, B ithiirwas once more retaken , andnever again lost. I ts population and importance have greatly decl ineds ince the extinct ion of its local court. L arge numbers of Brahmansreside in the town , and superintend the bath ing festivals. A branch ofthe Ganges Canal i s in course of construction to Bithtir.

Bitraganta.—V illage in the Kaval i ta’lu/e, Nellore District, Madras

Presidency. The annual fair held here in honour of Venketeswaraswami attracts 4000 persons. Weaving forms the ch ief industry ofthe place. Population ( 188 1 ) 10 1 5, namely, 995 Hindus and 20

Muhammadans.

Black Pag oda. Ruined temple in Purl District, Orissa.

—SeeKANARAK.

Blue M ountain—Principal peak (7 100 feet high ) in the Yomarange

,at the north-west of Akyab District

,British Burma

,lat. 2 2

°

37'

N . and long. 93°

10' E.

Boalmari.—Trading village in Faridpur District, Bengal ; situatedon the Barasia river. L at. 23

°

2 3’

N . , long. 89°

48’

30” E. Chief trade

r ice,piece -goods, country cloth, cotton twist and yarn, j ute, and tobacco.

The resident population of the village in 1 88 1 was returned at only1 1 1 , but the weekly market on Sundays is attended by a large numberof non—res idents.

Bobbili.—An estate in V iz agapatam District, Madras Pres idency.

L at. 1 8°

2 2’

to 18°

46'

N., long. 83°

1 0’

to 83°

20'

E. ; area, 2 2 7 squaremiles, contain ing 1 78 villages , with houses

, and ( 188 1 )inhabitants

,almost all H indus males

,females

,

Surrounded by the Brit ish talalas of Chipurpalle, Viz ianagaram,salur,

Palkonda, and Bobbili . I t consists of 3 parganas , Bobbili , Ra’jam

,and

Kavite , and yields to its owner a revenue of per annum. Of

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2 2 B OBB I L I—B 0D .

Bobbil i ch ief fled into the Nizam’s country. But in 1 794, when the

V i z ianagaram estate was dismembered, Chinna Ranga Rao was restoredby the Brit ish to his father’s domains, and in 1801 a permanent settle

ment was concluded with his son at an annual tribute of£9000. Sincethen the peace of the estate has been und isturbed.

Bobbili.—Town in the Bobbil i estate, V iz agapatam District, MadrasPresidency. L at. 1 8

°

34’

N. , long. 83°

2 5' E. houses, 30 10 popu

lat ion ( 188 1 ) namely, Hindus, 3 29 Muhammadans, 38

Christians, and 34‘ others.’ S ituated about 70 miles north-west of

Viz agapatam . As the head-quarters of the tdluk, i t possesses a submagistrate’s court, a sub-registrar

’s offi ce , dispensary, school, etc. A

fortified enclosure in the centre of the town surrounds the temple and

the residence of the chief—See BOBB IL I ESTATE, supra.

Bod.

—The most westerly of th e Tributary States of Orissa, lyingbetween 2 0

°

1 3'

and 20°

53’

30 N . lat. , and between 83°

36'

45 and84

°

50’ E. long. ; area, including the KANDH-MALS (under British

administration ) , 2064 square miles ; populat ion ( 1881 ) TheState is bounded on the north by the M ahanadf river, separating itfrom Sonpur State in the Central Provinces, and from Athmallik Stateon the east by Daspalla on the south by the Madras States ofG oomsur

(Gumsar) and Kimidi and on the west by Patna and Sonpur Statesin the Central Provinces, from which i t is separated by the Tel river.Bod is under the supervis ion of the Commiss ioner of Cuttack and theGovernment of Bengal. To the south of Bod proper, are the KandhH ills, now under British management, but formerly feudatory to theBod Raja. The tract comprising the Kandh-mal s consists of a brokenplateau intersected by ridges of low hills, the las t refuge of the Kandhrace. The principal hil ls in the State are—Bondigara on the southernborder, 3 308 feet high ; Bankomundi, 2080 feet ; and Siananga, 191 7feet.

The population of Bod, including the Kandh-mals, numbered in1 88 1

, l iving in 1 74 1 villages and houses ; number of

males females average dens ity of population persquare mile, 63 ; persons per village, 74 ; persons per house, 79.

Classified according to rel igion , the Census thus divides the populationHindus, Muhammadans

, 73 ; Christ ian , 1 ; aborig inal tribes,Separate details of the population

,etc. , of the Kandh-malls

wil l be found in th e article on that tract . The following are the figuresforBod proper without the Kandh-mails. Total population, l iving

in 856 villages and houses ; number of males femalespersons per village, 83 ; persons per house, 5 . Classified

according to rel igion , the Census thus divides the population : Hindus,5 and Muhammadans, 69. There i s a considerable aboriginal

population in Bod, but owing to a different system of classification

B ODA—B ODINA YAKAN UR . 2 3

between the Census of 187 2 and 188 1 , only those who stil l cl ing to their

ancient religion have been returned by the last Census as aborigines,and in Bod proper they are included among the Hindus .The Mahanadi

, which forms the northern boundary of the State, andthe Tel, which borders i t on the west , afford exce llent facili ties forwater carriage ; but except a little scil t imber, none of the produce ofthe country is exported. Weekly markets are held at eight villages ,the principal commodities sold being coarse rice

,oil-seeds, and j ungle

products . The largest and most important village, and the res idenceo f the Raja, i s Bod (lat . 29

°

50’

2 0”N. , long. 84

°

2 1'

4 1”

in thenorth of the State on the right bank of the Mahanadi, 190 miles fromthe sea. The only other village of any siz e is Jagatigarh.

The State yields an est imated revenue o f£2400 a year to its ch ief ;the tribute to the Brit ish Government is £80 . The reigning familyclaims an uninterrupted descent from a stranger who founded the pettyprincipal ity about a thousand years ago ; they are Raj puts of theSolar race. The Raja’s mil it ia in Bod proper consists of 2 2 men, andhis pol ice force is of the same strength. He maintain s a school. A

post-offi ce has recently been establ ished .

Bodé..—An extensive z arnz'

ndcirz’

(estate) belonging to the Raja ofKuch Behar State, Bengal. Area, 475 square miles ; number of

villages,288 ; number of houses, Populat ion ( 188 1 )

o f whom are males and females. Average density o fpopulat ion

, 4 10 per square mile ; villages per square mile,“6 ; houses

per square mile, 78 ; persons per village , 67 6 ; persons per house , 5 2 .

Chief town , with revenue court of the Raj a, Boda ; lat. 26°

1 2'

N . ,

long. 88°

38’ E.

Bodanoness.

—Petty State of Und-Sarviya District, in Kathiawar,Bombay Presidency

,consist ing of one village, with one independent

tribute-payer. L at. 2 1°

24'

0 N. ,long. 7 1

°

50'

0 E. estimatedrevenue ( 1881 ) £ 1 05 , of which £ 10 is payable as tribute to the

Gaekwar,and 1 8s. to the Nawah of Junagarh .

Bodhan.—Village and place of pilgrimage in the Mandvi Sub

divis ion,Surat District , Bombay Pres idency. L at. 2 1

°

2 0’

N . ,long.

7 3°

7'

E . ; population ( 18 7 2 ) 3305. No later return of populationis available

.The fai r i s held when the planet Jupiter enters the

constellation of the L ion , an event which happens every twelve years ;about 2000 people attend , the majority being from Surat, Broach , and

Ahmadabad Districts , and from Baroda and Raj pipla terri tory. The

last fair was held in September 1 87 2 . The temple contains the image

o f G autameshwar Mahadeo, in whose honour the fair is held. The

temple holds lands free of rent .

Bodh Gaya.

—See BUDDH GAYA.

Bodinéyakanfi r.—Estate in Madura D istrict, Madras Presidency.

24 B ODINAYAKAN UR—B OGRA .

Area, 98 square miles,contain ing 2 1 villages and hamlets , wi th

6509 houses, and ( 1 87 1 ) inhabitants. L ater information isnot available. Situated in the valley between the Travancore andPalani ranges

, watered by the Terri river. This estate was one

of the original 7 2 Naiakais Palaiyam of M adrira, the family havingemigrated from Gooty (Otiti ) i n 1 336 A.D. I t was resumed byHaidar Ali in 1 7 76, and after an interval of semi - independence ,again reduced by Tipil. The Raja of Travancore subsequentlyse iz ed the estate

,but in 1 793 the Bodinayakaniir chief recovered

possess ion. When,in 1 795, the Company

’s officers proceeded to the

settlement of the District,they were resisted by the ch ief of

Bodinayakanur,and the party was fired upon. I t was one of the

largest of the 24 Palaiyams then sett led, containing 30 villages, andyielding about£7000 per annum . Annual tribute paid to Government,

£ 1 534

Bodinayakanur.—Town in M adrira District, Madras Pres idency.

L at. 10°

0’

50"

N., long. 7 7°

2 5’

0”

E. ; population ( 1 88 1 )namely, Hindus

, 6 19 Muhammadans, and 2 26 Chris t ians ;houses, 2 508. S ituated 65 miles west of M adrira. The head-quarters

(leased) o f a larg e estate o f the same name.

Bodwad (B otdwad).—Town in the Bhusawal Sub-division, KhandeshDistrict , Bombay Presidency . L at. 20

°

5 2'

1 5 N. , long. 76°

2’

0" E.

Situated on the main road from Aurangabad to Burhanpur, 80 milesnorth-east ofAurangabad

,and 2 miles south of the Na

’

rgam station on

the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. Population ( 188 1 ) 5 282 , namely,Hindus, 4307 ; Muhammadans , 84 7 ; Jains, 73 ; and

‘ others,

’

55.

Area of town site, 60 acres. Important trade in cotton, l inseed, and

other oil-seeds ; post-offi ce. The houses are for the most part poorand badly built, and the streets narrow

,crooked

,and dirty. Bodwad

was once a place of some consequence, and the ruined remains of anold fort, ci ty gateways, and an old reservoir st ill exist.Bog g erli.

—River in Nellore District,Madras Pres idency. R ising

among the Ghats at Boggu Venkatapuram,i t drain s the country west

and south of the Burgam,and flowing through Atmakiir, i t j oins the

Pennér at Sangam, where the two rivers have overspread a considerabletract wi th alluvial deposits. The Atmaktfr ta

’

luk to some extent, andthe Udayagiri tdluk almost entirely

,depend upon the Boggeru for

irrigation .

Bog oola..—Village in Nad iya District

,Bengal—See BAG ULA .

Bogra. (Bagarei) .—District occupying the east cen tral portion of theRaj shahi Division , under the L ieutenant-Governor of Bengal . I t liesbetween 24

°

3 2’

1 5 and 25°

18'

30 N . lat . , and between 88°

54’

15”

and 89°

48'

o” E. long. ,

i ts eastern boundary be ing roughly formedy the main channel of the Brahmaputra ; area, 1498 square miles ;

B OG RA .

population , according to the Census of 188 1 , souls . Theadministrative head-quarters are at BOG RA town on the Karatoyariver .P leys ical Aspects —The District presents the usual appearance of an

alluvial tract, consisting of one level plain , seamed with river-bedsand studded w ith marshes. I t naturally divides into two portions o funequal s iz e, an eastern tract forming part of the valley of theBrahmaputra, and closely resembl ing the country in M aimansingh on

the opposite bank ; and a western and larger portion, which merges

into the undulat ing clay lands of Dinaj pur. Both these tracts are

profoundly modified by th e fluvial action of the great streams wh ichflow through or over them ; but the boundary between the two constitutes an important landmark in the geographical system of Bengal .

The soil of the Brahmaputra valley is pure alluvion of a whitish colour,l ocal ly called poll, the recent deposit of the river floods. In thewestern tract the soil is a stiff clay of a reddish colour

,known as k/zia

’

r,

wh ich rests upon a lower stratum of sand ; the country i s generallyabove flood-level

,and much overgrown wi th scrub j ungle. In this

region are s ituated the pecul iar plots of mulberry-land, which are raisedby trenching and embankment above the danger of inundation .

The river system is con stituted by the numerous channels of th egreat river of Rangpur

,which is variously known as the T ISTA or Atrai .

The BRAHMAPUTRA itself, locally termed the Daokoba or Hatchet-cut,only fringes the eastern frontier of the District as far as the j unction of

the MANAS. The other rivers of the Distric t are the JAMUNA, NAGAR ,KARATOVA or PHUL JUR,

BANGAL I,and MANAS. Most of these inter

m ingle with one ano ther by cross streams ; and they fall ultimatelye ither into the Atrai

,or directly into the Brahmapu tra. They are all

port ions of the same dra inage system,and their comparat ive importance

i s so variable that i t would be u sel ess to describe the course of anyparticular channel in any given year. Historically

,the Karatoyawas

the main river which brought down towards the Ganges the greatvolume of Tista water

,before the disastrous floods o f 1 787 . The

width of it s former bed is st ill pointed out, and numerous local tradit ions bear w i tness to its early importance. At present, i t is one of theminor rivers of the District

,and but little used for navigat ion. There

are no lakes in Bogra,but marshes are numerous, especially in the

east and south of the District, where the greater part of the country isa network of marshes interlacing in and out of the District. Most ofthese dry up from the end o f January til l the rains , but many arealways flooded. Nothing has been done to drain any o f these swamps ,but several are silt ing up . All except the deepest are largely utiliz ed

for th e cult ivat ion of the long-stemmed variety of rice , which isgenerally sown from transplanted seedlings at the beginning of the

rains,and grows with the rise of the water. The Collector of the

2 6 B OGRA .

District reported in 187 3 that this rice‘ rises with the floods, however

deep they may be. I t i s almost impossible to drown i t. I t grows ashigh as 2 3 feet, and can bear submersion for two or three weekstogether without suffering much inj ury.

’L arge forests formerly existed

in this Distr ict,but they have in most cases been ru thlessly cut down ,

a few large patches remain ing only in the police divis ions of Pa’

nchbibi

and Sherpur. At the same time, the country is st ill fairly wooded, andmany valuable forest trees are indigenous to i t. The jungle productsconsist of various dyes , and beeswax. Ample pasture ground i s found

along the older sandy banks or drum of the Brahmaputra, wh ich arealways covered with coarse grass, and in places wi th the fine duo grass.These latter lands are left uncultivated , not in consequence of anyinfertil ity

,but from fear of floods . The larger sorts of game in the

District are the tiger, leopard , buffalo, deer, and wild pig. Small game,

such as hares,pea—fowl , sn ipe , quail, ortolan , wi ld geese , wild duck, teal ,

and pigeons,is plentifu l. Fish abound , be ing represented principally

by the perch,carp

,s iluroid

,and herring famil ies ; the fisheries form

valuable properties .

ffi storyu—Bogra has no political h istory o f i ts own. The District

was first formed in 182 1, out of certain t/za

’

na’

s or pol ice divis ions takenfrom Raj shahi

,Dinaj pur, and Rangpur. I t was found necessary at

that t ime to provide addit ional facil ities for the administration of

criminal j ustice in these outly ing tracts,which could no t be properly

supervised from the head-quarters of their several Districts . Thisregion, also , was then ris ing into notice as a remunerative field forEuropean enterprise in the form o f indigo-plant ing and silk-winding.

For these reasons, a Joint-Magistrate was stat ioned at Bogra town , inwhom only crim inal jurisd ict ion was ves ted. The duties of revenuecollection , together with the ti tle of Deputy-Collector, were added in183 2 ; but it was not till 1 859 that Bogra was erected into an independent District with a Magistrate-Collector of i ts own. Even at the

present day, traces may be found of the gradual growth of the severaladmin is trat ions , and much perplexity st i l l exists wi th regard to theboundaries of the fiscal and magisterial areas . In accordance w ith aprinciple which has long lost its original uti lity

,large estates were

permitted, on removal from the criminal supervision o f the ir oldDistricts, to continue to pay revenue into the parent treasury. The

fiscal j urisd iction thus broken up has never been again reun ited undera single authority. Again , considerable portions of Bogra were

surveyed with the neighbouring Districts to which they had been onceattached ; and the numerous series of papers

,which guarantee the

efficiency of local administration,l ie scattered at Rampur Beauleah,

Nasirabad , and Dinaj pur. In addit ion to these fundamental causes of

confusion , Bogra has experienced i ts full share of those frequent recti

3 00194 . 2 7

fi cations of the execut ive front ier,which so greatly destroy the value of

all s tat ist i cal comparisons throughout Bengal.The historical in teres t of the District centres round M AHASTHAN

GARH, and the town of SHERPUR. The former place is now a greatmound of earth , bounded on one s ide by the dwindling stream o f theKaratoya, and s trewn with bricks and a few carvings in stone. But

when the Karatoya was a great river, M ahasthan was the cap ital of anearly H indu dynasty, of which numerous tradit ions still l ive in th e

memories of the people. In later t imes it has become a Muhammadanplace of pilgrimage

,being associated with the name of Shah Sultan , a

fakir who figures prominently in the story of the Musalman conquest .

Sherpur town represents a more trustworthy epoch in Bengal history.

I t i s ment ioned by the Mughal chroniclers of the 1 6th century ,and appears under the disguise of ‘ Ceerpoor M irts ’ i n the map ofBengal by Von den Broucke, the Dutch Governor of India in 1 660.

These notices it owed to i ts importance as a frontier post of theMuhammadans, previous to the establ ishment of the Nawabs of Dacca .

I t i s now the res idence of three Brahman families,who rank among the

wealthiest landholders in the district .Pop ulation—Various early estimates of the number of the populat ion

are extant,but it is not known that any of them were based upon

t rustworthy principles. The most plausible conj ecture places the totalat souls

,at a t ime when the District was larger byabout one

th ird than it is now. The Census of 1 8 7 2 , with the District area th esame as at present, disclosed a population of persons. Thelatest enumeration

,in 1 88 1 , returned the inhabitants of the District at

7 showing an increase of or 65 per cent . , in the nineyears between 18 7 2 and 188 1 . Area of District

,1498 square miles ;

number of villages , 4 202 number of houses, of whichwere occupied and 4 1 70 unoccupied. Average density of population ,

per square mile ; villages per square mile, 2 8 1 ; houses persquare mile

,691 9; persons per village, 1 75 persons per occupied

house, 7 3 8. Divided according to sex, the males numbered

and the females Classified according to religion, theMuhammadans numbered or per cent. of the entirepopulat ion ; Hindus or 19 1 8 per cent. Jains, 54 ; Buddhists,2 ; Chri stians , 2 7 ; and

‘others,’

4. I t was one of the surprises re

vealed by the firs t regular Census of the D istrict in 1 87 2 , that the

M usalmans const itute more than four - fi fths of the inhabitants ofthe D istrict. There can be no doubt that in Bogra, as throughoutt he res t of the Brahmaputra valley, the great bulk of the people are

of aboriginal descent ; and that the maj ority willingly adopted theconquering faith of Islam ,

in preference to remain ing outcastes beyond

the pale of Hinduism. As elsewhere throughout India, almost the

28 B OG RA .

entire Muhammadan populat ion belong to the Hanafi sect of Sunnis.

A certain proport ion of them are said to be indoctrinated with thefanaticism of the reformed Faraiz i sect ; and so late as 187 1 . there was

a State prosecution for Wahabi disaffection . The Mu salman fairs andplaces of pilgrimage are well attended , especially the ceremoniesconnected with the name of Ghaz i Miyan . Of the semi-Hinduiz edaborigines

,the three cognate tribes of Koch, Pal i, and Rajbansi make

up a total of souls and it is known that many o f the M uham

madans belong to the same ethnical stock. Among the Hindusproper

,Brahmans number 46 14 ; Raj puts, 37 2 Kayasths , 37 59; and

Baniyas, 7486. The most numerous caste i s th e Kaibartta,

members ; and next, the Chandal, 9892 the H ari, 6999; and the

Sunri, with 6688. The boat ing and fish ing castes collectively arestrongly represented. Hindus not recognising caste are returned at

1 of whom are set down as Vaishnavs . The Brahma Samaji s represented by a few followers in Bogra town , who assemble weeklyin a meeting-house erected for the purpose. The occupat ion s of themale inhabitants are classifi ed in the Census report under one of

the following s ix main divis ions Professional class , includingGovernment officials and learned professions

, 6 295 ; (2 ) domesticservants

,keepers of lodging-houses , etc. , 3583 (3) commercial class ,

including merchants,general dealers

,carriers

,etc. , 64 1 2 ; (4) agri

cultural and pastoral class , including gardeners, (5) manufacturing , artisan, and other industrial classes, (6) indefiniteand unproduct ive (compris ing labourers

,2 7 men of rank

and property without occupat ion,and unspecified),

Emigration from the District is unknown .

T he population is almost entirely rural, and BOG RA town, with

6 1 79 souls, i s the only place with a population exceeding 5000.

No tendency is observed on the part of the people towards urbanl ife

,but rather the reverse. Of the 4 2 0 2 villages, 3003 are returned as

containing less than two hundred inhabi tants ; 969 from two to fivehundred ; 194 from five hundred to a thousand ; 3 2 from one to twothousand ; 2 from two to three thousand ; 1 from three to fivethousand and 1 from five to ten thousand .

The material condition of the people is said to have very much improvedof late years , in consequence of the enhancement ofprices of agriculturalproduce. This is due principally to better means of communication

with the great commercial centres of Calcutta and Dacca, since theopening of the Eastern Bengal and Northern Bengal State Railways.The increased demand for fine rice has done much to enrich theinhabitants of the western portion of the District

, whilst the rapidgrowth of the j ute trade has done even more for those in the easternportion. The people generally are advancing in wealth , social self

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30 B OGRA .

The ordinary rates of wages, and also the prices of food-grains,

have approximately doubled of late . In 187 1, coolies and agriculturalday-labourers received a little more than 4d. a day smiths and car

penters, about 8d. In the same year, common rice sold at 45 . per cwt.In 188 1 , as the result of an unusually abundant harvest, the price of

common rice fell to 35 . 4d. a cwt. , or about 35. a cwt. below the averageof the three previous years. The highest price reached by rice duringthe scarcity of 1874 was 1 7 5 . per cwt ., which was recorded in the month

of July.

Bogra’

. i s l iable, to some extent, to the calamity of drought ; but ageneral destruction of the crops from floods is unknown. In 1866

,the

year of the Ori ssa famine , the local supply fell short, and not a littled istress was caused by the concurren t increase of the exports toother Districts. In 1874, the failure o f the rice crop was more severe,but actual suff ering was anticipated by the prompt intervention of

Government. More than 8000 tons of food-grain were imported from

Calcu tta and Goalanda and J£50 ,000 in al l was expended in relief.

S ince the opening of the Northern Bengal State Railway, and the com

pletion of a system of minor roads to serv e as feeders , every part ofBogra is now sufficiently provided w i th means of communicat ion toprevent a local scarci ty from intensifying in to famine.

M anufartures , eta—The growth and preparation of indigo,which

formerly attracted a large amount o f European capital, has now entirelydisappeared from the District. The industry of s ilk-spinning still l ingersin the neighbourhood of Bogra town , but most of th e other fi latureshave been closed, being unable to compete with the Chinese and

Mediterranean producers. The manufacture of a coarse paper fromj ute i s conducted in a few villages. The Eas t India Company i s saidto have established it s silk factories at Sherpur and Nandapara in thisDistrict, in the firs t decade of th is cen tury, and to have annually distributed in the shape of advances to the rearers of cocoons.The Company abandoned manufacture on its own account in 1834.

R iver traffic is brisk in all parts of the District. The chief exportsare—rice, j ute, mustard-seed, sugar, hides, tobacco, and ga

’

nfei. Theimports are—sal t, piece-goods, pulses, spices, brass ware, cocoa-nuts, andbetel-nuts. The principal marts are—Hill i

,Damdama

, Jamalganj,Balubhara, Naugaon , and Dubalhati, on the Jamuna river ; Gobindganj ,Fakirganj , G umaniganj, Sibganj , Sultanganj , and Sherpur, on the Karatoya ; Dhiipchanchiaon the Nagar. Some of these are situated justbeyond the District boundaries, but the bus iness of al l i s chieflyconcerned with Bogra produce . According to the registrationreturns for the year 1876

-7 7 (the latest date for which I have

information), the total exports from the District were valued at

the imports at In add it ion, i t is supposed that

B OGRA. 3 1

a large port ion of the Bogra trade , espec ially in the case of imports,i s

credited to the ne ighbouring Districts of Pabna and Raj shahi . Th ech ief exports were—rice, wauna

’s, and paddy, maunds

,

valued together at j ute, mauua’r, valued at

The imports comprised piece-goods and saltmaunds, valued at The s ingle mart of Hilli, which

deals almost exclusively with Calcutta and Chandarnagar, despatchedj ust one-th ird in value of the export s, including mauna

'

s of rice.

Next come Dhtipchanchia, wi th an export of mauua’s of rice ;

Mathurapara, which export ed mounds of jute ; Diwantola,maunoir M aurechar, mauurls ; G osai nbari

,

mauna’s. Of the imports of piece-goods , Bogra town alone received

In 188 1 , the export of rice from Bogra District amountedto mounds.

The Northern Bengal State Railway run s through Bogra District fora distance of 39 miles. Advantage was taken of the famine rel iefoperations in 1874 to construct a system of minor roads to serve asfeeders to the railway. These roads, which have an average width of1 6 feet, are 15 in number, with an aggregate length of 137 miles. Thetotal cost was about Not a single road in the District i smetalled . The chief means of communication are the natural watercourses

,by which every village can be approached during the rainy

season .

—I h 1870-7 1 , the net revenue of Bogra, District

amounted to"

towards which the land - tax contributedor 70 per cent. ; the net expenditure was or

abou t one-quarter of the revenue. In 188 1—82 , the total revenueamounted to of which or 7 2 1 2 per cent., wasderived from th e land revenue. In the same year there was onecovenanted offi cer stationed in the District , 5 magisterial courts open ,and three Benches of 1 5 honorary magistrates. For police purposes theDistrict i s d ivided into 8 t/zducis or police circles, with three outposts.In 1 88 1 , the regular police force numbered 230 men of all ranks,maintained at a total cost of£4650. In addit ion , there was a municipalpol ice of 32 officers and men, maintained at a cost of £2 86, and arural pol ice or village watch of 1864 men, maintained by the villagersand landholders. The total machinery, therefore, for the protect ion ofperson and property con sisted of 2 1 2 6 offi cers and men, giving 1 man

to every 7 0 square mile of area, or to every 345 in the population.

The Distric t j ail at Bogra, town contained in 188 1 a daily average of

184 prisoners.Education has widely Spread of recent years, chiefly owing to the

changes by wh ich grants-ih -aid were assigned , first to the middle-classvernacular schools, and afterwards to the village schools orpdtfi sdlds.

32 B OG RA T OWN

In 1856, there were only 8 inspected schools in the District , attended

by 593 pupils. In 1 8 70 ,the numbers had increased to 29 schools and

1 2 2 1 pupils ; and in 1 88 1—8 2 , to 1 2 7 , wi th 3540 pup ils . This is

exclusive of uninspected indigenous schools ; and the Census Reportin 1 88 1 returned boys and 1044 girls as under instruction ,bes ides other males and 195 1 females as able to read and

write, but not under instruct ion . The higher class English school at

Bogra town was at tended in 188 1—82 by 2 23 pupils.The sub-divisional system has not been extended to Bogra District.

There are 3 2 parg ana’

s or Fiscal Divisions , wi th an aggregate of 656revenue-paying esta tes . In 188 1 , there were 2 civil j udges and 5st ipendiary magistrates . The two municipalit ies o f Bogra town andSherpur contain together a total population of In 1 88 1—82

,

the ir aggregate municipal income was £83 2 , the average rate of

taxation being rs . 3%d. per head .

M edical A spects—The climate of Bogra, i s somewhat less hot than

that of the Dis tricts farther to the west. I t has been observed that ' thew ind , when blowing from the east , is percept ibly cooled by pass ing over

the wide stream o f the Brahmaputra . The average me an temperatureis F . The average annual rainfall for - a period of 2 0 yearsending in 1 88 1

,was 80 2 2 inches ; but

" i n 187 3 , only inches

fell,a deficiency which caused the scarcity of the following year.

In 188 1 , the rainfall was 70 7 4 inches, or 948 inches below the

average.

The prevailing diseases are fevers. and bowel complaints of variousk inds. Cholera is said to be endemic towards the south-west of theDistrict

,which is not far from the Chalan an; and this d isease occa

s ionally breaks out with extreme epidemic severity . Small-pox hasbeen checked in recen t years by the increasing popularity of vaccination

,

especially among the Muhammadans . Goitre i s reported to be prevalent in the tract where j ute i s grown and steeped. The vital stati st icsshow a registered number of deaths in 1 88 1 , or a rate of

24 0 1 per thousand . There were , in 1 882 , three chari table dispensariesin the District

,at which 8 1 19 in-door and out-door patients were treated

during the year. [For further particulars regarding Bogra District, seemy StatisticalAccount of B engal, vol. vi i i . pp . 1 29 to 3 1 7 (T riibner 8

:

C0. , L ondon, see also the B engal Census Report for 1 88 1,and

the Annual P rovincial Administration Reports from 1 880 to 188

Bogra, (B ag urci) .—Chief town and administrative head-quarters ofBogra District, Bengal ; situated on the west bank o f the Karatoyariver. L at. 2 4

°

50'

45"

N .

,long. 89

°

E. Population ( 188 1 )6 1 79, namely, 2667 Hindus , 3463 Muhammadans , and 49

‘ others . ’

Municipal income in 188 1—8 2 , £483 incidence of municipal taxation,I S. 62d. per head of population within municipal l imits . The town has

B OKARO—B OL AN. 33

no i nterest ing build ings there are twomarkets, known as the Kal i talaand M althinagar lzdts.Bokaror - Coal-fi eld in Haz aribagh District, Bengal ; l ies between

2 3°

40’

and 2 3°

50' N. lat ., and between 85

°

30' and 86

°

1 0’ E. long. ,

covering an area of 2 2 0 square miles greatest length from east to wes t,

40 miles ; maximum breadth from north to south, 65 miles. I t takesi ts name from the river Bokaro, which flows through the field for ad istance of 2 7 miles. The coal series represented are the Talcher

,

Damodar, and Fanchet ; the amount of available fuel has been est imatedat 1500 millions of tons. Coal has of late years been regularly cut

near the villages of Charhi'

, Phusro , Tapin-Pindra, and Bangahra, to

supply fuel for burning bricks in Haz aribagh, and some has been cartedto Gaya. Bokaro stands th ird in order of importance among the fieldso f th e Damodar valley which have already been exam ined andreported on.

Bolan— Pass leading over the Brahui M ountains, from the plainsofKachhi to the highlands of Sarawan and Baltichistc’tn. I t commencesin lat. 29

°

30'

N.,long. 67

“

40’

E ., about 5 miles north-west of Dadar,and rises in a succession of narrow valleys between high ranges, havinga north-westerly course, until it culminates in a broad plain called theDasht-i-Bedaulat. The total length of the pass is about 60 miles ;e levat ion of the top, about 5800 feet ; average ascent, 90 feet in themile. From the foot of the pass the halt ing-places are—Khundilani

,

7 miles sou th ; Kirta, 5 miles ; Bibi-Nani, 1 3} miles Ah-i-gum,14 miles ;

Sar-i-Bolan , 6 miles ; and from Sar-i-Bolan to the top of the pass,

Dasht-i—Bedaulat, the d istance is 1 1 § m iles. The Bolan river,a h ill

torrent ris ing beyond Sar-i-Bolan, flows through the whole length of

the pass,and is frequently crossed in the first march from the foot.

This torrent is,l ike all mountain streams, subj ect to sudden floods.

In 184 1 , a Brit ish detachment was lost with its baggage in such a flood.

When the river is not swollen, however, art illery can be conveyedthrough without any serious difficulty and the pass is consequently ofgreat importance from a military point of view. In 1839, a Bengalcolumn wi th its art i llery, consisting of 8-inch mortars, 24

-pound

howitz ers , and 18-pounder guns, went through the Bolan in six days.At two principal points the pass is very narrow—namely, j ust aboveKhundiléni, and beyond Sar-i-Bolan ; at these places it might be heldby a very small force ag ainst immensely superior numbers. At the

fi rst-mentioned point, the cliffs of conglomerate on e i ther s ide rise to aheight of from 400 to 800 feet, and when the river is in flood , thestream completely fi lls the narrow gorge at the other point, the rocksare of l imestone, and the passage is so narrow that only three or four

men can ride abreast . The temperature in the pass during May isvery h igh ; water is abundant and good, but firewood is scarcely proVOL . 111. c

34 B OL ARAM—B OM BA Y PRE SIDENCY.

curable.There is l ittle or no cult ivat ion owing to the stony nature of

the ground , and the route being infested by the Marri and Kakar tribes

o f Baltichis and Pathans, who , until very recently, l ived principally byplundering caravans proceeding from Khorasan to Sind , and deterredpeaceably-disposed tribes from settl ing in the valleys . From Bibi—Nania mountain road leads to Khelat, aid Baradi , Rodbar, Nurmah Takhi,and Kishan distance

, 1 10 miles. Distance from top of pass to Quetta,2 5 miles ; road good.

Boléiramr—Military cantonment in Haidarabad (Hyderabad), the

Niz am’s Dominions ; s ituated in lat. 1 7°

3 2'

N . ,long. 7 8

°

34'

E.,on a

piece of high ground 6 or 8 miles in circumference, having on its

summit an open plain extending east of the cantonment . E levationabove sea

, 1890 feet ; distance from Haidarabad (Hyderabad), 1 1 milesnorth

,and from Sikandarabad (Secunderabad ), 6 miles north. T he

troops stationed here belong to the Haidarabad Contingent. Theplace is healthy. Several kinds of English vegetables and fruits thrive

well . A disturbance occurred among the men of one of the Niz am’s

cavalry regiments stationed here in 1 855 , and Brigadier Colin Mackenz ie

was severely wounded.

Bolpur.

—Village in Birbht’tm District,Bengal

,and a station on the

East Indian Railway ; distance from Calcutta (Howrah) , 99 miles.Since the opening of the railway, the village has risen rapidly inimportance

,and is now a considerable place o f trade .

Bolfi ndra.—Petty State in the Mahi Kantha Agency

,Bombay

Presidency. The Thakur is a Rewar Raj put,descended from a

younger branch of the Ranasan family ; he has no sanaa’ au thoriz ing

adopt ion ; the family follows the rule of priniogeniture . The firstThakur of Bolundra obtained the estate as a maintenance in 1 7 24 A .D.

The land under cult ivation is est imated at 5 200 big/ms . Population

( 188 1 ) 8 75 ; revenue, £6 1 ; tribute of about £14 is paid to theMaharaja of Edar.Bomanahilli. —Village in Bellary District, Madras Presidency,

which gives its name to a great irrigational project, designed—bythe construction of a reservoir and channel s—to irrigate aboutacres of land .

B0mba.di .-Township in British Burma—See BUM AWAD I.

Bombay Presidency—Bombay, the Western Presidency of British

India, i s divided into four revenue Divis ions and twenty-four British

Districts . I t also includes numerous Nat ive States,under the protec

tion of Her Maj esty’s Indian Government . The territory thus composed extends from 13

°

53'

to 28°

45'

N. lat .,and from 66

°

40’

to 76°

30’

E. long. The British Districts,including Sind

,contain a total area

o f 2 3 square miles , and a total populat ion (according to the Censusof 188 1 ) of souls ; th e Nat ive States under the Bombay

B OM BA Y PRE SIDENCK 35

Government, excluding Baroda, cover an additional area est imated atsquare miles , with a population of souls grand total

area, square miles ; grand total population , souls .

The State of Baroda , with an estimated area of 85 70 square miles , anda population of souls

,although in direct subordinat ion to

the Supreme Government of India,i s intricately interlaced with the

Bombay Brit i sh D istricts,and may

,from a geographical point of view,

be regarded as forming part of the Bombay Presidency. The Portu

g uese possess ions of Goa, Datnan. and D iu, with an aggregate area of

about 3806 square kilometres, and population ( 188 1 ) of souls,

are also included with in its geograph ical l im its . The capital of thePresidency, the residence of the Governor, and the head-quarters ofall the admin is trative departments

,is BOMBAY CITY, situated on an

island of the same name on the shore of the Arabian Sea, in 18°

55'

5"

N . lat itude,and 7 2

°

53'

55 E. longi tude .

B oundaries .- Bombay Presidency is bounded on the north - west ,

north , and north-east by Baltichista'

n and Khelat, the Brit ish Provinceof the Punj ab, and the Native States of Raj putana ; on the east bythe Native States of the Central India Agency, the Cen tral Provinces,West Berar

,and the Dominions of the N iz am of Haidarabad ; on the

south by the Presidency of Madras and the State of Mysore ; and on

the west by the Arabian Sea.

H istory—The territory included within the Bombay Presidency was

in old t imes partitioned among many independent kingdoms. The mostancient records and memorials, such as the inscribed rock of G irnarand the caves of Ajanta, carry us back to the period before and atthe commencement of the Christian era, when Buddhism was theorthodox creed throughout the pe ninsula of India. A survival of thisearly faith is represented by the Jains, who are st ill an influential sectin the Bombay Pres idency

,adhering wi th tenacity to their ancien t

tradit ions. The names of the most ancient H indu kingdoms whichcan be localiz ed in Western India are—MAHARASHTRA, the presen tMaratha country

,which is interpreted to mean either ‘ the great

country or ‘ the country of the aboriginal tribe of M ahars G ujarashtra,or the modern Gujarat (GUZERAT),

‘ the country of the Gujars ,’in

cluding the peninsula of KATH IAWAR, which was once the head-quartersof a great kingdom known as Saurashtra, or the country of the Saurasand lastly

,S indhu or S IND , which is emphat ically the land of the Indus

river. A succession of dynast ies, of Raj pu t origin , ruled over theseregions during the first ten centuries of the Christ ian era. The most

powerful seem to have been , the dynasty which had its capital atWalabhi, in the modern G ohelwar and the Chalukya empire of theDeccan (Daksh in ). Our knowledge of th is period is chiefly derived

from coins and charters on stone and copper, which have been found

3s B OM BA Y PRE S IDENCY.

i n great abundance in certain local ities . Continuous h istory begins

w ith the invasion of the M usalmans .

Sind was the first part of India in which the Muhammadans established

a footing.But the best known event in this period of history is the

invasion of Guj arat (GUZERAT) by Mahmud of Ghaz ni, in 1024, when

the sacred temple of Somnath was sacked and an immense booty carriedaway by the invader. Henceforth the Raj put dynasty of Gujarat,whose capital was at Anhilwara or Patan , defended themselves withvarying success against successive waves of invasion

,unti l their king

dom was finally destroyed in 1 297 by A laf Khan , the general of the

T tirki Emperor of Delhi , Ala-ud—din Khilj i. For about a century,from

1 297 to 1403 , Gujarat was governed by deput ies sent from Delhi. Thelast o f these governors, Jafar Khan , a Raj put renegade, threw off hisallegiance to the Emperor, and founded an independent dynasty

known as the Ahmadabad kingdom, from the capital bu ilt in 14 13 by

Ahmad 1. This dynasty attained to great power and splendour,as is

test ified both by the reports of European travellers and by the ruinedbu ildings stil l exist ing at Ahmada

'

bad and Champaner. I ts annualrevenue is said to have amounted to 1 1 millions sterl ing. In 1 573,

Gujarat was conquered by the Mughal Emperor, Akbar, who led theinvading army in person , and the Province was again subjected to thecontrol ofViceroys from Delh i. During the 1 7 th century, Muhammadanauthority was maintained despi te the rising power of the Marathas inthe south of the Province. But on the death of Aurangz eb in 1 707 , allshow of order was swept away ; and in 1 7 5 7 the Province of Gujarat,w ith its capital , Ahmadabad, was finally surrendered to the Marathas

,

under the j oint leadersh ip of a deputy of the Peshwa and Damaj iGaekwar.The DECCAN (Dakshin) was first conquered by the Muhammadans in

1 294—95, although the difficult nature of the h ill tracts, and d issensions

among the invaders,long prevented the subj ugation from being complete.

In 1 345, the weakness of Muhammad T ughlak, the Turki Emperor ofDelhi

,encouraged Ahmad Shah Bahmani to rise in rebell ion and to

found an independent dynasty called after his own name. Its capital

was first at G tilbarga, but was subsequently removed to Bidar. About

1490, the Bahmani kingdom fel l to pieces,being partitioned among

the feudatory nobles,of whom the two greatest founded the dynasties

of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar. Towards the close of the 1 6th century,the Mughal Emperors o f Delh i began to press upon these independentkingdoms from the north ; and the Maratha horsemen , under Sivaji,found their opportunity in the continual d issens ions of the M usalmans.

In 1 637 , the Niz am Shahi dynasty of Ahmadnagar was finally over

thrown , and its territory divided between the Mughals and the Bijapurkings. In 1 684 , Bijapur was itself taken by the Emperor Aurangz eb,

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38 B 'OM BA Y PRE SIDEN CY.

English Companies trading with India. Finally, in 1 7 73, Bombay

was placed in a posit ion of qualified subordination to the Governor

General at Calcut ta.

For more than a century the posit ion o f the Engl ish on the wes t

coast of India was merely that o f traders, who had successfully infringedthe monopoly of the Portuguese and

.

the Dutch , but were hemmed in

on the landward s ide by the ris ing power of the Marathas. The first

of the Maratha chiefs with whom our countrymen at Bombay citycame into serious collis ion was Angria, who, from his stronghold onthe island of Kolaba , dominated the ent ire coast of the Konkan witha numerou s piratical fleet. In 1 7 56, the Governor of Bombay, inalliance with the Peshwa , despatched an expedition by sea , whichcaptured Angria

’s fortified harbour of Savarndrt

’

ig and in the sameyear an expedition sent from England, under the j oint command of

Admiral Watson and the celebrated Cl ive, stormed Gheria’

. or Viz ia

drtig , and won a booty of The power of the Marathap irates was thus broken , but the only territorial acqu is it ion made by theEnglish

,was a few villages on the mainland south of Bombay. In

1 7 74, the Bombay Government commenced the first Maratha war , onthe occasion of a disputed succession to the title of Peshwa

’

. This

war was marked by the inglorious convention of Wargaon andthe repulse of General Goddard at the foot of the Bhor-Ghat . It wast erminated by the treaty of Sélbai ( 1 782 ) i n accordance wi th wh ich the

English retained permanent possess ion o f Salsette , Elephanta, Karanjaand Hog Island , but gave back Basse in and all their conquests inGujarat to the Peshwa

’

, and made over Broach to Sindhia . The castleo f Surat had been in British hands s ince 1 7 59 and in 1800 ,

the entireadministration of that city was transferred to them by the MuhammadanNawab

,whose descendants retained the empty t i tle until 1 84 2 .

The second Maratha war was occasioned by the treaty of Basseinin 1 802

, by which the Peshwa accepted the subs id iary system thatformed the keynote to the Marquis o fWellesley

’s policy. T he northern

Maratha houses combined to break down th is treaty,and the military

operations known as the second Maratha war followed ( 1 803 As

the resul t of that war, a considerable tract in Gujarat, including thepresent Districts of Surat

,Broach

,and Kaira, was ceded to the British,

and their polit ical influence became predominant at the courts of Poonaand Baroda. During the interval of peace wh ich followed

,measures

were taken for destroying the haunts of the pirate s who then infested

the gulfs of Cambay and Cutch (Kachchh) . In 1 807 , the States of

Kathiawar were taken under Brit ish protection,and in 1809 the Rio

o f Cutch was induced to sign a treaty promis ing to co-operate in the

suppression of piracy. But no sooner had the Peshwa,Baj i Rao

,been

restored to his throne at Poona by a Brit ish army,than he began to plot .

B OAIBA Y PRESIDENCY. 39

for the expulsion of the Brit ish from the Deccan . At last , in 18 1 7 , he

suddenly attacked the Resident , Mr. E lph instone , who ret ired to Kirki ,where a small Briti sh force was stationed

,which a few days afterward s

utterly defeated the whole army of the Peshwa. After a few more

engagemen ts , the fugitive Pe shwa surrendered to Sir John Malcolm .

A pens ion o f was guaranteed to him for life,but he was de

prived of all h is domin ions. By these measures the Bombay Presidencywas augmented by the annexation of the Districts of Poona

,Ahmad

nagar, Nasik, Sholapur, Belgaum,Kaladgi

,Dharwar

,Ahmadabad , and

the Konkan thus rece iving at one t ime the greater part of its presen tterritory. At the same date, Holkar made over h is rights in KhandeshDistrict to the British . Satara lapsed to the paramount power in 1848 ,

on the death of the last l ineal descendant o f Sivaj i wi thout a naturalheir ; the non-regulat ion tracts of the Panch M ahals were ceded bySindhia in 1 860 and in 1 86 1 the southern l imits of the Presidencywere extended by the transfer of the District of North Kanara fromMadras .

The history of Sind form s a chapter apart from that of the rest ofthe Presidency. Shortly after the beginning of the present century, theGovernment of that country was assumed by four brothers of Baltichiorigin

,known as the Talpur Amirs. The advance of the Briti sh power,

and especially the right of passage up the Indus at the time of theA fghan war, caused complicat ions with the Amirs of Sind. Hostilit ieswere precipitated by an attack upon the British Residency at Haidarabad, and the war that followed was signal iz ed by the decisive victoryo f M fani (Meeanee) . The Province was annexed to the Brit ish Empirein 1 843, and the conquering general, Sir Charles Napier, was appointed

i ts first ruler. Sind continues to be administered as a non-regulationProvince. A proposal has been under consideration to detach it from

Bombay, and to place i t, together with the frontier Districts of thePunj ab, immediately under the Supreme Government of India.

The recent h istory of Bombay Presidency is dest itute of st irringinciden ts. Peace has remained unbroken , even during the troublousseason o f 1857 , when the Bombay troops remained, as a body, loyal.The local army has done good service in many climes. In Afghan istanand Persia

,in Burma and China, in Aden and Abyssinia, the Sepoys

of Bombay have shown themselves will ing to do their duty wheresoever called . But the chief glory of Brit ish administration has lain

in the development of the arts of peace. Instead of the chronicdisorder of the Maratha period , absolute security is now guaranteedto l ife and property. Where bands o f irregular horsemen formerly

collected tribute from the vil lagers at the spear’s point , the landrevenue is now realiz ed by the operation of law, in amounts larger

than could be conce ived in the days of mil itary extortion. The rail

40 B OM BA Y PRE SIDENC I .

way, a triumph of engineering skill, cl imbs w ith ease the famous BhorGhat

,which in old times shut off the ferti le plateau of the Deccan

from the sea-coast,and once wi tnessed the discom fi ture of a British

army. A series of administrative reforms , originated by Mountstuart

E lphinstone , Governor of Bombay from 1 8 19 to 1 82 7 , have been

continued and developed by the subsequent succession of rulers ; andthe benefits of civilisation have been widely distributed through theland

.The cult ivator is no longer a tenant-at-wi ll of the State , l iable to

unl imited exactions of revenue ; his posit ion is now that of a partowner of the soil

,wi th rights which he can transmit by sale or descent,

subj ect only to the payment o f a rent-charge fixed for a term of years .

At the same t ime , the ambition of the upper classes has been turnedinto the peaceful channels of commerce . The growth of the trade in

cotton i s at once the cause and the measure of the advance in theaverage standard of comfort . Wide D istricts in Guj arat and theDeccan have found their advantage in cult ivat ing a staple which for ashort season brought them a golden return

,and st il l pays better than

the ordinary grain crops . Bombay city bears wi tness by her splendidbuildings

,her docks

,and her public works, to the prosperity of the land

over which she rules,and from which she draws a rich tribute .

P /zysical Aspects—The Presidency o f Bombay presents on the mapthe appearance of an irregu lar strip of land , stretch ing along theeastern shore of the Arabian Sea

,and extending up the lower portion

of the Indus valley. The continuous coast-l ine is only broken towardsthe north by the gu lfs o f Cambay and Cutch , between which l ies the

proj ecting peninsula of Kathia’

war. The seaboard is generally rockbound and difficult of access

,although i t con tains many little estuaries

forming fair-weather ports for vessels engaged in the coasting trade.

Bombay and Karwar alone have harbours suffi ciently landlocked toprotect sh ipp ing during the prevalence of the south-west monsoon .

Physically as well as h istorically,Bombay Presidency may be roughly

divided into two distinct portions,the Narbada (Nerbudda) forming

the boundary l ine . To the north of that river lie the Province of

Guj arat, wi th the peninsulas of Kath iawar and Cutch , and the Provinceo f Sind ; to the south the Maratha country

,part of the Deccan,

the Karnatic , and the Konkan . The former o f these tracts is for themost part a low plain of alluvial origin . In Southern Gujarat thevalleys of the Tapti and Narbada form sheets of unbroken cult ivation.

But in Northern Gujarat the soil becomes sandy and the rainfalldeficient ; cult ivation is largely dependent upon either arti fi cial irrigat ion or the natural humidity caused by the neighbourhood of the

ocean . In Sind (beyond the delta on the east ) , the surface is a wideexpanse of desert, interrupted only by low cl iffs or undulat ing sand

heap s. The geological formation is dist inct from that of the rest of

B OAIBA Y PRE SIDENCY. 4 1

the Ind ian peninsula,cons isting of l imestone rocks , con t inuou s with

those found in Pers ia and Arabia .

Bombay, south of the Narbada, consists of a level coast strip, r isinginto an upland country . Mountain s furrowed by deep valleys interceptthe rain-clouds of the monsoons

,and blossom with tropical vegetation.

The geological formation is composed of nearly hori z ontal strata ofbasal t and s imilar rocks

,which naturally break into steep terraces and

hog-backed ridges,and have produced by their decomposit ion th e

famous ‘ black cotton soil,

’ unsurpassed for its fertil ity. Perched uponthese rugged eminences stand the impregnable h ill forts famous inMaratha history . The Deccan

,the Kamatic , and the Konkan are each

marked by special features of their own. The Deccan , includingKhandesh Distr ict

,is an elevated plateau behind the Western Ghats .

I t is drained by several large rivers,along whose banks are tracts of

great fert il ity ; but for the rest, the air i s dry and the rainfall uncertain.

The Karnatic , or country south of the Krishna (Kistna) river, is a plainof lower elevation

,and contain s wide expanses of black soil under

continuous cult ivation. The Konkan i s the name of the narrow stripo f land lying between the base of the Ghat s and the sea. As a whole ,i t i s a rugged and diflicult country, intersected by numerous creeks , andabounding in isolated peaks and detached ranges of hills. The cult ivat ion cons ists only of a few rich plots of rice-land and groves of cocoa-nut .

The rainfal l is excessive . The Districts of the Presidency are classifiedas follows , with reference to the natural d ivis ions above describedS ind D istricts—Karach i (Kurrachee), Haidarabad , Shika

’

rpur, Tharand Parkar

,and Upper Sind Frontier, forming the Sind Divis ion .

G uj ara’

t D istricts .—Ahmadabad

,Kaira

,Panch-M ahals, Broach , and

Surat.Konkan D istricts—Thana

,Bombay ci ty and island , Kolaba, Ratna

giri,and Kanara.

D eccan D istricts .

-Khandesh,Nasik

,Ahmadnagar, Poona (Puna) ,

Sholapur, and Satara.

Western Ka’

rnatic or Sout/z M arci/lid D istricts—Belgaum , Dharwar,and Kaladgi .M ountains—The following are the ch ief mountain ranges , which all

have a general d irection from north to south . In the north-west, onth e right bank of the Indus

,the Hala and Khirtari mountains, a

continuation of the great Sulaiman range,separate British India from

the domains of the Khan of Khelat. In Sind there are low ranges of

sandhills,and in Cutch and Kathiawar several i solated peaks and

cliffs , which form geologically a cont inuation of the Aravalli mountains .Proceed ing towards the south-east, an extensive mountain chain is metwith

,which may be regarded either as a southern spur of the Aravalli

mountains,or a northern prolongation of the Western Ghats beyond

4 2 B OM BA Y PRE SIDEN CY.

the valleys of the Tapti and Narbada. These hills separate Gujaratfrom the States of Central India , beginning in the neighbourhood ofMount Abti, and stretching southwards down to the right bank o f the

Narbada. South of the Tapti the country becomes rugged and broken ,with isolated masses of rock and proj ecting spurs, forming the water

shed for the great rivers of the Deccan . This rugged region constitutes,

s trictly speaking,the northern extremity of the Western Ghats

,here

called the Sahyadri Hill s . That great range runs southward,parallel

to the sea—coast for upwards o f 500 miles , wi th a general elevation of

about 1800 feet above the sea,though individual peaks rise to more

than double that height. The western decl ivity is abrupt , and the low

strip of land bordering the sea—shore is seldom more than 40 miles inwidth. The Ghats do not descend in one sheer precipice, but, as isusually the case with a trap formation , the descent is broken by asuccess ion of terraces. The landward slope is gentle, also falling in

terraces , the crest o f the range be ing in many cases but slightly raisedabove the level of the cen tral plateau of the Deccan . Apart frommany minor spurs o f the Western Ghats , only two ranges in the

Presidency have a direct ion from east to west. The Saitpura range,from the neighbourhood o f the fort of Asirgarh to its termination in theeast of Gujara

’

t , forms the watershed between the Taptf and Narbadarivers, separat ing Khandesh D istrict from the territories of Indore , andattain ing an elevation o f over 5000 feet. The Sétniala or Aj anta Hills,which divide Khandesh from the Niz am’s Domin ions on the south , areof less importance , being rather the northern slope of the plateau of theDeccan than a distinct h il l range.Rivers—Bombay Presidency has no great rivers which it can call its

own. The outlying Province of S ind is pene trated throughout its entirelength from north to south by the INDUS, whose overflowing waters arealmost the sole means of distributing fertil i ty through that parched region.

I ts season of flood begins in March and continues until September ;the discharge of water

,calculated at cubic feet per second in

December, i s said to increase te nfold in August, the average depth of theriver increasing during the inundation from 9 to 24 feet, and the velocityof the current increasing from 3 to 7 miles an hour. The entire lowerportion of the delta is torn and furrowed by old channels of the river,for the surface is a light sand , eas ily swept away and re-deposited year

by year. A full account of the uti lity of the Indus,both for irrigation

and navigation , will be found in the separat e art icle on that river. The

plains of Northern Guj arat are watere d by a few smal l streams, thechief of which are the Sabarmat i and Mahi

,both ris ing in the Mahi

Kantha Hills and flowing southward into the head of the Gulf ofCambay. The Narbada in its westerly course to the sea from Central

I ndia, has but a short section with in the l imits of the Pres idency. It

B OM BA Y PRE SIDENCY. 43

separates the terri tory of Baroda from Rewa Kantha, and , after passingthe city of Broach , fal ls into the Gulf of Cambay by a noble estuary.

For about 100 miles from the sea it i s navigable at all seasons by

country boats , and during the rain s by vesse ls of 50 tons burthen. TheTaptf, although a smaller river, has a greater commercial importance . I t

flows through the whole length of Khandesh District , and enters thesea a l itt le above the city of Surat. Both these rivers run for the mostpart between high banks, and are l ittle used for the purposes of irrigat ion . Pass ing southwards

,the hi ll streams which rise in the Western

Ghats and flow west i nto the Arabian Sea are very numerous , but ofl it tle importance. During the rains they become formidable torrents,but in the hot season they dwindle away and almost cease to flow. Inthe low lands of the Konkan their annual floods have worn deep tidalcreeks, which form valuable highways for traffic. In the extreme southo f the Presidency, in the District of North Kanara, these westwardflowing s treams become larger ; one of them

,the Sharavati, plunges

downwards from the mountains in the celebrated Falls of G ersappa.

This majest ic cataract consists of five cascades in the dry weather ,which spring over the face of a rock 890 feet in height . During therains , the five cascades un ite into one magnificent avalanche of water.On the eastern s ide of the Ghat s are the headwaters of both theGodavari and Kistna (Krishna) rivers, the former o f which rises nearNasik and the latter near Mahabaleshwar. Both o f these, after collecting the waters of many tributary streams, some of considerables iz e, leave the Presidency in a south-easterly direction, crossing theentire plain of the Deccan on the ir way to the Bay of Bengal.B ays ana

’l akes—The most pecul iar natural feature in the Pres i

dency i s the Rann ofCutch (Kachchh) . Authorit ies have not yet decidedwhether i t i s an arm of the sea from which the waters have receded, oran inland lake whose seaward barrier has been swept away by somenatural convulsion . I t covers an estimated area of 8000 square miles,forming the western boundary of the Province o f Gujarat ; but whenflooded during the rainy season , i t un ites the two gulfs of Cutchand Cambay, and converts the peninsula of Cutch in to an island .

In the dry season the soil i s impregnated w ith salt, the surface insome places being moist and marshy, and in others strewed withgravel and sh ingle l ike a dry river-bed or sea-beach . At this t ime

the Rann is frequented by numerous herds of antelope, the‘ black

buck ’ of sportsmen . L arge tracts of marshy land are to be foundin the Province o f Sind, caused by changes in the course of the Indus .The Manchhar lake, on the right bank o f the river

,near the town of

Sehwan , is swelled during the annual season of inundation to an area

of about 1 60 square miles ; and a large portion of the newly-formeddelta has not yet been fully reclaimed from the antagon istic forces of

44 B OA/[ BA Y f RE S/DEN CY.

the river and the sea. Along the coast of the Konkan the low-lying

lands on the borders of the salt-water creeks are l iable to be overflowedat h igh tide . Two artificial sheets of water may fo r the ir si z e be

dignified wi th the title of lakes ; Vehar tank and Tulsi lake , con

structed to provide Bombay city with water. The former is situatedabout 16 miles distant from the city

,amid a group of h ills near the

town o f Thana ; i t has an area o f about 1400 acres . The latter l iesthree miles north of Vehar, and about two miles south of the Kanheri

caves, with an area of 33 1 acres. Another sheet of water, the Kharakwa

'

sla tank,intended to supply Poona

,and also to irrigate the neigh

bouring fields,covers an area of 3500 acres.

M'

nerals .—Bombay Presidency is deficient in mineral wealth , although

abundantly supplied with stone adapted for bu i lding and road-making.

At T eagar, or Tegur, in the District o f Dharwar,iron-ore is mined

and smelted,but the scarcity of fuel prevents operations on an exten

sive scale. In the same District,large slate quarries are worked .

There are five valuable l imestone quarries near Karach i (Kurrachee),and lime is burned in Belgaum District. The bordering mountainsof Baluchistan are reported to contain large quantit ies of gypsum

,

copper,lead

,antimony, and sulphur.

T/ze Forests of Bombay belong to two separate classes—the produceof the alluvial plain s in S ind

,and the produce o f the mountains of

the Western Ghats . The State reserves in Sind are estimated tocover an area of acres

,lying along the banks of the Indus.

They are divided into blocks,locally known as betas

,which are said

to have been originally formed as hunting-grounds by the Amirs, theformer Muhammadan rulers o f the Province. Frequent changes inthe course of the river sweep away large portions of these fi elds , theaverage annual loss from erosion being calculated at as much as

acres and,though fresh deposits of alluvion afford some com

pensation, i t takes many years to replace the t imber-trees thus carriedo ff. The most valuable trees are the s isu or blackwood (Dalbergiasisoo ) , in small plantations baoul (Acacia arabica) , which here attainsa fair siz e ; M an (Populus euphratica) , a soft wood which grows in greatabundance in Upper Sind and tamarisk (Tamarix indica) , which never

attains large dimens ions , but is extens ively used as fuel by the riversteamers . The kuna’z

’

(Prosopis spicigera) is a very important tree inthe arid tracts . The bamboo is altogether unknown in Sind, but thetrue date (Phoenix dactylifera) grows abundantly near Sakkar, in theupper part of the Province . In 1 880- 8 1 , the total receipts of theForest Department in Sind amounted to against an expendi

t ure of showing a net profit o f The work of conservancy i s ch iefly confined to the prevention of misch ief by fire

,and

the planting of oulzul trees.

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46 BOM BA Y PRE SIDENCY.

L eopards are common,but the tiger has retreated before the advance

o f cult ivation,and is now only found in remote j ungles . The black

bear (Ursus labiatus) i s found wherever rocky hills and forests occur ;and the bison (G avaeus gaurus ) haunts the mountain glades of Kanara .

Of deer, the same/tar (Rusa aristotelis ) is found in the same locali tiesas the bison

,though in greater abundance ; while the nilg a

’

i (Portaxpictus ) and the antelope are so numerou s, espec ially in Guj arat, as tobecome somet imes a pest to the cul t ivators. Small game, such assnipe

,quail

,partridges

,and wi ld duck , can generally be obtained by

the sportsman in all parts of the Pres idency, even within easy reach

o f the suburbs of Bombay . I n the year 1 88 1 , the total number ofregistered deaths throughout the Presidency caused by wild beasts wasonly 1 20 ; whereas venomous snakes killed 1 209 persons .

Concern ing dome st ic animals, i t may be said that the cattle of

Bombay Presidency are everywhere too numerous for the pasturageavailable. In breeding

,no attention is paid to artificial select ion , and

the present poor condition of the animals is said to be becoming worse.

In Guj arat a class of bullocks of more than ordinary siz e is met with,used

especially for drawing carts along the deep sandy roads o f that country.

Into the south of the Pres idency a ye t more valuable breed of draughtoxen is imported from Myso re. In certain parts buffaloes are commonly used for plough ing and throughout Sind

,the camel is the one

animal for all agricultural purposes . In former days the horses ofKathiawar and the Deccan were highly valued for military purposes ,but both breeds have now much deteriorated . Horse shows are eu

couraged by the Government , and stallions , nearly all Arabs, with a fewimported from England

,are kept at the public expense . In the year

1 880—8 1 the agricul tural returns for the ent ire Presidency showed a totalof bullocks and cows ; male andfemale buffaloes ; horses

,mares

,and foals ;

asses ; and sheep and goats . A considerable proportion of

the asses , and also many camels , are found in the Districts of Sind.

P opulation, 1 854—188 1 .

—Carefu l est imates, published in 1854 , gave

the following figures for the area and population o f the Bombay

Presidency. Total area of the British Districts,including Sind

,

square miles ; total populat ion, or an average of

92 5 5 per square m i le . Total area of Native States,

square

miles ; total population , Grand total,

square miles

and inhabitants T he Censu s of 1 87 2 , conducted

throughout the British Districts on the night of 2 rst February,which

extended to all the Native States w ith the exception o f Baroda, disclosed a population of in the Briti sh Districts

,

in the Native States ; total, souls, on an area practically

corresponding with the present territory. The latest Census of 1 881 ,

B OM BA Y PRESIDEN CI’. 4 7

taken on the n ight of the 1 7 th February, returned a population of

souls for the Brit ish Districts of the Pres idency, inclusiveof Aden ; and of souls for the Native States , inclus ive o f

Baroda ; total, The population of Baroda is here includedfor purposes of comparison with the previous Census. The State wastransferred from the pol it ical control of Bombay to the Government ofIndia in 1 875. The District operat ions were conducted under theorders of the several Collectors. The actual enumerat ion was effectedby the subord inate Government agency in each village, supplementedwhere necessary by paid labour. The total cost of the Census was

or an average of about a farthing per head of the populat ionenumerated

,i.a. within British Dis tricts.

POPULATION,ETC. or THE BR ITISH D ISTR ICTS I N THE BOMBAY PRES I

DENCY, AND OF ADEN , ACCORDING T O T HE CENSUS on 188 1

TownsArea House s Popu lationE R‘T’S" D’ST R ‘CT S '

Sq . Mile s .

Viiiiige s .

(Occupied) .

Ahmadabad 856 324 2 24c K itira , 804 800 500ES 8 Panch M ahéls , 158if: 12 Broach 2 25

Surat , 3702 Q T hana , 2 14

Ko laba, 255

T otal . 261

Khandesh ,

R a Nasik ,

Ahmadnag ar,

S Poona (Puma) .0 6 Sho lapur,

Satara ,

T otal ,

a Belg i um ,

5 S Dharwar,

g ig Kaladg i.6 North Kanara,

10 C) Ratnag iri,

T o tal , 3

Karachi,

r: 8 Thar and Parkar,5 f

’

é Haidarabad,10 2, Shikarpur,Q LUpper Sind Frontier.

T o tal ,

G rand total for Presidency,

43 3 0415 4 Y PRE SIDENCY.

The table on the preceding page Shows the area, populat ion , numberof vil lages and houses, and the average dens ity of population in eachBrit ish District

,and in Aden, in 1 88 1 .

The following table gives the statist ics available for the area andpopulation of the Native States, or aggregates of States under s ingleAgencies, in polit ical connection with the Bombay Government

,

according to the Census of 1 88 1

AREA, POPULATION, ETC. or NATIVE STATES IN THE BOMBAYPRES I DENCY

Houses Popu lationNative States and Tracts .

(Occupied) .

Baroda,Ko lhapur.Cu tch (Kachchh). exc lusive of the Rann,Mahi Kéntha States.RewaKantha States ,Kathiawar States ,Palanpur States ,Cam bay,

Séwantwari

janjira.

Sou thern Marathajag irs ,Satara j ag irs ,j awhar,Surat State s ,Sawant

’

I r,

Ntimk o t,Akalko t ,Khandesh S tates (T he Dang s) ,Khairpur, Sind

According to these tables, the total area of territory included in thePresidency of Bombay, with Aden and Baroda, is square miles

,

and the population is souls. The average dens ity of populat ion throughout the Brit ish Districts of the Pres idency is 133 per squaremile, but the pressure varies greatly in different tracts. The two mostdensely peopled Districts in Bombay Proper are Kaira

,with 500 persons

to the square mile, and Surat, with 3 70. The two leas t populous inBombay Proper are Kaladgi, wi th 1 1 1

,and North Kanara

,with 108.

The average in the outlying Province of Sind is only 52 per squaremile, fal ling as low as 16 in the sandy desert of Thar and Parkar.Class ified according to sex, the populat ion of the Brit i sh Districts

,

exclusive ofAden , i s made up of males and females ;proportion of males, 5 1

'6 per cent. This proportion of males is main

In 1 87 5 , the po litical contro l of the State of Baroda was transferred from Bombay tothe Supreme G overnment of India as it comes within the Presidency limits , it is hereinc luded.

B OM BA y PRE SIDENCY. 49

tained fairly uniformly throughout , except in S ind , where i t rises toper cent . The low proportion of per cent. of males in

Ratnagiri District , as compared with the h igh rate of 60°

o per cent.

in Bombay ci ty , i s to be explained by the natural influx of male

labourers from the neighbouring country to find work in the city .

Clas sified according to age , there are, under fourteen years of age ,boys and girls ; total ch ildren , or

per cent. of the entire population. The proportion of girls to totalfemales i s nearly equal to that of boys to total males. The numberof persons affl icted with Certain specified infi rmities is thus returned—Unsound mind—males 5 1 37 , and females 2 6 1 7 ; total , 7 754 : deafand dumb—males 7 1 5 1 , and females 4706 ; to tal, blind

males females, total,

lepers—males 742 5 ,females 2 6 70 ; total, grand total of infi rms, or 1 in

every 2 24 o f the populat ion . The large preponderance of males in allthese classes except among the blind is noteworthy. The classifi ca

t ion of the people according to o ccupation shows—2 6 7 ,393 persons inGovernment employ , o r per cent . ; engaged in agricul

ture and with animals,o r per cent. ; in trade and

commerce, o r per cent . ; in manufactures and arts,or

per cent . ; i n domest ic occupations, or per cent . ;

and or per cen t . , as belo nging to the indefinite andnon-produc t ive classes , including women and children who do no t

work . The returns give a total of person s as able to read andwrite , or under instruction ; being 1 in every 16 of the popu lation.

E tnnology ana’l ang uag e

—The classification according to caste andnational i ty adopted in the Census Report of 18 7 2 did not throw much

light upon the ethnical characteris t ics of the population of Bombay ;bu t i t was supplemented by two valuable papers drawn up by the lateRev . Dr. John Wilson . The Census of 1 88 1 returns for the British

Districts As iatics ; non-Asiat ics ; and whosebirthplace was no t returned or no t ascertainable. The Asiatics aresub-divided into those from beyond the frontier of India

,who number

almos t en t irely Baltichi’

s , M ekrani’

s,Persians

,Pathans

,and

Arabs , found mos tly in the Province of S ind and natives of Brit ishIndia

,who are further sub-divided into aborigines

,

Hindus,

M usalmans , and ‘ others. The total

number o f Hindus , again, i s made up of Brahmans,

Raj puts, cas tes of good social posit ion,and o ther

in ferior castes of Hindus.

A more intell igible principl e of ethnical classification arranges thepeople according to their languages . This would give three territorial

d ivisions o f the Presidency, having the Marathi, the Gujarath i’

,and the

S indhi as their prevailing speech ; and two minor territorial sub-d ivis ionsVOL . 111. D

50 B OrllBA Y PRE SIDEN CY.

represented by th e Kanarese and the Konkan i dialects . The principallanguages are Marathi

,spoken by per cent. of the people ;

Gujarath i'

,by 188 6 per cent . ; Kanarese, by per cent . ; Sindhi,

by 1 2 4 7 per cent . and Hindustani or Urdu , by 53 per cen t .In the north of Khandesh, Marathi merges into Hindi ; and in the

Dangs, on the west o f Khandesh , the Gujarath i element is more pro

nounced. A long the coas t, Marath i may be said to begin at theDamanganga river, or with Thana District , and to run , with localvariations

,down to G oa ; but to the east the extension i s wider, and for

a considerable distance into the Central Provinces, Berar and theterritory of the Niz am

,Marathi is the most prevalent vernacular. In

the south,away from the coast and above the Ghats , i t may be said to

follow the course of the Krishna, beyond which river Kanarese pervadesthe whole of the southern part of the Pres idency.

T he Guj arath i language begins at the north of the Daman river,

and is the prevalen t speech over the whole territory between thatriver and the confines o f Raj putana. Owing to the enterprise of

merchants from Gujarat , and to the use of the same language byParsis

,as well as by Hindu traders, i t has become the commercial

tongue of the seaports , and is found al l over the Presidency. In

Cutch the language, though more Gujarath i than anything else, has astrong Sindhi elemen t in it. The S indhi is confined mostly to theProvince from which it derives i ts name.

Of the languages of the Bombay Presidency , all except the Kanareseare derivatives from the Sanskrit , closely all ied to each other, thoughdistingu ishable by broad lines of difference . The Kanarese is amember of the Dravidian family, which is dominant throughoutSou thern India. I t is perhaps necessary to point out that the commonde rivation of these languages from the Sanskri t by no means involvesas a corollary that the peoples who use them are equally descendedfrom the Aryan stock . No decisive inference can be drawn fromlanguage to race. For example , the hil l tribes of Bhils, who are manifestly the aborigines of this part of India , have lost the recollection oftheir own language, and now use whatever dialect i s spoken by theirmore immediate neighbours . The classification

,however, into Marathi,

Guj ara'

th i’

, Sindhi, and Kanarese, accurately enough represents the

principal nat ionalitie s of Western India,as determined by ethnical

characterist ics and a common history .

The Marathas have a dist inct national individual ity. They are an

active, energetic race , l iable to religious enthus iasm , and fu ll of militaryardour. In the ir native mountains of the Deccan

,they never submitted

to a permanent Muhammadan yoke ; and under the successors of Sivaj i,they no t only asserted their independence

,but laid the greater part of

India under tribute. In the season of the ir prosperity the ir vices were

B OM BA Y PRE SIDEN CY. 5 1

rather those of treachery and violence than of debauchery. In phys ical

appearance they are of middle height,and somewhat of a copper colour,

vary ing in shade in different Districts. The chief caste or tribe amongthem is the agricultural Kunbf, a name ident ical with the Kurmis of

Northern India. S ivaj i h imself belonged to the fighting class of the

Kunbi peasan try and though the Kunbis are regarded by the Brahmansas mere Stidras

,they themselves claim to rank wi th Kshattriyas or

Rajputs. Altogether the Marathas acknowledge upwards of 200 castes,including 34 septs of Brahmans . A comparatively high status is

awarded to those cas tes who work in metal .The inhabitants of Gujarat include a somewhat larger Muhammadan

element, although the Hindus among them are characteriz ed by a strongrel igious feeling, which has taken shape in the popular development ofthe Vallabhachariya sect of Vaishnavas. The three superior castes ofBrahmans

, Raj puts, and Vaisyas are numerously represented . TheGujarath i Brahmans are sub-divided into no fewer than 160 differen tsepts . The Raj put clans are specially numerous in Kathiawar, wherethey have given names to the local divis ions of the country

,and con

tinue to be the ruling caste . The Vaisyas,whether Hindus or Jains ,

have attained under the common denomination of Baniyas a highdegree of prosperity as shopkeepers, money-lenders, and wholesale

merchants. Their trad ing operations extend to the coasts o f Arabiaand Africa. The chief tribes forming the mass of the Gujarat pOpulat ion are the Kulambis and Ahirs ; while the aboriginal race of Kulfs

i s rapidly ris ing in the scale of civilisation .

The people of the outlying Province of S ind are almost al lMuhammadans by rel igion , as their country was the earl iest field of

Musalman conquest in India. But their preservation of a dialectderived from the Sanskrit

,although with a large infusion of Arabic and

Persian words, indicates that they are descended from the early Hinduinhabitants of the Province, who are said to have been converted in

a body during the reign of the Beni-Umayyih Khalifs. The SindMuhammadans of foreign origin include Sayyids, Afghans, Baltichis ,M emons , and Khojahs . The Brahmans of Sind are connected wi ththeir caste-fellows of the Punjab. Among the trading castes the L ohanfsdeserve ment ion , as conducting the greater part of the trade that passesthrough Khelat and Afghanistan.

In Kanara and the adj oin ing tracts the population shares in thegeneral characteristics of the Karnatic . The Brahmans form a morehomogeneous body than in the res t of the Presidency, but their general

i nfluence i s perhaps less, owing to the degree to which sect is substituted for caste among all Dravidians . The L ingayats, or worshippers

o f S iva under the form of the lingo , are an especially influential body,though of comparatively late origin .

52 B OM BA Y PRE S IDENCY.

Religions—The religious class ification in the Census Report of the1 6 1 mill ions wi thin the British Districts shows the following resultsHindus (as loosely grouped together for religious purposes ) ,or 749 per cent. of the total population ; Muhammadans,or per cent. ; Jains, or per cent. ; Christians,

or per cen t. ; Pars is , Sikhs, Jews,

795 2 ; aborigines, The proport ion of H indus i s highest inthe Deccan . Of the total number of Muhammadans, as many as

are found in Sind,whe re they form of the population ;

only are returned as Sh irts , and 1 78 as Wahabis, the res t belonging to the Sunni sect. The Muhammadans are again divided intothe following sects and nationalit ies z—Sayyids, Shaikhs

,

Pathans,

Baltichis , S indhis ,o ther Muhammadans

,T he sect of Shias is represen ted chiefly

by two or three classes of traders and merchants. The largest of theseis the Borah

,and perhaps the best known is the Khojah in addition

to these are a few M ughals. The Shift element is strongest at thecapital

,where the trading class is most numerous. The centre of the

Borah class is in Surat, the re s idence of their chief priest. The leader

of the main body o f the Khoj a community i s the Persian prince AgaAli Shah , who se predecessor, the well-known Aga Khan , was long ares ident of Bombay, after the troubles that drove him from Pers ia.T he Khojahs are converts from H induism

,and acknowledge as their

Spiritual head the Imam o f the I smaili sect, who are supposed torepresent the Assassins (Hashishe ir) of the Crusaders . They areespecially nume rous in the Peninsu la of Kathiawzi r. They have alsoestabl ished trad ing colonies along the eas t coast of Africa. Amongthe Christ ians are included Protestan ts , 3 5 Armenians, 2 1

Greeks , and Roman Cathol ics . Of the whole number of

Christ ians , are European , 2893 Eurasian , and Native.The great maj ority of the Christ ians are found in Bombay ci ty andT helma District, where the Indo - Portugue se element i s stronglyrepresented . The Pa

’

rsis number of whom two—thirds arefound in Bombay city , and a large portio n o f the remainder in SuratDistrict . The S ikhs number chiefly in S ind ; and the Jews,795 2

H ouses , etc—T he total number o f hou ses returned by the Census

of 188 1 was of which were occupied. The totalnumber of town s and villages was w i th an average of 669personsto each . There were altogether 1 6 7 towns , each with more than 5030inhabitants. The total population of these 16 7 towns in 1 88 1 was

or per cent. of the population of the Presidency. In1 880—8 1

,there were altogether 1 64 municipali ti es, including Bombay, of

which 1 1 were city and 150 town municipal it ies, while the remaining 3

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54 B OM B /1Y PRE SI DEN CY.

of which acres are classified as dry-crop lands,and as rice lands . In Sind , the cultivated land during the

le/zarz’

f season was returned at acres, the unoccupied atacres

,the fallow at acres ; during the m éz

’

season

the figures were acres under cultivation, acresunoccupied

,and acres lying fallow. The chief crops in

1 880- 8 1 were thus d istributed over an aggregate area of

acres barley,

maiz e, j odrz

’

,M j rd,

other cereals,

rice , wheat ,pulses

,o il-seeds, cotton , tobacco,

sugar-cane,

garden produce , condiments ,spices

,and drugs

,1 dyes, the sums advanced by

Government during the season to agriculturists for purchase of seedand s tock amounted to £3946, including a sum o f £42 1 for permanent improvements. At the close of the year 1 88 1 , there were 78

Government stal lions for the improvemen t of horse-breeding and stock,at various places in the Pres idency. The number of mares covered in

that year was 2 185 . The stallions were in greatest request at Sit tir,Poona (Puna) , Ahmadnagar, and Jacobabad, and in Khandesh Districtand Kathiawar.Cation—The cultivat ion of the great export s taple of cotton is suffi

ciently important to deserve special ment ion. Even before the closeof the last century

,India exported a cons iderable amount of raw cotton

to England,but this was mainly grown in Bundelkhand , collected at

Ghaz ipur,and shipped from Calcutta. The trade was fostered by the

East India Company but i t does not appear to have been of a profitablenature

,and the totals despatched fluctuated great ly year by year. Bombay

appears not to have entered into the business until about 1 82 5 . Formany years afterwards the shipments of cotton were l iable to greatviciss itudes

,depending ch iefly upon the yield o f the American crop.

But the Indian cult ivators found their opportun ity when the war betweenthe North and South in the United States cut off the supplies of the

English manufacturer,and caused the cotton famine ’ among the mill

operatives in L ancashire . During the fi ve years ending with 1853—54,

the export of cotton from Bombay had averaged under 180 mill ion lbs. ,valued at 29m i ll ions sterl ing ; in the five years ending 1868—69, theaverage quanti ty had risen to 424 million lbs ., and the average value tonearly 20 mill ions sterling. In the single year 1864—65, the value wasas h igh as 30, This period of extraord inary prosperity led tomuch wild speculation . The collapse came in 1865 , on the termination

o f the American war. The bubble schemes and financial companies inBombay ci ty burst one after the other, and brought down in the general

ruin the quasi-offi cial Bank of Bombay . Meanwhi le , the cultivators had

turned the excessive profits of a few years , in to the sol id form of gold

B OM BA Y PRE SIDENCY. 55

and s i lver ornaments . Prices have fallen very heavily, but the quantityof cotton grown is maintained . In 1 875

—76 , the amoun t exported was

cwt s. , valued at J6 10 , 209,389, or nearly as large a quant ityas when speculation was at its he ight

,though the value is dimin ished to

one-third . In 1880—8 1,the extent of land under cotton in the whole

Pres idency, including Sind and the Nat ive States , was returned atacres . Of th is area, acres were planted with indi

genous , and wi th exotic cotton. The quantity exported -in thesame year from the Presidency was returned at cwts. , valued

at £9. 7 79,o49 from Bombay, and cwts. , valued at

from Sind. In the same year the total number of steam gins was2430 . Much has been done of late years to improve the quality of thecotton grown in the Pres idency. American varieties have been introduced successfully into Dharwar and other parts of the Sou th Marathacountry. In Khandesh the indigenous plant

,from which one of the

lowest classes in the Bombay market took its name , has now beenalmost superseded by the Hinganghat variety from the Central Provinces, under the trade name Amraot i Ag ricultura lexperiments in cotton as well as in other crops are made at three StateModel Farms , at Hala in Sind , in Khandesh, and in Dharwar. Thoughthese experiments have not resul ted in pecuniary profit, much valuableinformation has been gained .

I rrigation—Except in S ind , where the annual rainfall i s insignificant ,and the crops are entirely dependent upon artificial supplies of waterdrawn from the Indus by a network of canals , irrigation is not generally

pract ised in the Bombay Presidency. In bad seasons every advantagei s taken of the water that i s available for use in river-beds, tanks, orwells

,but there are no irrigation works constructed on a scale suffi

c iently large to give permanent benefit to wide areas of country. Wi th inthe last few years some steps have been taken in th is direction, butthe broken character of the greater part of the country does not readilylend itself to such schemes . In the year 1 880—8 1 , out of a total areaof acres o f cult ivable land , excluding S ind , the area underirrigation was thus classified : irrigated garden lands

,acres ;

rice land s irrigated from tanks and watercourses,

acrestotal i rrigated

,acres . The irrigation system of Sind will be

described in the separate article on that Province. The most important

works which have been already carried out, and which are in progress ,i n Bombay Proper are the following —The Kistna (Krishna) Canal inSatara Distric t

,formed by throwing a masonry darn across the bed of

the river ; the Hathmati Canal in Ahmadabad District ; the improvemen t o f the Khari r iver i rrigation ; the works for the water supply

o f the Governmen t saltworks at Kharagora near the Rann of Cutch ;works for the purpose of increasing the effi ciency of the Palkher Canal

56 B OM B /1Y 17 35 5 10 5 c

i n Nasik District ; the works at the Waghar tank in the sameDistrict ; the works at the Bhadalvari tank in Poona Dis tr ict ; theworks at the Ashti tank in Sholapur District ; the Sholapur municipalwaterworks ; the works at the Nira and M hasmad tanks in SataraDistrict ; a canal in Belgaum District ; the Ekruk Tank in Sholapur,formed by an earthen dam across the entire valley of the Adela ; andthe waterworks at Kharakwasla, destined to irrigate the surroundingfields as well as to supply water to the city o f Poona. The severefamine of 1 87 7 has drawn increased attent ion to th is important subject,and plans have been prepared for the construction of irrigation worksi n all parts of the Pres idency, to be commenced as funds permit. In

1 880- 8 1,the total expenditure on irrigat ion works through the Publ ic

Works Department was O f th is sum , was contributed from Imperial revenue

,from Native States, private

individuals,and municipali ties

,and £ 1 349 from local funds. The

direct revenue from irrigation during the same period wasThe 24 irrigat ion works constructed by the Public Works Departmentin Gujarat and the Deccan command an area of acres ofirrigable land

,though the area actually irrigated in 1880—8 1 was only

acres .T/ze [and revenue syrlem of Bombay is based upon the principle of

measuring every field separately , and assessing i t at a sum fixed for aterm

of thirty years, the amount o f assessment being de termined by the qualityof the soil and the crop . This plan was firs t introduced in 1 836, in thecase of the Indapur tdlzzk o f Poona District , and has s ince beengradually extended over the greater part o f the Pres idency. I t differsfrom the method adopted in the North-Western Provinces

,in that the

assessment is made direct w i th the individual cult ivators , and not withthe village community ; and i t differs from the myatm z

’

rz’

system of

Madras,by not requiring a modification o f the assessment every year.

Prior to the introduct ion of the revenue survey, general anarchy prevailed, both with regard to the rights possessed by different part ies inthe soil , and also with regard to the proportion of the produce payableto Government. The immediate result of the change was to improvethe condit ion of the cul tivator. He has rece ived a righ t of occupancyin h is holding, on the condition of paymen t of the Governmentrevenue. This righ t of occupancy , commonly known as ‘ the surveytenure ,

’has been described as ‘ a transferable and heritable property

continuable without question at the expirat ion of a settlement lease, onthe occupier’s consenting to the revised rate.

’ The average rates ofassessment are—Rs . o . 1 2 . 7 or rs . 7d. per acre on dry crops ; Rs. 3.

1 1 . 4 or 7s. 5d. on garden lands ; and Rs . 3. 9. 5 or 7 5 . 2d. on rice land.

The maximum on dry-crop lands i s Rs . 2 . 3 . 4 or 45 . 5d. per acre

in the rich black country of Gujarat,and the minimum is Rs. 0. 6. 6

B OM BA Y PRESIDENCY. 57

or 92d. i n the barren h ill-tracts o f the Konkan . Within the last few

years the terms of assessment in the Districts earliest settled havebegun to fall in, and consequently a revis ion of the assessment hasbecome necessary ; and this i s now being carried on in the Districts of

Nasik , Ahmadnagar, Poona, Sholapur, Belgaum,Dharwar

,and Kaladgi .

In the course of the inquiries it has been discovered that the cult ivator has not reaped al l the advantages that had been hoped from thes implicity of the system. His chronic condit ion of indebtedness to thevillage money-lender has produced consequences not dissimilar to thosecaused by the z amz

’

nda’

rz’ system in Bengal . No intermediate rights in

the soi l have been sufl’

ered to g row up between the cult ivator and theState ; but the personal obligations under which the cult ivator hasplaced himself towards h is money-lender enable the latter to appropriateto h imself the unearned increment as completely as if he were a landlord .

The system, although framed with the best intentions, put the machineryof our Courts at the disposal of the astute creditors as against anignorant peasantry. During some years, the cultivators were sold off

the land without mercy ; agrarian outrages took place ; and the L egislature was at length compelled to interfere in favour of the t illers of theso il. The Deccan Agriculturitsts

’ReliefActs have placed them under a

m odified procedure for the rec overy of debts protected their hold ingsfrom sale ; and endeavoured to work out a plan which would sat isfy as

far as possible th e dues of the creditor from the yearly produce of thedebtor’s fields without altogether driving the debtor off the land . Ther igid ity of our revenue system

,and i ts want of elast icity in the Deccan

Districts, which are peculiarly expos ed to the vicissitudes of the rainfall, are also said to bear heavily on the peas antry. The increase ofrevenue result ing from the resettlement operations in the Districtsnamed above, up to 188 1—82 , is returned at 3,503 .

Side by s ide with the survey tenure, the re exist various forms oflandholding which have come down from the days of native rule,though none of them are now prevalent to a wide extent. Amongthese the tdluéddn

’

, wdnta,

aarwda’a’

ri and md/eki tenures i n

Guj arat deserve mention . In the Districts of the Southern Konkan ,the survey has not yet been in troduced. The land i s there heldby a class of petty landlords called kite/s, whose rights as agains t

the Government have not yet been. finally determined. The nonregulation Province of Sind enj oys a modified land system of i ts own.

T he greater part of the land is cult ivated by peasant proprietors. Therates of assessment depend to a large extent on a steady but no t

e xcessive overflow from the Indus,and payment in cash has been

substituted for the old pract ice of an actual divis ion of the crop .

T/ze Famine of 1876—7 7 was felt throughout the Deccan and South

M aratha country, though less severely than in the adjoin ing Districts

58 B OM B A Y PRESIDENCY.

o fMadras (9.7L ) and Mysore. The same se t of meteorological causesoperated over all Southern India. The total ra infall of the year waseverywhere defi c ient

,but the disastrous effect upon agriculture was

determined mainly by local variat ions. The harvest of 1 875

had also been below the average,so that the pressure of h igh prices

fell upon a population already impoverished . In 1 876 the summerrains of the south-west monsoon

,wh ich commence in June, were

scanty. But the efl'

ects of this monsoon on cult ivation are chieflycon fi ned to the Konkan and Malabar coast, where the normal rainfalli s s o excess ive that l ittle inj ury was wrough t by the deficiency. Theautumn rains of the north-east monsoon , upon which the table-landbehind the Ghats is mainly dependent , failed altogether. At Poonath e heavy rain, which usually falls continuously during September andOctober, was represented by only two moderately wet days . Theresul t was a general failure in the winter crops, over an area in thisPresidency est imated at square miles , with a population of

nearly six million souls. Serious distress began in November 1 876,

and lasted for about twelve months . In April 1 87 7 , the number of peopleemployed by Government on relief works was In July of thesame year, th e persons in the rece ipt of gratuitous rel ief numbered

The District most affected was Kaladgi , bordering on theNi z am’s dominions

,where the relieved numbered 14 per cent . of the total

popu lation . But these vague figures convey but an inadequate idea of

the general impoverishment produced by this d isastrous year. Thestatist ics of the Bombay mint show in a decisive manner how even thewell- to—do port ion of the population suffered. In the two years 18 7 7and 1878, the total value of s ilver ornaments and disused coin broughtinto the mint as bullion exceeded 2 3, millions s terl ing, agains t only

£40c 0 in the previous year. No interference with private trade wasattempted. The Government endeavoured to provide work for thestarv ing population . But notwi th standing the wages offered, and the

supplies of food brought into the Districts,the calamity proved beyond

th e power of admin istrative control , and hundreds of thousands diedof starvat ion. The deaths in the two famine years 187 7 and 1 878 inthe Bombay Presidency

,excluding Sind

,are es timated to have been

in excess of the usual number. The opport unity was takento push on schemes of irrigation and other remunerative public works,which had long previously been matured on paper.M anufactures .

—The two great manufac tures carried on in th is Presi

deney are cotton goods and salt ; the latter i s to a large extent manufactured departmentally. Indigo is made to some extent at Khairpurin Sind . Apart from the new industry o f cotton spinning and weaving bymeans of steam machinery

,the manufacture of coarse cotton cloth sa

’

rt’

s

andpag rz’

s in hand-looms is st ill conducted in almost every village through

B OM BA Y PRE SIDENCY. 59

out Bombay . A curiou s distinct ion in this respect separates theG ujarath i and M arathi speaking races . The former prefer the ir cottongoods printed , while the latter wear only stuffs that have been dyed in

the thread . The decorat ion generally consist s of a s imple border, butthe more expens ive art icles are frequently finished off with silk , or with

gold and silver lace. Sind weavers are reckoned the most skilful. Thebest scirz

’

s or women’s robes are printed at Ahmadabad and Surat.Even to the present day the maj ority of th e population wear home—spunand home-woven goods ; but within the past few years, the twists andyarns produced in the Bombay m ills have found great favour with nativeweavers. A pecul iar mode of ornamenting cotton and silk goods ,known as ritz

'

rzddrz’

,is common throughout the Presidency. The cloth ,

after being once dyed,is marked with the des ired pattern , the outline

of which is picked and twisted so as to form a raised surface the clothis then again put into the vat to be dyed a fresh colour, and when takenout the raised threads are removed

,leaving the pattern of the original

colour underneath. Carpets, rugs, horse-cloth, towels, napkins, etc. ,

are manufactured in the j ails throughout the Presidency, especially inS ind. Ahmadnagar is celebrated for its carpets

,and Khandesh and

Dharwar for drugget rugs and bullock-cloths. The raw materialemployed in manufactures o f s ilk is imported from China. The chie fseats of silk-weaving are Ahmadabad, Surat, Poona, Nasik, and Yeola.

The two first of these places produce kin/dams , or brocadcs of s ilk andgold and silver thread

,which are famous throughout India ; the three

las t have a reputation for s ilk or cotton sdrz’

s, finished off with richborders of gold

,s ilver

,or silk lace, and beautifully fi lled in with design s

executed on the looms. The silk dlzotars and f z'

tcfmbars of Yeola arei n great request. The preparation of gold and si lver thread is performedwith great skill. I t is said that one rupee’s worth of silver can bedrawn out into a thread 800 yards in length . The metall ic thread ise ither twisted with s ilk before being used in the looms, or sometimesbeaten out flat to form a warp by itself. The embroidery of variou sart icles with gold and s ilver thread for the use of the Muhammadanand Parsi communities

, or for the European market , is carried on atHaidaraba

'

d in S ind,in Kathiawar

,and at Baroda, Surat, and Bombay .

The manufacture of coarse paper from raw vegetable fibres is conductedin several of the large towns, especially at Ahmadabad and Baroda ;also at smaller local centres

,such as Junar in Poona District .

The manufacture of coir rope is an industry which thrives in the

Konkan and Kanara, and coarse kamblz’

s or blankets are made in

Khandesh , Nasik, Sholapur, and Ratnagiri. Toys in ivory and clay are

made in Surat and Poona,and the carpets of Sind enjoy a wide reputa

t ion . Among articles of leather work may be ment ioned the deéaro, or

large vessel used for holding oil, etc.

,which is formed by stretching a

6° B o i l/BA Y PRE S IDENCY.

fresh skin round an inner mould of clay. Saddle covers and cloths ,shoes

,leggings

,blankets

,felts

,and accoutrements are made in Sind ,

and the ancient manufacture of sh ields at Ahmadabad has not yete ntirely died out. The common pottery of the Presidency is of a veryrude description

,but Sind produces some of the bes t potters’ ware of all

India. The art i s thought to have been introduced by the Amirs, orformer Muhammadan rulers

,whose mosques and tombs attest the

degree o f excellence attained. T he Bombay School of Art i s now

successfully promoting the revival o f this industry. Special qual it ies ofpo ttery are made at Patan in the State of Baroda, and at Ahmadabad.

Nasik and Poona are celebrated for their brass-ware. Bombay city andAhmadabad also turn out large quantit ies of brass utensil s, whichare hammered by native workmen ou t of sheets imported from Europe .

In the department of cutlery,spear-heads are made at Ahmadnagar, and

hun t ing-knives,swords

,and chain armour in Cutch , Kathiawar, and

Baroda. Ironwork,besides cu tlery

,i s st ill hammered with great skill

at Ahmadabad,where the beautiful gates of the tomb of Shah Alam

afford an example of an extinct industry in perforated brasswork . Fineart i s represented by a large number of ornamented articles manufac

tured in a ll parts o f the Pres idency . T he personal decoration s o f the

women of Gujarat are distinguished by solidity,and those o f Marathi

women by intricacy of design . The Muhammadans and Parsis alsohave each styles of ornament pecul iar to themselves . The goldsmiths’

work of Sind is very beautiful . The embossed gold and silver work of

the Cutch workmen is much sought after, and they have established acolony at Ahmada

' bad and Bombay . Ahmadabad and Surat are alsocelebrated for wood-carving. Mos t o f the hous es are ornamented inth is way, and furn iture and boxes are carved in ebony and blackwood .

The best sandal-wood carving comes from Ktimpta (Coompta) inKanara. Sculpture has been practised by the s tonecutters of Cutchand Kathia

’

twar from t ime immemorial . The more elaborate portions ofthe stonework on the recently erected public bu ildings in Bombay wereexecuted by these workmen , trained in the School of Art and the PublicWorks Department .Cotton M ilk —Within the last twenty years the spinn ing and weaving

of cotton by steam machinery,and under European supervision , has

become an important industry. The local cotton mills have certainnatural advantages . Both the raw ma terial and the market for themanufactured produce l ie at their feet. The first mil l was startedin Bombay in 1 857 ; and according to the latest return s, there are now

( 188 1) 36 m ill s at work in Bombay ci ty and its suburbs, and 1 3 in otherparts of the Presidency

,not including those in contemplat ion or in

course of erect ion . These 49mil ls employ a total of spindlesand loom s ; and probably consume about M andi:

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Sen/once con/z'

nueo’fromp . 6

through Nasik and Khandesh Districts , and after again bifurcat ing atBhusawal

,passes into Berar and the Central Provinces, where i t j oins

the East Indian exten sion at Jabalpur (Jubbulpore) . The other originalbranch of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway from Kalyan Junctionturns south-east, and , after climbing in to the Deccan by the Bhor Ghatbelow Poona (Prina), finally joins the Madras Railway. In 1880

,the

net earnings o f the Great Indian Peninsula Railway with in the Presideney amounted to £1

,1 1 o

,555 ; the gross expenditure amounted to1,

Up to the same year the cost of construction amountedto cost of rolling stock, s tores

,

The Ilhond and Manmad State Railway , 145 miles in length , connectsthe northern and southern branches o f t he Great Indian PeninsulaRailway by a chord line above the Ghats at Dhond and Manmadstations from which it takes its name . This chord line was con

structed as a State line , but the Great Indian Pen insula Railway nowworks i t . I t admits of traffic between Madras and Northern India

,

without compelling passeng ers and goods to descend and re -ascendthe Bombay Ghats. The Bombay, Baroda and Central Indian

Railway runs due north along the sea—coast past the ci t ies of Surat,

Broach,and Baroda, and terminates at Palanpur, with a weste rly branch

from Ahmadabad to Viramgam. This l ine l ies wholly with in the l imits ofthe Bombay Pres idency. Up t o 188 1

, the total capital expended uponi t has been the g ross receipts were for the yearand the expenses leaving as net earnings ThePatri State Railway, 2 2 miles, leaves thi s l ine at Viramga

’m terminus

in a north—westerly direction ; while the Kathiawar and BhaunagarGondal line , 194 miles, leaves the same terminus in a direction firs t

south for a distance of 100 miles, and then wes t through the peninsulao f Kathiawa

'

r, to the te rminus at Dhoraj i. The Raj putana StateRailway, with a total length of 7 1 7 miles from Ahmadabad to Ajmere ,Delh i and Agra, northwards, has been made over to the charge

of the Bombay Government. The total leng th of the State Railwayl ines under the Government of Bombay at the end of 188 1

,was

1 1 88 m iles. The Raj putana-Malwa Railway, 389miles , from Khandwastation on the north-eastern branch of the Great Ind ian PeninsulaRailway, to Neemuch, Nasirabad and Ajmere, has since been transferred to the con trol o f the Bombay Government. O ther small lines

of narrow gauge, aggregating a length of about 60 miles,and belonging

to the Gaekwar of Baroda, branch off from the main l ine o f the

Bombay, Baroda and Central India Rai lway. There are no navigablecanals in the Pres idency, but the main channe l of the Indus is keptopen by the State at an annual cost of about£6000.

Corinne/re and Trade—The table on pages 6 2 and 63 gives the

B OM B /1Y PRE SIDENCY. 65

principal items of the import and export trade of the Bombay Pres idency,i ncluding Sind, for the year 1 880—8 1 .

The total sea-borne fore ign trade of Bombay Presidency, includingboth imports and exports

,reached a total value of

These figures are exclus ive of the coasting trade, which in 1 880—8 1amounted to a total value of imports

,and £ 14, 7 2 3,7 o o

exports ; total,

grand total,

The

foreign trade, exclusive of treasure and Government stores , was thusdistributed among the ch ief countries —United Kingdom— imports

exports China—importsexports Maurit ius imports exports

Arabia— imports exports Persiaimports exports I taly

—importsexports France—imports exports

United States—imports exports £8609 ; Ceylon— importsexports Austria—imports exports

Straits Settlements— imports exportsother countries—imports exports

The number of vessel s that entered the ports of Bombay Pres idencywith cargoes from foreign countrie s during the year 1880—8 1 was 1 500,

w ith a tonnage o f tons, of which 64 7 vessels tons)were steam vessels . In addition, 45 vessels , w i th a tonnage o f

tons,entered in ballast. The coasting trade was carried

on by vessels,with a tonnage o f tons , of which

vessels tons) were native craft . Excluding the twogreat harbours of Bombay and Karachi, the remain ing ports in thePres idency are divided in to two groups—the northern

,comprising 2 2

ports between Gogo and the Bassein creek ; and the southern , whichincludes 5 1 ports between Basse in and Bhatkal, in North Kanara .

About four-fi fths of the coasting trade is conducted by the southern

group .

—The Government of the Pres idency of Bombay isadministered by a Governor and his Council. This body i s the chiefexecu tive and legislat ive authority of the Pres idency, and consists of theGovernor as President, the Commander-ih—Chief o f the Bombay Pres i

dency, and two members of the Covenanted Civi l Service . The variousdepartments of the admin istration are portioned out among the severalmembers of Council, and for each department there is a separatesecretariat staff. There is also a L egislative Council, composed

of the Governor and his Executive Council above described , together

with four to e ight other members nominated by the Governor. Not

less than a certain proportion of these addit ional L egislative members

o f the Council must be non-offi cials , w i th a view to the representat ionof the European and nat ive communities . For adminis trative purposesVOL . 111. E

66 B OM BA Y PRE SIDENCY.

the Pre sidency is divided into four D ivisions , called the Northern

( 7 Districts ) , Central ( 7 Districts , includ ing Bombay city and island) ,and Southern (5 Districts) , in Bombay Proper, and the Sind Division

o f 5 Districts ; these Divisions embrace ( including Bombay city an tiisland) 24 Districts, each Divis ion being placed under the control andsuperintendence of 3. Commiss ioner. The District is the actual unit

of administration for both fiscal and j udicial purposes. The Regulat ionDistricts of Bombay number 1 7 , each under the control of a Magistrate

Collector, who must be a member of the Covenanted Civil Service .

The Province of Sind , and the Pi nch-M ahals in Gujarat, form 7 non

regulat ion Dis tricts,under officers who may be e ither mil itary, covenanted

or uncovenanted servants. The city of Bombay is regarded for many

purposes as forming a District by itself. Each District is on the average

divided into 10 tribe/es, or Sub-divisions, each of which again containsabout 1 00 Government villages, or villages of which the revenue hasnot been al ienated by the State . Every village is, for fiscal and police

,

as well as social purposes , complete by itself. I t has its regular complement of officials. who are usually hereditary, and are remunerated bygrants of land held revenue free . The more important of these offi cialsare the pa

’

tel or head-man the {ct/(iii or kulkarnz'

, who is the clerk andaccountant ; the nz/zdr

,who is a k ind o f beadle ; and the watchman .

Over each ail/1k or Sub-divis ion is set a Government officer termeda and on an average about 3 td/uks are placed in

charge o f an Ass istant or Deputy Collector. General supervision isexercised by the Commissioners , as above s tated, who are 3 for theRegulation Districts and 1 for S ind. The supreme administrat ion ofj ust ice in the Regulation Districts is entrusted to the H igh Court,consist ing of a Chief Justice and seven Puisne Judges . This Court

exercises both original and appe llate jurisdiction in civi l and criminalcases. In Sind

,the same functions are discharged by the Judicial

Commissioner. The superior admin istration of both civil and criminalj ust ice is vested in officials styled District and Assistan t District Judges .Original civi l suits (if not against the Government ) are decided as arule by two classes of Subordinate Judges

,and by the Small Cause

Courts ; and the greater part of the original cr iminal work is disposed

of by the executive D istrict oflicers , who in addit ion to the ir revenueduties are entrusted with magisterial powers. The remaining principaldepartments of Government are the police

,public works

,forests

,educa

t ion , j ails, registration and medical departments , each of which possessesan organ iz ation extending throughou t all the different Districts of thePresidency.

T/ze Poll/fro! relations between the Government and the Native Statesin connection with the Bombay Pres idency are maintained by thepresence o f an Agent or representative at the principal Native Courts .

B OM B /1Y PRE SIDENCY. 6 7

The pos i tion and duty of the Agent varies very cons iderably in thedifferent States , be ing governed by the term s of the original treat ies, orby recen t sanao’s or patents. In some instances , as in Cutch, h ispower is confined to the giving of advice

,and to the exerc ise of a

general survei llance. In other cases the Agent is invested with anactual share in the administration while States whose rulers are minors— and the number of these is always large—are directly managed byGovernment officers. The characterist ic feature of the Bombay NativeState s is the excessive number of petty principal it ies

,such as those of

the Raj put and Bhil Chieftain s. The peninsula of Kath iawar alonecontain s no less than 1 87 separate S tates. The recognition of theseinnumerable j urisdictions is due to the circumstance that the earlyBombay administrators were induced to treat the de facto exercise o f

civil and criminal jurisdiction by a landholder as carrying with it aquas i-sovere ign status. The rule of succession by primogen iture appliesonly to the larger principal it ies

, and consequently the minor States are

continually suffering disintegrat ion.

The B ombay army in 188 1 consisted ofa strength of Europeansand natives ; total, fight ing men . This force was madeup of 1 regiment of European and 9 regiments of native cavalry ; 4 7European and 54 1 native sappers ; 2 3 batteries of European artillerywi th 96 guns , and 2 of nat ive arti llery with 1 2 guns (the heavy ordnancein Bombay island, Karachi and Aden not included) ; 1 1 regiments o f

E uropean and 30 of native infantry. The military Divis ions and

Districts o f the Pres idency are as follow : Poona (Puna) Division , with 9s tations

,head-quarters Poona ; Northern Division, with r1 stat ions, head

quarters Ahmadabad ; Aden Brigade, head-quarters Aden ; BelgaumDistric t

,with 4 stat ions, head-quarters Belgaum Bombay District

,with 5

s tations,head-quarters Bombay city ; and Sind District, head-quarters

Karachi and there are besides several cantonment stations, includ

ing Mau (Mhow), Nimach (Neemuch) , Nasirabad (Nusseerabad) , andDisa (Deesa) , in Central India, which all l ie beyond the geographicallimits of the Presidency. The m ili tary convalescent stations arePurandhar on the h ills, and Kolaba and Ghiz ri Bandar on the seacoast. In the year 1880—8 1 , the total military expenditure amountedto of which belonged to the European , and

to the native army ; was devoted to effect iveservices

,2 2 to non-effective services, including pensions, and the

remainder,

to the war i n Afghanistan.

T/ze B ombay M arine in 188 1 consisted of ten steam vessels, two

hulks in ordinary, and two ironclad turret mon itors ( the Aoyssinz'

a and

the M oga’ala) for the defence of Bombay harbour. The total establish

ment consisted of about 700 offi cers and men. Of the ten steamvessel s ment ioned above, two were stationed at Aden , and two in the

68 B O/l/BA Y PRE S IDENCY.

Persian Gulf. The total receipt s for 1 880—81 of the shipping officeamounted to £3258, against an expenditure of £1408 . The total

expenditure during the year 1880—8 1 of the Bombay Port Trust

was including a sum of for intere st to be paid

in 188 1—8 2 , against which must be se t off rece ipts amounting to

T/ze P olice consists of several d ist inct forces,—the Regular DistrictPolice

,the Bombay City Police, the Railway Police, and the Vil lage

Watch . The last-mentioned body is maintained only in certain parts

of the country , at the expense of the vi llagers, and is not directly undethe control of Government. The Bombay City Police will be treatedof in the separate article on Bombay City. The following figures ,therefore

,only apply to the Regular and the Railway Police. In the

year 1 880—8 1 , these two forces consisted of a strength of 3 2 80 offi cersand men—total, being 1 man to e very 6 4 squaremiles as compared with the area of the Pres idency, or 1 to every

8 10 o f the population . The proport ion of police to area is largest inthe Panch M ahals District of Guj ara

’

t (Guz era t), where i t i s 1 to 2 0 7

square miles,and least in the Thar and Parkar District of Sind , where

it i s 1 to 2 60 square miles . The to tal cost was of whichwas met from Provincial revenues

,and was

payable from other sources than Provincial revenue , showing anaverage cost of £2

,1 as . 4d. per square mile of area, and 45d. per

head o f popu lat ion . O f the total force, 45 per cent . were armed withfirearms, and 34 per cen t. with swords, the rest having only batons.In 1 880—8 1 , the total number o f cases of cogniz able crime reportedwas persons were arrested and put on theirtrial

,o f whom 42 per cent . were convicted. The total number of non

cogniz able cases was 2089 3368 person s were arrested or summoned ,of whom 1 547 were convicted. By far the greater number of theconvictions were for petty offences .

fl ak —In 1 88 1 , there were al together 2 7 jails in Bombay Presideney, including the common jai l and the house of correction inBombay city, the central j ail at Yerauda near Poona (P tina), and thej ail at Aden ; and 78 subordinate lock-ups . In that year the dailyaverage prison population was 36, of whom 536 were women.

These figures show 1 prisoner always in j ai l to every 1464 of thepopulation, and 1 woman in j ail to every of the female population . The number of deaths was 493 , or per cent . of the averagestrength . The gross total expenditure , exclusive of the sum expendedon subordinate j ails, was o r £6, 19s . 32d. per head . Theexpenditure on subordinate j ai ls was £2596. Jai l manufactures ,i ncluding garden work and extramural labour

,yielded a net profit of

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70 Y PRE SIDENCY.

Revenue and Expenditure—The table on the previous page shows

the revenue and expenditure of the Bombay Pres idency for the year

1 880—8 1,including provincial

,local , and municipal funds .

This table,which has been specially compiled from the materials

given in the Admin istration Report for that year, must not be acceptedas an accurate balance-sheet of the finances of the Presidency. Forexample

,the receipts from Opium are not

,properly speak ing, an item

o f revenue to Bombay,but a tax levied upon the Chinese consumer of

a drug which has been produced in Central Ind ia. Sim i larly, on theo ther side of the account

,i tems o f Imperial expenditure, such as the

army and interest on debt,are not debited against the Bombay treasury.

I t must also be observed that the apparently adverse balance in thedepartment of Provincial funds is equal iz ed by a grant offrom the Imperial exchequer

,which sum is again debited as Imperial

expenditure in the Bombay accoun ts.E ducation.

—The educational system in Bombay, as throughout therest of India

,is based upon the celebrated Despatch o f Sir Charles

Wood, dated l gth July 1854. I t consists on the one hand of a widely

distributed class of vernacular or village schools , subsid iz ed by grantsin-aid from Government

,and under inspect ion by the Educational

Department ; and on the other, o f a l imited number of institutions ,which teach in English up to the curriculum of the University , and arefor the most part maintained at Government expense. In the year1 880—8 1 , the total number of schools and colleges in the Presidencywas 5343, attended on an average by pupils daily, showing 1

school to every 232 square miles o f area, and 138 pupils to every

thousand of the population . Of the towns and inhabited villagescontained in the Pres idency and its dependencies

, 4 154, or about 1 in10, were provided with schools , and the number of scholars on the

rolls at the close of the year was Of the whole number of

schools , 4 398 were Government in stitutions , 2 55 private institutionsrece iving aid from Government

,66 2 were unaided

,but under inspection

by Government agency,and 28 were pol ice and jail schools . In these

figures are included 9 colleges forhigher instruction , 7 techn ical schools,

9 normal schools, 50 high school s for boys, 2 h igh schools for girls, and240 middle-class schools, of which 1 6 are for girls . The total expenditure of the department amounted to of which wasderived from Provincial funds

,and

J£1 35, 793 from L ocal funds . Inaddition

,a sum of 5 was expended the same year on education

by the Native States of the Bombay Pres idency. The vernacular

schools alone numbered 4 705, attended by scholars . Theseare mainly supported by an allotment of one-th ird of the 1 a

’

mm’

cesson every rupee of the land revenue

,augmented by the grant of a lump

sum from Government. There were 298 primary girls’ schools

,with

B OM’

BA Y PRESIDEA'

CY. 7 1

1 pupils , of wh ich nearly one-half are private inst itutions . Of th etotal number of the ch ildren in schools connected with Government

,

2'

1 2 per cent.were Christ ians, 2 1 Brahmans,6096 other H indus, 1

Muhammadans, Parsis,and the remainder were Jews

,aborigines ,

and ‘ others.’ Of the principal races that attend the schools in th is

Presidency, Brahmans are the most numerous in proportion to the irnumber, and H indu cultivators and Muhammadans the least numerousclass, except in primary schools, where the proportion of Parsl pupilsi s the smallest . About one-quarter of the pupils attending educ ational

ins titu tions of the h igher classes are sons of Government Offi Clill ‘

one

eighth sons of persons o fproperty one-ninth,sons of private clerks one

sixteenth , sons of merchants , and the remainder sons of cultivators .

The number of pupils learn ing English was and Sanskrit 3 295 .

The most importan t colleges are,the E lph instone College in Bombay

city, w ith an average daily attendance of 1 58 in 1 88 1—82 the DeccanCollege at Poona, with 1 2 0 pupils ; the Guj arat College, with anaverage daily attendance of 1 7 ; and the Rajaram College, wi th an averagedaily attendance of 1 8 . Among institutions for special in struction may

be ment ioned—the L aw School,with 1 5 2 students the Grant Medical

College, wi th 2 82 and the Poona College o f Science, with 188 . The

Jamse tjee Jeejebhoy School of Art, wi th 103 pupils , is also under theEducat ion Department. The Bombay University was founded byL ord E lphinstone in 1 85 7 . I t consists of a chancellor

,vice-chancellor,

and senate and i ts function is to examine and confer degrees inarts, law, medicine, and engineering. L arge endowments have beenreceived at different t imes from the wealthy merchants of Bombay

,by

means of which a handsome hall and library have been erected on theesplanade .

The languages spoken in the Bombay Presidency are Marathi,Guj arath i’

,Sindhi

,and Ka

’

narese Urdu or H industani i s also incommon use among the educated and trading Muhammadans. In theyear 1880—8 1 , the total number of publications registered was 980, o fwhich 91 were printed in English, and 889 in Oriental languages. Thetotal number of printing-presses was 74, of which as many as 47 arefound in Bombay city, and 2 0 in the Deccan. The number of nativenewspapers appearing was 73 , ei ther printed or l ithographed, of which2 were ent irely in English , 1 1 Anglo-Marathi, 30 purely Marathi, 4 AngloGujarathi

,2 7 purely Gujarathi, and the remainder in Urdu , Hindi and

Pers ian . T wo o f these papers, edited in Bombay city by Parsis, haveexisted for 5 7 and 45 years respect ively. The leading associat ion for

the advancement of learning in the Presidency i s the Bombay Branch

of the Royal Asiatic Society, originally founded in 1804 , with which

the Bombay Geographical Society was amalgamated in 1 874. The

Medical and Physical Society was founded in 1 863 . The Sassoon

7 2 B OA/BAY PRE SIDENCY.

Mechanics’ Institute has a reference l ibrary of volumes.

There are altogether 90 l ibraries registered in the Presidency . In the

year 1880—8 1 , the post-offi ces numbered 735 , the letter-boxes 1 380 , and

the total mileage of postal lines was The post—othee rece ivedfor delivery a total of articles . The length of telegraphline at the close of the same year was 1930 miles , and the length o i

wire 6490 miles in Bombay Proper in Sind the length of line was 1 593,and of wire 45 18 miles.M a

'z'

ml Aspeds Climate—Great varieties of cl imate are met w ith inthe Bombay Presidency. In its ex treme dryness and heat, combined

wi th the aridity of a sandy soil, Upper Sind resembles the deserts of

Arabia. The thermometer here has been known to register 1 30°

F. in

the shade. At Haidarabad, in L ower S ind, the mean maximumtemperature during the s ix hottes t months in the year is therise of temperature in the water of the Indus i s also remarkable . In

Cutch and Gujara t the sultry heat, if not so excess ive, is still very trying.

Bombay island itsel f,though in general cooled by the sea-breez e, is Oppres

sively hot during May and October. The Konkan is hot and moist, the

fall o f rain during the monsoon somet imes reach ing 300 inches. The

table- land of the Deccan above the Ghat s possesses an agreeable cl imate,as also does the South Maratha country. On the hills of M ahabalesh

war, Singarh, and other detached heights, Europeans may go out all

hours of the day with impunity . According to a series of returns,extending over a period of twenty-eigh t years

,taken at the meteoro

logical stat ion of Kolaba, the mean annual temperature is 792°

F. ,

ranging from in the month o f January to in May ; theaverage annual rainfall is inches

,of which 708 fall in the seven

months between May and November. The south-west monsoon generallybreaks about the first week in June, and pours down torrents of rainalong the coast. From that date up to October the rainy season maybe said to last, during which travell ing is everywhere difficu lt andunpleasant, except in Sind

,where the monsoon rains exert little

influence .

D z’

seasea—The most prevalent diseases are fevers of various types,in

cluding the malarious fevers ofGujarat and Kanara,especial ly dreaded by

Europeans cholera, which seems to display a curious tendency towardsepidemic outbreaks at triennial in tervals ; bowel complaints, includingdiarrhoea and dysentery ; small—pox, which has recently been checkedto some extent by the extension of the pract ice of vaccination ; ague,rheumatic affections, lung diseases

,syphilis and various cutaneous

disorders. Conservancy arrangements are enforced by the Sanitaryand Vaccination Departments , which have been amalgamated

,and

an official wi th the title of Deputy Sanitary Commissioner has

been placed in every District. The actual outlay in 1880 under

B OM BA Y CI T Y. 7 3

the head of san itary works, m il itary, amounted to The vi tal

s tat ist ics are recorded in the several municipal it ies by the municipal

offi cers , and elsewhere by the vil lage head-men and accountants—exceptin cantonments and in the prov ince of Sind

,where

,in the absence of a

regular village establishment,the work is done by the ordinary revenue

o fi icers ; they cannot be accepted as accurate , but they give some indication of the relative mortal ity from different diseases. During 1 880—8 1 ,

deaths were registe red throughout the Presidency, giving adeath-rate of 20 2 5 per thousand, as compared with an average of 2 43 5for the previous n ine years. Of the total number of deaths,were assigned to fevers

,a very vague term among native practit ioners

only 684 to cholera, which in 1878 carried off46 , 743 , and in 1 8 79, 693 7

persons ; to bowel complaints ; and 940 to small-pox : 1 1 79

deaths from snake—bite were recorded in the same year. In the sameyear births were registered , show-ing a birth—rate of 2 2 8 5 perthousand . Calculations bas ed upon the age s of the popu lation yieldan average death-rate throughout the Preside ncy of 35

'

5 7 per thousand,and a birth-rate of 4 105 . In the year 1 880—8 1

,the s taff of 43 1

vaccinators performed ope rations at a total cost of

Charitable inst itutions for medical relief co nsist of two classes. TheC ivi l Hospitals in 1880—8 1 numbe red 43 , at which patientswere treated. The Dispensaries in 1 880—8 1 numbered 144 , of which6 were in Native States they were attended by patients . Thetotal expenditure on these d ispensaries was There were 5L unatic Asylums in the Pres idency , with 913 inmates in the year 1 88 1 .

The expenditure was £9140, or an average o f£ 1 5 per head.

Bombay—The city of Bombay

,the capital of the Presidency o f

Bombay, and the principal seaport ofWestern India, i s situated on anisland in 18

°

55’

5” N. lat. , and 7 2

°

53’

55 E. long. Bombay island isone of a group (perhaps that called Heptanesia by Arrian) lying o ff

the coast of the Konkan ; but by the recent construction of causewaysand breakwaters

,it is now permanently un ited on the north with the

larger island of Salsette , and so continuously w ith the mainland . Theremainder of the group o f islands constitute a part of Thana D istrict .For certain adminis trative purpose s, Bombay city is regarded as c on

s tituting a District by itself, with an area of 2 2 square miles, and apopulation

,according to the Census of 188 1 , of souls .

Bombay island is in shape a trape z oid . I t is popu larly l ikened to a handlaid palm upwards, with the fingers stretching southwards into the s ea,and the thumb represen ting Malabar Hill

,wi th Back Bay between the

thumb and forefinger. Others see a resemblance in i t to a witheredleg

,with a very h igh heel and pointe d toe, the h eel being Malaba

’

r

H ill,and the toe Kolaba . I t is 1 1—5miles long from the south extremi ty

of Kolaba to L ion Causeway, over which the railway passes to the larger

74 B OM BA i CI T Y.

is land o f Salsette, and from 3 to 4 miles broad in that portion which

l ies to the north o f the esplanade . The portion o f Bombay called the

Fort,abut t ing on the harbour , and separated from the nat ive city proper

by a large maz’

a’

dn or park, is the most important, most English, and

busiest quarter of the town .

ff z’

sz‘

ory .

—The name of Bombay was erroneously supposed to havebeen given by the Portuguese , on account of the geographical posit iono f the island—B om-IJa/zz

'

a or B oa slatz'

ofi dzss z'

ma nautz’

s .

’

ColonelH . Yule , however, traces i t back to the latter half of the compound nameTanua-M aiamba or Mayamba, which , according to Barbosa, a

’

rc’

. 1 5 16,

was used to designate the kingdom of the Konkan in the 1 6th century .

The name appears as M aimbi in the very early geographical Sommarz'

o

a’e Reg /u, translated from the Portuguese in Ramudio

,written probably

1 5 20—2 5. There can be l ittle doubt that this word

,i n its turn

,was a

corrup t ion o f Mamba-devi,a goddess who had a famous shrine in the

neighbourhood,mentioned in Forbes’ E ds M afia} rz

'

rc. 1 630 . ThePortuguese of the i 6th century call i t Mombaim or Bombaim

,never

Bom-bahia or Boa—bahia. The Maratha name o f Bombay is Mumbai,

from Mahima,

‘ Great Mother,

’ a t itle of Devi. In support of thepopu lar etymology from Buon Bahia

,fair haven ,

’ i t may be said thatBombay undoubtedly possesses one of the finest harbours in the world .

But the evidence leaves l it tle doubt that the true derivation is from theMaratha Mumbai

,zle. Mahima,

‘the Great Mother,

’ or Devi. I t thushappens that both the great Brit ish capi tals of India, Bombay on thewestern coast

,and Calcutta (g i t ) on the eastern , take their names from

t i tles or designat ions of the same goddess , the wife of Siva, the lord

o f death and reproduction .

The history of Bombay begins wi th the ces s ion o f the island by the

Portuguese to Charles 11. in 1 66 1,as part of the dowry of his queen ,

Catherine of Braganz a . The adjoin ing islands,however

,of Salsette

and Karanj a sti ll remained in the possession of the Portuguese . At

this t ime the popu lat ion was estimated at souls,and the revenue

at or £6500 . The king appears to have found hisd istant acqui s i t ion unprofi table

,and in 1 668 he transferred it to the

East India Company on payment of an annual rent of£ 1 0 in gold.

The Company forthwith took steps for the strengthening o f the fortifi ca

t ions, and the encouragement of European settlers . Dr. Fryer, whov is i ted the island in 1 6 73 , describes the population as numbering

a mixture o f mo s t of the neighbouring countries,mostly

rogues and vagabo nds . ’ He has left an elaborate descrip t ion of theplace as i t then exis ted . The fort or castle was armed with 1 20 pieces

of ordnance ; and the town , which lay at some distance , was a fullmile in length. The greater number of the inhabitants

,especially of

the suburb o fMaz agon , were engaged in fish ing. T he Portuguese still

B OM BA Y CI T Y: 75

had several churches on the i sland. Between Parel and Mahim , the

sea had made a wide breach,drowning acres of good land . But

the most striking point in all the early accounts is the excess ive un

heal thiness of the place,which cannot be attributed solely to the mode

of l ife of the res idents. Fryer declares i t as his Opin ion that out ofevery 500 Europeans who came to l ive on the i sland , not 100 left it.

A current proverb affirmed that two monsoons (or rainy seasons) werethe age of a man. The most fatal d isease

,called by the Portuguese

practit ioners ‘ the Chinese death,’ has been identified w i th cholera.

The name arose,apparently

,from a fanciful French or L atin etymology

for the mom’exz'

m ’or mor-d'

e the old west-coast term for cholera.

Garcia d’Orta ( 1 568) dist inctly states that it was an Indian word ,morxz

'

. I t i s, in fact, a corrupt ion of the Marathi and Konkani wordsmariachi and mods/u,mean ing cholera.

I n Fryer’s time ( 1 6 73) the factory of Surat, establ ished sixty yearsbefore the cession of Bombay

,was the chief possess ion of the East

India Company in Western India. Bombay itself was exposed to thei l l-wil l of the Portuguese on Salsette island, who were able to cut off al l

d irect communication with the mainland . The most formidable enemy,however, was the Sidi or Abyssin ian admiral of the Mughal fleet , whose

descendants are represented at the present day by the Nawab of Janjira .

In 1 668, the Sidiwintered at Maz agon , and laid siege to Bombay castle ;

and the town was only saved by a direct appeal to the Emperor.

During this period also,the English in India were greatly hampered by

domestic dissens ions. In 1684 , orders were received to transfer thechief seat of the Company’s trade from Surat to Bombay, and the transferhad been effected by 1687 . In 1 708, the two Compan ies privileged totrade wi th the East were fused into the United East India Company ,and Bombay was chosen as the seat of one of the three independentPresidencies, each of which was ruled Over by a Governor-ih -Council .

I t was not t ill 1 7 73 that Bombay was subj ected to the control of theGovernor-General. Henceforth the h istory of Bombay city mergesi nto that of th e Presidency. The only event that need be speciallyrecorded is the first Maratha war ( 1 7 74 which resulted , aftermany m il itary viciss itudes, in the permanent occupation by the Englishof all the Bombay group of islands, and of the town of Thana on themainland. The city had long been a refuge for the fugit ives fromMaratha oppression, who could there alone find safety for their indus tryand commerce but after the downfall Of the Peshwa in 1 8 18

, Bombaybecame the capital of a large territory

,and from that year may be dated

her pre-eminence in Western India. She was especially fortunate inher early governors. From 18 19 to 1830, she was ruled success ively bythe Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone and Sir John Malcolm. The firs t

founded the present system of administrat ion ; the second, by Opening

76 B OA/8 A Y CI T Y.

the road through the Bhor-Chat , broke down the natural barrier thatseparated the sea-coast from the table-land of the Deccan . The nextstage in the course of onward prosperity was reached when Bombaywas brought into direct communication with Europe through theenergy and exertions o f L ieu tenant Waghorn, the pioneer of the

Overland Route . In the early years of the present century, expresscouriers or adventurous travellers used sometimes to make their way toor from India across the i sthmu s of Suez , or occasionally even throughPers ia . A mon thly mai l service was commenced by way o f Egypt in1 83 8, and the contract was firs t taken up by the Pen insular and

Oriental Company in 1 855 . Bombay is now recogn ised as the oneport of arrival and departure for all the English mails, and also for the

troopsh ips of the Indian army . But the ci ty cou ld not have attainedthis pos it ion

,if the means of commun icat ion on the landward s ide had

not received a correspo nding developm ent . In 1 850 , the firs t sod

was turned of the Great Indian Pen insula Railway, and three yearsafterwards the line was o pened as far as Thana, the fi rst railway in

the country. By 1 863 , the ra i lway had been led up the formidableBhor-Gha' t to Poona

,by a triumph of engineering skill . In 1870 ,

through communication was establ ished wi th Calcutta, in 187 1 withMadras . The city has a succe ssful tramway system. There is now a

prospect of more direct railway communicat ion being established , m’

d

Nagpur in the Central Provinc es , wi th CalcuttaBut i t is not o nly as the capital o f a Presidency , or as the central

poin t of arrival and departure for Ind ian travellers , that Bombayhas achieved its highes t reputat ion. I t is best known as the greatcotton market o fWestern and Cen tral India

,to which the manu facturers

of L ancash ire turned when the American war cut Off their supplies .Even in the last century the East India Company was accustomed toexport raw cotton as part Of i ts investment , both to the United Kingdomand to China. This trade con tinued during the early years of thepresent century, bu t i t was marked by extreme vicissitudes in quantityand price, the demand being entirely determined by the out—turn of theAmerican crop . The war between the Northern and Southern Stateswas declared in 186 1

, and the merchants and shippers of Bombaypromptly took advantage of the ir opportunity. The exports of cotton

rapidly augmented under the stimulus of high prices, until in 1864—65 ,

the last year of the war, they reached a total val ue o f 30 millions

sterl ing, or nearly ten-fold the average of ten years before. L arge

fortunes were acqu ired by succe ssful ventures,and the w ild spirit

of speculation thus engende red spread through all classes of the

commun ity. The scenes of the South Sea Bubble were revived .

No j oint-s tock proj ect seemed too absurd to find subscribers. Banks,

financial associations, and land compan ies,each with millions of

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7s B OM B A Y CI T Y.

boats, ship’s dingies, steam-launches, native bunders

,

’

and ‘ karachis ’

incessantly ply on the harbour.

The is land consists of a low-lying plain about u s miles long by 3 to4 broad , flanked by two parallel ridges o f low hills . Point Kolaba

,the

headland formed by the longer of these ridges, protects the harbour onits eas tern s ide from the force o f the open sea. The other ridge terminates in Malabar H il l and between the two lies the shallow expanseof Back Bay. On a sl ightly raised strip of land between the head of

Back Bay and the harbour is s ituated the Fort , the original nucleusround which th e town grew up , but now chiefly occupied by statelypublic bu i ldings and commercial offices. From this point the land

slopes westward to the central plain , which , before the constructionof the embankment known as the Hornby Velard, was l iable to besubmerged at h igh t ide. T o the north and east , recent schemesof reclamat ion have s imilarly shut o ut the sea

,and partly redeemed

the foreshore for the use of commerce. In the extreme north of theisland a large tract of salt marsh still remains unreclaimed.

The Government offi ces, the business houses, and the shops clusterth ickly in the part of the city called the Fort. Many of the publicand commercial buildings, constructed during the past twenty years,are o f splend id dimens ions, and have no rival in any other Indianci ty , except perhaps Calcutta. The houses in the native ba

’

z a’

r arealso handsomely built, r is ing three, four, and even s ix stories in height ,with elaborately carved pillars and frontwork . Some of the narrow

,

unpaved, and crowded stree ts give an inadequate idea of the realOpu lence of the ir inhabitants . But in many o f them may be seenevidences of the weal th of the ci ty and of the magnificence of itsmerchant princes . The most conspicuous line of public buildings ison the esplanade facing Back Bay. Here is the Secre tariat

, an

enormous erection in the Venetian-Goth ic style of architecture ; theUniversity Senate Hall and clock-tower ; the new High Court ; theoffices of the Public Works Department

,the Post and Telegraph

Offices . A l i ttle inland and behind the Secretariat range of buildingsruns the broad thoroughfare Of Rampart Row, off which branch many

narrow s treets contain ing native and European shops . Rampart Rowand its cont inuation towards the Apollo Bandar (landing-place) formthe main l ine of thoroughfare of the European city of Bombay. Alongone side of Rampart Row is a colonnade of arches giving entrance tothe Bombay Club, the French Bank, and other bu ild ings. On the

Opposite side of Rampart Row, which is here fifty or sixty yards broad,

rises another l ine of many-storied Offices,ch iefly belonging to merchants

in grain and cotton . The Fort i s i lluminated during the night bymeans of the electric light . Near the Apollo Bandar i s the Sailors’

Home, e rected at the expense of a recen t G aekwar of Baroda . Behind

B OM BA Y CI T Y. 79

the Sailors’ Home is the Royal Yacht Club, a favourite resort o f

Bombay society. At the other end of Rampart Row is a white

marble statue of th e Queen , under a Goth ic canopy, also the giftof the Gaekwar. The most important build ings in the densely-builtspace occupying the s ite of the Fort are the circular row of officesand warehouses known as the E lph instone Circle, the Custom House ,the Town Hall

,the Mint

,and the Cathedral .

The Castle and Fort St. George are the only two spots now retain ing

any traces of fortificat ion. The real defences of Bombay consis t at

present of the two turret ships Abyssz'

m’

a and M agdala, armed wi tht o—inch guns . A scheme for erecting ironclad forts mounted with

heavy guns,in mid—channel at the entrance of the harbour, is st il l

under consideration . The existing defences o f Bombay Harbour

are batteries on rocks, which stud the sea from about opposite the

Memorial Church at Kolaba to the E lphinstone reclamat ion . The onemost to the south i s called the Oyster Rock, which is 1 000 yardsfrom the shore and 8400 feet s .w. of the Middle Ground Battery. Thefort on the Middle Ground shoal i s in the middle o f the anchorage ,1 800 yards from shore. The third defence is on Cross I sland , at thenorth end of the anchorage, 1 00 yards from the shore, and 4000 yardsfrom Middle Ground. There is a battery also on the higher part of the

island.

The private houses of the European residents lie apart from themercant ile and the native quarters of the town . As a rule

,each is

built in a large garden or compound and although the style of arch itecture is less imposing than that of the stately mansions of Calcutta,i t is wel l su i ted to the cl imate, and has a beauty and comfort o f i ts

own. In former times,the favourite quarter was the northern suburb

o f Parell, which has contained the offi cial residence of the Governor ofBombay for the last hundred years . At presen t, the majority of the

Europeans l ive on or around Malabar Hill, now terraced to the topwith handsome houses , commanding a magnificent view over the cityand the sea. North of Malabar Hill runs another European suburb

,

known as Breach Candy, where the houses are bui lt close down uponthe shore

,with in the refreshing sound of the waves . Of recent years

,

both Kumbala Hill , a continuat ion of Malabar Hill, and the outlyingspur of Kolaba are being covered wi th the res idences of Europeans .The G overnor has a pret ty marine villa at Malabar Point . During the

ho t-weather months of the early summer, his Excellency and staff, withthe Council and chief officers at head-quarters , repair to Mahabaleshwar,and spend the rainy or monsoon season at Poona.

P op ulation—L imit ing the area of Calcutta to the municipali ty

, and

excluding the suburbs , Bombay ranks as the most populous city inIndia

,and the second in the whole Brit ish Empire . According to the

80 B OA/BA Y CI T Y

Census of 1 88 1 , the population of the Bombay municipal ity, wh ich isco extensive wi th Bombay island, i n an area of 2 2 square miles

,is

—males,

females,

total , or an average

o f persons per square mile . The total number of houses

o f all kinds is occupied , and 1 502 unoccupied, showing anaverage o f 2 6 35 persons per house . The corresponding average inL ondon is only 7 79. The proport ion of males in the total populat ion is 600 per cent . The following table gives the population

c lassified according to rel igion or nat ionality, with the percentage ofeach class in the total . The greater bu lk o f the people is contained

in the quarters en t i tled Dhobi Talao Market, M andev i, Umarkhari

Bholeshwar, Khetwadi, Kamatipura, Khara, Talao , Byculla, Tarwari,Maz agon

,Girgaon

, Chaupatti, and Tardeo , which cover an area of

abou t 4 square miles only .

POPULATION OF BOMBAY C ITY

R EL I G IO N OR NAT IONA LI TY. N UM BER . PE RCENTAG E.

Buddhists and Jains ,Brahmans

,

Lingayats ,Rajpu t s ,H indu S tirlras ,Hindu outcaste s

,

Muhammadans,

Parsis ,Jews ,Native Chris tians and Po rtug ue se ,Euras ians ,E uropeans ,

1000

Inc luding on board ships and boats in harbour.

Hardly any c ity in the world presents a greater variety of

nat ional types than Bombay . The H indu and the Muhammadan,

o f course , predominate in numbers, bu t in the busy streets thecharacteri st ic dress o f every O riental people may be seen. Thegreen and gold turban of the M usalmzin, the large red or white headdress pecul iar to the Maratha, the pointed red turban of the G uz era

’

thi

Baniya, and the black or brown brimless hat of the Parsi, lend colourand variety to the scene . The Parsis exercise an influence much greaterthan is implied by their numb ers . When the commerce of WesternIndia deserted Surat in the last century, they settled in Bombay ; and

now,by the force o f their inherited wealth , their natural genius for

trade,their intelligence , and their munifi cent charit ies

,they hold the

fi rst place among the nat ive communi ty. Their position was gracefully

recognised by the Crown, when S ir Jamse tjee Jeejeebhoy rece ived a

B OM BA Y CI T Y: 8x

baronetcy in 1857. The Hindu traders, or Baniyas, rank next tothe Parsis. They may be divided into two classes—the Baniyas ofG uz erat, and the M arwaris of Central India. A large proportion of

both these classes adhere to the Jain rel igion,generally regarded as a

dist inct offshoot of Indian Buddhism ; while not a few of the remainderbelong to the Vaishnav sect, especially that sub-denomination knownas Vallabh-acharjyas. The Muhammadans include representativesfrom all the great countries that have embraced Islam—Arabs,Persians , Turks, Afghans, Malays, and Africans. The three classes oftrading Muhammadan s—the M emons , Borahs, and Khojahs—are

especially numerous. Their commercial deal ings are chiefly with thePers ian Gulf, Zanz ibar, and the east coast of Africa, while the Parsi sand Jews compete with the English in the markets of Europe.

Of the total area of the island , about 8500 acres are assessed asarable land. The ch ief crop grown is rice ; but many varieties of

garden vegetables are also cult ivated, particularly on ions, and severalmembers of the gourd tribe. The rearing of cocoa-nut trees, and thepreparation of intox icating drink from th is tree and other species of

palms, afford employment to a considerable sect ion of the populat ion.

The Bombay mangoes are said to have been improved from grafts bythe Jesuits and Portuguese priests. They have long been famousthroughout India for their delicate flavour. The Bombay puma/o, ashaddock which looks like a large orange, is also a favourite fruit.Bombay supports all the many industrie s incidental to the active li fe

Of a great city and seaport. The trades of dyeing, tanning, and workingin metal are specially prosperous. The School of Art has recently donemuch to encourage those techn ical facult ies which depend upon anartist ic and scientific education . But the characterist ic feature of

Bombay manufacture is the rapid growth of the European factorysystem . Mills, worked by steam, and employing a large number ofOperatives

,have been erected by local capital

,especially in the

northern suburbs, where the tall chimney-stacks recall a factory townin L ancashire. In 188 1—82 , there were 36 mills at work , with a

nominal horse-power of 62 08, employing hands,and a total of

spindles, and looms. Sir James Caird has remarkedthat the monthly wage of a worker in these mills is about equivalent tothe weekly wage of a factory hand in L ancashire. The sea-borne commerce of Bombay has been included in the tables given in the previous

art icle for Bombay Pres idency. In 1880—8 1, sail ing ships and

1 2 1 2 steamers, including fore ign and coasting craft, entered the port,with a total tonnage of The total value of the trade

,both

imports and exports, was The principal article of importi s cotton p iece-goods, valued at 7 , the chief art icle of exportis raw cotton, valued at 5 .

VOL . 111.

82 B OM B /1Y CI T Y.

Admz'

nzlrtra/zbm—Bes ides the High Court, which is a court of firstinstance for causes aris ing within the island of Bombay, there are alsoa Small Cause Court and three Presidency magistrates, having jurisdict ion in the city. The total cost of these tribunals, exclusive of the

Courts of the Presidency magistrates , was of whichwas covered by the stamp revenue on cases decided by them. Ex

cluding the collect ion of the customs revenue of the port of Bombay,

and other items of imperial revenue , such as stamps, excise, and land,amounting altogether to about J£1 50,000 a year, the civil administrat ion of Bombay city is entrusted to the municipal corporat ion createdby the Acts of 18 7 2 and 1878. One-half the members are elected bythe ratepayers

,and the rest are nominated by the Government and the

Justices of the Peace. The members of the corporation , in their turn,e lect eight out of twelve members of a Town Council , by whom thegeneral administrat ion o f affairs i s controlled. The remaining fourmembers of the Town Counc il, and the chairman , are nominated byGovernment. The principal executive oflicer of the Town Councili s the municipal commiss ioner appointed by Government . In 1881,

among a total of 64 members Of the corporat ion , the principalnat ionali ties represented were—2 5 Europeans, 1 3 Parsis, 14 Hindus,1 Portuguese

,and 3 Muhammadans . Of the 64 members, 16 were

official and 48 non-oflicial. The corporation elects its own chairman,and in 1884—85 that posi tion was held by a Parsi barrister. Thefollowing table shows the balance-sheet for 1880—8

BALANCE-SHEET or BOMBAY MUN ICI PAL ITY FOR 1880—8 1 .

RECEI PTS . EXPE NDITURE.

House rate .

G overnment contribution to

po lice ,Whee l-tax,Liquor licences .Land conveyance licences ,Town duties ,Tobac co duty licences ,Contribution from InsuranceCompanies ,Markets ,T ramway rent ,Pu b lic g ardens ,J h lalklzor (Scavenger) cess ,Water-rate ,

Contributions towards pension,Misce l laneous fi nes ,

fees ,receip ts ,saving s ,

Pro fi t on stores adjusted.

To tal , £325 , 182 T otal ,

Surp lus on year'

s revenue for 1880-81 , 5

G eneral sup erintendence ,As se ssment and collection,Heal th department,M arket and s laug hter-houses ,Eng ineer

’s department ,

T o bacco duty es tab lishment.Town duty e stab lishments ,Interest on loansCharges on loansSinking Fund,Primary education,

G okaldas T ejpal Ho sp ita l ,Rent ofmunicipal offi ce ,

New works .Public account,Lighting ,

WaterworksRepayment of Drainage Loan,

O ther smal l items

B OM BA Y CI T Y. 83

The bola/Arbor (scavenger) cess and the water-rate represent payments for services rendered. Excluding these two items, the rece ip t so f the mun icipal ity from taxation amounted to or an

average rate of taxation of 83 . 6d. per head . Of the total receipts ,68 per cent . was derived from taxation

,18 per cent. from payments

for services rendered, 8 per cent. from municipal property,and 6

per cent. from miscellaneous sources. The total liabil itie s of themunicipality at the end of the year 188 1 were andthe total assets ( including a cash balance of were

About the year 1 87 2 , the total rateable value of theci ty was assessed at having fallen fromw ith in the previous n ine years . The city police in 1 880—8 1 consisted ofa strength of 142 3 officers and men , including 293 men paid fromimperial sources and employed on harbour duty

,or as guards to Govern

men t offices ; or 65 men to every square mile of area, and 1 man toevery 543 of the population . The mil itary force at Bombay on rst

January 1 88 2 consisted of five batteries of arti llery, a Europeanregiment , and two and a half battal ions of nat ive infantry. The headquarters of the Bombay army are at Poona, and the head-quarters ofBombay District Command only are at Bombay. Education in 1 880—8 1

was represented by 1 46 schools and colleges , with a total ofpupil s, being 1 school to every '

1 8 square mile,and 2 1 7 pupils t o

every thousand of the population . The income of the Bombay PortTrust for the year 1 880—8 1 was J£2 76,683 , and the expenditure

2 70,394, inclusive of due as interest on capital , leaving anet surplus of£6 288 , which was paid away in reduction of loans .Newspapers .

—A vigorous English and vernacular press flourishes inBombay. The B ombay G az ette and the T imes of I ndia, both of themdaily journals, well-edited and well-informed, represent the AngloIndian community. The I ndian Spectator is an excellent native weeklyjournal in the English language. The B ombay Catbolz

'

c E xaminer ablyrepresents the Roman Catholic inhabitants. The B ombay Cbronz

'

o/o,

a native paper,also deserves notice. The vernacular press includes

I no’n P rabcis/z , j am-ef ams/zed, B ast G ofl ar,B ombay Sciméo/zar, Arya

Patrz'

ba,and G uj ara

’

t/d. These nat ive papers address the ir respect ivecircles of readers

,explain ing pass ing polit ical events, crit icis ing Official

appointments,and bringing grievances to light.

M edial! Affi rm—Bombay is not so excess ively hot as someother parts of India . But on the other hand, i t has not the bracingcold weather of the Northern Provinces. The cool months lastfrom November to May. The south-west monsoon begins about thesecond week in June

,and the rain continues with great regularity

until the end of September. The hottest months o f the year areMay and October, but even then the heat is tempered by cool breez es

84 B OB I—B ONAI

from the sea. The average rainfall of the year, as registered atKolaba observatory

,i s 703 0 inches ; the average temperature, 79 2

°

F.

The average death-rate in Bombay city during the five years ending

1 880 was 38 1 0 per thousand . In 1 88 1 , a total of deaths

were registered,o f which 5 29 were assigned to cholera , 3 7 to small

pox,64 1 1 to fevers , and 2 004 to bowel complaints ; the death-rate

was 2 7 8 7 per thousand. The cost of the Public Health Department

in 1880 was or deduct ing receipts, The health

of the city may now be said to have returned to its normal condition before the influx of immigrants from the famine Districts in

1 87 7 . The number of births registered in Bombay city in 188 1 was

giving a ratio of per thousand . There are 5 civil

hospitals in Bombay city, and a dispensary at Mahim,with an average

daily number of 6 1 2 ih -door,and 5 7 7 out-door patients. There is a

lunatic asylum at Kolaba, which contained a daily average of

inmates in 1 880—8 1 , maintained at a cost to the S tate of £ 1 7 , 68 . per

head . In 188 1—8 2 , a staff of 8 vaccinators was employed in Bombaycity, who performed operations at a total cost of£1608.

Bomori.—Town in Orchha State Bundelkhand, Cen tral India

Agency. L at. 2 5°

2 6'

20”

N . , long. 79 54’

40 E . ; on the road from

Agra to Sagar (Saugor) , d istant from the former 180 miles south-east,from the lat ter 93 miles north-west. Situated on ris ing ground, on thebank of an extensive artificial lake , 4 miles in length and 2 in breadth

,

formed by damming up the course of a small s tream,and largely

uti liz ed for irrigation . On a rocky ridge overlooking the lake standsthe ruined palace of the Raja who constructed it . Population ( 1881)2 061

Bomréj (B omra’

z palem). —Estate in Nellore D istrict,Madras

Presidency. Fo rmerly, with Venkatagiri, Kalahasti, and Sayyidpur,

constituting the District ofWestern Palayam s .

’ The peculiar revenueand st ipendiary usages of this estate form a marked contrast to thosein the neighbouring tracts under Briti sh admin istrat ion .

Bonéi. ~—The most southerly of the Tributary States of ChutiaNagpur, Bengal , lying between 2 1

“

35’

30 and 2 2°

7’

45 N. lat. , andbetween 84

°

3 1’

5” and 85

°

2 5' E . long ; area, 1 349 square miles ;

population ( 188 1 ) Bounded on the north by part of

Singbhtim District and by Gangpur State ; on the south and west byBamra

,a feudatory State of the Central Provinces ; and on the east

by Keunjhar State, Orissa.

Physical Aspects—The State is shut in on all s ides by the lofty

BONA I H 1L L s,which occupy so large a portion of the country that

only one-twelfth of the ent ire area is under cultivation . The Brahmani flows from north to south , forming in the centre of the State afert ile and comparatively level tract

,in which most of the largest

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86 B ONA1.

organiz ation as a semi-military body, the Bhuiyas derive great powerfrom their posit ion as priests of the oldes t temples or shrines . Thesetemples

,although now dedicated to Hindu deit ies, bear evidence that

they were originally occupied by other images, at a period prior to theintroduction ofHinduism . At some of these shrines, human sacrificeswere offered every th ird year ; and this pract ice continued till thecountry came under Brit ish rule. Next in influence to the Bhuiyas arethe Gonds

,also a Dravidian tribe l iving in the south of Bonai , border

ing on Bamra State in the Central Provinces . Two members of thistribe

,called respectively danayxz

’

t and ma/zcipritra, hold fi efs on con

d ition of military service under the Raja. The Gonds in Bonai havenow become thoroughly H induiz ed , and speak no language but Uriya.

A small sprinkl ing of Kandhs , so long notorious for their practice of

human sacrifice, is found in Bonai . They probably immigrated fromBod State in Orissa, but have long occupied a servile position in Bonaias farm labourers

,and have lost al l the typical characterist ics of their

race. Among the Hindus proper, the most noteworthy caste is theKalita or Kulta. They are peculiar to Sambalpur in the Central Provinces , Bonai, and Assam, and occupy in all three places a very similarposition as most respectable and substantial cultivators. The Kalitas

o f Bona i resemble in appearance those of Assam ,both having

strongly -marked Aryan features with haz el or grey eyes, and thereappears to be some ethnological connection between the two . Theelders of the caste in Bonai

,however, assert that they came ori

g inally from M ithila, the modern T irhut, in the days o f Rama, andsettled in Sambalpur, from whence they migrated into Bonai sixgenerations ago. Colonel Dalton , in h is E lf/1210109

) of B eng al, statesthat they form the best cultivators and most substantial people in theState. He found them occupying villages along with aboriginal Gondsand Kandhs, but these had nearly all fallen into the position of farmservants to the Kalltas , who had extensive fields

,well-stocked farm

yards, and comfortable houses . The para’

a/z system of excludingtheir females is unknown to them

, and infan t marriage is notpractised .

Agn'

rulz‘ure.—The principal creps in the State are rice, pulses , and

oil-seeds . Systemat ic cult ivation is confined to the valley of theBrahmani river, and , as has been already stated, only one-twelfth of theentire area is under t illage. Three regular rice crops are grown

g om’

dlzdn, a highland rice, sown in June and reaped in September ;autumn rice, also sown in June and a winter crop

,sown in July. G ard

a’

lza’

n yields in good season s 1 3 or 1 4 mam a’

s of paddy for every man ual

of seed sown ; but in bad years, or under careless tillage , the out-turnis not more than four or five fold the amount of seed . A fourth ricecr0p , called a

’

d/zz'

271472, is grown on forest land by the nomadic hill

B ONA! HI L L S. 8 7

tribes . For th is no ploughing is required the trees are cut down andburned on the land

,the ashes being mixed up with the surface soil ;

and the seed is put in at the commencement of the rains . The out

turn of the a’a’

lzz’

crop is from 40 to 45 t imes the amount of the seed ,but after two years the land is exhausted . Wages in Bonai are ih

variably paid in kind ; a male day-labourer rece ives 2 sers (4 lbs. ) of

rice a day,and a woman 15 ser (3 Price of best cleaned rice in

1 8 73 , 4s . 2d. per cwt. of common rice,2 3 . 1d. and of coarse unhusked

paddy, 1 s. ogd. per cwt. The principal village of the State is BONA IGARH, the residence of the Raja.

T rade, eta—Small boats ply on the Brahmani all the year round, andthe bulk of the surplus produce of the country is exported to Sambalpurby th is route . A portion , however, i s carried to the north on packbullocks. Iron is smelted for local use

,but is not exported . Gold is

found in small quantities in the bed of the Brahmani and the h il lstreams .The family of the Bonai chief claim a mysterious and foreign origin.

They say that they came from Sakaldwr’

p or Ceylon , and that thefounder of the family was abandoned by his mother under a kadamba

tree . Being on the point of falling into the hands of an enemy , theinfan t was rescued by a peacock, ,which swallowed him ,

and kept him in

i ts craw until the danger was past. In gratitude for this service , thepeacock was adopted as the family crest. In reference to their earlyconnection with the kadamba t ree

,they describe themselves as kadam

bam i Raj puts. L ooking, however, to their position as rulers overpowerful Bhuiya vassals, who hold the bulk of the land, command themil itia of the State, and have even the right of conferring the tz

'

lak ortoken o f investiture on the Chief, there can be l ittle doubt that theRaja of Bonai was originally the tribal head of the Bhu iya clan . I f

Colonel Dalton’s theory be correct that the Bhuiyas formed a port ion

of the army with which Rama invaded Ceylon , and were, in fact, theveritable apes of the Ramayana, it would seem as if the family of the

Ch ief had taken advantage of an ancient legend to conceal the iraborig inal

'

ancestry under the fict ion of Cinghalese descent .

Bonai Garh.— Residence of the Raja of Bonai State, Chutia

Nagpur,Bengal. L at. 2 1

°

49'

8 N . , long. 85°

0’

20” E. situated on

the Brahmani river, which surrounds the gar/z or fort on three s ides .I t is further defended by a high mud-wall and moat. Within thisenclosure are about 1 50 houses, including the palace of the Chief, hiscourt-house and j ail. The entire village contains about 300 houses.The site, which is very picturesque, is 505 fee t above sea-level.

Bonai Hills.—A series o f ranges , ris ing to a he ight of 2 000 and

3000 feet above the central valley of Bonai State, Chutia Nagpur, andshutt ing it in on all s ides. With the countless spurs which they throw

88 BONDABA- B ORASAM BAR .

off, they occupy a large portion of the State. Most of the hills aredensely wooded to the summit, and, except at the regular passes, areinaccessible to beasts of burden. Through the northern mountainbarrier separating Bonai from Gangpur State, the Brahmani river hasforced its way

,passing through a glen 8 miles long. The shortest

route from Gangpur to Bonai is by a rugged path through this glen,but

i t i s only practicable during the dry weather. Principal peaks

M ankarmacha, 3639 feet above sea-level ; Badamgarh, 352 5 feet ;

Kumritar, 3490 feet Cheliatoka, 3308 feet ; and Kondadhar, 3000 feet.Fifteen other peaks are named

,each more than 2 000 feet in height .

Bondada.—Vi llage in Godavari District, Madras Pres idency paying

£693 per annum as G overnment assessment . The estate of Bondada,cons ist ing of 20 villages, was resumed by Government in A.H. 1864, on

account of arrears of revenue.

Bong ong .—Sub—division of Nadiya District, Bengal—See BANG AON.

Bondy—Marsh in Bogra District, Bengal ; locally known as thebard bi], or Great Swamp. I t is connected w ith the CHALAN L AKE, in

Raj shahi, one of the largest pieces of water of this kind in Bengal.

Boondee.—Native State and town in Raj putana—See BUNDI.

Boragari—Trading village and produce depot in Rangpur District,

Bengal. L at. 26°

0'

1 5"

N ., long. 89°

3'

15” E. Chief exports—rice

,

mustard,j ute

,and gunny-bags.

Boram.—Village in M anbhum District, Bengal. Lat. 23

°

2 2'

N. ,

long. 86°

10’ E. Chiefly noteworthy on account of the Jain remains in

the neighbourhood, on the right bank of the Kasa i (Cossye) river, 4 miles

south of the town of Jaipur. There are many indications that theseremains mark the site of what was at one t ime a very important place.Amidst heaps of a’ébrz

'

s and ru ins stand three fine brick temples, of whichthe most southerly is the largest. I ts tower ri ses from a base of 2 6 feetsquare to a he ight of (at present) about 60 feet ; the upper portion hasfallen , but the proportions followed in other temples of the same type,suggest that the original building must have been about one—third higherthan the present ruins. The chamber occupies only 9 square feet ; theimages have been removed. The brick s of which all the temples aremade are beautiful ly fash ioned , and appear to have been finished bygrinding. In this respect, and in their s tyle of ornament and workmanship, these temples resemble the great Buddhist temp le of BuddhGaya in Behar.Borasémbar.

—Estate or formerly belong ing to theE ighteen G arhjats , but now attached to Sambalpur District

, CentralProvinces ; situated between 2 0

°

43’

15" and 2 1

°

1 1'

45” N. lat. , and

between 82°

40'

30” and 83

°

2 7’

45" E. long. Area, 84 1 square miles,

nearly half of which is cult ivated , the rest being covered by j ungle.Number of villages, 405 occupied houses, to tal population

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90 B ORSAD fl B 0W'

RIN G -PE Z

( 188 1 ) of whom are returned as males and as

females . Of Hindus there are of M uhammadans , 8386 ; and

o f ‘ others,

’2 76 1 . Owing to the intermixture o f Baroda and Cambay

villages,the Sub—division is very broken and irregular in shape . Of

the total area, 56 square miles are occupied by the lands of al ienated

and unsettled villages. The remainder, according to therevenue survey returns

,consists of acres o f cultivated land,

2597 acres of cultivable land, 2953 acres of uncul t ivable waste , and

4389 acres o f roads, river-beds, village s ites, etc. A l ienated lands inGovernment villages occupy acres. Of the acres ofcult ivable Government land

,acres were under ti llage in 1 876

—7 7 .

The Mahi,the only river in the Sub-d ivision , flows along its southern

boundary, and i s throughout the whole distance a tidal river. But theshallowness of its channel , i ts shifting sandbanks , and the force of itst idal wave make i t useless for boats . Except in the south

,along the

banks of the Mahi,the whole Sub-division is a highly-cultivated plain

sloping gently westwards , intersected by rich hedgerows, and adornedby groves of magnificent trees . Water-supply good . Net Governmentassessment

,or 95 . 8éd. an acre. The Sub—division contained

in 1 883 , 1 civil and 2 criminal courts ; strength of regular police , 100

men village watchmen 693 .

Borsad—Chief town of the Borsad Sub-division , Kaira District ,Bombay Presidency. L at. 2 2

°

24'

30 N .,long. 7 2

°

56'

30 E . Popu

lat ion ( 1 88 1 ) namely, 8049 Hindus, 2 790 Muhammadans , 1 1 16

Jains,2 66 Chris tians, and 7

‘ others . ’ The town is protected by adouble line of fortificat ions, the outer of which is in disrepair, the

inner in fair preservat ion. These fortifications are modern,having been

constructed by Ranguj i,a Maratha leader

,who fixed his head-quarters

here in 1 74 1 . The fort was constantly the scene of fighting t ill 1 748,when , after a siege of five months , the Gaekwar of Baroda captured thetown and made Ranguj i prisoner. Besides the ordinary sub—divisionalcourts and offices

,the town contain s a subordinate j udge’s court

,post

offi ce, dispensary , and 3 Government schools. Borsad is also the seatof a Presbyterian mission .

Botad.—Fortifi ed town in the pen insula of Kath iawar, Bombay

Pres idency. L at. 2 2°

10’

N . ,long. 7 1

°

42’

30 E . ; populat ion ( 188 1 )7 755 , namely, 56 78 Hindus , 1 292 Muhammadans, and 785 Jains .

B0té.W&d.

—Town in Khandesh District,Bombay Presidency—See

BOTWAD.

Bowring -Pet (or M ammallu) . -Village in Kolar District,Mysore

Nat ive State 1 0 miles by road south of Kolar. L at. 1 2°

59’

N. ,long .

78°

15’

E . ; population ( 188 1 ) 1 265. Founded in 1864 , on the opening of the rai lway, and named after Mr. L ewin Bowring, then Chief

Comm iss ioner. Includes the fe rmer villages of M aramatlu and Hosin

B 0YARANI—BRAHM ANBARIA. 91

gere. Railway station for Kolar or Kolar Road, and head -quarters of

the Betmangala ta’

lu/e. Weekly fair attended by 1 000 persons.Boyérani.—Town in Ganjam District, Madras Pres idency . Popula

t ion ( 188 1 ) 3339, all Hindus .Brahmagiri (or —Range of hills which constitutes a

natural barrie r for several miles between Coorg and the Wainad ldluk

i n the District of Malabar,Madras Pres idency ; average he ight, 4500

fee t above the sea. Highest peak—Davasi-betta, 5 2 76 feet. L at. 1 1°

56'

N . , long . 76°

2’ E. The s ides are clothed with forest. Among

these hills are the sources of some of the principal tributaries of theKaver i (Cauvery ), viz . the Papanashi (sin—destroyer), Valarpattanam , and

the L akshmantirtha river, which flow towards the east and the Barapole, which forces its precipitous course in a north-westerly direct ion ,and through the Perambadi Pass down to the sea.

Bréhmanébéd.—Ruined city in Haidarabad District

,Sind

,Bombay

Presidency. I t s tood on the old course of the Indus,and was strongly

fortified. Outlying suburbs formerly connected it with the ci t ies of

Depur and Dalari,—the former the royal , the latter the off icial quarterBrahmanabad itself being the commercial centre. The ruins of i tsfortificat ions measure 4 miles in circumference. Recen t excavationsprove that th e inhabitants had attained to great sk ill in the arts , forthe sculptures

,engraved gems, carved ivory, earthenware, and coloured

glass , found among the ruins, show both advanced taste and workmanship while the arrangement and regularity of the streets, and the solidproportions of the buildings , attest great architectural excellence .

L egends say that the city was founded prior to the 7 th century, andwas destroyed by the gods in punishment for the in iquit ies of

‘ King

Dolora.

’ History so far confirms this tradition as to make ment ion o f

an unj ust ruler, by name Dolora Amrani , i n the 1 1th century. Thatthe destruction of the city was as sudden as it was complete

,i s proved

by the discovery o f whole households overwhelmed together,men

and women at the ir work, and cattle in their stalls. N0 marks o f con

flagration are discern ible , nor—since household goods and valuablesremain in sz

'

tu—can the ruin of the city be referred to the invasionof an enemy

,or desertion by the inhabi tants . The legend

,therefore

,

i s probably so far correct, that Brahmanabad was destroyed by naturalagency—most probably by the earthquake which about the same dated iverted the course of the Indus.

Bréhmanakraka..—Village in Nellore District, Madras Pres idency .

Houses , Populat ion ( 188 1) 3 284, namely, 3 169 Hindus and 1 1 5Muhammadans. Up to 1 790 i t gave its name to a ta

’

lué of the

District.

Brahmanbaria. Sub-division of Tipperah District,Bengal

,lying

between 2 3°

35'

45 and 24°

16’

30 N . lat. , and between 90°

45'

45

92 BRAE M ANBAB IA -B [ €AE M AP UB].

and 91”

2 2'

1 5 E .long. Area 769 square miles ; number of towns

and villages,1 394 ; number of houses , of which are

occupied and 1 7 19 unoccupied. Population ( 1 88 1 ) namely ,Hindus

,Muhammadans

,and Buddhists, 5 2 ; average

density of population,691 per square mile ; villages per square mile ,

1 8 1 persons per vil lage, 38 1 houses per square mile, 893 inmates

per occupied house,8 2 5 . The Sub-division was formed in 1860, and

consists of the three tka’

mfs (police circles ) o f Kasba, G auripura (orNabinagar) , and Brahmanbaria. In 1 883, i t contained 2 magisterial

and revenue and 5 civil courts , a regular police force of 78 oflicers

and men , and a village watch of 8 73 men .

Brahmanbaria.—Town and head-quarters of Brahmanbaria Sub

divis ion,in Tipperah District

,Bengal ; si tuated on the north bank of

the Titas river . L at. 2 3°

58'

N . ,long. 91

°

9’

E. population ( 188 1 )of whom or 65 per cent . , are Hindus, and 5462

Muhammadans ; number of males, 8639—females, 8799 ; municipalincome in 1 88 1—82 , £476 ; incidence of mun icipal taxation, 65d. per

head of population with in municipal lim its. Cons iderable trade inrice ; lock-up and dispensary.

Brahmani. —R iver of Bengal, formed by the j unction of the SouthKoel and the sankh rivers . These rivers meet in Gangpur State

,

Chutia Nagpur ; and the united stream ,as suming the name of Braho

mani,passes through Bonai State , Chutia Nagpur, and the Orissa

States of Talcher and Dhenkanal, and enters Cu ttack District nearGarh Balrampur. It then follows a very winding course from west toeast

,and reaches the Bay of Bengal by two mouths, the Dhamra

estuary and the Maipara river , i n 20°

46’

45" N . lat. , and 86

°

58’

30"

E. long. The principal branch of the Brahmani on i ts right bank inCuttack District i s the Kimiria, which takes off opposite Raj endrapurvillage

,and

,after m ixing its waters with the G enguti, Kelo , and Birtipa

'

,

falls again into the parent stream at Indpur. As it approaches the sea ,the Brahmani receives as a tributary the KHARSUA

,and a short d istance

above this point its waters unite with those o f the BA ITARAN I , formingthe DHAMRA. The confluence of the South Koel and the sankhthe point of origin o f the Brahmani—i s the prett ies t spot in GangpurS tate

,and is said by local tradition to be the scene o f th e amour of the

sage Parasara w ith the fi sherman’s daughter, Matsya Gandha, whobecame the mother of Vyasa, the reputed compiler of the Vedas and

the Mahabharata.

Brahmapuri.— Sub-division or ta/zrz

’

l of Chanda District, CentralProvinces

,lying between 19

°

and 2 0°

44’

1 5" N. lat ., and between

79°

2 7' and 80

°

24’ E. long. Area

, 33 2 1 square miles , comprising

1 28 1 square miles of Government land,and 15 z amz

’

na’a’

f i estates, with

a total area of 2 049 square miles ; number of villages , 1 2 62 ; number

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94 BRAHM AP UTRA RI VER .

This v iew is also taken by a recen t writer , Mr . R . Gordon , G B ,in

an exhaustive Report on the ‘fiyrz

’rogmp/zy and [Hydraulics of fi le

[ rawaa’zfl’Our ignorance o f the geography of this interest ing region

may be assigned to a variety of causes . I t is inhabited by savagetribes

,who are suffi ciently under the influence of Tibet to resist all

advances on the part of Europeans , and who have ere now murderedadventurous travellers. I t i s also an exceedingly difficult country totraverse

,being obstructed by rocky precipices and narrow chasms

,where

none but the practised mountaineer can make his way. There is l ittlehope of a trade route in th is direction between India and China. A

recent survey in the cold weather of 1 8 78 , under the d irection of thelate Captain Harman , R .E . , followed the Sanpu considerably to theeast o f the portion previously explored, and lower down in the course

of the river, bringing the survey down to Gyala Sindong, a fort situatedw i thin 100 miles o f the highest poin t reached in the survey o f theDibang river from the Assam side. Captain Harman’s survey hasstrengthened the hypothes is that the Dihang i s the cont inuat ion of the

Tibetan Sanpu . This,however

,must remain an hypothesis unti l further

explorations are made, or logs of t imber can be floated down from

Gyala S indong into the Dihang . If it could be arranged that a numberof logs

,special ly marked , were floated down from Gyala S indong, and

that these logs were found to emerge in the Assam valley, the ques t ionwhether the Sanpu eventually enters the Brahmaputra or the Irawadiwould be conclusively d isposed of

,even wi thout further surveys.

The Dihing , shortly after debouching upon the Assam valley,i s

j oined by the waters o f the D ibang and the Brahmaputra of theHindus (known as the Taluka in the upper portion of its course),which issue from the Abar and Mishmi hills

,in lat itude 2 7

°

70'

N. ,

and longitude 95°

30’

E. , about 24 miles west of Sadiya. Each of thesebrings down a large volume of water. The Taluka

,though apparently

the smallest of the three streams,has been selec ted by Hindu tradition

as the headwaters of the sacred river. J ust below the rapids which itforms on debouching from the mountains

,there is a large and deep

pool called the Brahmakund , the resort of pilgrims from the farthest

corners of the Indian peninsula. From the point of confluence of thethree rivers, the un ited stream takes its well-known name of Brahmaputra, l i terally the Son of Brahma, the Creator. I ts summer dischargeat Goalpara

,at the Bengal end of the Assam valley

,has been computed

at cubic feet per second . This calculation,which was made

over 40 years ago, appears from later inqu iries to be an under-estimate.

During the cold season of 18 7 7—78, experiments were made by the

late Captain Harman , o f the Survey Department,for the purpose of

calculating the discharges of the Brahmaputra and its tributary,the

Subansiri, at the upper end of the valley near Dibrugarh . The result

BRAEM ARUTRA RI VER. 95

of these operat ions was a discharge from the former river, at the meanlow water leve l of the year, of cubic feet per second , and forthe latter of cub ic feet, giving a total for both of cubic

feet, or only cub ic feet less than the formerly computed d ischargeat G oalpara, about 300 miles lower down the valley, after the river hasbeen j oined by several large t ributary streams. During the rains ther iver rises 30 or 40 feet above i ts ordinary level, and its flood dischargeat Goalpara is est imated at over cubic feet per second.

The united stream forming the Brahmaputra at once assumes in thevalley of Assam the characteristics by which it is generally known . I t

rolls along through the plain with a vast expan se of water,broken by

innumerable i slands,and exh ibit ing the operations of alluvion and

d iluvion on a gigant ic scale. I t is so heavily fre ighted with silt fromthe Himalayas, that the least impedimen t in its stream causes a depos it,and may give rise to a wide-spreading almond -shaped mud-bank .

Steamers anchoring near the margin for the night are sometimes foundaground next morning on an accumulation of s il t caused by their ownobstruct ion to the current. On either s ide, the great river throws outlarge branches

,which rejoin the main channel after a d ivergence of many

miles. The most important of these divergent channels i s the L obi'

t,

which takes off from the main stream , under the name of the KherkutiaSut i, oppos ite Buri Dihing-Mukh . I t rece i ves the great volume of theSubansiri

’

, and is then called the L obit but it seems probable that thisi s merely an al ternat ive name for the Brahmaputra. The L ohft, thusre inforced

, rej oins the main stream nearly opposite Dhansirf—Mukh, andthe great island clzar of Maj uli, with an area of 44 1 square miles, i senclosed between it and the main stream . Another large divergentchannel of the Brahmaputra is the Kalang, which takes off from the southbank Opposite Bishnath in Darrang District, and traverses the whole of

Nowgong District west of that point, rej oin ing the Brahmaputra, aftera very tortuous course, a short d istance above Gauhati

'

town .

Unlike many rivers that flow through flat low-lying plains,in stead of

creeping along in a sluggish channel, the Brahmaputra in the Assamvalley has a comparatively swift current, and possesses no h igh permanent banks. At certain points in its course, i t passes between or

by rocky eminences, which give a temporary fi xity to its channel, as atB ishnath

,Silghat, Tez pur, Singri-parbat, Gauhati, Hathimora, Goalpara,

and Dhubri. Where not so controlled, i t send s i ts shifting channelsover a vast extent of country, without forming any s ingle continuou sriver trough.

After a course of 450 miles south-west down the Assam valley,the

Brahmaputra sweeps southward round the spurs of the Garo H ills,which form the outwork of the watershed separating the Brahmaputra

of Assam from the Sylhet river system of the Barak. I ts southerly

96 BRAHM AP UTRA RI VER.

course continues thence for about 180 miles , under the name of theJ amuna

,through the open plains of Eastern Bengal, as far as its con

fluence with the Padma, or main stream of the Ganges , at Goalanda,in latitude 2 3

°

50'

N .,and longitude 89

°

46’

E. From that point,the

conj oint deltas of these two rivers may be said to commence. The

great bulk of the waters of the Brahmaputra flow towards the south

west ; but before they reach the sea , they rece ive the drainage , by way

of the Surma valley, of the eastern watershed between Bengal andBurma. That drainage collects into the Meghna river itself abroad and magnificent sheet of water.

Shortly after leaving Assam , what is now the chief channel of theBrahmaputra takes the name of the Jamuna—an alteration of nomen

clature representing a mighty change in the course of the river withinthe last hundred years . The old bed of the Brahmaputra

,the only one

recognised by Maj or Rennel i n 1 765 , l ies to the east, and still bringsdown a port ion of the paren t stream—retain ing the original namepast Nasirabad, the civil stat ion of M aimansingh Distri ct. I t reunites

with the Jamuna or larger body o f the Brahmaputra by means of theMeghna. In fact

,the entire lower portion of the Brahmaputra may be

described as an elaborate network of i nterlacing channels,many of

which run dry in the cold season , bu t are fi lled to overflowing during

the annual period of inundation . Numerous islands are formed by theriver during its course

,one of them , the Maj ul i c/zar in the Assam

D istrict of Sibsagar,covering an area of 44 1 square miles, and mainly

formed by the s ilt brought down by the Subansiri others are meresandbanks deposited during one rainy season

,only to be swept away

by the inundat ions of the following year. The only towns of importancesi tuated on the banks of the main river

,are Gauhati

,Goalpara

,and

Dibrugarh but there are numerous trading marts or river-side depétsfor produce , the princ ipal of which are enumerated below. The moreimportant tributaries of the Brahmaputra proceeding down stream

,

and excluding the three headwaters already ment ioned as uni t ing toform the main river near Sadiya

,are—the Subansirf

,Bhoroli

’

,Manas

,

Gadadhar or Sankos,Dharla

,and T fsta on the right bank ; and the

Noa Dihing , Burf Dihing , Disang, Dikhu , Dhansiri, and Kalang, withits tributary the Kapili

,on the left bank

,—for an account of each of

which see the separate articles under their alphabetical headings . All

these rivers are navigable by large-s iz ed cargo boats,and many of them

are open to steamers during th e rainy season .

In its agricultural and commercial u t il i ty,the Brahmaputra ranks

after the Ganges , and equal with the Indus , among the rivers ofIndia. Unlike these two rivers , however, i ts waters are not largelyu tiliz ed for the purpose of artificial irrigation

,nor are they confined

with in embankments . The natural overflow of the periodic inundat ion

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98 HHAS”

,THE .

Brahmaputra,are as follow

,proceeding down stream z—Dibrugarh

Dihing-mukh ; Disang-mukh or Dikhu-mukh , for Sibsagar ; Kokila

mukh,for Jorhat and North L akhimpur ; Nigriting , for Golaghat ;

Dhansiri-mukh Bishnath Kaliabar or Silghat,for Nowgong ; Tez pur ;

Rangamati,for Mangaldai ; Gauhat i ; Goalpara ; and Dhubri. These

are all in the Assam valley . The Bengal stations are Kaliganj,Siraj

ganj,Barisal

,and Nalchit i . Steamers do not always cal l at all the

above s tat ions ; and there are a few minor places where they s top whenspecially required.

Brahuis,The.

—The inhabitants of the h ighlands of Balachistan,

whose ru ler is the Khan o f Khelat . Masson states that the wordBrahu i is a corruption of B a-m/z -z

'

,mean ing li terally ‘ of the hills or

waste,’ and that the race entered Baltichistan originally from the west .

Dr. Caldwell supposes them to be a Dravidian race , and one o f theirtribes claims to have come from the shores of the Mediterranean .

Their language,which is known as Brahuiki

,i s altogether void of

affin ity w ith the Persian,Push tu

,or Baltichi. It contains a Dravidian

element,derived perhaps from some of their first tribes

,or offshoots of

o ther races , being engrafted on a stock ak in to that which peopledSouthern India. The d iscovery of this elemen t beyond the Indus riverindicates that some of the Dravidians

,l ike the Aryans , the Scythians,

and the Turco-Mongolians,entered India by the north -west route. The

Brahuis themselves believe and state that they are the aborigines of thecountry which they now occupy, and that their forefathers came fromHalb and Aleppo . Dr. Cook believes that the Brahuis were Tartarmountaineers

,who settled at a very early period in the southern parts

o f Asia,where they led an ambu latory l ife in their, o r societ ies , headed

and governed by their own ch iefs and laws t ill at length they attaineda foot ing in Baltichistan, u lt imately supplanting the former inhabitants,whom he supposes to have been o f Hindu origin . Po tt inger statesthat their language contains many ancien t Hindu words , and he

believes that i t belongs either to the Scythic,or Turanian

,or Tamilian

s tock . The Sakae who formed part o f Alexander’s army, and whose

country is stated by Wilson to have been that ly ing between the Paro

pamisus mountains and the Sea o f Aral , are said to sti ll exist as a tribe

o f the Brahuis o f Jhalawan. I t i s no t improbable that they accom

panied Alexander as far as the south o f S ind,and return ing with

Craterus up or through the M ii la pass , settled in their present position .

The Brahuis are most numerous in the provinces of Jhalawar andSarawar , and the number of their tribal divisions i s great. Pottinger

gives the names of no fewer than seventy-four,each d ivis ion being ruled

by its own [Vail/[em or chief. They are as a race essential ly nomadic,and reside in tomrfzzs , or collections of tents made of goat’s—hair, black

or striped . The furn iture of the ordinary ten t usual ly consists of a few

BRAH UI S , THE . 99

metal cooking-pots,a stone hand-mill

,some rough carpets or rugs , a

d istaff for spinning wool,and a pipe or Ila/aka. A ch iefs tent may be a

l i ttle better furnished,and he is generally richer than his neighbours in

flocks and herds . Dissens ions are common,but the Brahui tribes are

on the whole more compact and united than those of Afghanistan .

They are Sunni Muhammadans of the Hanbeli sect,but not fanatical

nor have they any religious men , whether Sayyad , pz’

r,mullet , or fa/ez

’

r.

They cons ider themselves pecul iarly favoured M uhammadans, as theProphet, mounted on a dove , paid them a visit one n ight, and left anumber o f sain ts beh ind h im for their guidance. Forty of these l i e

buried under a mountain,called Chibal Tau, or the

‘ Mountain of

Forty Bodies,

’ to the north of Baluchistan,a place held sacred and

visited not only by Muhammadans of other tribes,but by the Hindus

also.

In appearance,Brahuis are easily dist inguishable from Pathans , and

also from their Baltich fellow-subj ects. They are smaller and sparer

than the inhabitants of Afghanistan , and their features are often blun tand irregular. Their faces perhaps show more intell igence than thePathan physiognomy. Their hair and beards are frequently brown .

They have great physical strength,and are hardier than the Baltichis .

They tolerate the scorch ing sun of Kach-Gandava, equally with thecold and frost of their own mountains. They are good workers ,many of them in the plains to the south of Khelat being agriculturallabourers . The activity and endurance of the Brahuis is far superior tothat of the inhabitants of Southern Afghanistan , to whom they are notinferior in courage ; and though as avaricious as the Pathans, they areless revengeful

,less quarrelsome

,and more trustworthy. They do no t

possess the wild chivalry which distinguishes the Baltichi,but they have

none o f the cold-blooded treachery of the Afghan race. They are keenhunters

,and almost without exception good shots . The Jhalawars

claim to excel in the use of fi rearms , while the sarawars are superior

w ith the sword . The Brahui chiefs have considerable power ; andtheir women are but sl ightly , i f at all, secluded.

The ordinary dress of the Brahuis is the same for summer or winter.It i s made up of a tunic or shirt , generally ornamented with a littlered embroidery ; trousers often gathered in about the ankle, but withoutany resemblance to the extravagantly wide pantaloons among Pathansand a brown greatcoat or cloak , usually of felt . A kammar—bana’ isworn round the waist . The head-dress is a round or pointed skull-cap

,

withou t a pag rz'

or turban , but with a small tassel , tuft, or button affixedto the centre of the crown

,those of the higher classes being elaborately

ornamented with gold thread . A few wear turbans. Square - toed

c/zapplz’

s , or sandals of deer or goat skin , are worn by all classes. Their

arms are a matchlock, sword , and shie ld ; pistols are carried by the

I OO BR INDABAIV.

well—to-do,and the weal thy have rifles. The Afghan knife is unknown

,

and for the spear they profess contempt .

Brahuis are not averse to m i l itary service , and there are a few inthe so -called Baltich regiments ( 2 7 th,

29th, and 3o th Bombay Nat iveInfantry) ; but as enlis tment in the Bri t i sh Bombay service is practicallyfor l ife

,the best men hold aloof.

The representative o f the Brahuis in polit ics is the Khan of

Khelat,himself a Brahui

,and a l ineal descendant o f Kumbar

,

the head of one of their chief tribes , the Kumbarani. This

tribe is divided into three d ist inct ranks , namely, the Ahmadzais,

the Khan i'

,and the Kurnbarani. The Kumbaranis only partially

intermarry with the other two,t.e. they rece ive wi ves from them, but

not husbands .Brindaban—Town and municipal ity in Muttra (Mathura) District,

North-Western Provinces,situated on the right bank o f the Jumna, in

a peninsula formed by a northward bend o f the river, 6 miles north ofMuttra. L at. 2 7

“

23’

20 N .

,long . 7 7

”

44’

10”

E . Popu lation ( 188 1 )namely , Hindus

, 7 94 Muhammadans , 3 2 j ains, and1 2 Christians ; area o f town site , 486 acres . Munic ipal revenue in1 88 1—8 2

, £2 085, o f which £ 1 82 8 was derived from octroi,or an

average of I S. 8gd. per head of municipal popu lat ion Brindaban ranks amongst the holiest cities of the Hindus , and contains alarge number of temples

,shrines

,and sacred s ites . Among the most

noticeable may be mentioned the temple o f G obind Deva, erected in1 590 by Raja Man Singh of Ambar, governor of Kabul and Beharunder Akbar, which was originally capped wi th five towers

,all now

des troyed . Government has recently repaired the temple at a cost ofabout £3400 , and in 1 883 a further sum was devoted to the samepurpose . Among the other principal shrines are the temple of Madan

Mohan , a form of Krishna , on the river bank , at the upper end of thetown ; that o f Gopinath , bu ilt by Raesili-Ji about 1 580 ; and the greattemple of the Se ths

,dedicated to Rang-Ji, and constructed between

1 845 and 1 85 1 at a cost o f 45 la’

k/zr of rupees (say,Handsome g /za

’

ts or fl ights of s tone bath ing-steps l ine the bank o f theJ umna ; and above , the temples and houses rise picturesquely with

decorated facades . The Khusal—bagh is a picturesque garden surrounded with a masonry wall

,and is s ituated close to the town .

Ahaliya Bai, the Maratha queen of Indore , buil t a large well of redsandstone

, wi th 5 7 steps leading down to the water’s edge . Two other

tanks, known as the Brahma-Krind and the Govind-Ktind, possess great

sanctity for Hindus . Many private houses are bu ilt of hewn sandstone.

Anglo-vernacular school, and dispensary. Brindaban is one of the greatplaces o f pilgrimage of Ind ia

,and is annually resorted to by thousands

of Hindus from the most d is tant provinces . I t is now easily reached

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102 BROACII .

an inlet from the shore of the Gulf of Cambay, about 8 miles north of

the mouth o f the Kim river.The surface o f the plain consists , over almost its ent ire area, of

black cotton soil,highly fertile and well cultivated . This black soil

covers deposits o f brown clay , con taining nodu lar l imestone above andgravel and sand underneath . Wi th in 30 miles of the coast hardly anyrocks are to be seen . Farther inland

,the gravels and clays of the

nummuli t ic series begin to appear,and in the south of the District trap

crops out. Conglomerate and l imestone are also found in this tract,but otherwise the plain of Broach contain s no minerals. Except for atract o f waste land 1 6 1 acres in extent, lately set apart for the growth

o f baazil trees (Acacia) , the District is withou t fores ts ; and only in thefew villages where the l ighter variet ies of soil are found is the plainw e ll covered wi th trees. The Palmyra palm is the only l iquor-yielding

tree of the District , and it is largely found south o f the Narbada . Of

the fruit-trees are the mango,guava, and tamarind . On an island in

the Narbada (Nerbudda) , about 1 2 miles above Broach,is a famous

bam’

an or bar (Ficus Indicus ) tree, known as the Kabz’

r bar,because,

as the story goes,i t sprang from a twig which the sage Kabir once used

for cleaning his tee th. About the year 1 7 80, this tree is said to havehad 350 large and over 3000 small stems, the principal of whichenclosed a space nearly 2000 feet in circumference ; in the march of anarmy this tree had been known to have sheltered 7000 men. Nearly

50 years later (April 1 8 2 5) Bishop Heber wrote of this tree,‘ Though

a considerable part of the tree has within the last few years been washedaway, enough remains to make i t one of the most noble groves in theworld .

’ Since then i t has suffered much from age and floods,and is

now little more than a ruin .

The domestic animals are cows,buffaloes

,oxen

,camels

,horses

,asses

,

sheep, and goats . The cattle of the District are of two breeds—thesmall indigenous bullock

,and the large ox of Northern Guj arat. The

smaller breed of bullocks,which are generally driven in riding carts,

worth from £6 to £ 1 2 a pair ; the larger sort, used for ploughing,are worth from £ 1 5 to £20. Well-to-do cult ivators pay much attent ion to the appearance and condit ion o f their cat tle . Cult ivation istoo general to allow much scope for wild animals. The hog

,wolf, and

antelope almost exhau s t the l is t . Of birds , the ch ief are the floriken,sand grouse

,partridge, quail , duck, snipe, and crane . The District is

wel l supplied w ith fi sh— fresh—water,salt—water

,and migratory .

P op zllatz'

on.

—The earl iest year for which an estimate o f the popu

lation is available is 1 8 2 0, when the number of inhabitan ts was returnedat or 1 73 to the square mile . In 1 85 1 , the number was

or 200 to the square mile . The Census of 1 8 7 2 gave a

total population of persons,or 2 579 7 to the square mile.

BROACH . 1 03

The Census of 1 88 1 returned a total populat ion of or 2 2 5 to

the square mile ; of these the males numbered the females

occupying houses in 4 towns and houses in 40 1

villages. The number of unoccupied houses was returned atClassified according to rel igion

,there were male and

female H indus : total,

male and female

Muhammadans : total, Christ ians, 1 1 5 ; Jains , 3 7 68 Jews,1 8 ;

Parsis, 304 2 ; Buddhists, 2 ; Brahmos , 3 ; and aborigines ,Under the term Hindu are included Brahmans

,who numbered

Raj puts, Chamars , 34 1 7 Darjis and Shimpis , 1964 ; Dhobis ,1 094 ; Dublas , Barbers

, 357 7 ; Kanbfs , Kolis,

Kumbhars , 445 1 L ohanas, 91 8 L ohars

,or blacksmiths , 1 690 M alfs

,

or gardeners, 40 1 Mahar and Dhers, Sonars

, or goldsmiths ,2 18 1 Sutars

, or carpenters,2 3 2 0 ; Telfs, or oilmen , 3380 . The

aborigines are almost ent irely Bhils . The agricultural population wasreturned at or 58 2 5 per cent . of the total , of whichor 39 4 per cent. , were workers .The pract ice o f separat ing into small d ist inct classes has in Broach

been carried so far that,in a H indu population of persons , there

are representatives of 142 dist inct castes , which are again spli t up intonumerous sub-divisions. Among M usalmans there are two classesdist inct in origin

,though now cons iderably mixed by intermarriage

Muhammadan immigrants,and converts to Islam . These comprise

four classes, Sayyid, Mughal, Pathan, and Shaikh , with a total populat ion of persons . Of the M usalmans whose origin is traced toH indu converts

,the most importan t are the Borahs (Boharas), who

include two main classes,distinct from each other in occupation and in

sect , one engaged in trade,and who are mostly Ismail i Shias

,the

other employed almost entirely in till ing the fields,belonging to the

Sunni sect, and form ing nearly half of the entire Musalman populationof the District . For other classes of converted Hindus—the M olesalams (formerly Raj puts) , the Maleks , the M omnas , and the Shekhs

no separate figures are available . With the exception of the Borahs,who are a well-to—do body, the Broach M usalmans are for the most partin a depressed condit ion . Besides the above classes

,there is among

the orthodox M usalmans of Broach a peculiar community calledNagoris, who have long been settled in the District. They are said toderive their name from their former home

,Nagor

,a town in Malwa

they are now carters and labourers .The chief agricultural classes of Broach District are Kanbis ,

Raj puts, Kachchhfs , M alfs, and Kolfs the trading classes are

Vaishnava Ban iyas,as well as Sarawaks or Jains, Borahs of the Shia

sect,and Parsfs . The cult ivating Borahs are a hard-working and

intelligen t but somewhat turbulent body of men . In language and

1 04 BRO/1CH.

habits they resemble the Kauhis and other Hindus , but are dist inguish

able by their beard as well as by a pecul iar cast of countenance . Whileprofessing the faith of I slam ,

they do not intermarry with other Musal

mans. The Kanbis , as peaceable as they are industrious , form themost respectable part of the rural population they are well acquainted

with the qualities and powers o f all varieties of the soil . The Rajputsafford an instance of a complete change from the fi erceness and turbu

lence o f a mart ial class, to the qu ietness , obedience, and industry of

t illers of the soil. The Kolfs,who stand lower in the social scale than

the Kanbis,formerly bore a bad reputation as plunderers , but they

are now a reformed race . In many villages they are as steady and

hard—working cultivators as any in the District. A few Parsis areengaged in agricul ture

,and are said to be act ive and skilful husband

m en. Most o f the m embers of th is class deal in merchandiz e , and

toge ther with the Sarawaks form the two most weal thy sections of the

t rading community. The Census Report of 1 88 1 returned the malepopulat ion according to occupation under the following six mainheadings : ( 1 ) Professional class , including civil and military, all

Government officials,and the learned profess ions , 8450 ; ( 2 ) domestic

servan ts,inn and lodging-house keepers , etc.

,2 693 ; (3 ) commercial

class,including bankers

,merchants

,traders, carriers, etc. , 3973 ; (4)

agricul tural and pastoral class,including gardeners , (5) industrial

class,including all manufacturers and artisans

, (6) indefiniteand non-productive

,including general labourers

,male children

,and

persons of unspecified occupat ion, 1 68,48

a

Of the whole population , abou t 20 per cent. l ive in towns containingmore than 5000 inhabitants . O riginally the towns were walled

,and

each was provided w ith i ts own fort. Wi th in the circui t of the wallsl ived the richest part o f the people

,dwell ing in we ll-bu ilt houses ;

without were the poorer classes,lodged ch iefly in hovels . Though the

fort ificat ions have now been allowed to fal l into decay,a marked

dis tinction still remains between the town proper and its suburbs. Thevillages have in general a thriving appearance

,aris ing from the com

mon u se of tiles for the houses instead of thatch ; and the trees withwhich they are surrounded contribute to give a pleasing effect. Therespectable inhabitants have their houses together in courts or closes,with an entrance common to all the families who belong to the same

close,which is shu t at night for the protection of the cattle . Formerly

many of the villages were surrounded by walls of mud or burnt brick

as a shelter against the attacks of freebooters,but now only one village

remains walled , and its fortification s are said to be broken down in manyplaces . Exclus ive of 14 hamle ts, there were , in 1 88 1

, 405 inhabited

towns and vi llages,giving an average o f 0 2 9 village to each square

mile,and 3 inhabitan ts to each village . Of these 405 towns and

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1 06 BROACH

Villag e 0fi rlals .

— At the t ime of the introduction o f Briti sh rulethere was in many villages an associat ion of members o f the pro

prietary body , by which the amount o f the State demand was distributedaccording to a fixed proportion amon g the members . The peculiarit iesof this j o int and sharehold tenure have to some extent

disappeared before the system o f collect ing the revenue direct from the

different shareholders ; bu t in most places the village organiz ation stillremains tolerably comple te . The staff of village servants includes as a

rule the head -man, pa

’

tel ; the clerk, tala’

tz’

, the family priest , g /za’

mot ,

the potter,kamlflza

’

r ; the barber, Haj/am , the carpenter, satar, the

blacksmith 101147 ,the tailor

,darz z

’

the shoemaker , mac/12’

; the washer

man, ( tfi oln, the tanner

,M a

’

lpa ; the sweeper, a’lzer ; the scavenger,

M aizg z’ the watchman , martaw

'

a or role/2a. Besides this establishment,in some vi llages are to be found the water-drawer, leos z

'

a ; the watersuppl ier

, parabz’

o ; goldsmith , som’

or sonar ; singer, ba’

rot or Wait,

teacher,ale/112” physician

,baz

’

afiva astronomer, j ar/12

’

strolling players,lrlzaz 'aya

’ Hindu devotees, g osa

’

l’

a or aaz'

rrigz’

and Musalman devotees,

falez’

r. The head—men retain to the present day much of their formerinfluence . They are in many cases r ich , and possess a strong holdover the villagers by reason of their business as money-lenders .Agrz

'

m ltzzrc.—Exclus ive of lands belonging to other territory situated

wi thin its l imits,Broach District con tains a total area of 1 453 square

miles or acres,of which acres

,or 2 07 6 per cent. , are

alienated,and acres

,or 2 6 0 8 per cent.

,are uncultivable waste,

i ncluding the area of village s ites , roads , rivers , reservoirs, and the tracts of

sal t land liable to be flooded a t specially h igh t ides . The total area of

S tate cultivable assessed land is therefore 2 acres,ofwhich

o r 933 8 per cent . , were occupied in 1880—8 1 , and or 66 2 per

cent . , were unoccupied or lying waste. Abou t 2 633 acres of salt landhave been taken up by private individuals for reclamation . Theselands have been leased by Government on special condi t ions

,rent free

for the first ten years, and for the following twen ty years at rents varying from 6d. to rs . per acre , to be subjec t to the usual assessment ratesafter thirty years . The land is for agricultural purposes divided intotwo main classes, l ight soils and black soils the former compose about

one—fourth , and the latter three-fourths of the entire area. There isalso a rich alluvial depos it known as in which products of allkinds

,especially tobacco and castor-oil plants

,are raised . The holders

of land belong to two classes—proprietors of large es tates or t/za’

karr,

and peasan t proprietors or ra’

yatr. Of the total assessed area,acres

,or 6 8 1 per cent . , are in the possession of men belonging to the

landlord class, who are the heirs o f old Raj put families . A peasantproprietor is e ither a member of a cultivat ing community

,or an inde

pendent holder wi th an ind ividual interest in the land he t i lls. Of the

BROACH: 1 07

whole-number of villages in the District, the l ands of 244, or 59 5 1 per

cent. , were in 1 86 2 he ld by corporations of shareholders , and the

remain ing 1 66 vi llages, or 48 49 per cent . , by individual cultivators .

Of the whole area of the Government land,

acres,or 92 2 4 per

cent . , are held under the ordinary survey tenure for a term of thirty

years , at rates subj ect to revision . The land alienated by the State i s

held at a fixed quit—rent . The assessment and quit-rent paid and payableto the State amounts to the local cess

,to total ,

There are two harvests in the year, ( 1 ) th e early or le/zarz

’

f, and (2 ) thelate or raal

’

. The early crops are sown in June,and

,except cotton,

which is seldom ready for picking before February,are harvested in

O ctober and November. The late crops are sown in October, andreaped in February . A field o f black soil requires only one ploughing,and is seldom manured . L ight soils

,on the other hand

,are ploughed

three or fou r t imes,and are generally manured . The entire set of

implements used on a farm may be valued at from£ 1,1 05 . to £2 .

The agricu l tural s tock in the possession of the cul tivators of State ork/za

’

lsa vil lages in 1880—8 1 numbered ploughs,

carts ,bu llocks

,buffaloes

,cows

, 7 70 horses , 1 18 2

mares , 6 1 1 foals , sheep and goats,and 1 1 7 1 asses . Of

acres of Government land occupied in the year 1 880—8 1 , acres,

or 1 390 per cent ., were fallow or under grass. Of the acresunder actual cultivation in 1 880- 8 1

,grain crops occupied

acres,or 465 per cent . pulses

,acres, or 91 per cent . tobacco

,

1499 acres , or 03 per cent . sugar-cane,1 39 acres ; indigo, 2 3 2 acres

o il—seeds, acres,or 2 7 per cent . ; cotton, acres , or 409

per cent . miscellaneous crops,1864 acres, or 0 4 per cen t. Since the

year 1 8 1 2,attempts have been made from time to time to improve

the cult ivation and preparat ion of cotton . So far,the resu lt has been

to show that fore ign variet ies will not thrive in the District. In the

matter o f ginning considerable improvements have been made . By thein troduct ion of the Platt M acarthy Rolley Gin in 1 864, the old nat ive

hand-gin has been entirely supplanted.

The years 1 630, 1 63 1 , and 1 7 55 are said to have been seasons ofscarcity in which

,owing to the failure of crops , remissions of revenue

were granted . In 1 760 , 1 76 1 , 1 7 73 , 1 786, and 1 787 , port ions of the

District verged so closely upon famine that the revenue had to be verylargely remitted. The great famine of 1 790 was caused by the entire

failure of the ordinary rainfall . Since the beginning o f the presen t

century,s ix years of scarcity , amount ing almost to fam ine , are recorded .

The year 1 8 19was marked by excess ive rainfall , and 1 838 , 1840, and

1868 by total or partial failure of rain . In 1 8 1 2 , the District sufferedfrom the ravages of locusts, and in 1 835 from frost. Years of partial

108 BROA CH .

drought have also been numerous . In 1 878, the autumnal crops failedin two of the western tit/ales , on account of excessive moisture due toheavy rainfall all the fields sown after a certain period were attackedby swarms of grubs. The cotton crop in all seasons is liable to be

inj ured by the boll-worm .

and T rade—There are 1 3 l ines o f road , extending

over a total distance o f 1 47 ; miles, and 2 8 miles of railway runningthrough the District . Till wi th in the last fifteen years , the highway ofthe trade of the Dis trict as wel l as of the trade of a large section ofGuj arat and Western Malwa

,passed through the ports of Broach and

'

l'

ankari down the estuaries o f the Narbada (Nerbudda) and Dhadhar.

Since the opening of the railway , the trade by sea has greatly fallen off.It is st ill

,however

,large enough to support a fleet of small coasting

vessels , and occasionally attracts into the Narbada foreign ships oflarge siz e . Strictly speaking

,there are no harbours along the coast line

of the District. T he estuaries of the rivers , navigable for 92 miles,offer shelter to coas t ing vessels during the stormy months of themonsoon . In 1 820

,there were five seaports (bamlar) , viz . Degam

,

Tankari , Chandhar, Dehej , and Broach . Of these , only two , BROACH

and TANKAR I,are still seats o f trade. During the ten years ending

1 84 7 , the total value o f sea-borne imports and exports averagedFrom 1 856 to 1 86 2

,the corresponding re turns fell to

From 1865 to 1 8 70 ,they amounted on an average to

while in 1 8 74 they had fallen as low as or aboutone-third of the corresponding returns o f twenty—fi ve years before . In1 880—8 1

, the imports were exports,

total ,In the Broach Distr ict sect ion of 2 8 miles o f the Bombay ,

Baroda,and Central India Railway

,the chief engineering work is the

bridge over the Narbada . This structure cons ists of 6 7 spans , or a totallength of 4 1 2 2 fee t , wi th a maximum height of 1 20 feet from screw

to rail level , the screw being 60 feet below the river bed, or 7 2 feetbelow low water in mid c hannel . The most importan t branch of

Broach trade is the export of cotton . To the total o f tons,valued at exported during the year 1874, cotton con

tributed or 840 3 per cent . In connection with thiscotton trade , 3 1 s team presses were employed in the D istr ict in 1874.

At present the capital by which the trade of Broach is carried on isfor the most part suppl ied from Bombay . In 1 820

,the Broach dealers

are said to have been representatives of mercant ile hou se s in Bombay,Surat, and Ujj ain ; and now

,i n the maj ority o f cases

,they are agen ts

o f Bombay firms . Except in the town o f Broach,where there are a

few Parsis and Borahs,the capitali sts are almost all Baniyas by caste.

Carriers and other unskilled town labourers earn from 6d. to 9—éd. a day ;

agricultural labourers , from 3d. to 45d. bricklayers and carpenters,

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1 10 BROACII .

the total strength of the regular police force was 4 1 7 officers and men .

Of these,under the District superintendent , 2 were subordinate officers ,

7 7 inferior subordinate officers, 2 2 mounted constables,and 3 1 5 foot

constables, o f whom 1 80 were provided with firearms , and the remainder

wi th swords or batons. The cost of maintain ing this force was £7683.

These figures show 1 man to every 3 49 square miles, as comparedwith the area

,and 1 man to every 7 84 persons , as compared with the

popu lation ; the cost of maintenance being equal to £5 , 93. per square

mi le,or 5 ;

3£d. per head o f populat ion . With the excep t ion of accom

modation provided for a few under—trial prisoners at the head-quarterso f each Sub-division

,there is no prison in the D istrict. All prisoners

are now conveyed by rai l to the District jail in Surat. The Dis trictcontains 9 post—offi ces and 6 telegraph offices , one at each of the 5s tat ions on the railway, and a separate Government office at Broach.

The District local funds,created since 1 863 for works of public util ity

and rural educat ion,yielded in 1880—8 1 a total o f There

are one city and two town municipalitie s at Broach , Jambtisar, and

Ankleswar, The total municipal receipts in 1 880 -8 1 amounted to

£992 2 ; and the expenditure to the incidence of taxat ionbeing 3 3 . I zj d. per head o f population with in mun icipal limits

, 4s . 1,

3,d.

per head in Broach,and rs . o—j—d. in Jambiisar. The whole amount

of revenue raised in 1 880—8 1— imperial,mun icipal

,and local—was

or 1 6s . per head of the en t ire populat ion. Of this,was derived from the land revenue ; £9649 from excise

,

and from the sale of stamps .

In the year 1 880—8 1 , there were 3 superior schools , w i th an attendance of 3 7 7 pupils, and 2 14 Government primary schools , or 1 school

for every 2 inhabited villages , wi th an average attendance of

pupils,or 3 5 per cent . o f the total popu lat ion. Of the total number , 7

were girls’ schools. The whole cost of education to the S tate amountedto £6890 . In Broach city there is 1 l ibrary and 2 local newspapers .There are in all 1 5 fairs or places of pilgrimage

,o f which 1 1 are

re -orted to by Hindus, and 4 by M usalmans . Shukaltirth i s annuallyvisi ted by about pilgrims . At Bhadbhut and Karod

,the number

varies from to The chief towns are BROACH,with

a population ( 188 1 ) of ( 2 ) JAM BUSAR , populat ion (3)ANKL ESWAR ,

populat ion 95 35 (4 ) AMOD , popu lat ion 582 2 .

M edical Aspects—The District is as healthy as any part of Gujarat,

and the cl imate is much more pleasant than in those parts o f the Province situated farther from the sea . For a series of years ending with1 849, the average rainfall was abou t 33 inches ; between 185 2 and 1860,

the average returns are 4 1 6 0 inche s ; from 1 860 to 1 8 70 , 34 inches ;inches in 187 2

—73 , and 35 7 8 in 18 73

—74. According to the

Meteorological Report for 188 1,the general average rainfall at Broach

BROACII SUB -DI VI SI ON 1 1 1

city is re turned at 388 7 inches. Frosts are said to occur at

interval s of from 10 to 1 2 years,sometimes

,as in 1835 , sufficiently

severe to destroy the cr0ps . The latter days of March and the mon th

of April are the hottest season in the year. At the end of April, west

and south-west winds begin to blow,and continue t ill October , when the

rainy season closes. In the following months,sl ight eas terly wind s

prevail , last ing till the end of December. There are 6 dispensaries , allestabl ished within the last few years , and one hospi tal at Broach city .

During the year 1 880—8 1 , persons in all were treated in the

dispensaries , o f whom were out-door and 1 39 in-door patien ts ;

while the civil hospital afforded relief to 330 in-patients and 7 560 ou tpatients ; and in the same year 60 2 5 persons were vaccinated. The

total number of deaths registered throughout the District in the fourteenyears ending 1 879 was giving an average annual mortality of

6898, or a death-rate of 19 1 6 per thousand. In 1 880, the total number

o f deaths was returned at or a death-rate of 3 1'

5 per thousand .

During the same year the number of births was re turned at 586 1 , ofwhom 3 1 04 were males, and 2 75 7 female s, giving a birth-rate of 1 6 7 3

per thousand of population . [For further informat ion regardingBroach

,see the B ombay G az etteer, vol . i i . pp. 33 7

—569 (Government

Press,Bombay

,Also M r. Stack’s M emorandum on Current

L and Revenue Settlements , pp . 434—43 7 ; the B ombay Cens us Report

o f 188 1 ; and the annual Administration Reports of tile B ombay

G overnment from 1880 to

Broach.—Sub-division of Broach District , Bombay Presidency .

Area ( 188 1 ) 302 square mile s ; 1 town and 104 villages ; occupied

houses,

Popu lation ( 188 1 ) or 366 per square mil e.

Hindus numbered Muhammadans, and ‘ o thers,

’

A lmost the whole o f th i s Sub - division is a flat rich

plain of black soil, stretching towards the north bank of the Narbada

,forty—three miles of whose course lie within i ts limits

.The

remainder consists of a few islands in the bed of the river,and a

narrow strip of land on the southern bank, nearly oppos ite the city ofBroach . The supply o f tank and well water is defect ive. Of the to talarea of the Sub-division, 14 square miles are occupied by the lands ofalienated villages. The remainder, according to the revenue surveyreturns , comprises acres of occupied land ; acre s o f

cult ivable waste ; acres of uncult ivable waste,and acres

occupied by village sites, roads , tanks , and rivers . From the to talGovernment area o f acres , acres have to be subtractedon account o f al ienated lands in State villages . Of the balance of

acres, the actual area of cul t ivable State lands , acres

were under cult ivation , fal low, or under grass in 1 8 73—74. T he

Government assessmen t, which was fixed in 1 870—7 1 , and remain s

1 1 2 BROACH T ON/N

in force t ill 1899—1900, amounts to net , or an average of

105 . 53d. per acre . The Sub-divis ion contained 3 civil and 6 crim inal

courts in 1 883 , wi th two pol ice stat ions strength of regularpol ice

,2 07 men ; village watchmen 709.

Breach—Ch ief town of the District of the same name in Gujarat

(Gu z erat) , Bombay Presidency ; si tuated on the right bank of theNarbada (Nerbudda) river, abou t 30 m iles from i ts mouth . L at. 2 1

”

43’

N . ,long. 7 3

°

2’

E . ; area, including suburbs , 35 square miles ; number

o f houses, populat ion ( 1 88 1 ) namely , malesand females classified as follows —Hindus, Musal

mans , Jains,8 73 Parsis

,2 088 ; Chris t ians , 1 1 1 and

others,

’1 1 6 1 municipal revenue ( 188 1 ) £7985 , o r I S. 35d. per

head of population ; municipal expend iture in same year, £92 56 .

Seen from the sou thern bank o f the Narbada,or approached by the

railway bridge from the south , the massive stone wall, ris ing from the

water’s edge, and lining the river bank for about a mile, and thebuild ings standing ou t from the h igh ground behind

,give the town of

Broach a marked and picturesque appearance . The fortifications,

though by local tradit ion ascribed to Sidh Raj Jaisingji of Anhilwara

( 1 2 th century) , were, according to the author o f the M z’

rat

buil t in 1 5 26 A.D . , under the orders of Sultan Bahadur,King of

Ahmadabad . In the middle of the 1 7th century the walls are

said to have been destroyed by the Emperor Aurangz eb,and about

twenty- fi v e years later , to have been rebuilt by the same monarch as a

protection against the attacks of the Marathas. Of late years, the

forti fi cations on the land side have been allowed to fall into disrepair,

and in some places almost e very trace of them has disappeared. On

the southern side, where protection is requ ired against the floods of theriver

,the city wall is kept in good order. Built of large blocks of stone

,

the river face of the wall, raised from 30 to 40 fee t h igh, stretches along

the bank for abou t a mile . I t i s provided with five gates,and the top

forms a broad pathway . The circui t of the wall includes an area of gtliso f a square mile , which in the centre rises to a height of from 60 to 80feet above the surrounding country. This mound

,from the broken

bricks and other débrz'

s dug out o f it, shows signs of being in part atleast of artificial construc t ion. At the same t ime

,the presence of one

or two small hi llocks to the north of the c ity favours the opin ion that it

may have been the ris ing ground on the river bank wh ich led the early

settlers to choose Broach as the site for a city . W i th in the walls,the

streets are narrow,and in some places steep. The houses are generally

two storeys h igh, w ith walls of brick and t iled roofs . In the eastern

part of the town are some large fam ily mansions said to have been builtin 1 7 90. In the suburbs the houses have a meaner appearance

,many of

them being no t more than one storey high , wi th walls o fwattle and daub.

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1 14 BRO/I CE TO I'VIV.

to have settled at Broach as far back as the 1 1th century . Formerly

shipbu ilders and skilled weavers , th ey have suffered from the decay ofboth trades . Many of them have migrated to Bombay, to improvethe ir circumstances ; and the frugal ity of those that are left enablesthem to keep out of pauperism. The Brahma Kshattris — a writercaste— are influential and prosperous. The greater number and mostwealthy of the trading classes are Srawaks or Jains. The M usalmans

are for the most part in a condition of poverty.

Broach i s one of the oldest seaports in Wes tern India. E ighteenhundred years ago

,i t was a chief seat of the trade then carried

on between India and the ports of Western Asia. In more recentt imes

,though the trade of Gujarat has never again centred in the

harbours of this D is tric t, Broach so far maintained its position,

that in the 1 7 th century it sent ships eastward to Java and Sumatra,and westward to Aden and the ports o f the Red Sea. L ater on

,the

foreign trade of Guj arat collected more and more in Surat , until fromSura t it was transferred to Bombay. The cotton once exported fromBroach to China and Bengal, was sent through Surat and Bombay ; andas far back as 18 1 5, the Broach ports ceased to have any foreign commerce. They now possess only a coasting trade south to Bombay andall the intermediate ports

,and north as far as Mandvi

,in Cutch . The

total value of the sea-borne trade of Broach in 1880—8 1 wasof which represented the value of imports , and

that of exports . The chief art icles of trade are,towards the south

,

exports—flowers of the ma/zua’

tree (Bass ia lat ifol ia), wheat, and cottonimports—molasses, rice, betel-nut, t imber, coal, iron , and cocoa-nut.To the west and north the exports are—grain

,cotton seed

,ma/wa

’

flowers, t iles, and firewood the imports,chiefly stone for bu ilding.

In ancient t imes, cloth is mentioned as one of the chief articles ofexport from Broach and in the i 7 th century, when the English andDutch firs t settled in Gujarat , i t was the fame of its cloth manufacturesthat led them to establish factories in Broach. The kinds of cloth forwhich Broach was specially known at that t ime would seem to have

been bastas , broad and narrow d imities,and other fine cal icoes. The

gain to the European trader of having a factory at Broach was,that he

might oversee the weavers, buying up the cotton yarn to employ themall the rains, when he sets on foo t his investments, that they may beready against the season for the sh ips.’ About the middle of the 17thcentury, the District i s said to have produced more manufactures, andthose of the fines t fabrics, than the same extent of country in any otherpart of the world, not except ing Bengal . In spite of the increasing

competit ion of the produce of steam factories in Bombay,Surat

,and

Ahmadabad, handloom weaving in Broach has with in the las t few yearsshown signs of reviving.

B UBAK—B UDAUN: 1 15

Wi th the exception of a stone mosque constructed out of an olderH indu temple

,the c ity contains no build ings of interest . To the west

are the groves of the well-wooded suburbs of Vajalpur, and northwards

a group of two h ill s rel ieves the l ine of the level plain , while on thenorth-east rows of tamarind trees mark where a hundred years ago was

the Nawab’s garden,with ‘ summer pavilions

,fountains

,and canals .’ To

the east are the spots that, to a Hindu, give the town a special interest,the site of King Bali’s sacrifice, and the temple of Bhragu R ish i . Aboutz o o yards from the bastion at the north-west corner of the fort is

the tomb of Brigadier David Wedderburn, who was killed at the siege

. of Broach on 14th November 1 7 7 2 . About two miles west of the fort,are a few large and mass ive tombs

,raised to members of the Dutch

Factory. Beyond the Dutch tombs are the five ParsiTowers of Silence :four being old and disused

,and the fifth lately built by a rich Parsi

merchant of Bombay. The city has been surveyed with a view to protee t the rights of both the Government and the public. The drinkingwater used by the inhabitants of the intramural parts of the town comesalmost entirely from the Narbada. There are but few wells in the cityand, unlike Surat and Ahmadabad, the custom of having cisterns indwell ing—houses for the storage of rain water is no t general.Blibak . Town and railway station in Sehwan ta

'

luk,Karachi

(Kurrachee) District, S ind , Bombay Presidency 5 9 miles west o f thetown of Sehwan . L at 2 6

°

2 6’

30"

N .,long. 67

°

45’

1 5" E. Populat ion

( 1 88 1 ) 2 836. Municipal revenue in 1 880—8 1, £305 incidence of

taxation about as . 1 %d. per head ; expenditure, £ 246. Post-o ffi ce,

school,and police station . Carpets of good quality are manufactured .

Owing to floods caused by the overflow of the Manchhar L ake, the

z amz’

na’drs have been of late years considerably impoverished. To

res ist these encroachments , the town has been surrounded by a ditch .

The public heal th has been affected in consequence, and in 1869Btibak

suffered severely from cholera . The railway s tation is distant 3 milesfrom the town .

Blid-Blid.—Village and police station in Bardwa

’

n District,Bengal.

L at. 2 3°

24'

30"

N.

,long. 87

°

34’

45 E.

Budaun (B uddon).—Brit ish District in the L ieutenant-Governorsh ipof the North-Western Provinces , lying between 2 7

°

39’ and 2 8

°

2 7’ N.

lat.,and between 78

°

19'

1 5 and 79°

4 1’

E. long. area,

squaremiles ; population in 1 88 1 , souls . Budaun forms the south

western District of the Rohilkhand Division . I t i s bounded on thenorth-east by Barel i (Bareilly) and the State of Rampur, on the north

west by Moradabad , on the south-we st by the Ganges, and on the eas t

by Shahjahanpur. The administrative head-quarters are at the town of

BUDAUN.

P/zys z'

ml Aspm‘a—The Distr ict of Budaun does not materially differ

1 1 6 B UD /[ UN

i n its main features from the other portions of the great Gangeticplain . I t stretches

,wi th little d iversity of surface or scenery, from the

valley of the Ra’

mgangaon the east, to the sacred river which forms itsboundary on the west

,in an almost unbroken succession of ancient

alluvial uplands . But al though its level face i s seldom interrupted byany elevation greater than a shift ing sandhill , yet a closer view disclosesm inor variet ies o f soil and productions which at first sight escape the

eye in surveying its somewhat monotonous flats . The District is

divided into two nearly equal portions by the river Sot, on whose banks

the town of Budaun occupies a p icturesque eminence, crowned bymouldering battlements of early architecture. The north-eastern ofthese two regions forms the divid ing range between the Sot and the

Ramganga, and the soil as i t approaches the former stream falls awayinto huge gaping ravines

,through wh ich the surface drainage cuts itself

an ever-widening course into the channel below. A large part of thistract still abounds in heavy j ungles of {z’lza

’

k and wild date,the remnant

of that famous forest which once surrounded Aonla’

t in BareillyDistrict

,and into which the armies of the Mughal Emperors dared not

penetrate. The estates s ituated in the heart o f th is wild region bearthe name of the Bankati villages . Similar patches of dense brushwoodmay be found scattered here and there in other parts o f the Dis trict.South-west o f the So t l ies the central upland tract, a highly cu l t ivatedplain

,comprising the richest agricultural land in Budaun . The jungle

is,however

,rapidly decreasing in area, owing to the demand for

firewood created by the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway. The

District i s,however

,well wooded with timber and fruit trees

,and

there are few villages without a plantation o f some sort. Mango

groves occupy acres , and are often planted in avenuesalong roadsides for the sake of the shade they afford . Beyond it

,

towards the Ganges , rises the h igh and sandy ridge known as the Nair,which runs parallel to the river from end to end o f the Dis trict. It

consis ts for the most part o f very barren and almost uncultivated land,

interspersed at wide distances w ith villages of Ahars,whose cattle graz e

upon the short grass which covers its sandy soil . The lower alluvialbasin o f the Ganges l ies to the south of the Hair ,

but the fear ofinundat ion preven ts cul t ivators from settling on i ts uncertain lowlands,and vast savannahs of rank grass and tall fdttar reeds accordingly usurp

the place of tillage. The principal rivers bes ides the Ganges,the Sot,

and the Ra'

mganga, in order from east to west,are the Aril, the

Andheri, a tributary o f the Aril,the M ahziwa

,with its tributaries the

Chhoiya and the Nakta Nadi. The Ganges i s navigable throughout

the year for boats o f large burthen ; the Ramganga only in the rainyseason , except for small coun try craft . Several shallow lakes lie

scattered throughout the District,the chief of which

,the Daleganj j irz

’

l,

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1 1 8 B UDAUJV.

organiz ation of Akbar, Budaun was formed in 1 556 in to a Sarlza’

r

of Saba/z Delhi,which was granted as a fi e f to Kasim Ali Khan . In

1 5 7 1 , a great fire consumed the larger part of the c ity ; and in Shah

Jahan’

s t ime the sea t of Government was removed to Bareilly (Bare li ).The rise o f the Roh illa power which centred in the latter town

,

accelerated the decline of Budaun . In during the reign of

Muhammad Shah,Muhammad Khan Bangash annexed the south

eastern port ion o f the District, i ncluding the ci ty , to Farukhabadwh ile the Rohillas under Ali Muhammad seiz ed upon the remainder.In 1 7 54 , however, the Rohillas recovered the pargmza

’

s which had beenun ited to Farukhabad . Their subsequent h is tory

,and their subjuga

t ion by the Wa z ir of Oudh , belong more properly to the account ofBARE ILLY (BARELI ) D ISTR ICT. Dundi Khan o f Budaun made hispeace wi th Shuja—ud-daula before the defeat o f Hafiz Rahmat Khan

,the

national leader,at M iranpu r Katra in 1 7 74 ; but after that even t the

Waz ir attacked him,notwi thstanding his submission , and took posses

sion of Budaun .

In 180 1,the D istrict passed wi th the rest o f Rohilkhand under

Brit ish ru le. Originally, i t formed part o f Moradabad Dis trict ; but in1 805 , four of its pargmza

’

s were transferred to Bare illy , namely, Ujhani,U sahat

,Budaun

,and Kot Salbahan. In 1 8 2 3 , a Dis trict of Sahaswan

was erected into a separate charge,comprising portions of Moradabad

,

Bareilly,and Al igarh . Fifteen years later

,th e head-quarters were trans

ferred to Budaun,a larger and more important post than Sahaswan.

In 1 845 , the Al igarh parg amz’

s ly ing beyond the Ganges were handedover to the Doa

'

tb District of E tah , to which they more naturally belong.

Since that period no territorial changes have taken place. The Mutinyo f 1 85 7 alone breaks in upon the peacefu l course of civil administration . News of the outbreak at Meeru t reached Budaun on 1 5th M ay.

A fortnight later,the treasure guard mut in ied

,plundered the treasury,

and broke open the jail . The civil officers then found themselvescompelled to leave for Fatehgarh . On the 2nd of j une , the Bareillymu tineers marched in

,and on the 1 7 th , Abdul Rahim Khan assumed

the government of the D istrict. As usual,disturbances broke out

between the Hindus and the Musalman leaders ; and in J uly andAugust, the Muhammadans fough t two regular battles wi th the Thakurs,whom they completely defeated . At the end o fAugust several Europeanfugit ives crossed the Ganges into the District, and were protected atDataganj by the landholders . After the fall of Wal idad Khan’s fortat M aila

'

garh, that rebel Chieftain passed into Budaun in October, butfound it advisable to proceed to Fatehgarh . On the 5th o f November,the M usalmans defeated the Ahars at G unaur, and took possession of

that ta/zsil,hitherto held by our police . Towards the close o f January

1 858, the rebels, under Niaz Muhammad , marched against Fatehgarh,

B UDAUZV. 1 19

but were met by Sir Hope Grant’s force at Shamsabad and utterlyd ispersed . Niaz Muhammad then returned to Budaun . On the 2 7th

o f April , General Penny’s force defeated the rebels at Kakrala

,but the

General himself was killed in the action while Major Gordon fell upon

them in the north , near Bisauli. Their leaders fled to Bareilly, andmanagers were at once appointed to the various pargands on behalfof the Brit ish Government . By the 1 2 th of May

,Budaun came

once more into our hands,though Tantia Topi with h is fugit ive army

afterwards crossed th is portion of Rohilkhand into Oudh , on the 2 7th.

Brigadier Coke’s column entered the District on the 3rd of June , andColonel Wilkinson’s column from Bareilly on the 8th . O rder was thenpermanently restored , and has not s ince been menaced.

P opulation—The Census of 1 88 1 showed a sl ight decrease as compared with the previous enumerat ion in 18 7 2 . In 18 7 2 , the populat ionwas returned at and in 1 88 1 (the area being the same) at

showing a decrease of or 3 1 1 per cen t. in the 9 years .

The Census of 188 1 was taken over an area of 2 00 1 square miles ; itdisclosed a to tal population of persons

,d istributed among

1 834 v il lages or townships,and inhabit ing houses. From

these data the following averages may be deduced —Persons persquare mile

, 45 2 8 ; villages per square mile, 09 1 ; houses per squaremile

, 5 1'

4 ; persons per village , 489 ; persons per house, 88 . Classifiedaccording to sex

,there were—males

,females

,pro

portion of males, per cent . As regards religious distinctions,the

Hindus numbered or 846 per cent . ; while the M usalmans

amounted to only or 1 5 3 per cent. The proportion ofMuhammadans is smaller in Budaun than in any other District ofRohilkhand, except Shahj ahanpur. The Census also returned 1 60

persons j ains , 40 S ikh s , and 309 Christ ians or‘ others .’ Among the

various Hindu castes, Brahmans numbered Rajputs,

Baniyas, or trading class , Ahars, graz iers on the Hair tract,

the predominant caste in the District, Chamars, landless

agriculturists,who have emerged under Brit ish rule from the posit ion

of serfs , Gadarias , or shepherd caste,

Kachhis,

cult ivators,

Kabars , labourers and palanquin—bearers ,Kayasth s

, 97 7 8 ; and Kurmis , 6 2 74 . The Musalman population comprised Sunnis

, 3 70 Shias, 7 Wahabis, and 10 7 of unspecifieddenominations . The total agricu ltural populat ion of all ages and bothsexes amounted to As regards the occupations o f the people

,

the Census report classifies the male popu lat ion into the following sixmain divi sions 1 ) Professional class , including Government official sand the learned professions, 5 2 7 2 ; ( 2 ) domest ic servants, hotel andlodging-house keepers , etc .

,1 42 6 ; (3 ) commercial class , including

merchants,traders

,carriers

,etc .

,6079 (4) agricultural and pastoral

1 2 0 B UDA Ur".

class,including gardeners , (5) manufacturing, artisan , and

o ther industrial classes, (6 ) indefin ite and non-product ive

(compris ing labou rers and unspecifi ed, including malech ildren), Three predatory races infest the District—theBhantu s

,a Hindu tribe who wander about in large gangs of from 20 to

50 persons , and live entirely by begging and steal ing ; the Haburahs,

also Hindus,who form smaller bands , and occas ionally undertake field

work and the Sansias , a vagrant Musalman clan who cross over fromthe Doab

,and bear a bad reputation for kidnapping ch ildren . Seven

towns contain a population exceeding 5000 souls—namely, BUDAUN ,SAHASWAN , UJHANI , 7 1 85 ; I SLAMNAGAR, 5890 ;

ALAPUR, 5630 ; B ILS I , 630 1 ; and KAKRALA, 58 10 . B ISAUL I

,which

had less than 5000 inhabitants at the date o f the Census , is also a con

siderable town,with many fine Pathan buildings

,including a handsome

mosque. Of the 1 834 towns and villages comprising the District, 543contain less than two hundred inhabitants 74 1 have from two to fivehundred ; 38 1 from five hundred to a thousand ; 1 33 from one to

two thousand 19 from two to three thousand 10 from three to fivethousand ; 5 from five to ten thou sand ; 1 from ten to fifteen thousand ;and 1 from twenty to fifty thousand inhabitan ts .Ag riculture.

— The District contains 2 00 1 square miles, of which1 3 70 are cultivated , 38 1 are cult ivable , and 2 50 are uncu l t ivable . Thefertile upland of Budaun consists of a light loam ,

merging graduallyinto the poor and almost barren sand of the bluff region ; but theDistrict also comprises cons iderable fringes of lowland

,known as k/za

’

dz’

r

and tara’

z

'

. The klzdrz’z’

r is composed of porous clay,capable of pro

ducing two crops a year for many seasons in succession ; i t occupiesthe deserted channel o f the Ganges

,where water may always be found

at a few feet below the surface . I t is specially adapted for rice,which

is always grown for the autumn harvest while barley and wheat followimmediately as spring crops. The taraz

'

comprise s the modern alluvialfringe along the present beds of the Ganges and the Ramganga. Thevalley of the former river contains several large patches of z

’

zsar land,

whitened by the destruct ive sal ine efliore scence known as 7 511,which

appears upon the surface after inundations or heavy rain . The modeo f t illage does not d iffer from that o f other North—Western Districts.The é/zan

’

f or autumn crops include cotton,indigo

,sugar-cane

,rice

,

j oa’

r,M j ni, and wolfl the m lu

’

or spring cr0ps cons ist chiefly of wheat ,barley, oats, peas , and other cereals or pulses. There is no canali rrigation in the D is trict

,the fields being watered e i ther from wells

,

lakes , ponds , swamps , o r rivers ; about 24 per cen t. o f the entire cult ivated area is irrigated in this manner. Manu re is not employed forthe ordinary agricul tural staples

,but is copiously applied to the lands

immediately around the villages,which produce poppy

,tobacco

,vege

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1 2 2 B UDA U/V.

late,much of the autumn crop is carried away. The loss

,however

,is

not considerable,as the banks o f these rivers are l ined wi th j ungle

,and

only occasionally cul t ivated by specu lat ive proprietors . Bu t Budaunsuffers greatly from drought, the common scourge o f all Upper India .

The first recorded famine occurred in the year 1 76 1 , when many of the

people died,and large numbers emigrated . The next severe scarcity

took place in 1 803—04 ,

when the autumn crops utterly failed,and the .

spring harvest was far below the average . In the great fam ine of

1 83 7—38 , Budaun su ffered the extreme o f misery

,thousands died of

starvat ion, grain rose to unattainable prices , and the police found themselves powerless for the preservation o f order. In 1 860 , the autumncrops again failed

,and no rain fel l after September ; the spring sowings

accordingly perished,and many person s died of starvation . The price

o f grain began to rise in August 1 860,and continued high t ill March

1 86 1,when it gradually fell

,and in October ordinary rates once more

prevailed . In 1 868,the rains partially failed

,and distress arose in

1 869, as the au tumn harvest had only produced half its average yield ;but t imely showers in j anuary and February 1 869prevented the scarcityfrom ever reaching famine pi tch

,al though rel ief operations on an

extended scale became necessary .

Comma/Tc, etc—The trade o f Budaun, wh ich is ch iefly confined to

agricultural produce , centres in the three towns of BUDAUN ,SAHASWAN,

and B iL sr. The last-named mart forms the main distribut ing agencyfor European goods and imported wares in this part of Rohilkhand.

I ts imports include chintz,salt

,groceries

,i ron

,metal-work

,and pain ,

while i t s exports consis t chiefly of sugar,grain

,and leather. The only

manufacturing industries , apart from the simplest forms of weaving, themaking of rough agricultural tools

,and of brass or earthen domestic

vessels,is indigo manu facture and sugar-re fi ning . The principal seat

o f the former is at Bilsi,where a European fi rm has a large factory

,

w ith branches in other parts of the District . A great fair takes placeat Kakora, on the last day o f Kart ik

,attended by about

persons. O ther large fairs are held at Chaopur visitors), Sukhela L akhanpur and Bara Chirra The Oudhand Rohilkhand Railway cuts the District in two places . The main

l ine from Bareilly (Barel i) to Chandausi traverses the north-easternangle for a length of 1 6 miles

,wi th 3 stations— namely, Karengi (better

known as Mahmudpur) , Dahtura, and Asafpur . The Moradabad andA l igarh branch runs through the north-western corner for a distance of13 miles to Raj ghat on the Ganges , where it crosses the river by ani ron bridge . The two stations on thi s branch of the l ine are Balrala

and Dhanari. Good roads connect al l the principal centres of popula

t ion ; the most important being that from Bare illy to Hathras, throughBudaun and Uj hani

,cross ing the Ganges at Kachhlaghat by a bridge

B UDA UN .1 2 3

o f boats . Four other s imilar bridges exist at Anupshahr, Rajghat,Kadirchauk

,and Surajpurghat—the last two on the E tah and Fateh

garh roads respectively. The Ganges is navigable throughout the year

for boats of large burthen .

Admimk/ratz’

om—The District staff usually comprises a CollectorMagistrate

, 1 Joint and 1 Ass istant Magistrate,1 Deputy Magistrate,

and 5 The Judge of Shahjahanpur holds civil j urisdictionover the en tire District ; the criminal j urisdict ion being under thecharge of the additional Judge of Bijnaur and Budaun the J udge o f

Bareilly has charge of the remainder. Four mum zf’s courts are also

establ ished at East and West Budaun,Sahaswan

,and Bisauli. The

whole amount of revenue— imperial , municipal, and local—raised inthe District in 1 8 7 6, amounted to of which or

a l ittle more than two -th irds,was con tributed by the land—tax. In

1880—8 1,the imperial revenue amounted to of which

was derived from the land ; the cost of official s and policeo f all kinds

,in the same year

, was The regular police forcein 1 880 numbered 393 officers and men , besides a municipal or townforce of 2 2 2 men of all ranks

,maintained at a total cost of£6804, o f

wh ich £5490 was contribu ted from provincial and £ 1 3 14 from local

funds . In addition , there were 2 03 1 village watchmenmaintained at an est imated cost of £7335 . The District con tains butone jail, wh ich had a daily average of 3 79 prisoners in 188 1 , including14 females. There were 7 Imperial and 1 1 District pos t—ofli ces in1 8 7 7 , bes ides 5 telegraph stat ions on the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway. The number of Government aided or inspected schools in1 88 1—8 2 was 1 60

,with a roll of 42 39 pupils on 3 rst March 188 2 .

This is exclus ive of unaided or uninspected schools. The Censu sReport retu rned 482 8 boys and 2 2 5 girls as under instruction in 1 88 1

,

bes ides males and 2 1 1 females as able to read and write,but

not under instruct ion . The Government D istrict school is o f the

lower middle grade, and has a boarding-house attached,for boys from

a distance . There are aided schools under the superintendence ofthe American Methodis t Episcopal Mission . For fiscal and adminis

trative purposes , the District i s d ivided into 5 z‘a/zsz

’

ls and 1 1 parg ana’

s,

contain ing,at the date of settlement in 1 870,

an aggregate number of

2 140 estates,held by registered proprietors or coparceners .

Municipali t ies have been established at BUDAUN,E1L sr, UJ HANI , and

SAHASWAN . In 1880—8 1 , the ir j o int revenue amounted to £3 2 5 2 , or1 5 . 45d. per head of population wi th in municipal l imits.

M edz'

m l Aya la—The climate o f Budaun resembles that of other

Districts in Rohilkhand,being somewhat cooler and mois ter than the

adj acen t portions of the Doab, owing to the greater proximity o f

the hills and the damp submontane tract. The average rainfal l

1 24 B UDA UzV T AHSI L AND CI T Y.

during 3 1 years has amounted to 3 2 4 9 inches per annum . Themaximum during this period was 44 2 inches in 18 7 1 , and the minimum1 40 inches in 1 868

,when the danger of famine was imm inent. The

mean annual temperature reached 76° F. in 187 1 , w ith a maximum

monthly average of 91° in J une

,and a minimum o f 58

°

F. in January.

The total number o f deaths recorded in the year 1880 was or

2 7 5 2 per thousand of the population . Charitable dispensaries havebeen establ ished at Budaun

,Sahaswan

, G unraur, Islamnagar, Bisau li ,Dataganj

, Usehat, and Bils i . These e igh t inst itut ions afforded reliefi n 1 88 1 to persons

,o f whom 1 6 2 4 were ih—door pat ients . [For

further informat ion regarding Budaun District,see the G az etteer of t/ze

Nort/z- fVes/ern P roz 'z'

ures,vol. v . pp . 1—2 36 (Allahabad, Also

the Settlement Report of t/ze D istrict, by C. P . Carmichael, Esq .

,1873

the Nort/z- I-Vestern P rovinces Census Rep ort of 1 88 1 ; and the AnnualAn

’

nzz’

zz z'

rtratzon Reports from 1880 to 1 88

Budaun.

—Headq uarters tcz/zs z’

l o f Budaun District, North-WesternProvinces

,lying along the northern bank o f the Ganges , and corn

prising the p arg ana’

s of Budaun and Uj hani. Area , 466 squaremiles

,of which 309 are under cultivation . Popu lat ion ( 1 88 1 )

L and revenue,

total revenue,

rental paid bycu lt ivators

,The Sub-division contain s 2 civil and 6 criminal

courts,wi th two police stations strength of regu lar police

, 56

men ; village watchmen 3 2 6 .

Budaun fi City, municipal i ty, and admin istrat ive head-quarters ofBudaun Dis trict

,North-Western Provinces. L at. 2 8

°

2’

30 N.,long.

79°

9'

45"

E . L ies abou t a mile east o f th e left bank of the river Sot,

and cons ists of an old and a new town . T he former stands on a commanding em inence , and contain s the fort , the ruins of whose enormousramparts o f early arch i tecture gird i t round on three sides. Handsome

mosque , originally a Hindu temple , buil t of massive stone , and crownedby a dome o f singular beau ty . Besides the u sual District Courts , Budauncontains a dispensary

,school

,municipal hall

,jail

,church

,and chapel of

the American Me thod is t Mission,which maintains several girl s’ schools

in different parts o f the town . Al though intersected at all points bygood metalled roads

,the town stands apart from the modern course of

t raffic,owing to the growth o f railways

,which have somewhat diverted

i ts trade . Popu lat ion ( 188 1 ) namely,

Muhammadans,

Hindus,and 54 Christians ; area of town s ite, 4 1 5 acres . M uni

c ipal income ( 188 1—8 2 ) £2 2 1 1,or an average o f I S. 3%d. per head

o f the populat ion . Buda’

un was founded,accord ing to tradi t ion

,by

Budh , an Ahar prince, abou t 90 5 and held by his descendantst i ll the invasion of Sayyid Si lar Masaud Ghaz i, nephew of Mahmudo f Ghaz ni

,in 1 0 2 8. Sacked by Kutab-ud din in 1 1 86. The city

formed the seat of government for a rar/ea’

r under the Pathans and

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1 2 6 B UDDH G A YA .

k ing in the early years of the i 4th century A .D. on the s ite of Asoka s

early z 'i/mr,described by Hwen T hsang .

The temple o f the 14th century fell in it s turn into decay, andits ruin s have become the subj ect of antiquarian research . General

Cunningham has published the results of h is labours in the j ournal ofM e Archaeolog ical Surrey . A few years ago , the Burmese Governmentattempted a restoration o f the great temple

,but w ithout success . The

Bengal Government thereupon undertook the work,and placed it in

the hands of Mr. J . D . Beglar,who has kindly furnished the following

description of this celebrated shrine. The exis t ing temple of BuddhGaya consists externally of a tal l spire about 4 7 feet square at the base ,ri s ing from a terrace 80 fee t long by 78 feet wide . The terrace itselfi s 30 feet h igh , and the spire, wi thou t the pinnacle , rises to a height ofnearly 1 60 feet above the floor below. The tower is hollow

,and con

s is ts o f four t iers o f chambers,the two lower chambers of which have

been always accessible . A th ird chamber has long been visible , owing

to the falling off o f the masonry in front and the existence of a fourth ,reaching to the very top of the square portion o f the tower, was

disclosed during the recen t repairs . The lowest chamber originallyenshrined a clay figure of Buddha , which was demolished by theBurmese du ring the repairs they undertook in 187 8 , and replaced bya misshapen gilt brick and mortar figure . This has in its turn beenremoved and re placed by the largest s tone figure of Buddha that couldbe found in Buddh Gaya. The figure res ts o n a great raised throne ofstone

,which i tself encloses and buries a more ancient small throne,

w ith in which were found deposits of precious s tones which havebeen placed in the Museum at Calcutta .

The upper chamber contain s a masonry throne,also enclosing an

inner and smaller one , but it has been always empty. The temple

was enclosed wi th in what i s known as th e Buddhist rail ing, port ionsof which were found buried beneath the accumu lated debris of cen

turies,and have been as far as possible set up in their original positions.

The character of the inscriptions, as well as the boldness and style ofthe sculptured scenes and ornamentations

,indi cate the date of the

construction of the rail ing to be the 3rd century B .C. Several pillars

o f thi s interesting railing were , however, carried off many years ago by

the nza/zant or head priest of the adjacent monastery, and now supportthe verandah round the great quadrangle of the mo/ront’s res idence .

With in the court o f the temple , remains o f all the ancient buildings

mentioned by Hwen T hsang have been found buried under anaccumu lation o f rubbish to a depth o f nearly 30 feet in places. Theout s ide of the wall of the great monastery

,adjoin ing and to the north

o f the great temple,ment ioned by Hwen T hsang , has also been

exhumed and found in a fair state of preservat ion . I t i s adorned with

B UB B HA lN—B UDHANA.1 2 7

niches and sculptured figures, mostly, however, in fragments. Excava

t ions to the south of the temple have brought to l igh t a handsomefl ight of s tone steps leading into what was a tank, with remains o f

ornamental cloisters on the north bank . On the east, and in fron t o fthe temple , besides numerous minor objects of interest, the remainshave been exhumed of a stone gateway con sisting of very mass ivepillars and archi traves profusely ornamented. On th e west side of thetemple, the fall of a wall in 1 880 disclosed the original back wall of thetemple. Buried 30 fee t under the debris , a handsomely ornamentedthrone was found , in the vic in ity of which were fragments very muchdecayed , of the holy p z

’

pat tree . The accumulation of rubbish has

cau sed the e levation of the modern representative of th is ancien t p ip er!to a height o f 45 feet above the original plan of the courtyard. A

depos i t of precious stones was also found here within a plaster figureof Buddha

,which was seated in a n iche immediately over the throne .

These relics, too , have been placed in the Calcutta Museum .

Pilgrims vis it Buddh Gaya by thousands, and deposi t the ir offeringsunder the sacred p z

’

pal tree ; but s ince the abolition of the feesformerly levied

,the exact number cannot be accurately est imated .

Close by the temple is a large convent of Sanyasis , the ma/zant or

abbot of which shows visi tors over the convent after they have vis itedthe temple .

Buddh Gaya is now eas ily reached by the Patna and Gaya State l ine,

which leaves the East India Railway at Bankipur, and brings p ilgrimsto Gaya sta tion s ix miles by road from the Buddh Gaya shrines .Buddhain (or B uddi mzrana Fo -tho-fa-na ’ of Hwen T hsang ) .Hill in Gaya Dis trict, Bengal ; 1 7 miles north-east of Kurkihar

village. L at. 2 5°

N . , long. 85°

3 1’ E. On account of its commanding

position,i t was made one of the s tation s of th e great Trigonometrical

Survey.

Buddri.—Town in Partabgarh (Pratapgarh) District , Oudh—SeeBHADRL

Budg e-Budg e.—Village in Twenty-four Parganas District

,Bengal .

—See BAJ-BAJ .Budhana. (or B ur/zcina) .—South-western ta/zsz

'

l of Muz affarnagar Dis

triet,North-Western Provinces, ly ing between the West Kal i Nadi

’ andthe Jumna

,and traversed by the Hindan river and the Eastern Jumna

Canal. Area, 2 86 square miles , of which 2 15 are cult ivated. Populat ion

( 1 88 1 ) land revenue, total revenue ,rental paid by cultivators, The ta/zsz

'

l contains 2 criminal

courts ; but in c ivi l matters the j urisdict ion is vested in the mzmsz'

f of

Shamli. Three police stations strength of regular pol ice, 36

men mun icipal or town police , 48 ; village watchmen 236.

Budhéna..—Town in Budhana tonsil, M uz affarnagar. District, North

1 28 B (JD /YA TA— B UDIHA L .

Western Provinces, and head-quarters o f Budhana ta/zsz’

l. Situated onthe right bank of the river H indan , d istant from Muz affarnagar 19

miles south-west. Lat. 29°

1 6’

50 N .

,long. 7 7

”

3 1’

1 0”

E. ; population

( 188 1 ) 623 2 , namely, 3937 Hindus , 2 2 5 1 M usalmans , 43 Jains, and

1 unspec ified. A small munic ipal income is derived from a house-tax

for pol ice and conservancy purposes under the provisions of Act xx.

of 1856. The outer walls of the houses adj oin each other so as to form

a kind of fortificat ion, through which four open ings, called gates, giveaccess to the town. B a

'

z a'

r,fi rst - class pol ice s tation, post-othee.

Malarious fever occas ionally prevails . During the Mutiny the old fort

of Budhana was occupied by Khairati Khan of Parasauli,with the

assistance o f the Jaula people , but recovered on the 1 5th of Sep tember

1 857 .

Budhéitén—V il lage in Khulna District, Bengal. L at. 2 2°

3 7’

N.,

long. 89°

1 2’ E. Once a very flourishing place, and sti ll a cons iderable

trading v illage. In 1 857 i t contained a pol ice station , salt warehouse

(gold) , landholder’s revenue court, and many rice granaries markets

were held tw ice a week. Ruins of extens ive masonry buildings arevi sible

,and there i s a set of 1 2 t emples dedicated to Siva, called

Dwadas mono’z’

r. Annual fairs are held at the Hindu festivals of the

Ra'

s D urgd-p zlj d, and A

’

dll—pzij a’

.

Budhpur.—~Village in M anbhtim Distr ict , Bengal ; situated on the

Kasai (Co ssye ) river. L at. 2 2"

58'

1 5”

N. , long. 86°

44’ E. Extending

for two miles along the bank are several ruins of what are thought to beJain temples. A number of carved slabs of s tone are scat tered about ;and an extensive collection o f octagonal headstones is bel ieved tomark the graves of the early settlers . About four miles to the north

,

at Pakbira, i s a group of temples with a colossal figure,about 9 feet

h igh,supposed to represent one of the Tirthankaras or deified saints

of the Jains.

Budihal. Ta’

lz/k in Chitaldrug (Chitaldroog) District, MysoreNative S tate . Contains 6 lzob/z

’

s,w ith 164 primary and 54 secondary

villages . Area, 369 square m iles ; population ( 1 87 2 ) L andrevenue ( 1880 exclusive of water-rates, £5302 . Cocoa-nut palmsare largely grown . Head-quarters at Huliyzir.

Budihal.—Village in Budihal ta’luk, Chitaldrtig District, MysoreNative S tate

,and formerly head-quarters of the Budihal ta

’

lul' . Lat.

1 3°

3 7’

N .,long. 76

°

28'

E . ; populat ion (187 2 ) 82 1 . The fort,erected

by an official under the Vijayanagar dynasty, contains several inscript ions of the 1 6th century. I t suffered during the wars between theMuhammadans and Marathas , and is now in a ruinous state . I t

was one o f the last places at wh ich the insurgents held out during the

di sturbance of 1 830. The head-quarters of the ta’

lzcl’ of the same namehave been transferred to Huliyar.

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1 30 B UKKUR—B UL ANDSHAHR .

Bukkur (Baklzar) . —Fortifi ed island in the river Indus, lying between the towns of Sukkur (Sakhar ) and Rohri , in Shikarpur District,S ind

,Bombay Pres idency. L at. 2 7

°

42’

45”

N .

,and long. 68

°

56’

30 E.

Bukkur is a rock of l imestone, oval in shape, 800 yards long, 300 wide,and about 2 5 feet in height . The channel separating it from the Sukkurshore is not more than 100 yards w ide, and , when the river is at itslowest

,about 1 5 feet deep in the middle . The eastern channel

, or thatwhich divides it from Rohri , is much broader, being, during the samestate of the river, about 400 yards wide , with a depth of 30 feet in themiddle. The Government telegraph line from Rohri to Sukkur crosses

the river here by the island of Bukkur. A l i ttle to the north of Bukkur,

and separated from it by a narrow channel of easy passage , is the smallisle of Khwaj a Khiz r (or J ind Pir) , containing a shrine of muchsanctity while to the sou th of Bukkur is another islet known as SadhBela

,well covered with foliage

,and also possessing some sacred shrines.

A lmost the whole o f the i sland of Bukkur i s occupied by the fortress,

the walls o f which are double, and from 30 to 35 fee t high, with numerous bast ions ; they are bu i lt partly of burn t and unburnt brick, areloopholed

,and have two gateways

,one facing Rohri on the east

,and

the other Sukkur on the west . The fort presents a fine appearancefrom the river

,and has a show of great strength

,which in reality it does

not possess. Until 1 8 7 6, Bukkur was used as a jail subsidiary to thatat Shikarpur. That Bukkur

,owing to i ts insulated position

,must

always have been cons idered a stronghold of some importance underNative rule

,is evidenced by its being so frequently a bone of conten

t ion between different states . So early as A .D . 13 2 7 , when Sind wasan appanage of the Delhi Empire, Bukkur seems to have been a placeof note , from the fact of trustworthy persons being employed by theEmperor Muhammad T ughlak to command there . During the reignof the Samma princes, this fort seems to have changed hands severaltimes, being occasionally under their rule, and at times under that ofDelhi. During the reign o f Shah Beg Arghiin, the fort ifications of

Bukkur appear to have been partially,if no t who lly, rebuilt, the fort

o f Alor being broken up to supply the requisite material . In 1 574,

the place was delivered up to one Kesh ti Khan , a servant of theMughal Emperor Akbar Shah . In 1 7 36 , the fortress fell into the

hands of the Kalhora princes, and at a subsequent date in to that of theAfghans, by whom it was retained till captured by Mir Rustam Khano f Khairpur. In 1839, during the First Afghan war, the fort of Bukkur

was ceded by the Khairpur Mirs to the British,to be occupied by

them , and it so remained t ill the conquest of the Province in 1843.

Bukkur was the principal Brit ish arsenal in S ind during the Afghanand S ind campaigns .

Bulandshahr. District in the L ieutenant-Governorship of the

B ULANDSHAHR . 1 3 1

North-Western Provinces,lying between 2 8

°

3’

30 and 28°

4 2’

45 N .

lat . , and between 7 7°

2 0'

and 78°

3 1’

45°

E . long. Area ( 188 1 ) 19149square m ile s ; populat ion, Bulandshahr is a District of theMeerut (M irath or Merath ) Division . I t is bounded on the north byMeerut D istrict ; on the west by the river J umna ; on the south byAligarh ; and on the east by the Ganges . The admin istrative headquarters are , on account of i ts central si tuation, at the town of BULANDSHAHR, but KHURJA is the most populous city in the District.P /zys z

'

cal Ay a la—Bulandshahr forms a portion of the Doab,or allu

v ial plain , enclosed between the Ganges and the Jumna, and presentsthe usual sameness which characteriz es all parts of that monotonous

tract . I ts surface exhibits to the eye an almost uniform level of

cul t ivated soil,stretch ing from one great boundary river to the other,

wi th a scarcely perceptible watershed in its centre separating theirrespective tributaries . The plain follows the general slope of the Doabfrom north-west to south-east, as indicated by the courses of the two

main streams themselves,no less than by those of the minor channels .

The average elevation i s about 650 feet above the sea . Shortly beforereach ing the bed of either arterial river, the central plateau descendsabruptly by a series of terraces

,scored with deeply-cut ravines

,into the

M tcidz'

r or low-lying alluvial valley wh ich forms the actual bank . The

upland plain,here as elsewhere throughout the Doab, is naturally dry

and barren , in tersected by sandy ridges, and rapidly drained by smallwatercourses

,which have excavated for themselves a network of petty

gorges in the loose and friable soil. But th is unpromising region hasbeen turned into a garden of cereals, cotton , and dye-plants by theindustry of it s inhabitants and the enterprise of its modern rulers

,

especial ly through the instrumental ity of artificial irrigation. TheGanges Canal passes through the whole length of the District from

north to south , entering in three main branches, one of which againdivides into two near the town of Sikandarabad . The central branchis navigable throughout the Distric t and the whole system is distributedto the fields around by 6 2 6 miles of lesser ramificat ions . The Fatehgarhbranch of the L ower Ganges Canal also intersects the en t ire length ofthe D istrict

,and is largely util iz ed for irrigation . Under the benefic ial

influence o f the water so supplied , cultivation has spread widely inBulandshahr. There is now l it tle waste land in the District

,except a

few patches of worthless j ungle in the neighbourhood of the Ganges ;and even this i s rapidly disappearing wherever the soil is sufficientlygood to repay the cost of ti llage . There is also comparatively l ittlebarren land known as zZrar, covered with the white saline efllorescencecalled ren, and incapable of producing any vegetation , and the unpro fi table area has decreased in Bulandshahr District s ince the date of the

settlement.

1 32 B ULANDSHAIIR .

The Ganges flows along the north-eastern border of the District for

a d istance of 45 miles, w ith a maximum velocity of curren t in time of

flood of 1 2 fee t per second , and a minimum velocity in the cold season

of 3 feet. The river is liable to the format ion o f shoals, and constant

alterations of i ts main channel ; i ts course changes yearly, and largeportions of land on it s north-eastern bank are annually cut away anddepos ited elsewhere . The south-western bank al ters but li ttle

,being

protected at many places by strong headlands o f hard clay and kan/zar,

reaching 20 feet above h igh flood—level ; on the north side of theriver the banks are low and shelving

,and at a point near Ahar

during floods the low-lying surrounding country is l iable to inunda~

t ion . The Ganges is navigable all the year round , but during Februaryand March the water is often very shallow in places . The secondboundary river, the Jumna , first touches upon the Dis trict oppositeDelh i

,and then flows along its south-west border for 50 miles , with a

flood velocity of about feet per second,and a cold weather velocity

of about 18 inches . There is no irrigation from the Jumna,and the

navigat ion is chiefly confined to the rafting of t imber and the transportof grain and cotton in small quant ities. The bed of the river is composed o f micaceous s ilt , and there are no rapids, or even eddies

,

except during the rains . O f the internal streams, the Kal i Nadi orKal indi d ivides the D is trict into two parts , entering it from Meerut onthe north

,and

,flowing in a tortuous south and sou th-easterly direction

for . about 50 miles, passes into Al igarh . In Bulandshahr,the Kali

Nadi is l it tle more than a natural drain to carry off the superfluouswater from the surrounding country. I t is navigable in the rains by

boats of about 4 tons burthen , but i t is seldom ,i f at all

,used for this

purpose . The Hindan also enters th is District from Meeru t,and after

a winding and irregular course of about 20 miles,falls into the Jumna

at M angrauli village . I t flows between h igh shelving banks,and is not

a navigable stream . In the hot weather the water is somet imes so lowthat not even a small boat could cro ss it. O ther minor streams arethe Karon

,Patwai , and Chho iya.

There are no reserved forests in Bulandshahr,but isolated groves of

various sorts of fruit and timber trees are numerous . The commonest

and most useful tree is the kakar (Acacia arabica) , the wood of whichis hard and tough

,and used for making agricul tural implements

,cart

wheels,boxes

,etc .

, and also for burning into charcoal . Skis/1am

(Dalbergia si ssoo ), a well-grained heavy wood , is largely used for beams,planks

,and for articles of furniture. D/za

’

k (Butea frondosa) is mainlyused for fuel in the shape of charcoal . The country has been much

denuded o f trees of late years, owing to the great demand for fuel forthe railway. Salt

,saltpetre , and [ ran/ear are the only minerals worthy

of not ice. The wild an imals include hyaenas, wolves, antelopes, hog,

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134 B UL ANDSHAHR .

power,which dates from the accession of Bahadur Shah in 1 707 , the

country round Baran was a prey to the same misfortunes which overtookall the more fertile Provinces of the Empire. The Guj ars and Jats

,

always to be found in the foreground upon every occasion of d isturbance

,exh ibited their usual turbulent spirit and many of their Chieftains

carved out principal it ies from the villages of their ne ighbours . But asBaran was at th is time a dependency of Koil, i t has no proper history

of its own during the 1 8th cen t ury , apart from that of ALIGARHDisrarcr. Under the Maratha rule it cont inued to be administeredfrom Koil ; and when that town , wi th the adj o in ing fort of Aligarh,was captured by the British forces in 1803 , Bulandshahr and the surrounding country were incorporated into the newly-formed District. In1 8 1 7 , they were transferred from A l igarh to Meerut and in 1823, thepresent District was organiz ed by the union of the northern parganas ofAl igarh with the southern ones of Meerut . From that date till 1857 ,the peaceful course of h istory in Bu landshahr is only marked by theopening of the Ganges Canal .The Mutiny of 1 85 7 was ushered in at Bulandshahr by the

revol t of the 9th Native Infantry , which took place on the 2 rst ofMay, shortly after the ou tbreak at A l igarh. The officers were com

pelled to fly to Meerut,and Bulandshahr was plundered by a band of

rebell ious Guj ars. Its recovery was a matter of great importance, as itl ies on the main road from Agra and Al igarh to Meerut. Accordingly,a small body of volunteers was despatched from Meerut for the purposeo f retaking the town

,which they were enabled to do by the aid of the

Debra Gurkhas. Shortly afterwards,however

,the Gurkhas marched

off to j oin General Wilson ’s column,and the G iijars once more rose

in rebell ion . Wal idad Khan of M alagarh put h imself at the head of

the movement, which proved strong enough to drive the small Europeangarrison out of the District. From the beginning of July til l the end

of September, Walidad held Bu landshahr wi thout oppos it ion , and commanded the whole line o f communications with Agra. Meantime,in ternal feuds wen t on as briskly as in other revolted Provinces, theo ld proprietors often ou st ing by force the possessors of the ir formerestates. But on the 2 5th of September, Colonel G reathed

’s flying

column set out from G haz iabad for Bu landshahr,whence Wal idad was

expelled after a sharp engagemen t, and forced to fly across the Ganges .

On the 4th of October, the Dis trict was regularly occupied by ColonelFarquhar

,and order was rapidly restored . The police were at once

reorganiz ed , while measures of repression were adopted against therefractory Guj ars

,many of whom s t i ll continued under arms . It was

necessary to march against the rebels in E tah early in 1858, but the

tranquillity ofBulandshahr itself was not again disturbed . Throughout

the progress of the Mutiny, the J ats almos t all took the s ide of G overn

B UL ANDSHAHR. 1 35

ment, while the Gujars and Musalman Raj puts proved our mostirreconcilable enemies .P op ulalz

'

on.—The earliest attempt to enumerate the inhabitants of

Bulandshahr, made in 1 84 7 , returned a total population ofsouls , or 3 7 6 to the square mile . In 1 853, the District was included inthe first regular Census ; when it was then found, in spite of a considerable transfer of villages to Delh i and A l igarh

,that the population

amounted to souls, or 4 2 7 to the square mile. At the Censusof 1 865 , th e numbers had risen to souls . In 1 87 2 , the returns

showed a further advance to the total of being an increase ofpersons in the short space of seven years. During the next

n ine years,however, the population showed a decrease, the Census of

1 88 1 returning the numbers at or less than in 18 7 2 .

This decrease is attributable to a very severe fever epidemic in 18 79,

wh ich is said to have more than decimated the population. The Censusof 188 1 was taken over an area o f 19149 square miles, the returnsgiving the number of males at and the females attotal

,residing in 1 5 1 0 villages and houses. Proportion

of males in total population , 52 1 per cen t. The preponderance ofmales is due

,in part

,to the former prevalence of female infanticide

but this practice, which all the vigilance of Government was long unable

to suppress,is now disappearing under the stringent regu lations put in

force under the Act of 1 870. With regard to rel igious dist inctions ,Hindus numbered or 809 per cen t. ; M usalmans

, orper cen t. ; Jains, 967 ; Sikhs, 24 ; Parsis, 2 ; and Christ ians , 1 15 .

Amongst Hindus, the Brahmans muster very strongly , the enumerationdisclos ing as many as persons belonging to the sacred class .

They hold be tween them a large number of entire villages, besidesbeing part-proprietors of many others. A portion of one Brahmanclan in this District has embraced I slam

,though still maintaining its

relationship wi th the H indu branch . The second great class, that ofthe Raj puts, is also numerous , being returned at souls . Theyare the most important landowning element in Bulandshahr, holdingal together 464 en tire villages, together with shares in several more.

Badgujars are their wealthiest clan , owning nearly one-seventh of the

total area. A large branch of them are M usalmans , who , t ill quite

lately,have kept up many Hindu customs in their marriage ceremonies

and other social Observances. To the present day they will notslaughter cattle

,and retain the H indu prefix of T fi a

’

kur or Kunwar asa ti tle of respect. The Bhals , another Raj put clan, are also dividedinto a Hindu and a Musalman branch . It is noticeable in each casethat the Muhammadan families are wealthier and more powerful than

their kinsmen of the ancient faith . The Baniyas or trading classesnumber persons

,and hold 36 villages, nearly all of which have

136 B ULAND SHAHR.

been acquired under Brit ish rule . Bu t the great mass of the populationi n Bulandshahr

,as i n all parts of the North-Western Provinces, belongs

to the classes enumerated in the Census returns as other Hinducastes

,

’ aggregating souls . Amongst them , the most numerousare the Chamars persons) , after whom come the JatsGujars L odhas and Bhangis The Musal

mans,who form an important element in the proprietary body

,are

classified according to sect into Sunnis, and Shias, 7 153.

Among the Muhammadans are included originally belonging to

H indu castes, of whom upwards of three-fourths, or are Rajputsby race . Of the Christ ian population of 1 15 , 18 are natives, and theremainder Europeans or Eurasians . One large estate of 63 villages isin the hands of a Eurasian family. The total agricultural population in188 1 was returned at The District contains 1 2 towns with apopulation exceeding 5000—namely, KHURJA, BULANDSHAHRor BARAN

,S IKANDARABAD

,SHIKARPUR ,

JAHANGIRABAD, ANUPSHAHR , 8234 ; D I BA I, 8 2 1 6 S IYANA,

653 2 JEWAR, 62 19 G ALAOT H I , 5404 ; AURANGABAD, 52 10 ; and

DANKAUR, 5 1 2 2 . These figures show an urban population of

persons, leaving for the rural population. The 1 5 10 villagesand towns in Bulandshahr are thus classified in the Census Report,according to populat ion —335 contain less than two hundred inhabitants ; 599 from two to five hundred ; 397 from five hundred to athousand ; 1 2 7 from one to two thousand ; 29 from two to threethousand 1 1 from three to five thousand ; 7 from five to ten thousand ;2 from ten to fifteen thousand ; 2 from fifteen to twenty thousand ;and 1 upwards of twenty thousand inhabitants. The language in use

in the country districts is Hindi,the M usalmans of the towns speak

Urdu,and the town Hindus use a dialect compounded of both. As

regards the occupations of the people,the Census Report classified the

male populat ion into the following s ix main d ivis ions Professionalclass, including Government offi cials and the learned professions, 8847

(2 ) domest ic servants, hotel and lodging-house keepers, etc. , 1 793 ;

3) commercial class, including merchants, traders , carr iers, etc. , 7969;(4) agricultural and pastoral class

,including gardeners,

5) manufacturing, artisan, and other industrial classes,

(6 ) indefinite and non-productive (comprising labourers,29

men of rank and property without occupation,and unspecified

,

including male ch ildren),Ag rzlwllure.

—During the last th irty-fi ve years, the cultivated area ofBulandshahr has increased by nearly acres

,and the margin of

cult ivable soil i s st ill being rapidly reclaimed. In 1882 , the land undertillage amounted to acres

,almos t equally divided between

spring and rain crops. Wheat,barley

,and gram are the staple products

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1 38 B UL ANDSHAHR .

rate for lands paying rent in kind i s one—third ; and the rate for ordinary

cu lt ivators , one-half of the produce . This is usually paid in grain, anallowance being made for all other products grown on the land besidethe principal crop . Under another system of division , the standing cropi s appraised

,and the landlord takes his share in kind

,or its equ ivalent

i n money,—ei ther one-half, two-fi fths , or one-th ird , etc . Wages and

prices have nearly doubled s ince 1 850 . Agricultural labourers areu sually paid in grain to the value of abou t 3d. a day

,ris ing at

harvest t ime to as much as 6d. ; women obtain two-th irds and boyso ne -half o f a man ’s wages . Skilled labourers obtain from 1 2 5. to

1,1 05 . a month

,the wages of stonecut ters occas ionally ri sing as high

£2 . Prices of food-grains ruled as follows in 1 882 : Gram , 5s. 2d.

per cwt. ; M j ra’

, 5s. per cwt. ; j mir, 4s. 8d. per cwt. ; wheat , 5s. 6d.

p er cwt.

Namm l Calamz'

fz'

es .

—Buland shahr suffered in former times fromfamines due to continued drought ; but there is reason to hope that thespread o f irrigat ion has removed this cause o f apprehension for thefuture . The people sti ll remember with horror the scarcity of 1837 ,

which has indel ibly imprinted its miseries on the popular mind.

Another great famine,also due to drought

,occurred in 1860

,when

the Bulandshahr branch canal was constructed as a relief work,giving

occupation to 2 500 able-bodied persons ; and in addit ion gratu itousassis tance was afforded to weak or aged applicants. TheDistrict was affected even more severely than its ne ighbours by therainless season of 1868—69 but

,owing doubt less to the great increase

o f irrigation since 1 860,i t showed no signs of famine. There were

large reserves of grain in store,and exportation went on briskly towards

the centres of distress. Prices o f course rose greatly above the average,iotz

’

r being quoted at 1 2 sers the rupee,or 95 . 4d. per cwt. ; but no relief

works were needed,and no demand for employment existed . As

a rule, when grain rises as h igh as 8 serr the rupee, or 14s. per cwt. ,

measures o f rel ief should be adop ted . However, as canal irrigation iss t il l advancing , such a necessity wi ll probably never again arise. Thecommunications also are excellen t

,and amply suffice for all purposes

o f importation,if the local crops should ever prove insufficient for the

wants of the inhabitants .Commerce and T rade

,era—The chief exports from Bulandshahr are

safflower and indigo,but large quanti ties of cereals are also despatched

eastward and westward . The District not only supplies its own needs

in the consumption of cotton,but has a surplus of about cwts.

available for exportat ion . Anupshahr is a large depot for wood and

bamboos . The manufactures are unimportant,consist ing chiefly of fine

mu sl ins at Sikandarabzid, prin ted cloths at Jahangirabad , and carpetsat Jewar. Saltpetre is produced in the crude state at 95 factories,

B UL ANDSHAHR. 1 39

scattered through the country vil lages. Common sal t was formerlymade in large quantit ies

,but its manufacture is now prohibited by law .

The country trade i s carried on at the local markets,of which the mos t

largely frequented is at Dibhai. There the exports of country cloth i n188 2

, as registered at the railway station , averaged 700 mawzds a month .

The only religious fair of any importance is that held at Antipshahr,which at tracts about people from the neighbouring Districts.On the same day

,the full moon of the month of Kartik

,nearly an

equal number assemble at Raj ghat , but all come and return by train ,and do not stay more than one day . The annual horse show and

District fair, held at the head-quarters s tat ion in the last week ofFebruary, i s said to be the most prosperous assembly of i ts kind in theNorth-Western Provinces

,and is vis i ted by people from all parts of

India. Priz es are given to the value of about £400. The main l ineo f the East Indian Railway passes through the whole length of Bulandshahr, with stat ions at DADR I, S I KANDARABAD, CHOLA, and KHURJA.

The Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway also traverses the south-easterncorner of the District

,cross ing the Ganges at Rajghat, where i t has a

station , and another at Dibhai. The roads are in excellent order ; andthe Ganges, the J umna, and the canals are all employed as highwaysfor commercial purposes, so that there is no lack of land or watercarriage.

—No s tatistics as to the public accoun ts of thisDistrict in the early period of British rul e can now be recovered, as th erecords were destroyed during the Mutiny. In 1 860—6 1 , the revenueamounted to of which or nearly one-half

,was

contributed by the land-tax. In the same year,the expenditure on all

i tems was or less than half the revenue. In 1870—7 1 , the

receipts had risen to of which or almost exactlyone-half, was the product o f the land-tax . In 1 88 1 , the landrevenue remained practically the same . This increase of revenue i slargely due to the benefi ts derived from canal irrigation . Meanwhil e,the expenditure had fallen to or two-fi fths of the receipts.

The Distri ct i s ordinarily admin istered by a Magis trate-Collector and

two Ass istants,a Deputy Collector, four talzsz

’

la’drs , and two mum zfr.

In 1880—8 1,there were 29 magisterial and 9 civil courts. The regular

and mun icipal pol ice numbered 879 men of all grades in 1880, main

tained at a cost of £8848, of which £65 2 2 were contributed fromimperial and £23 26 from local funds. There was thus 1 regular

pol iceman to every square miles and to every 1 052 i nhabitant s.

This force was supplemented by 1974 c/zaukia’a'

rs or village watchmen,whose pay

,defrayed by the landlords or villagers , amounts to an

est imated sum of£7 1 53 annually. The total machinery, therefore, forthe protection of person and property consisted of 2853 men, giving

140 B ULAND SHAHR.

one man to every 3 23 inhabitants and to every' 6 7 of a square mile .

The D istrict contain s one jail,the average number o f prisoners in which

was 964 in in 1 860,1 3 7 in 1 870 ,

and 2 2 4 in 1 880 . In 1860,

the persons admitted numbered 1 3 2 1 ; in 1 8 70, 735 ; and in 1880,1 7 16.

The total number of persons convicted for all offences,except sanitary

cases , great or small, in 1880,was 7 24, being 1 criminal to every 1 1 2 1

inhabitants . Educat ion has made rapid advances of late years. In1 845, there were only 1 8 7 indigenous schools in Bulandshahr, with atotal of 1 8 1 3 pupils . In 1860 ,

the number of schoo ls had risen to 388,while the roll o f pupils amounted to 5882 , and the sum expended oneducat ion to £2 334 . In 1 87 1 , though the number of schools haddecreased to 30 1 , the ch ildren under instruct ion reached the total of6955, and the sum expended had risen to £3 1 7 7 . In 1 880—8 1

, thenumber o f schools under Government inspection

,and maintained or

supported by the Sate,was 1 30, w ith a total of 3938 pupils on the

rolls on the 3 1 5t March 1 882 . There were also in the same year 305elementary indigenous schools , at present ( 1 883) receiving no Government gran t—in-aid and uninspected

,attended by 3 185 pupils, making

a total of 435 schools and 7 1 2 3 pupils. The District is sub-dividedinto 4 ta/zrz

’

ls and 13 pargana’

s,wi th an aggregate

,in 1882 , of 2644

estates. The average land revenue paid by each estate amounted in

that year to £46 , 185 . 1d. There are 4 municipal it ies in the District~ namely

,Khurj a

,Bu landshahr

,Antipshahr, and Sikandarabad. In

1 880—8 1 , their total income amounted to £5599, and their expenditureto £5346M edical Arpeds .

—The climate of Bulandshahr is very variable, beingcold in winter and ho t in summer

,dry during the sultry spring winds,

and extremely moist during the autumn rains. No thermometricalobservations have been made in the District . The average rainfall was

3 2 5 inches in 186 7—68, 1 39 in 1868—69 (the year of scarcity), 2 1 5 in

1 869—70, 3 2 0 in 1870

—7 1 , and in 1880, the average rainfall for a

period of 30 years being inches . Malarious fever is the chiefendemic disease of Bulandshahr

,being especially prevalent during the

rainy reason . Small-pox and cholera occas ionally appear in an epidemic

form. The total number o f deaths from all causes reported in 1880

was or 2 8 33 per thousand of the populat ion ; and of these,deaths were assigned to fever

,and 5 2 4 to bowel complaints .

Charitable dispensaries are establ ished in the towns of Baran , Khurja,Sikandarabad , and Anupshahr

,with a resident Ass istant Surgeon at

each of the three first,and at which a total of persons rece ived

medical treatment in 1 88 1 . The nat ives thoroughly appreciate the

advantages of skilful treatment and European medicines. During18 70—7 1 the cattle of the District suffered severely from an outbreak of

foot-and-mouth disease, accompanied by rinderpest. [For further in

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1 42 B UL CHE ER Y—B UL DAZVA.

hill, the approach to the latter being by a fine broad staircase from theoa

’

z a’

r below. Most o f the local gentry have substantial houses in thetown which they occupy as occasional residences . A handsome bathing

g /za’

t on the river bank was completed in 1 880 at a cost of £ 1600,

raised by publ ic subscription . In connection w i th the g/za’

t is a marketplace

,ih which the lower storey of the double row o f shops serves as a

mas s ive embankment agains t a river flood,and i ts cost amounted to

l i tt le less than A town hall has also been erected a t a costo f£2 2 00

,defrayed by one of the District gentry. Probably no town

in India has undergone so complete a transformat ion in a few years.In 1 8 78 , i t was a v i llage of mud—walls and thatched roofs ; it is now

( 1883 ) a town o f brick and carved stone houses .

Bulcherry.

-I sland on the sea-face of the Sundarbans,Bengal—See

BAL CHARI .

Buldana. District o f Berar, in the West Berar Divis ion , lyingbetween 19

°

5 1’ and 2 1

°

1’

30” N . lat.

,and 7 5

°

58’

45" and 76

°

52’

45 E. long. Extreme length from north to south,about 80 miles ;

average width , 3 2 miles. Bounded on the north by the river P tirna,

on the south by the Niz am’s Dominions , on the east by Akola andBas im Districts (Berar) , on the west by the Ni z am

’s Dominions andKhandesh District of the Bombay Pres idency . Area

,2 804 square

miles, o f which 2 1 66 square miles were returned in 1 880- 8 1 as cul

tivated, 198 square m iles as cu l tivable,and 440 square miles as

uncu lt ivable waste . Population in 1 88 1, or 1 56 8 per square

mile of area. Number o f villages on the Governmen t rent-roll, 1 0 10.

L and revenue, 1 880—8 1 , total revenue (gross)For fiscal purposes the Dis trict i s sub-divided into 3 ta

’

tnles,viz .

CHIKHL I , MALKAPUR , and MEHKAR.

P /zys z'

co i Aspects—The southern part of the District forms part of

Berar Balaghat, or Berar-above-the-Ghats . Here the general con tourof the country may be described as a succession of small plateauxdecreasing in elevation to the extreme south. Towards the eastern sideof the Dis tr ict

,the country assumes more the character o f undulating

high lands,favoured with so il o f a h igh quality . The geological forma

tion is trap ; a succession of plateaux descends from the highest ridges

on the north to the sou th , where a series o f small g tza’

ts march with theNiz am ’s territory . The small fertile valleys between the plateaux arewatered by streams during the greater portion of the year

,while wells

o f part icularly good and pure water are numerous . These valleys arefavourite village si tes . The north portion o f the District occupies therich valley of the Pum a .

The soil of the undu lat ing h ighlands in the east of the District isremarkably fine

,and the wheat grown here wi ll bear comparison with

any produced in India . The principal river is the PENG ANG A,which

B ULDANA. 1 43

rises about 4 miles above DEULGHAT (Dewalghat), in the north-westcorner of the District, and flows south-east

,passing Mehkar town

,into

Basim District. The NAL G ANGA, the V ISWAG ANG A, and the GHANr ivers , all r is ing in or close to the Balagha t, and flowing north into the

PURNA river, are either entirely dry in the hot weather, or leave onlychains of pools . The KATA PURNA enters the District from the west

,

and after a course of about 30 miles, passes into the Nizam’

s territory .

None of these rivers are navigable. One of the most remarkable

phys ical features of the Distric t is the lake of L onar, on the mostsoutherly plateau. The circumference of this lake is 5 miles, and itappears to be the crater o f an ext inct volcano . The salts which itv ields are used for washing and drying chint z es

, for which purpose

they are exported to cons iderable distances. A temple on its bank i sheld in great veneration , and is by far the finest specimen of Hinduarch itecture in Berar.The area of reserved forest in the District in 1 88 1—82 was 1 1 0 2

square m iles , and of unreserved forest , 3 2 0 square miles . Though inthe ravines of the North Ghats

,teak sapl ings exist in great numbers

,no

large teak trees are found . Anj an trees (Hardwick ia binata) areto be found in most of the ravines

,and large numbers of baton! coppices

are scattered about. Many other variet ies of fruit and forest trees,

some o f the latter yielding lac,gums and dyes

,flourish throughou t

the District . Bears, tigers , leopards, hymnas, sdmb/zar, nz’

lga’

i,and wild

hog are met with in the hills,and antelope and spotted deer in the

valley of the P i’

rrua, which is often visited by wild hog and nz’

lg di ;

black and grey partridge,quail

,and water-fowl are among the smaller

game to he obtained,and pea-fowl are found in the hills and on the

river banks.H istory

—The ancient Hemar Panthi temples to be seen at Deulghat onthe Penganga, at Mehkar in the south-east of the District , at Sindhker inthe south-west

,at Pimpalgaon in the east, and the temple on the L onar

L ake,all attest a state of society of which they are the only ascertained

records . I t is popularly believed that the rulers were Jains when thevalley of the Pum a fell under Muhammadan dominat ion . In 1 294 ,

Ala-ud—din,who became Emperor of Delh i in the following year, invaded

the Deccan,and established his authority over Ell ichpur and its depend

encies . He and his successors gradually extended their kingdom south

wards local revolts dis turbed, but did not weaken it and s ince 1 3 18 ,

Berar has been virtually under Muhammadan rule. About 143 7 ,

Ala-ud—din, son of Ahmad Shah Bahmani , attacked and routed the alliedforces of the King of Khandesh, and the Guj arat Prince at Rohankher,in the north-west of Buldana District ; and the s ite is stil l shown where ,according to tradit ion

,a great battle was fought. After the Bahmani

dynasty came the Imad Shahis , who ruled from E ll ichpur. The

144 B UL DANA.

Ahmadnagar dynasty followed ; and in r596, Chand Bibi, Queen

Regent of Ahmadnagar for her son , formally ceded Berar to theEmperor Akbar, who himself vis ited the Deccan in 1 599. Hissons

,Prince Murad and Prince Danyal

,were successively appointed

viceroys. Mehkar in Buldana District became one of the Sarto’

rs

(administrative divis ions) of the Snoa/zat or Imperial Province of Berar.After the death of Akbar Malik Ambar, the Abyssinian repre

sentative of the Niz am Shahi party at Daulatabad , recovered great partof Berar

,which he held til l h is death in 1628 but Shah Jahan

,assisted

by the Deshmukh of Sindkher, L akji Jadun Rao, re-established theimperial authority. The origin of the powerful Ra

'

j put family of Jadun,

Deshmukhs of S indkher, is uncertain, though they are locally reputed tohave come from Karwal i in north Hindustan on the Jumna . In 1630,Lakji Jadun Rao, a commander of horse in Malik Ambar’s time

,

deserted to Shah Jahan, and turned the fate of the war against hisformer m aster. Thereafter the Jaduns maintained their allegiance tothe Mughal emperors, and obtained honours and titles from them. A

daughter of this Lakji Jadun was the mother of Sivaj i, the founder ofthe Maratha power. During the re ign of Aurangz eb, about 16 7 1, theMarathas

,under Pratap Rao , Sivaji

’s general

,firs t exacted chant/z, or

one-fourth of the revenue . In 1 7 1 7 , they obtained the formal grant ofc/zazct/z and saro’es/z nzuk/zi from the Emperor Farukhsiyyar. In 1 7 24,ChinKhilich Khan , V iceroy of the Deccan under the t itle of Niz am-ul-Mulk

,

gained a decisive victory over the Imperial forces under M uhariz Khan,

at Shakar Khedla (thenceforward called Fatehkhedla, or‘ the field of

victory south of the Pengangain Buldana Di s trict. But he could notshake off the Marathas, who continued to collect revenue for themselves.In 1 7 60, Mehkar was formally ceded to the Peshwa ; in 1 769, theNiz am was forced to acknowledge himself Vicegerent for the PoonaState

,and his authority was weakened by the disastrous defeat at

Kardla in 1 795. Daulat Rao Sindhia, and the Bhonsla of Nagpur,were encamped at Malkapur, when they allowed the Brit ish Envoy,Colonel Col lins, to depart in August 1803. Then followed the FirstMaratha war, -Assaye , Argaum (Argaon ), and other victories scarcelyless important—which before the close of the year crushed the supremacyof the Marathas. By the partition treaty of 1804, the Niz am rece ivednearly the whole of Berar. General Wellesley

,January 1804, mentions

Sindhker as a nest of th ieves, and represents the condition of thecountry as deplorable. In 1 8 1 3 , two M aratha plundering chiefsoccupied Fatehkhedla for three months. After the Pindari war of18 1 7

-1 8,the treaty of 182 2 conferred on the Niz am the country west

of the Wardha, and all claims by the Marathas were extinguished but

general confusion long continued, and petty battles between z amz’

no’

cirs,rival ta

’

lukdérs , Raj puts, and Muhammadans, took place at Malkapur,

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146 B ULDANA .

June,and the harvest i s gathered in November ; the rabz

’

crops , sownafter the rains

,ripen early in March . At this t ime , the want of labour

i s much felt,for an unseasonably heavy fal l o f rain may almost entirely

destroy the crops,i f not quickly harvested . Rotation of crops is

pract ised ; the principle be ing, that e ither wheat or gram , or some oilseed

,should intervene between each crop o f cotton or j oa

’

r. When thesoil i s clearly exhausted

,i t i s allowed to l ie fallow for a year or two

,

being manured if manure be obtainable. Deep ploughing is not

practised,except to eradicate weeds ; for the impression exists , that to

thoroughly loosen the soil to any depth is injurious . Sugar-cane isplanted in January

,and matures in twelve months . For the poppy

,

land is prepared in September,and sown in October. Guavas and

p lantains are carefully cultivated , and yams , sweet potatoes, watermelons

,and ordinary vegetable s flou rish in irrigated gardens. Grants

in-aid,to the amount of £3 7 6 , were made to 2 2 villages in 1 88 1—82

,

towards water s torage . Applicat ions for such grants are now morefrequent than was formerly the case , but most of the cul t ivation is stillun irrigated . The irrigated area in 1 880—8 1 was returned atacres

,graz ing land at acres . The cat tle of the District are small

,

but handsome and active. Full-s iz ed horses are scarce. The agricul

tural stock o f the Dis trict in 1880—8 1 comprised cows andbullocks ; buffaloes ; 2 02 8 horses ; 4905 ponies ; 2 60 2 donkeys ;

sheep and goats ; 53 2 pigs ; carts ; and ploughs.The system of land tenure is Under native rule , occupancyand payment of revenue were the only t itles to land . With the introduction o f the Bombay system of survey and settlement, the cult ivatingrevenue-payer has become a proprietor, s tyled s tao’a

’

r,holding from

Government as superior landlord,at a fixed assessment for 30 years

not l iable to enhancement on expiry of term ,unless on good ground

shown . The le/zzitao’a’r can sell or mortgage his rights,and also sublet ;

and he can , if he likes, rel inqu ish h is holding at the close of any agricul tural year on giving due notice o f h is intent ion . The land is oftenworked by various forms of co-operation , one of which provides a subtenant with plough-cattle .

In 1 880—8 1, acres were assessed and under cult ivation

the chief crops being j ocfr, co tton,

wheat,

oil’

j rd'

,gram

,l inseed

,sugar—cane

,28 7 1 ; til.

tar, r ice , 9244 ; pulses, 1498 ; hemp , 1054 ; knro

’

z

’

,

tobacco,2 2 74 ; lac, 93 74 ; other products , The rent

rates per acre are—for land fi t for cotton , rs . 55d ; wheat, rs . 105d. ;

o il-seeds,rs . rs . 6%d. ; tobacco , 2 3 . 3d. ; Opium , 5s . ; rice,

2 s . 4d. ; gram ,2 3 . 3d. The average produce of land per acre in lbs.

are , of cotton (cleaned ), 70 lbs . ; of wheat,606 ; of oil

—seeds, 1 10 ; of

j ocir, 2 54 ; of tobacco , 2 30 ; of rice, 2 2 0 ; of gram, 37 6. The prices

B ULDANA. 14 7

( 1 880—8 1 ) were—for clean cotton, 5 lbs. per rupee for wheat,40 lbs . per rupee ; for gram , 42 lbs . per rupee ; for oil-seeds, 38 lbs.

per rupee ; for tobacco , 8 lbs. per rupee ; for rice, 2 2 lbs . per rupee ;for j oa

’

r, 8 2 lbs . per rupee . Plough - bullocks cost £3, 65 . each;

buffaloes, £4 ; sheep , 4s . 6d. to 55 . each . The rate of wages forskilled labour is I S. 3d. a day ; for unskilled labour, 4d.

Natural Calamities .

— Famines have not unfrequently visi ted thetract of which Buldana District forms part. In 1803, a great famine

occurred,from which Mehkar suffered very severely. Drought and

blight affect the crops, and unseasonable rain when the spring cropsare standing is somet imes very injurious.M anufactures anct T racie—Coarse cotton cloth is commonly woven.

Before the introduction of Manchester piece-goods and the high price

o f cotton,Mehkar was famous for its ct/zotz

’

s , or body cloths . In

1 880—8 1 , the number of workers in silk was returned at 8 2 in cotton,

2 7 79 ; in wool , 4 2 7 ; in wood, 845 ; in iron , 646 ; and 1 33 in brassand copper ; miscellaneous, 91 3 . Steel of fair qual ity is forged atDeulghat. Weekly markets , some of them very large

,are held in

several towns and villages . The chief imports are— piece-goods,hard

ware, metals , Spices , salt ; exports—cotton , wheat, oil-seeds, and cattle.

The District i s rich in wheat,and its chief market for this staple is

Nandiira, a station of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. Theprincipal fairs and bdzdrs are he ld at Deulgaon Raja

,Mehkar

,

Fatehkhedla, Chikhli , Dongaon , Selgaon, Mhusla, Janephal, L onar,Deulghat

,Nandtira, and Malkapur.

Roads and Railways—There are in Buldana 2 59 miles of made

roads,first

,second

,and third class . The G. I . P. Railway passes

through the north portion of the D istrict, from west to east,for 29

miles,having stations at Malkapur, Biswa Bridge, and Nandura. There

are sercfz’

s or rest-houses for nat ive travellers at these stations,and rest

houses for Europeans at Malkapur and Nandtira

Administration—The District is administered by a Deputy Commissioner

,with whom are associated Assistants

,European and native.

An Ass istant Commiss ioner holds his court at Malkapur. There are

3 revenue sub—divis ions. The police are under the control of a

European District Superintendent ; the sanctioned strength of the

force in 1 880—8 1 was 7 5 officers and 3 74 men, or 1 pol iceman to every

6 square m iles of area. There is one receiving j ail ; total daily average

of inmates in 188 1, 556 1 . Cost per head yearly

, £8, 7 5 . 6d. on average

strength. The proportion of Muhammadan convicts to Muhammadansin the District i s more than double that of any other clas s—a fact which

may be attributable to their forming a larger proportionate number ofthe town population. The number of schools aided and inspected byGovernment

,and of Government schools ( including 3 girls

’ schools) ,

148 B UL SAR.

i n the same year was 1 2 2,having 5546 scholars . The Central Book

Depot of the Province supplies works in Marathi , English , Sanskrit,Persian

,and Urdu . The vernacular tongues are Marathi and Urdu .

No newspaper is printed in the D istrict ; and no municipality under

Act iv . of 1 8 73 has yet been cons t ituted .

j lfeteorolog ical and fli er/zeal A spects— In the north portion of the

D istrict,strong and very ho t weste rly winds prevail from the middle of

February till rain falls early in j une , and , excepting just about daybreak,they continue throughout the twenty-four hours . In the rainy season

,

and from O ctober to February, the mornings and nights are pleasantlycool

,but the heat in the day is st il l great . In the Balaghat or south

portion of the District , the ho t weather is no t excessive ; the temperature

o f the rainy season is pleasan t ; and the cold weather of about threemonths is most enj oyable

,bu t the great dryness of the air at that time

is trying to some constitut ions. Highest shade temperature at Bulda’

nain May 1 06

°

F. ; lowest in December , The rainfall in

1 880 was 29 1 7 inches, o f which 2 5 1 4 inches fel l from j une toSeptember. The principal d iseases are fevers

,bowel complaints

,

worms,and affect ions of the skin and eyes . The number of deaths

registered in 1 880 from all causes was 8855 , o f which number 2 2 were

killed by snake—bite and wi ld animals. Rat io o f reported deaths per1 000 of populat ion , The number o f births registered in 1880

was ratio per 1 000 of popu lat ion, 35 1 . In 1 880—8 1

, 7 dis

p ensaries and 1 civi l hospi tal afforded medical relief to patients ;and the number of persons vaccinated by the vaccine department

,and

at the dispensaries,was [For further information regarding

Bulda’

na,see the B era

’

r G az etteer, edited by Sir A. C. L yall (Bombay,A lso the Census Rep orts of 1 88 1 ; and th e Administration

Reports for t/ze H aidara’

bdd A ssigned D istricts from 1 880 to 188

Bulsar.

—Sub-division of Surat D istrict,Bombay Presidency . Area

,

208 square mile s . One town and 94 villages ; occupied houses,Population ( 188 1 ) namely

,Hindus

,Muhammadans,

3 7 84 ;‘ others

,

’19 836. L and revenue ( 1874 There

are no al ienated vil lages in th is Sub-divis ion . The whole surface isirregular, seamed with river beds, and ris ing into rocky uplands.

Situated on the sea—coast,the cl imate is considered healthy at all times

o f the year,but the eastern parts are feverish at certain seasons.

T ITHAL,a village on the coas t

,i s much resorted to as a san itarium

by visitors from Bombay . The Sub-divis ion is abundantly watered

by rivers and streams . Of the salt marsh lands,extending over about

acres, acres are under reclamation . The rates ofasses sment introduced in 1 869

—70 remain in force unti l 1 898—99. The

Sub-division contains 1 civil and 2 criminal courts ; strength of regularpol ice

, 37 men ; vil lage watchmen 5 23 .

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1 50 B UND—B UNDE LKHAND.

Bund.

—Town in Dadri to/zs z’

l, J ind State, Punjab . Population ( 188 1)

3884, namely, Hindus, 3569 ; and Muhammadans, 3 1 5 ; number of

occupied houses , 674 .

Bundéila..—Town in Amritsar ta/zsz’

t,Amritsar District

,Punjab . L at.

3 1°

3 2’

N .

,long. 7 5

°

1’

30” popu lation ( 1 88 1 ) 5 10 1 , namely,

2 192 Sikhs,

1408 Muhammadans , and 1 50 1 H indus number of

occupied houses , 509. Distant from Amritsar city , 9 miles south-east .O f l ittle commerc ial importance ; chiefly not iceable for its large Sikhpopulat ion.

Bundare.

— Village in Vi z agapatam District . Madras Presidency.

This is one o f the chief Kandh villages,and was formerly a stronghold

o f the practice of human sacrifice known as Meriah or j unna . Theceremony , as performed at Bundare up to 1849, consisted in the

sacrifice o f three human beings ,— two to the sun,in the east and west

o f the village , and one in the centre . A short wooden post havingbeen fixed in the ground

,the victim was fas tened to it by his long hair,

and held out by his legs and arms over a grave dug at the foot of thepost . While in this posi t ion , the priest hacked the back of the victim’sneck w ith the sacrificial kn ife

,repeating as he did so the following

invocation O mighty M aniksoro , this is your festal day ! Thesacrifice we now offer , you must eat ; and we pray that our battle-axesmay be converted into swords

,our bows and arrows in to gunpowder

and bu llets ; and if we have any quarrels wi th other tribes, give us thevictory. Preserve us from the tyranny of kings and their oflicers.

’

Then addressing the vict im :‘ That we may enjoy prosperi ty, we offer

you as a sacrifice to our god M aniksoro , who wil l immediately eat you ;so be not grieved at our slaying you . Your parents were aware , whenwe purchased you from them for 60 rupees

,that we did so with intent

to sacrifice you ; there is therefore no sin on our heads,bu t on your

parents. After you are dead we shall perform your obsequies. ’ The

vict im was then decapitated,the body thrown into the grave

,and the

head left suspended from the post t ill devoured by birds . The kniferemained fixed to the post till all three sacrifices were performed

,when

i t was removed with much ceremony.

Bundelkhand—Tract o f country in Upper India , which may bedefined as lying between the river j umna (j amuna

'

) on the north , theChambal on the north and west , the j abalpur (j ubbulpore) and Sagar

(Saugor) Divisions of th e Central Provinces on the south , and Rewa orBaghelkhand and the Mirz apur Hills on the south and east. I ts limitsstretch from 2 3

°

52’

to 2 6°

2 6' N . lat . , and from 7 7

°

53’ to 8 1

°

39’

E . long .

I t comprises the Brit ish Dis tricts o f Hamirpur, Jalaun , Jhansi, L al itpur,and Banda ; the treaty States ofOrchha (or Tehri) , Datia, and Samthar ;and the following States held under sounds and grants from the British

Government — Ajaigarh,Al ipura ; the Hashtbhaya j dg z

’

rs of Dhurwai,

B UNDELKHAND . 1 5 1

B ijna, Tori—Fatehpur, and Pahari Banka Baraunda,Baoni , Beri, Bihat,

Bijawar, Charkhari the Kal inj ar C/zauois , viz . Faldeo , Pahra, Taraon ,Bhaisaunda, and Kamta-Raj aula ; Chhattarpur, Garrauli , Gaurihar, Jaso ,J igni , Khaniadhana, L ughasi, Naigawan , R ibai , Panna, Belhari, andSarila, —all of which see separately.

P/zys ical Aspects—The plains of Bundelkhand are diversified by aseries of mountains and hills

,classed by Frankl in

,in h is M emoir on the

G eology of B undel/e/zond,in three ranges—the Bindachal, the Panna, and

the Bandair. The first of these,which nowhere exceeds 2000 feet above

sea- level , commences near Sihonda on the river Sindh, proceeds southwest to Narwar

,thence south-east and afterwards north-west to Aj aigarh

and Kal inj ar,and farther east to Bardarh near the railway between

Jabalpur (Jubbulpore) and A llahabad. The plateau which l ies behindthis range averages 1 0 or 1 2 miles in width. T he base and lower partsof the h ills are of primary formation

,chiefly g ranite and syenite,

commonly overlaid by sandstone,but in many cases by trap and for

mat ions of volcanic origin. The second range,styled the Panna range,

r ises to the south of the plateau just described . The summit is a tableland, slightly undulating, with a breadth of about 1 0 miles, and havingan average elevation above the sea

,between the Katra Pass and

L ohargaon,of 1 050 feet , and between L ohargaon and the foot of the

h ills near Pathariya, of about 1 200 feet. Where deep ravines allow

examinat ion of the format ion,the primary rocks are found to be

covered by an enormously thick bed of sandstone , which is i tself insome places overlaid by rock s of volcanic origin . South-west of thislast range

,and separated from it by the valley or elongated bas in of

L ohargaon is the th ird or Bandait range,the plateau of which has an

average elevat ion of about 1 700 feet above the sea, and on some of theundulations as much as 2000 . The Bandair range is generally ofsandstone mixed wi th ferruginous gravel. The extens ive basin o f

L ohargaon in tervening between these ranges is of l imestone. Thelimits o f the h illy tract where it bounds the plain are marked by theoccurrence o f abrupt isolated hills , generally of granit ic base, surmountedby sandstone and trap

,which , from the ir steep and nearly inaccessible

scarps,form

,as in the instances of Kal inj ar and Aj aigarh , strongholds

which have often enabled the hillmen of Bundelkhand to set at defiancethe great Empires of India. From these hills numerous streams flowtowards the j umna ; among which are the Sindh w ith its tributary thePahtij, the Betwa, the Dhasan, the Birma, the Ken , the Bagain, the Paisuni,and the Tons . All these flow in a general north—easterly direct ion . Theonly one of them usefu l for navigation is the KEN ,

which , during therainy season only

,is navigable as far as Banda

,a distance of 60 miles .

Notwithstanding the numerous streams which traverse the country,the great depth of the channels in the plains, and the thirsty nature of

1 52 B UNDE LKHAND .

the soil among the hills, render irrigat ion h ighly important ; and tosupply means for it

,a great number of j /zz

’

ls,or small lakes

,have been

constructed by embanking the lower extremities o f valleys.The mineral resources of Bundelkhand appear very great. Diamonds

are found in Panna, but the yield is smal l and precarious . In thecentral tract s there is excellen t iron , but at present its production isl imited by the supply of charcoal , and even now the j ungles in theiron Districts are cleared off faster than they can be renewed. Whenscience has taught how the metal can be extracted wi th sufficienteconomy of fuel , Bundelkhand iron and steel wi ll doub tless find a

market far beyond the present limits of Gwal ior,Hathras

, L ucknow,and Cawnpur. A small copper mine has been recently worked inL al itpur.P opulation—The Brit ish Districts of Bundelkhand are within the

j urisdiction of the L ieu tenant—Governor of the North-Wes tern Provinces .The poli t ical superintendence of the Native States i s vested in the

Bundelkhand Agency,subordinate to the Central India Agency, report

ing to the Government o f India . Of the 3 1 Native States wi thin theAgency

,only three

,namely, Orchha or Tehri, Datia, and Samthar,

have formal treaties wi th the Brit ish Government. The other chiefs

hold their territories under sounds,and are bound by zlcrarno

’

ma’

s , ordeeds of fealty and obed ience . The table on the opposite page exhibitsin brief the area and populat ion of each Distric t and State but fullerdetails will be found in the separate articles .Ag riculture

—Except where hil l or j ungle predominate,as in several

o f the Nat ive States,the Province is almost solely agricu l tural. Much

o f the soil in the Native States i s very poor,being ch iefly on the

h ill ranges mentioned above ; but the soil o f the plains consistsmostly o f the black cotton soil

,

’which

,notwithstanding its dried

appearance in ho t weather,has the peculiar property of retaining

moisture to a marked degree,and yields in favourable seasons luxuriant

crops of cotton and cereals . The principal crops are—at (Morindac itrifolia) , which yields the dye used in colouring the reddish-browncloths known as é/co rna

’

; j oa’

r (Sorghum vu lgare) , lia’

j ra’

(Penicillariaspicata) til (Sesamum orientale) and the millets and pulses known asleang ni, tut/xi, s tz

'

nuz'

n,ctr/cur

,mot/1

,unis/1, mas zirz

'

,k/zesarz

'

,etc. The

s ing/trim , or water—caltrop , is largely grown in Hamirpur and throughout Bundelkhand , the mo/zucz

’

tree (Bassia lat ifolia) is cult ivated for itsflowers and fruit as well as for i ts timber.In Orchha, and throughou t the greater part of the whole country,

the prevailing plan o f land settlement is the nat ive system— under whichthe State, wh ile recognising in every village a head-man wi th certainadvantages , yet keeps the property of the soil in its own hands, acts as

[Sentence continued on p. 154.

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1 54 B UI VDE LA'

HAZVD .

Sentence continued from p .

banker and seed-lender for the cult ivators, and generally fixes itsdemand for revenue in proportion to produce or area cu lt ivated . Therai lway from Jabalpur to A llahabad now creates a demand for variouslocal products for about 100 miles from the line , and through its means ,connect ions with the Bombay trade are springing up ; when theconnect ing country roads are completed

,much improvemen t may be

expected . The climate in the plains is frequen tly sul try,and the heat

is great . The prevail ing wind from October to May is south—wes t,that

i s,up the Ganget ic valley ; during the other months the wind frequently

comes down the valley.

At Nowgong a British garrison is stationed,consisting of 1 battery of

art i llery,2 companies o f Brit ish infan try

, 3 troops of Native cavalry,and the head-quarters and wing of a Nat ive infantry regiment. T he

Bundelkhand Raj kiimar College is establ ished near Nowgong for theeducation of the sons o f chiefs ; in 1 88 1

,seventeen youths of noble

family were being educated there .

H fs torr.

— According to local tradit ion , the Gonds were the earliestcolonists o f Bundelkhand . T o them succeeded the Chandel Raj puts

,

under whose supremacy the great irrigation works of Hamirpur District,

the forts o f Kal inj ar and Aj aigarh,and the noble temples of Kha

jurahu and Mahoba, were constructed. The whole Province containsruins

,large tanks

,and magn ificent temples

,built chiefly of hewn granite

and carved sandstone,which are supposed to date back to th is epoch.

Ferishta relate s that in the year 1 02 1 A .D . ,the Chandel Raja marched

at the head of horse,

foot,and 640 elephants, to oppose

Mahmud o f Ghaz ni,whom

,however

,he was obliged to conciliate with

r ich presents. In the year 1 183 , Parmal Deo , the twentie th ruler insuccession from Chandra Varma, the founder of the dynasty, was defeated by Prithwi Raja, ruler of Ajmere and Delhi . After the overthrow

o f Parmal Deo , the country was exposed to anarchy and to M uham

madan invas ions until the close o f the 14th century , when the Bundelas,a sub-divis ion of the Garhwa tribe of Raj puts, es tablished themselves

on the right bank o f the Jumna. They appear to have set tled first at

M an,and then

,after taking Kal inj ar and Kalpi

,to have made Mahoni

their capital . About 1 53 1 , Raj a Rudra Pratap founded the city of

Orchha, and great ly consolidated and extended the kingdom . The

Bundelas became the most powerful among the tribes west of theJumna and from this t ime the name o f Bundelkhand may with justicebe given to the whole tract of country . Shortly afterwards, the power of

the Muhammadans began to grow threaten ing and Bir Singh Deo , the

great-grandson of the founder of Orchha, was compelled to acknow

ledge himself a vassal of the Mughal Empire . Champat Rai, however,another chief o f the Bundela tribe, held out in the rugged countries

B UNDELKHAND . 1 55

bordering on the Betwa, and harassed the Muhammadans by his rapidpredatory forays .The son Of Champat Rai

, Chattar Sal, continued his father’s

career w ith greater even tual success and, being elected principalleader and ch ief of the Bundelas , commenced operat ion s by the

reduct ion o f the forts in the hil ls towards Panna. He wasted thecountry held by his enemies in every direction , and avoid ing a genera l

action , managed by ambuscades , aided by his intimate knowledge o f

the country,to cu t off or elude the imperial troops . He captured

Kal inj ar,and

,making that his stronghold

,acquired au thori ty over

territory y ielding nearly a mil lion sterling per annum. In 1 7 34, how

ever, he was so hard pressed by Ahmad Khan Bangash , the Pathanchief of Farukhabad, that he was forced to seek aid from the Marathas .The Peshwa

’

,Baj i Rao , promptly embraced th is Opportunity of estab

lishing his ascendancy in Bundelkhand ; he surprised and defeatedAhmad Khan

,and rescued the Bundela Raja from his perilous posit ion .

He was rewarded bv a fort and District in the neighbourhood o f

Jhansi , and by a grant of the th ird part of Eastern Bundelkhand.

The Peshwa made over his port ion,subj ec t to a moderate tribute

,to a

Brahman called Kasi Pandit,whose descendants held i t until i t lapsed

to the East India Company. Abou t the same t ime,Jhans i was wrested

by the Peshwa from the Raja of Orchha, and entrusted to a suba’

fi da’

r,

whose descendants retained i t ti ll a recent date . The two remain ingshares of the possessions o f Chattar 8211cont inued to be he ld in smal lportions by his numerous descendants

,or by the nominal adherents and

rebellious servants of the declining branches of the family.

The anarchy and pe t ty wars thus ensuing made an opening for AliBahadur (a grandson o f Baj i Rao by a Muhammadan concubine ) whohad quarrelled with M adhuji Sindhia, whose troops he had formerly led.

After a long and severe contest, he succeeded in establ i shing hi s au thorityover the greater part of the Province . The chief res istance he metwi th was at Kal inj ar, at the s iege of which place he died in 1 80 2

,

after having concluded an arrangement wi th the Court of Poona (F ilm ) ,by which the sovereign and paramount right of the Peshwa over all h isconquests in Bundelkhand was declared and acknowledged . Raj aHimmat Bahadur

,the spiritual head and military commander of a

large body of devotees, who had g reat influence in the Dis tr ict, professed at firs t h is inten t ion of supporting the right of Shamsher Bahadur

,

the son of Ali Bahadur, who happened to be absen t in Poona atthe t ime of his father’s death.

About th is time the declared host ility of the subordinate ch iefs of theMaratha

’

. Empire to the arrangements of the treaty ofBassein—bywhich ,among other advantages , the British Government acquired territory in

Bundelkhand yie lding a year—occasioned a formal declaration

1 56 B UNDE L KHAND .

on the part of the British Government of their intention of maintaining theprovis ions of that treaty and this declarat ion was immediately fo llowed

by offens ive Operations on the part of Sindhia and the Raja of Berar, andequally host ile

,though more secret

,measures of aggression on the part

o f Holkar. Part of the Maratha plan of operations was a predatoryincursion into Brit ish territory from Bundelkhand , to be headed byShamsher Bahadur. Raja Himmat Bahadur

,foresee ing in the success

o f this scheme a diminu tion of his own authority in Bundelkhand , de termined to abandon the M aratha interest

,and to seek his own personal

aggrandiz ement by assist ing in the transfer o f the Province to theBrit ish. An agreement was consequently made

,by which the Raja

was granted a tract o f territo ry yielding 2 0 [ tiff/z: of rupees (sayfor the maintenance o f a body o f troops in the service of

the Brit ish Government,as well as a j ag-Zr in consideration of his

co -operat ion in the establ ishment of Brit ish authority in Bundelkhand.

The Brit ish Government were thu s enabled easily to bring a force intoBundelkhand for the decision of the contest , while H immat Bahadurrece ived territory more than double the area of h is original possessions.These lands were resumed on his death

,and j a

’

g i'

rs and pensions assignedto h is family . Shamsher Bahadur was quickly defeated by a forceunder Col. Powell , assi s ted by the troops of Himmat Bahadur ; and hewas content to accep t a provision o f 4 [ril

e/15 of rupees (say ayear from the Brit ish Government

,w i th permiss ion to reside at Banda.

On his death in 1 8 2 3 , he was succeeded by his brother Z ulfi kar Ali.To him succeeded Ali Bahadur

,who j o ined in the rebellion of

1 85 7 , and was therefore deprived of the pension o f 4 [rib/ls a year,and placed under surve illance at Indore . He died in 1 8 73 , and

pens ions amounting to £ 1 20 were assigned to the family. Of theterri tory ceded by the Peshwa, the British G overnment retained in itsown possession lands on the banks of the J umna

, yield ing abou t 14

[ rib/z; o f rupees exclusive of the territory granted to

Himmat Bahadur. On the extinction o f the Peshwa'

s independencein 1 8 1 8

, all his sovereign righ ts in Bundelkhand finally passed to the

Brit ish . O f the Bundelkhand S tates,Jalaun

,Jhansi

, Jaitpur, and Khaddihave lapsed to the Government ; and Chirgaon (one of the Hasht

garhij rfg z’

rs ), Purwa, one of the Kal inj ar Chaubis (or shares held in theKal inj ar district by represen tatives of the Chaubi family) , Bij eraghogarh ,and T iroha have been confiscated . The States o f Shahgarh and Banpurwere also confiscated on account of the rebell ion o f the chiefs in 1857 .

Banpur was claimed by Sindhia as forming part of the Chanderi districtconquered by the Gwal ior Darbar in 1 83 1 . The claim was not

admitted , but the Banpur territory has been made over to Sindhia underarrangements connected wi th the treaty o f 1860. [For further information regarding Bundelkhand

,see the G az etteer of tire Nof ill- lVestern

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1 58 B [IND].

i rrigate s both the northern and southern bas ins ; i ts chief tributary inthe former is the Bajawas , or Bajaen ; in the latter, the Rural. The

length o f the Bajaen is about 35 miles. The Kural,lying for i ts

whole length in the rich alluvial soil of south-eastern Bundi,has

numerous villages along its banks. There are no natural lakes in

Bundi ; the two largest sheets o f water, art ificially enclosed, are atDugari and Hindoli . The h istory Of the Bundi State is the h istory

,so

far as it can be extracted from chron icles and genealogies, of the family

of the rul ing chief, and of the fortunes of h is clan in settl ing themselvesin this part of Ind ia. The ch iefs belong to the Hara sept of the greatclan of the Chauhan Raj puts , and the country occupied by them for

many centuries i s called Haraoti. The first Maharao Raja with whomthe Bri t ish Government had any intercourse was Umed Singh

,who

gave most effi cient ass istance to Colonel Monson’s army during hisretreat before Holkar in 1804 , bringing down on himself the vengeance

of Holkar in consequence.From that time up to 18 1 7 , the Marathas and Pindaris con

stantly ravaged the State, exac t ing tribute and assuming supremacy.

The territory of Bundi was so s ituated as to be Of great importanceduring the war of 1 8 1 7 , in cut t ing o ff the retreat of the Pindari

’

s.The Maharao Raja of the t ime , Bithir S ingh , early accepted theBritish alliance

,and a treaty was concluded with h im on the roth

of February 18 18. Although his forces were inconsiderable,he

co-operated hearti ly w ith the Brit ish Government ; and he wasrewarded by a part of Patan—Keshorai , Holkar

’s rights over this

territory being commuted into an annual payment of £3000 , made bythe Brit ish Government to h im. In 1 844, Sindhia transferred his twoth irds share of Patan-Keshorai to the Brit ish, as part of the territoryceded in trust for the support of the Gwalior Contingent ; and anagreement was made by which i t was handed over to Bundi on payment

of £80o o a year . The Maharao Raja proving uncertain during theMutiny o f 185 7 , friendly intercourse with h im was broken Off

,and not

resumed t ill 1 860. The posit ion of Bundi is now that of a ProtectedState

,acknowledging the supremacy o f the Brit ish Government. The

chief is absolute ruler in his own te rritory,pays a tribute of

to the Brit ish G overnment, and receives a salute of 1 7 guns. Themil itary force of the State consists of 590 horse, 2 282 infantry, 18field and 70 other guns. The ch ief bears the t itle of Maharao Raja.

The Census of 188 1 gave a total population for Bundi of

o f whom were males and females,occupying

houses in 2 towns and 840 villages, or an average of persons

in each house . By rel igion , Hindu s numbered M uham

madans , 947 7 ; Jains , 3 10 1 ; Sikhs, 9 ; and Christ ians, 7 . Accordingto castes and sects, Brahmans were returned at Raj puts

, 92 74 ;

B UND]. 1 59

Baniyas , Guj ars,

Jats , 288 1 ; Ahirs , 13 10 ; Minas ,Bhils

, 6554 ; Chamars, Dhakurs, 7 103 ; other Hindu

castes ,The total revenue of Bundi State is estimated at of which

about i s derived from the land . The assignments , allotments ,and endowments diminish by about the land revenue demand

of the treasury,leaving the effective income of the State at about

of which about £6400 comes from customs. ForIpurpo ses

o f administration the State is divided into 10 pargands , viz . Barod ia ,Bansi

,Nainwah, T amaidi, Karwar, L akheri, G anidoli, Keshorai-Patan ,

L oecha,and Sillor. These again are sub—divided into 2 2 td/uks

, each

pres ided over by an Officer called a tdtzc/ertcir, who exercises revenue,criminal

,and civil jurisd iction with in h is limits . There are no police

or police stations in the State. Sanitary arrangemen ts are no t considered in any Of the towns or villages. The chief crops are j oa

’

r,

maiz e,barley

,wheat

,and other grains, pulses of various kinds , sugar

cane,O i l-se eds

,cotton

,rice

,indigo

,tobacco

,opium

,and betel-leaf.

The cu lt ivated area and cult ivable land cannot be given exactly, as itvaries greatly each year ; i t may be approximately pu t down at

acres . Each village has a pa’

tel,a and a patwa

’

rz’

.

The main road through the S tate is from Deol i Cantonment , throughthe M aidak Dara pass , towards Kotah and Jhalawar. The road fromTonk to Deoli

,through the G anesho Ghati pass, crosses the north

eastern corner of the State. Over the rest o f the country there aremere tracks

,which serve the purpose of local traflic . [For further

information regarding Bundi State,see the Ra

’

jpntcina G az etteer, vol. i .

pp. 2 03—2 4 1 (Calcutta,

Blindi.—Chief town of the State of Bundi, in Rajputana, and theresidence of the chief. S ituated in a gorge in the centre of the range

o f b i l ls passing through the State . L at. 2 5°

2 7'

N.,long . 75

“

40'

3 7 E.

Populat ion ( 188 1 ) namely, Hindus, Muhammadans ,

43 7 7 others,

’1 6. Next to Udaipur (Oodeypore ), the town of Bundi

i s the most picturesque in Raj putana. Built upon the steep side

of the h ill , the palace rising up above the city itself in pinnacledterraces

,is a striking feature of the place . The streets and houses rise

and fall wi th the unevenness of the ground, and some of the suburbshave crept upwards on both the northern slopes. Below the palace isa large range of stable yards and other offices, above which rise thereception courts and halls of audience 5 over these again are ranged themore private chambers and receiving rooms of the Court. Higher

st ill ri se the crenelated battlements and columned c/z/zatrz’

s surmountings t il l more private apartments , and finally a stone causeway leadsupwards to the summit of the ridge, where the main fort and the chief

’s

most secluded recesses are s ituated.

1 60 B UNERA— B UZV-M A IV.

The city is entirely enclosed with in walled fortifi cations,through

wh ich ingress and egress are Obtained by means of four gateways, v iz .

the M a/mt gate on the west, the C/zcz’

ogan gate on the south , the M ina

gate on the east, and the j a’

t Sa’

gar gate on the north-east. One

tolerably regular street, nearly 50 feet in width , runs throughout the

whole length of the city from the palace to the Mina gate. The other

streets are all narrow and very irregular. One large temple on the forthil l

,another in the southern suburb , 1 2 Jain temples, and about 4 15

smaller temples and shrines sacred to Vishnu and Mahadeo,are

scattered about the town . There are four approaches t o the fort,a

private one from the palace, one from the Gha'

ti gate near the SukhMahal , one from Birkhandi, and one from Pht

’

Il-Bagh. A spur of thefort h ill is surmounted by a large and very handsome c/z/zatn

'

called the

S ziraj , or Sun Dome, whose cupola rests on 1 6 pillars, and is about

20 feet in diameter ; beyond this , to the northward, l ies the Phtil-Bagh,and to the sou th again of this , abou t two miles from the city, the NayaBagh

,both private places of re tiremen t for the Bdndi chiefs . Immedi

ately to the west of the city rises an abrupt cliff, very nearly as high asthat on which the fort stands, surmounted by a small mosque. To thesouth of the ci ty there are a few scattered remains of former pleasuregardens

,w ith here and there a monumental cenotaph. One large and

very handsome one is dedicated to one of the royal foster-brothers of

Aj it Singh’s t ime. Skirting the northern bank of the Jat Sagar also areseveral pleasure-gardens, terminating at the Ser-Bagh or M ahasatti

,the

place o f cremation for al l the Bund i chiefs. There is a charitabledispensary at Bundi , a mint where gold, s ilver, and copper pieces arecoined

,an English school, several indigenous schools, and a post-Othee.

Bunera—Town in Udaipur (Oodeypore) State , Ra'

j pu tana. Situated abou t 90 miles from Udaipur town, on the h igh road from Nimachto Nasirabad

,distant 85 miles from the former and 59 from the latter.

The Raja of Bunera is one of the chief feudatories of Udaipur, and hispalace is one of the most imposing- looking edifices in the State. The

town contain s some 2 500 houses ; is walled, with a fort on the hill , atan elevat ion Of 1903 fee t above sea-level.

Bunhér.

—Hill river in Jhelum (Jehlam) District, Punjab. Receives

the whole drainage from the eastern portion of the Dhanni countrynorth of the Salt Range finds i ts way through a break in the upper or

Diljabba spur, passes on through the Gora Gall i Pass between the Tillaand Garj ak Hill s

,and finally empties itself into the Jhelum river

,about

a mile above Dairapur. After a heavy fall of rain,the Bunhar becomes

a roaring torrent, impassable for many hours. I ts bed below the GoraGalli stretches upwards of a mile in breadth .

Bun-maw (Elwin-mate} , or B /zoon-mczw ). Celebrated pagoda inTalaing Thaung-gun village, Tenas serim ,

Brit ish Burma. Built in

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162 B URE A —B URHANP UR .

Commiss ioner, mzzns z'

f, and 3 honorary magistrates . These

officers preside over 4 c ivi l and 4 crim inal courts police stations

4 , with 1 2 outposts ; s trength of regular pol ice , 1 20 men ;village watchmen 68 1 .

Blirha..—Town and administrative head-quarters of Bala'

ghat District,

Central Provinces. Lat. 2 1°

48'

30 N .,long. 80

°

14’ E. Situated on

a high ridge of micaceous shale , about 1 0 miles south of the mainrange of hills

,and 1 mile from the Wziinganga river. Population

( 188 1 ) 35 7 3, ch iefly agricultural ; Hindus, 337 7 ; Muhammadans , 6 16 ;Christians, 34 ; aboriginal tribes, 1 06. On the north and west sidesthe soil appears well suited for mango cultivation , and large mangogroves shel ter the town .

Burhéna..—T a/zsz’l and town, Muz affarnagar District, Nor th-WesternProvinces —See BUDHANA.

Burha'

mpur.—Revenue Sub-division or ta/zs z

’

l in Nimar District,

Cen tral Provinces, lying between 2 1°

4'

15"

and 2 1°

3 7'

1 5" N . lat. , and

between 7 5°

59’

1 5 and 76°

50'

E. long. Area, 1 138 square miles,

of which 168 are under cultivation , 363 cu lt ivable, and 607 uncultivable ;number O f town s 01 vi llage s, 1 30 ; number of houses , of

which are occupied, and 2 408 unoccupied . Total popula tion

( 188 1 ) namely, males and females ; averagedensity

,10 2 persons per square mile . Amount of Government land

revenue,including cesses, levied from the land-holders

, £7 295 ;amount of rental paid by the cu l t ivators, or an average of

2 5 . 2gd. per cult ivated acre . The Sub-division contains 3 civil and 2

criminal courts strength of regular pol ice, 40.

Burhanpur.—Town in N imar Distr ict, Central Provinces. Lat.

2 1°

18'

33”

N . ,long. 7 6

°

16'

26”

E . On the north bank of the riverTapti, abou t 40 miles south by west from Khandwa

,and 2 miles from

the Great Indian Peninsula Railway Station of L albagh . Population

( 188 1 ) namely, males and females Hindusnumbered Kabirpanthis , 6 2 ; Satnaml

’

s, 30 ; Muhammadans,

87 35 ; j ains, 195 ; Jews, 3 ; aboriginal tribes, 1 . Municipal income

in 1 880—8 1 , £5360, of which £36 19 was derived from taxation,at

the rate o f as. 4%d. per head of the population. I t was founded about

1400 A.D . by Nasir Khan , the first independent prince of the Farukhi

dynasty of Khandesh , and called by him after the famous Shaikh Burhan—ud-din of Daulatabad. Though the rival Muhammadan princes of

the Deccan repeatedly sacked the place, eleven princes of the Farukhidynasty held Burhanpur down to the annexation of the ir kingdom bythe Emperor Akbar in 1 600. The earl ier Farukhis have left no monument except a couple of rude minarets in the citadel

,called the Badshah

Kila but the twelfth o f the l ine, Ali Khan , cons iderably improved thec ity

,and built the handsome Jama Masj id, st ill in excellent preserva

B URHANP UR . 1 63

t ion . Under Akbar and his successor,Burhanpur was greatly embel

lished. I n the Ant i-Akbar! it i s described as a ‘ large city with many

gardens , in some ofwhich is found sandal-wood ; inhabited by peopleof all nat ions

,and abounding w ith handicraftsmen . In the summer

the town i s covered with dust,and during the rains the streets are

full of mud and stone .

’ Burhanpur formed the seat of governmentof the Deccan princes of the Empire t ill 1 635 , when Aurangaba

'

dtook i ts place. After th is event

,Burhanpur became the capital of

the larg e s lider/z of Khandesh , usually governed by a prince of the royalblood .

The transfer had not occurred at the time when Sir Thomas Roe ,Ambassador in 1 6 14 from James I . to the Great Mughal, paid h is visi tto Prince Parviz

,son of Jahangir

,the governor

,which he thus describes

‘ The catmatl, an officer of the king so called, met me well attended ,w i th sixteen colours carried before h im

,and conducted me to the

seragl io where I was appointed to lodge. He took his leave at thegate, which made a handsome front of stone ; but, when in , I had fourchambers allotted to me

,l ike ovens and no bigger, round at the top,

made of bricks in the s ide of a wall , so that I lay in my ten t, thecutzefa/l mak ing his excu se that it was the best lodging in the town , as Ifound it was

,all the place being only mud cottages

,except the prince’s

house , the c/zan’s,and some few others. I was conducted by the cut

wall to visit th e prince, in whose outward court I found abou t a hundredgen tlemen on horseback wai t ing to salute h im on h is coming out. Hesat high in a gallery that wen t round

,wi th a canopy over him and a

carpet before him. An officer told me as I approached that I musttouch the ground with my head bare , which I refused, and went on to aplace righ t under h im railed in , with an ascent of three steps , where Imade h im reverence, and he bowed his body so I went with in

,where

were all the great men o f the town , wi th their hands before them likeslaves . The place was covered overhead wi th a rich canopy

,and under

foot al l with carpets. I t was l ike a great stage,and the prince sat

at the upper end of it . Having no place assigned,I stood right

before h im ; he refusing to admit me to come up the steps , or toallow me a chair. Having received my present

,he Offered to go into

ano ther room ,where I should be allowed to s it ; but by the way he

made himself drunk out of a case of bott les I gave h im,and so the

visi t ended .

’

Forty-four years after Sir Thomas Roe’s visit,Tavern ier described

Burhanpur (or, as he wrote it, Brampour), through which he thenpassed for the second time, as

‘ a great city,very much ruined

,the

houses being for the most part thatched with straw.

’ He adds : ‘ Therei s also a great castle in the midst of the city, where the governor l ives.The government of this Province i s a very cons iderable command

,only

1 64 B URHANP UR .

conferred upon the son or uncle of the king . There is a great tradein th is city

,and as well in Brampour as ove r al l the Province . There

is made a prodigious quanti ty of calicuts , very clear and white , whichare transported into Persia

,Turkey

,and M uscovia, Poland , Arabia, to

Grand Cairo , and other places.’ The remains of mosques and other

buildings show that , at the height o f its prosperity under the Mughals,Burhanpur extended over an area o f about 5 square miles . A skilfully

constructed system o f aqueducts suppl ied it wi th abundance of pure

water. E ight sets may s t ill be traced , two o f which were channels led

o ff from running s treams , partly under and partly above ground . Theo ther six consisted of a number of wells , connected by a subterraneangallery

,and so arrang ed as to intercept the water percolating from the

neighbouring h ills . The supply thu s obtained passes by a masonryadit pipe to its destination in the city or suburbs . All these channels

,

where they run underground , are furnished at short intervals with tallhollow columns of masonry ris ing to the level o f the water at the sourceof the works, the obj ect of wh ich seems uncertain .

Burhanpur played an important part in the wars of the Empire, par

ticularly in the re ign of Aurangz eb . In 1 685 , that prince had hardly left

the city w ith a large army to subj ugate the Deccan when the Marathastook the opportunity to plunder the place . Thirty-four years later

,after

repeated battles in the neighbourhood , the demand of the Marathas forthe clzazztfi , or one -fou rth o f the revenue

,was formally conceded . In

1 7 2 0 , Asaf Jah Niz am-ul-Mulk seiz ed the government of the Deccan,

and resided chiefly at Burhanpur , where he died in 1 748 . By this t imethe popu lat ion of the city had greatly d im inished ; and the brick wallw ith bastion s and nine gateways , erected in 1 7 3 1 , enclosed an area ofl i ttle more than I i square mile . In 1 7 60 , after the bat tle o f Udgi,

the Ni z am ceded Burhanpur to the Peshwa,who , eigh teen years later,

transferred it to Sindhia. In 1 803 , the city was taken by GeneralWellesley ; bu t i t was no t unt il 1860 that, in consequence of a territorialarrangement wi th Sindhia, Burhanpur came permanent ly under Britishgovernment . In 1 849, the town was the scene o f a desperate andsanguinary affray between Muhammadans and Hindus on the occasion

of a Hindu fest ival . The chief bu ild ings in Burhanpur are a brickpalace bu ilt by Akbar, called the [ d] K z

'

lct,or Red Fort

,and the

Jama Masj id,or great mosque , built by Aurangz eb. The [ cit

though much dilapidated, s till contain s some fine apartments,and

other relics of imperial magn i fi cence . I t was formerly shut off fromthe town by a rampart . The muslin , si lk, and brocade manufactures

of Burhanpur were once very famous, and sti ll exist . Bu t the city haslong been declin ing. English fabrics have displaced the

‘ clear andwhite calicuts ’ mentioned by Tavern ier ; and now the local industry is

confined to the manufacture of fine cotton and s ilk fabrics,in terwoven

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1 66 B URHE E—B UR I GAN G A.

forest cultivation,wandering from j ungle to j ungle . Their abandoned

clearings are quickly taken possession of by more careful cultivators ,such as Kurmi

’s and Ahirs . T he villages are connected by rough carttracks

,and the rivers crossed at intervals by fords . Principal export

rice imports—salt and cotton,both raw and manufactured.

Burhee.—Village in Haz aribagh District

,Bengal .—See BARH I .

Buri Dihing—River of Assam ,

which rises among the unexploredmountains to the extreme east of the Province , and flows generally witha westerly course into the Brahmaputra. For some distance it formsthe southern frontier of L akhimpur District

,then it crosses that District,

and finally forms the boundary between the Districts of L akhimpur andSibsagar for a few miles above its confluence with the Great River. It

is comparatively useless for purposes of navigation . In the rainy seasoni ts channel becomes so overg rown wi th grass, etc .

,as to be with diffi

culty penetrated by steamers ; wh ile during the rest of the year itdwindles to a very shallow stream

,w ith dangerous rapids . The Chief

places on its banks are Jaipur and Khowang,both in L akhimpur

District. In the hills above JA I PUR there is much mineral wealth of

coal, iron, and petroleum ,which wou ld attract European enterprise i f

only the Buri B ibing were less diffi cult of navigation.

Buri Gandak .—River of Bengal ; rises in the Sumeswar range of

hills close to the Harha Pass,and flows from north-west to south-east

through the Districts of Champaran, Muz affarpur, and Darbhangah,

pouring its waters into the Ganges in Monghyr District. At its sourceit i s called the Harha in tappa

’

s Bahas and M adhwal, in Champaran

i t becomes the Sikhrena; in pazg ana’

s Simraon and M ihsi, the Burt

Gandak or Muz affarpur river ; and, as i t approaches Muz affarpurDistrict, the Chhota Gandak. Except in the upper reach (called theHarha) i t is navigable throughou t the rains ; but in the dry seasonsandbanks render navigation by large boats impossible from MonghyrDistrict upwards to Nagarbasti, in Darbhangah District . I t i s navigableall the year round for boats of 2 00 maunds ( 7 tons) . I n the rains,boats of 2 000 man/ids ( 75 tons) can go as far as Rusera ; boatsof 1000 maunds (3 75 tons ) up to Mu z affarpur ; and boats of 100

mauna’s (35 tons) as far as Sigauli, i n the north of Champa

’

ran Distriot. The Buri Gandak and the Baghmati, which flows into i t aboveRusera, convey the produce of Darbhangah to Calcutta. Principal

marts DARBHANG AH, MUZAFFARPUR, SOM AST IPUR, RUSERA

,and

KHARGAR IA.

Burig anga (‘Old Ganges —River in Dacca District

,Bengal ; a

branch of the Dhaleswari, about 2 6 miles in length , leaving that river a

short distance below Sébhar village, and rejoining i t at Fatulla on theNarayanganj road. The Ci ty of Dacca is s ituated on the northern bankof this river. The tract between the Buriganga and the Dhaleswari i s

B (JR/RE A T—B (IRM A, BRI T /SH. 1 6 7

known as Pasch imdi I sland. There is no doubt that the Burigangawas at one t ime the principal channel of- the G anges, the land

‘

to thesouth being a new formation

.

Bufi rhét.—Trading village and produce depot in Rangpur District,

Bengal . Lat. 25°

29'

N . , long. 89°

1 6'

30"

E. Chief exports, j ute andtobacco .

Buriya. Town in Jagadhri ta/m’

l, Ambala (Umballa) District,

Punjab. Lat. 30°

9’

30 N . ,long. 7 7

°

23’

45” E. population ( 188 1 )

74 1 1 , namely 3586 Hindus, 3553 Muhammadans

,1 56 Sikhs , and

1 1 6 Jains houses, 1 578. Situated near the west bank of the J umnaCanal, 35 miles north of the Sind, Punj ab, and Delhi Railway .

Builtin the reign of the Emperor Humayiin, by Bura, a Jat z amz

’

ndcir ; takenby the Sikhs about 1 760, and erected into the capital of a considerableChieftainship, which was one of the nine states exempted from thereforms of 1 849 (see AM BAL LA D ISTR ICT), and permitted to retainindependent j urisdiction after the reduction of the other chiefs to theposit ion of j a

’

g z’

rctcirs . Part of the terri tory has since lapsed,but the

remainder sti ll forms the estate of JiIin Singh , the present representativeof the family, who resides in a handsome fort within the town . O therSikh gentlemen have residences in the place. Considerable manufactu reof country cloth ; no trade of more than local importance. Municipalrevenue in 1 88 1—82

, £401 , derived from octroi duties .Burma

, British, i s the name given by the English to the long stripof the Malay Peninsula, stretching down the eastern shore of the Bayof Bengal

,and ly ing between 9

°

55'

and 2 1"

55' N . lat ., and between

92°

10’ and 99

°

30' E. long. Brit ish Burma was added to our Indian

Empire by the wars of 1824 and 1852 . The territory left to the dynastyof Alaungpaya is known to us as INDEPENDENT BURMA ; and to theShans and others as Ava

,from the name of a recent capital . British

Burma covers an area of square miles, and is bounded on thenorth by Upper or Independent Burma and Eastern Bengal, on theeast by Karenni and the Siamese kingdom , and on the south and westby the sea . For administrative purposes British Burma is divided intofour Divisions—Arakan, Irawadi, Pegu , and Tenasserim—containing20 Districts

,inclusive of the Salwin Tracts and Northern Arakan .

The northern boundary l ine, separating the Irawadi and PeguDivisions from the territory of the King of Burma, leaves the Arakan

Yoma hills at a point called the ‘ ever visible peak,’ and, running due

east,passes the river Irawadi at its fiftieth mile, and the Pegu Yoma

range 43 miles farther on ; thence, 33 miles farther on, i t crosses theSittaung river

,finally losing itself in a wilderness of mountains 1 3 or 14

miles farther east. The population in 188 1 was Thefollowing table shows the details of area and population, as ascertained

by the Census of that year

168 B URM A,B RI TI SH

AREA AND POPULATION or TERR ITORY UNDER THE ADMINISTRATIONO F THE CHIEF COMMISS IONER OF BR ITISH BURMA , ACCORDING T O

THE CENSUS OF 188 1 .

British Districts .

T o tal ,

’Rang oon T own:3 E Hanthawad

Effl Peg u ,

~

5 LT harrawadi,Prome ,

T o tal

15 ( T hayetmyo ,

Hen '

ca cla ,

a"

S iBassem ,

5 Thongwa,

T otal ,

T o ta l , 17

G rand to tal ,

1 Formerly calle d Ramri.2 In April 1878, Henz ada D is trict , which was fo rme rly cal led M yanou ng , was div ided into two ,

named Henz ada and T harrawadi : Hanthawadi Dis tric t has , s inc e the date of the Ce nsus ,be em

l ikewise div ided into two , named Hanthawadi and Pe g u.

P/cys z'

cal Aspects —The shape of the Province, as it figures on themap , somewhat resembles a sea-gull travell ing towards the east wi thwide-extended wings. The northern pinion would be Arakan

,stretching

from the ext reme north and the Naaf estuary to Sandoway, and narrowlyConfined in all its leng th between the Yoma Mounta i ns and thesea. The body wou ld include the valleys of the Irawadi and

Sittaung , reaching inland for nearly 300 miles ; wh ile the southern wing

would include the lower valley of the Salwin and Tenasserim,com

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1 7 6 B U/I’

M A,BRI TI SH .

Bassein,and entering the Bay of Bengal by two main mouths ; this

branch,usually known as the Bassein river, i s navigable by vessels of

heavy burthen for a distance of 80 miles , o r up to Bassein , a port of

some importance . The I rawadi is navigable for river steamers as faras Bhamo

,600 miles beyond the frontier . The velocity of its waters

when the river is fu ll is five miles an hour ; the river commences to risein March

,and continues to rise unti l Sep tember (flooding the surround

ing lowlands) , when it begins to fall . The Hlaing rises Close to Prome ,and flows in a sou therly direction till

,passing Rangoon , it is j oined by

the Pegu and P ti- zwun~daung rivers , coming from the north-east and the

east . The two latter streams rise Close together in the Yoma range,abou t 58 miles above the town of Pegu . The Rangoon river alsocommunicates by numerous channels with the principal delta branch of

the Irawadi. The Si ttaung river rises far north of Bri t ish territory, andduring the dry weather is wi th difficu lty navigable by boats of anydraught . Below Shwe-gyin

,where it receives the waters of the Shwe

gyin river,i t gradually widens ; and after a backward curve , i t issues

through a funnel-Shaped basin into the Gulf of Martaban , spreading sorapidly that it i s difficu lt to dist ingu ish where the river ends and thegulf begins . The valleys of the Irawadi and the Sittaung unite towardstheir mouths to form an extensive plain

,stretching from Cape Negrais

to the head of the Gu lf of Martaban . The plains portion of these two

valleys is highly cu ltivated,and is the richest part of the whole Province .

Owing to the spurs thrown out by the Pegu Yoma range , the mainvalleys of the Irawadi and Sittaung are divided into several smallerones . A strip of country in the Si ttaung valley on the west , about 2 5

or 30 miles broad, is covered with dense j ungle , which stretches downas far south as Shwe-gyin . The coast l ine from Cape Negrais to theGu lf of Martaban is low and flat .The Tenasserim Division

,or southern portion of the Province, lying

along the coast between the parallels of 1 0°

and 18°

N . lat .,is bounded on

the east , at a distance of from 30 to 40 miles from the coast , by a chain of

hills, in some places reaching to a height of 5000 feet . The breadth of

this chain near Martaban has never been ascertained, but near Tavoy

it appears to be about 40 miles w ide, whence it gradually narrows to 10

miles near Mergui . The coast-l ine is very irregular and low for some

miles inland , beyond which the surface of the country is mountainous,thinly popu lated , and much intersected by streams . The soil of thenorthern portion of Tenasserim is alluvial . Stratified sandstone is the

prevailing rock , interspersed wi th veins of quartz,in which crystals of

great beau ty are sometimes discovered .

The great river of the Tenasserim Division is the Salwin (Salween ) .I ts source has never been explored

,but 600 miles due north of i ts

mouth , between Talifu and M om ien,i n the Province of Yunan, it

B URM A ,BR I TI SH 1 7 1

flows a roll ing torrent, with a sh ingle bed 140 yards wide . Owing to

numerous rapids and rocks , i t i s only navigable for a few miles fromMaulmain , the point at which it enters the sea. Near Maulmain theSalwin i s j oined by the Ge in Mayu and its tributaries. The other riversof the Tenasserim Divisi on are the Bilin

,which rises in the Paung

laung hills, and, flowing south , enters the G ulf of Martaban between theSalwin and the Sittaung ; the Zami ; the Tavoy, whose mouth affordsexcellent anchorage for ships ; and the Tenasserim

,which rises in

about 1 5°

N . lat . , and flows past the town which gives its name bothto the stream and the Division . I t enters the sea by two months

,the

northern channel being navigable by boats for about 100 miles .Three Ch ief ranges of hills traverse the Province of British Burmah

,

from north to south . Their configuration has been well described byColonel Yule . To the west is the Arakan Yoma

,a cramped and

stunted prolongation of the great multiple congeries of mountains whichstart from the Assam chain . Seven hundred miles from its origin in

the Naga wilds, i t s inks into the sea by Cape Negrais the last bluff i scrowned by the Hmawden pagoda

,gleaming far to seaward, a Bu rmese

Sunium . The Pegu Yoma, the range which separates the Sittaung fromthe Irawadi valley, starts from Yeme-thin in Upper Burma, and stretchessouth wi th a general direction in the meridian to a parallel a little higherthan the head of the delta. Here it branches out into several low

terminal spurs , the extremity of one being crowned by the Burmancathedral of Buddhism

,the great shrine of Shwe Dagon . The Paung

laung, which divides the Sittaung and the Salwin valleys, is a meridionalchain

,some of the peaks of which , in the neighbourhood of Toung—gu ,

reach an altitude of more than 6000 feet . The Tenasserim Hills maybe regarded as a prolongation of this range. They form the boundarybetween the territory of Tenasserim and Siam . The Yoma ranges arecomposed mainly of brown or grey- slate clay, alternating with beds of

sandstone,assuming at times a basalt ic character.

The lakes in the Province wou ld be more properly entitled lagunes,and there are few of any importance . The best known is the Kan

daw-

gyi’

,or

‘ Royal L ake,’ near Rangoon . The T Ii L ake, in Hen z ada

District,i s 9 miles in circumference and 2—5 miles across there are also

two lakes in Bassein District, each about 5 miles in circumference . A

canal connects the Pegu and Sittaung rivers and another, the Rangoon

and Irawadi rivers.The country throughout the Delta is flat and uninteresting. Towards

Prome the valley of the Irawadi contracts, and the monotony of theplain is diversified by a wooded range of hills, which cling to the western

bank nearly all the way to the frontier. The Salwin valley containsoccasional harmonies of forest, crag, and mountain stream ; but they

bear the same relation to the wild sublimity of the Himalayas as the

1 7 1 B URM A,BR I TI SH.

Trossachs to the Alps . On the other hand , the scenery in Tavoy andMergui

,and among the myriad islets which fringe the Tenasserim coast,

is almost English in its verdure and repose. A large part of the Pro

vince is covered with forests,a small part of them being reserved by the

State . The teak plantations lie in the valleys of the Irawadi and theSittaung — See AMHERST D ISTR ICT.

History—The Golden Chersonese, as Ptolemy des ignated it, has

played a qu ite insignificant ro‘

le in the world’s history, as compared wi ththe other two great peninsulas of As ia—India and Arabia. Each o f the

three has been the home and stronghold of a colossal creed . But

while Arabia and India are indissolubly connected with the fabric ofmodern ci v ili sation

,the Burman peninsula has remained isolated and

unknown,the battle-ground and grave of strange races and kingdoms ,

who appear and disappear with scarcely an echo from their existencepenetrating to the outer world . Our present possessions comprise thesites of at least four ancient kingdoms—Arakan , Thah—tun , Martaban,and Pegu . The meagre annals which remain ascribe to each an Indian

origin, and it is from India, no doubt, that their li terature and religionhave been derived. Indeed

,several of the names which we find in the

Tables of Ptolemy assigned to the Golden Chersonese (properly in hisgeography the delta of the Irawadi) are purely Indian , and Show that

Indian influence already prevailed on the coast. The ancient h istoryof Brit ish Burma is to a large extent involved in that of IndependentBurma and to that article the reader i s also referred. The researchesof Dr. Forchhammer, of Rangoon , are opening up stores of materialsfor a complete treatment of the archaeology and epigraphy of theProvince. I regret that the l imited scope of this art icle precludes mefrom u t il iz ing his valuable labours.The Arakanese chronicle (see AKYAB D ISTR ICT) relates how the

Burman peninsula was first coloniz ed by a prince from Benares ,who established his capital at Sandoway. The next irruption was bythe Burmese race from the east ; but apparently they made little headagainst the indigenous tribes

,ti ll another legendary prince (this time of

Gautama’s line ) arrived as their champion and king. His dynasty wasprobably superseded by a fresh invasion from Burma

,occurring

,accord

ing to their chronology,i n B.C. 8 2 5 ; and the Buddh ist religion was

introduced during the re ign of the twenty-n inth monarch of the newline, AD . 146 . About the year 970 AD ,

the country was attacked by

the Shans, who retired after eighteen years’ possess ion . One of the old

dynasty then recovered the kingdom,with the help of the Burmese

,at

Pagan ; and similar aid was given to one of his successors against arebel nearly 100 years later. In the reign of Gaw-laya

,who ascended

the throne about 1 133 , the Kings of Bengal, Pegu, Pagan , and Siamare said to have acknowledged Arakanese supremacy . During the

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1 74 B URM A ,BRI T ISH.

Tha—htun,Pegu

,and Martaban were the chief towns in the terri tory

of Ramanna (Ramaniya) , called by the Burmese the three places of theTalaings . The Muns or Talaings are a distinct family from the Burmese

,

and their language is cognate wi th those of Kambodia and Assam . Thahtun was probably founded by Indian emigrants from the Coromandelcoast several hundred years before the Christian era. The ruins of theCity still exist

,on a small stream about 10 miles from the sea-shore and

44 miles north-north-west from Martaban . The silting up of the channelhas destroyed its position as a port

,bu t i t was known in India as a

considerable emporium . We possess bu t scanty records of its history.

In the 3rd cen tury before Christ , two missionaries were despatched toTha-htun (known then as Suvarna-bhiimi or Golden L and, the SooanrzE mporium of Ptolemy) from the third great Buddhist assembly. Tradition falsely relates that Gautama visited the country thirty-seven yearsbefore attaining Nirvana , and was badly treated by the rude inhabi tantsof the coast . Another event of importance was the introduction of theBuddhist scriptures by Buddhagho sa, from Ceylon , A .D . 403 . The

kingdom existed till the close of the r1 th century,and the names of 59

monarchs are recorded,whose reigns extended Over 1 683 years . It was

then utterly destroyed by Anawrata,the famous Emperor of Pagan ;

and the ruthless devastation to which the whole Talaing territory wassubjected probably accoun ts for the paucity of surviving chronicles .The city of Pegu , according to nati ve tradit ion , was founded by

emigrants from Tha-htun in A D . 5 7 3 . Martaban was built three yearslater. The confl ict between Brahman and Buddhist then going on inSouthern India no doubt affected the coas t o f Ramanna

,and the new

k ingdom is mentioned as having successfully repelled an invasion fromthe adjacent continent . Gradually it came to embrace the wholecountry between Bassein and Martaban . It i s related of the seventeenthruler

,Tissa

,that he was converted from heretical doctrines through the

courage of a young girl . With h im terminated the native dynasty .

After Anawrata’

s Conquest , about 1050 , Pegu remained subj ect toBurma for nearly 2 00 years . I ts fortunes began to revive after thecapture of Pagan by the forces of Kublai Khan . Magadu

,an adven

turer who i s described as a native of T akaw-wdn,near Martaban

,raised

the standard of revolt , and speedily found himself in possession of

Martaban and Pegu . He defeated the Pagan forces sent to subdue

him,and recovered all the Talaing country as far as Henz ada and

Bassein . He was in some degree feudatory to the King of Siam ,in

whose service he had been , and who had granted him royal ins ignia.

He died in 1 296 , after a reign of twenty-two years .In 1 3 2 1 , Tavoy and Tenasserim were added to the kingdom

,which

led to never-ending strife wi th Siam . During the reign of Binya-Ii,

who succeeded in 1 348, the country was in great peril from the

Bwar/A , BRI TISH. 1 7 5

Ch ieng-mai Shans and from internal revolt . The king Shifted h is capital

from Martaban to Pegu and though he conciliated the Shans, he wasunable to crush th e rebellion . Finally

,in 1 385, he was deposed by his

son, Binya-nwe, the most famous of this line, who ruled under the nameof Razadirit. H e reigned for thirty-fi ve years, in perpetual strife withAva. His ch ief task was to repel invasion

,though in 1404 he led a

successful expedit ion into the very heart of the enemy’s country. His

kingdom embraced the Tenasserim Provinces and the Irawadi andSittaung delta nearly as far north as Prome. For more than a century

after h is death Pegu remained in plenty and quiet,under a succession

of able rulers .The last monarch

,Taka-rwut

,came to the throne in 1 5 26.

His father had quarrelled wi th the King of Toung—gu ,who

,now

that Ava had fallen to a race of Shan Chieftains, was cons idered

the representative of the ancient Burmese monarchy. Tabin Shwe-tisucceeded to this inheritance in 1530, and for four successive yearsattacked Pegu without avail. At length , in the year 1535, he obtainedpossession of the capital, and his brother-in-law, Burin—naung, havingcaptured Martaban after a siege of over seven months, the new dynasty

was establ ished without further resistance among the Talaings . I t i sabout th is period that we begin to have notices of Pegu by Portuguesevoyagers . Foreign mercenaries were employed by the new monarch inh is subsequent wars both against Ava and Siam ; and native h istoriansascribe h is degraded habits and consequent loss of power to his intimacy

w ith western strangers. H e re igned for ten years in Pegu , and was

succeeded by Burin—naung in 1 550, known in Portuguese annals under

the name Branginoco . This monarch, after crushing a formidablerebellion among his new subj ects, extended his conquests over Prome,Ava, and the Shan States, as far as the Assam front ie r. In 1 563, heattacked Siam

,and subjected it to h is sway. On i ts rebellion s ix years

later,he crushed the insurrection with another huge expedition . He

died in 1 58 1 , while preparing for an invasion of Arakan . The wealthand magnificence of the Pegu Empire at this time have been describedby contemporary travellers . I ts swift and utter destruction is withouta parallel in Eastern history. The emperor

’

s son, Nanda—burin,succeeded to the throne ; and four unsuccessful attempts to reduceSiam crippled the whole resources of the country. Plague, famine, anddissension ensued ; the emperor alienated all his feudatories by h is

wanton cruelty and oppress ion , and finally his uncle, the King of

Toung—gu,un ited with the King of Arakan and captured the tyrant in

his capital , in 1 599.

A subsequent invas ion from Siam completed the ruin of th e

country;a country which none of the invaders showed any anxiety

to retain in its depopulated and devastated condit ion . Finally, the

1 76 B (IRM A ,BR I T I SH .

splend id dominion of Tabin Shwe -ti was actually governed for thirteenyears by Nicote

,the low-born Portuguese adventurer . In 1 6 1 3 , the

King of Ava found himself strong enough to subdue the fore igners,and to annex the whole land to h is own dominions . Thus

,after an

interval of more than 400 years, the seat of power was once morefixed in the upper country , and the ancient territory of Ramanna was

again administered by Burmese governors . In 1 7 35 , the Talaings roseagainst their conquerors

,and not only expelled them from Pegu , bu t

for twenty years maintained their supremacy throughou t the country .

They were crushed by the irresist ible arm of Alaungpaya, who left his

new city of Rangoon to testify by its name to the completion o f strife .

But the Talaings cou ld never be reconciled to Burmese supremacy,

and a fresh revolt broke out in 1 7 83 , which was repressed with greatbarbarity by Bodaw Paya , T he adven t of Brit ish troops in the warof 1 824 gave them a definite hope of delivery

,and they were bitterly

disappointed at our abandoning the country . At length the famousproclamation of L ord Dalhousie , on the 2 0th December 1 85 2 , relievedthem for ever from their ancient oppre ssors ; and ten years later theProvince was organiz ed and a Chief Commissioner appointed . Thenames of this officer and his successors are as follows —Sir Arthur P .

Phayre (appointed in L ieut . -General A . Fytche the Hon .

Ashley Eden A . R ivers Thompson C. U . Aitchison

C. Bernard C . H . T . Crossthwaite (oflic iating and

C . BernardP op ulation

— British Burma may be considered as perhaps the

most progressive of our Indian dependencies,and it is interesting to

note the growth and progress of the population since the Britishoccupation of the country . Between 18 2 6 and 1 855, Arakan increased

in popu lation from to or an average of 50 per cent .in each decade . In Pegu in 1 858, or six years after its annexation ,which then included the presen t Irawadi Divis ion

,the population

numbered only persons ; this number at the time of the Censuso f 1 88 1 had increased to the increase in the 2 3 years

amounting to 16 1 per cent . In Tenasserim,three years after its annexa

tion,the population was estimated at about by 1 855 it had

risen to or 2 00 per cent . in 2 6 years . Between 1 855 and 1 88 1,

the population of the whole Province had increased from a million and

a quarter to nearly four millions . From 1 86 2 to 1 87 2 the rate of growth

was 3 1 3 per cent . per annum , and from 1 86 2 to 1 88 1,

calculating

from these rates , Brit ish Burma may reasonably be expected to containin 1 891 upwards of s million inhabitants .

The last Census of British Burma was taken on the 1 7 th February

1 88 1,when the population was returned at souls . The

density of the popu lation is only 4 2 8 to the square mile . The

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1 78 B ( IRM A ,BRI TI SH.

Toung-

gu Districts , though in the other Districts their numbers are also

fairly large .

According to the Census there are 4 2 79 monasteries in the Province ,or one to every 1 68 houses, or to every 3 7 villages . The average

number of persons per occupied house is 55 . There are 45 4 housesin each village or town , and each village or town has an average of 2 36

inhabitants . The number of boats , steamers, and sailing vessels returned

by the Census was , for the whole Province , and their populationnumbered including females . There are males

and 2 746 females , or altogether persons, whose occupations fall

within the professional class ; the domestic class contains malesand 5674 females ; total , The commercial class containspersons

,of whom are females . The agricultural class includespersons

,of whom are females . There are

males and females,total persons , engaged in industrial

pursuits . The indefinite and non-productive class comprisesmales and females

,or altogether persons, most of

whom are children . The population is thus distributed over the abovesix classes —Professional

,1 4 per cent. of the whole domestic

,

‘

7 percent . commercial

, 4 2 per cent . agricultural, 3 1 8 per cent . industrial

,

9 2 per cent . indefinite and non-productive, 5 2 7 per cent . The number

of persons supported by agricultural occupations is 68 56 per cent .The following are the 2 0 principal towns z—Rangoon , populat ion ( 188 1 )

Maulmain,

Prome,

Bassein,

Akyab,

Henz ada,

Tavoy,

Toung—gu ,Shwe

daung,

Mergui,8633 Thayet-myo

,Kyangin , 7565

A llanmyo, 582 5 Shwe -gyin , 7 5 19 ; Yandun , Myanaung, 54 16 ;

Pantanaw,6 1 74 ; Paungde , 67 2 7 Pegu

, 5891 Laymyathna, 5355 . At

the time of Brit ish annexation there were not three towns in theProvince with a population of and scarcely five towns withmore than 5000 . Since then Maulmain has grown from a fishing village

into a town with over inhabitants ; Akyab , then a petty hamlet ,now contains nearly souls ; and the returns for 1 88 1 show 1 1

towns with a popu lat ion of more than and 9 wi th a populationo f more than 5000 . The definit ion of a ‘ town i s a purely arbitrary one

,

the term being applied to all places having 5000 inhabitants and upwards .Six out of the 20 Districts include no town . Prome and Henz ada Districts

have 3 towns each . Of the villages,8 have over 3000 inhabitants , 19over

2 000,14 2 over 1 000, 8 19 over 500, and 4886 over 2 00 inhabitants each .

Relig ion and E t/zzzogmp/zy.

— Burma may claim at present to be the

head-quarters of Southern Buddhism . The religion exi sts throughoutthe country in its purest and most amiable form . I t is singularly freefrom sect

,the only two parties of any importance differing chiefly on

some minor points o f ceremonial . There are no trammels whatever of

B URM A,B RI TI SH 1 79

class or caste or creed . The monast ic order is open to the highest andlowest alike ; i ts essential demands being a l ife of purity, temperance ,and truth . There are 6498 P ungyz

’

s or Buddhist priests in the Province ,giving one priest to 500 of the Buddhist inhabitants . The followers

of Gautama number more than four-fi fths,or 8 7 per cent . of the whole

population ; Muhammadans, Nat—worshippers,

while H indus

and Christ ians constitute each about 2 0 per cent . of the total . Formerly

the caste inequalit ies of Northern India prevailed to some extentamong the Burmese . They have long since disappeared

,and now the

only titles or differences existing are those that belong to the founder or

supporter of some religious building,or to the holders of some Govern

ment appointment . E lsewhere there is perfect equality,mere wealth

not having sufficed hitherto to raise any barrier of distinction . Thereligions of Hindus

,Muhammadans

,Buddhists

,Nat - worshippers

,

Christ ians , Brahmos , Jains, Jews, and Parsis, all have their representatives i n Brit ish Burma, the numbers belonging to each being asfollows —Buddhists

,Nat-worshippers , Hindus ,

Muhammadans, Christians, Brahmos, 3 7 ;

Jains, 5 ; Jews , 2 04 ; and Parsis , 83 .

The term Nat-worshippers is thus explained in the Census ReportNats ” are spirits supposed to inhabit natural obj ects

,terrestrial

and celestial,and to interfere freely in the affairs of man . Some are

evil,and their i ll-wil l has to be propit iated by off erings of plantains ,

cocoa-nuts,fowls

,or other such gifts . Some are kind

,and their active

favour or protection must be gained. The Burmese frequently makeofferings to Nats

,

” and regard the spirit—world with an awe not calledfor by the creed of Buddha . The belief in “ Nats has remainedunderlying their thoughts and religion ever since they were convertedto Buddhism

,a relic of the ancient cult, which is still preserved intact

among the w ilder Karens, Chins, and other h ill races . At present,numbers of Karens and Chins , who have come in contact with theBurmese

,though knowing little and practis ing less the religio n of

Gautama,call themselves Buddhists, because to do so is a sign of

ci viliz ation and respectability.

’ The decrease in the number returnedof Nat-worshippers within the decade is due to this tendency to callthemselves Buddhists

,and no t to a real falling off in the races forming

this religious class .The Christian popu lat ion , which derives its new converts ch iefly

from among the Karens , was returned as follows — Europeans, 7866

Eurasians, 4998 natives, total, Of the Christians,

9980 belong to the Church of England, to the Roman Catholic

Church , 655 are Presbyterians, Baptists, 1 66 Wesleyans, 346

L u therans , 1 3 1 Armenians , 95 Greeks , and 7 2 Methodists, the remainde r

being unspecified . L ooking at the distribution of the various sects,the

1 80 B URM A , B RI TI SH .

Church of England has most followers in Rangoon where the

English and Eurasian society is large . The Roman Catholics arestrongest in Toung-

gu Baptist Christ ians are most numerousin Bassein District and also abound in Thongwa

Hanthawadi and Toung—gu The work done by thevariou s Missions during the decade has been on a larg e scale .

The Census Report give s the following account of the marriagecustoms of the people Among the Burmese, who are all Buddhists

,

girls are considered the property of the parents, but constraint on theirchoice of a husband is rarely employed. Child-marriages are practicallyunknown . Young men make love pretty muc h where their fancy leadsthem

,first obtain ing the consent of the parents

,which is generally

accorded,unles s the young man is of doubtful character. The period

of probation during which courtship was ca rried on,and the suitor

carefully watched,was formerly long. I t is now much briefer, and early

marriage is easier for bachelors than of old. The Burmese mother is agreat matchmaker

,bu t she effects her end by peacefully influencing the

feelings of the young couple whose unio n she desires to promote, andno t by compulsion . Constraint is somet imes tried, but generally invain . The young lady in that case either elopes with her favouredswain

,or

,as occasionally happens, hangs herself. The rule

,however

,is

that the consent of the parent is requ is ite at a first marriage,and the

practice-is that the girl’s consent is also essential . The main element inthe marriage ceremony is the publication of the union .

By Buddhist law, polygamy is permitted, but is rare. Occasionally,officials or wealthy traders have more than one wife

,but polygamy is

not looked upon as altogether respectable. Sometimes the elder wifestrongly obj ects to being practically set aside

,sometimes she acquiesces

quietly in the arrangement,l iving in another house . Divorce is easily

obtained . If the pair are agreed,elders are summoned

,and the

divorce takes place at once . If either the husband or the wife refusesto be divorced , the question is not whether the divorce can be effected,but how the common and peculiar property is to be divided . If nocau se for requiring a separation is shown

,the unwill ing party takes all

the common property . In some c ases the appl icant for divorce getsthe whole . Disputed claims for divorce are often brought before the

Civil Court, but as all grades of j udge s can grant decrees of separation ,and indeed cannot refuse them, the only doub tfu l point being the disposal of the property, the difficulty of d ivorce is not materially enhanced .

While,however, divorce is easi ly and rapidly obtained , the proportion

of divorced persons to married couples is small . Married life in Burma,

where the women carry on a great part of the trading and shopping,and

amuse themselves after their own fancy,is very happy. Children are

numerous, and separation of husband and wife by any cause but death

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13 2 B (IRM A ,BRI T I SH.

a time,and so get a smattering of learn ing. In the larger villages, in

addition to the monasteries , schools are often found kept by respect

able elders,who desire to gain merit by engaging themselves in the

education of youth,both boys and girls ; the latter are excluded from

the monasteries . As compared with other Provinces of India, BritishBurma has a highly—educated popu lation

,excepting in the Northern

Arakan and Salwin H ill tracts , where the h ill tribes form the inhabitants,among whom book- learning is almost unknown .

E thnically, the population of Bri t ish Burma varies to a considerableextent . The numbers returned by the Census of 188 1 of the chiefraces inhabiting the country were—Burmese

,Talaings,

Karens, Chins or Khyins , T aungthas ,

Kwaymies and M ros,

Shans , Ch inese,natives of India

,I t i s at present generally admitted

that the only race l iving in the Province,of whose advent in i t

nothing is known either by tradition or history, is the Talaing, as thispeople is called by the Burmese

, or the M on as they term themselves,

and they are undoubtedly the oldest residents ,—the aborigines of thecountry. Several centuries before the Christian era, men of theDravidian family came from India

,no doubt for purposes of trade to

Suvarna Bhiimi or Ramaniya, as the tracts about the mouths of theIrawadi

,Sittaung, and Salwin were then called . They found a wild

race inhabiting the country,wi th whom they intermarried

,and among

whom they dwelt . This race were , no doubt, the Mon ; but theyreceived the title of Talaings from the name of the ancient country ofT elingana, whence the colonists had sailed , and this name was extendedto all Mons who in later t imes became known through the medium of

the Dravidian colonists .

The city of Tha—hton,now 8 miles from the sea

,was

,at the time of

i ts foundation by the colonists,and for some centuries afterwards, on

the coast . In the th ird century before Christ , Buddhist missionariesreached Tha—hton

,and two centuries later

,the capital of the Talaing

kingdom was transferred to Pegu,and the Burmese

,who were moving

southwards,came into contact wi th the Buddhist Talaings

,and through

them acqu ired their alphabet,their li terature , and their rel igion . The

oppression and cruel ty endured by the Talaings,as the whole M on race

was now called, at the hands of their conquerors, the Burmese , explainsthe rapid disappearance of the Mon language

,and the migration into

Tenasserim during the early days of British rule . Their language was

discouraged after the conquest of Pegu by Alompra i n 1 7 57 , and

furiously proscribed after the first Burmese war,in which the Talaings

assisted the Brit ish arms , and it has ever s ince been rapidly giving wayto Burmese .

In physical characterist ics the Talaings differ l ittle from the Burmese .

B Ue IA , BRI TI SH 183

Their features are perhaps more regular,the nose is not so flat, and the

face is longer. The complexion of the men is often of a darker and

less yellow hue than that of the Burman . Sometimes they have beendescribed as fairer than the Burmese . The Dravidians have left notrace of their coloniz ation in the language of the natives

,beyond the

name Talaing ; and the Hindu sculptures found at Tha-hton , Pagat, andelsewhere , are the only permanent record of the existence of an ancientH indu colony in the neighbourhood

,unless we are to ascribe the

d ifferences of feature characterist ic of the Talaing to an admixture ofDravidian blood . There are in British Burma pure Talaings

,

and persons of mingled Burmese and Talaing parentage,or

Talaings who speak only Burmese . Of the pure Talaings more thanhalf are in Amherst District . Under the head of the M ramma

fam i ly, and included in a group which may be called Burmese, comethe Arakanese , Burman , Tavoy, Chaungtha, Yaw,

and Yabein languagesand races .

The Arakanese, also , differ but little in feature from the Burmese ;and though their spoken language is so dissimilar from that of thelatter as to be almost unintelligible , when writ ten it i s the same inalmost all respects . The Chaung thas , or

‘ children of the stream,

’ arebut a part of the Arakanese nat ion . The Yaws also are a people no t

differing much from the Burmese either in race or language . They liveon a western tributary of the I rawadi, about the latitude of Pagan , andhave been described as the pedlars of Upper Burma . The Yabein i salmost indis tingu ishable from the Burmese in feature

,and the only

p ractical d is t inct ion between the two is that the former are rearers ofsilkworms

,an occupation seldom or never adopted by the pure Burman .

The Burmese in their tradit ions claim for themselves a western origin

and a connection with the solar races of India . I t is probable that thelower part of the valley of the Ganges was formerly occupied by peoplespeaking languages of the clas s sometimes called M ramma before theadvent of the Aryans but

,as regards the Burmese, it seems more natural

to believe,as Sir Arthur Phayre writes , that they passed from the table

lands of Central Asia round the Eastern Hima’

layas . A kingdom was

formed at Tagaung ; and thence, i t is said , a portion of the people went

westwards into Arakan , while the remainder moving southwards,

founded fresh kingdoms in Prome and Toung-

gu ,where the Burmese

language is still supposed to be spoken in greater purity than elsewhere

in Burma .

The hill tribes of Arakan who l ive near the Kuladan river and itstributaries

,namely

,the Sak, Chaw,

Kwaym i, Kun , Mro, and Shandu ,belong by origin to the same M ramma group as the Burmese

,

and their language belongs to what is sometimes called the Tibeto

Burman family . Of these h ill tribes , the ShandLis are the most warlike

184 B URIMA,191311 15 11.

and numerous ; they are probably the same race as the Kilkis , who ,according to Colonel Dalton , stretch from the valley of the Kuladanto the border of Manipur and Cachar, a distance of 300 miles . TheKwaym is and M ros differ but l ittle in appearance and habits . It is

probable that these tribes are more or less connected w ith the Nagas .The Chins or Khyins are widely extended in Bri t ish Burmah , beingfound on both sides of the Arakan Yoma

,and also in the Thayetmyo

and Prome Districts,to the east of the Irawadi river . In Upper Burma

there are large numbers . The most remarkable fact about them is thatthey tattoo the faces of their young girls so as not to leave even aneyelid free from the h ideou s operation . They are rapidly adoptingBurmese habits and clothing on the Pegu side of the Arakan Yomarange

,and their language is also giving way to Burmese .

The Karens are,next to the Burmese, the most numerous race in

Brit ish Burma . The oldest seat of these people is thought to havebeen on the north-west of China , where they may have come in contactw ith Jewish colonies

,and have acqu ired the traditions which have made

them so willing to accept Christ ianity at the hands of missionaries .

Thence the Karens,pressed by the growth of popu lat ion in Central

Asia,moved south towards Yunan ; and finding the country they had

intended for themselves already occupied by another race , the Shans,they turned off to the sou th-west

,proceeding along the hills on either

side of the Sittaung and Salwin rivers,and settling into their

present posi t ions about the sixth century of the Christ ian era. Thereare three main groups of Karens

,the Sgaw or Burman-Karen , the Pwo

orTalaing-Karen,and the Bhgeh or Bweh . The Karens of the delta of

the Irawadi,and of the interior of Tenasserim ,

including the District ofShwe-gyin

,belong to the Bwo and Sgaw. In Toung-

gu District, theSgaws are found in the west , and the Bwehs on the east . The latter are

also found in Salwin District . The Bwehs include the Red-Karens .The Shans are no t an indigenous race

,but they immigrate in con

s iderable numbers from the Shan States . Outside of British territorythey are very numerous

,stretching from the north-east of the kingdom

of Ava to Bankok . They are of the same origin as the Ahams and

Khamtis ofAssam . The appearance of the Shans in these more southernregions is of comparatively recent date . The completion

,in 1884 , of the

Rangoon and S i t taung Valley State Railway will, it is anticipated, causeShan immigration to assume important proportions . The Shans are

careful cult ivators,and hard working

,and are also great traders and

pedlars . The T aungthiis , owing to a similarity of dress,somewhat

resemble the Shans in personal appearance . They are rather short ofstature and th ickly built

,and are a clannish and taciturn people . The

name by which they are known signifies ‘ hillman,

’ but like the Shans ,they settle in the plains of Briti sh Burma. I t is bel ieved that the

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1 86 B URM A , BRI T/S f].

functions are to set an example by their pious l ives , and to instruct theyoung. In former times

,boys often left the monastic schools without

really learning to read and write ; and even those who did learn , foundit very difficult to keep up knowledge where there were no printed

books,and very little literature of any kind . Still the presence of a

body of monks,who observed their vows , who cultivated learning, and

who were held in high honour,had its effect on the Burmese . The

Buddhist monks are everywhere greatly respected , and the abbots andarchbishops are held in great veneration

,but the religious orders do not

e xercise,or pretend to

,much political influence . The Burmese pay

respect (M ono) after the ancient manner of their country . According tothis custom

,the inferior person kneels before the superior wi th bowed

head in the attitude of worship,and no Burman wi ll address a Buddhist

monk (P/znng yi ) in a monastery save in th is attitude of 5116120 or worship.

But to Burmese of the younger generation,who have learnt English

,or

who have been to Europe or America,the observance of th is custom is

repugnant . The increasing practice of s i tt ing on chairs marks anotherchange in social usage. Chairs are now u sed by Burman assessors inthe sessions courts

,by Burman j udges and magistrates in their own

courts , by Burman schoolmasters in government schools , by nativemembers of municipal committees

,and by the Sng yz

’

s (aldermen) ofthe larger towns. All these sit on chairs when transacting business ,especially if in the presence of Europeans .The people of Burma

,by reason of their excitability of character

,and

their disregard of the sanctity of human life,were formerly prone to

crimes of violence . Such offences were wont to be j udged leniently by

the community ; and i t is said that young Burmans of re spectable familywould engage in a robbery or a cattle- lifting expedit ion to prove theirmanhood . Even now

,murders and woundings are occasionally com

mitted without an adequate mot ive,as the follow ing instances wil l show.

A and B were neighbours in the same village . A was painting his boat ;B did not like the smell of the Operation

,and told A to desist . A went

o n painting his boat,and when he had finished

,in walking towards his

house he passed B,who cut him down with a chopper

,and killed him .

In another case,a wife cooked the daily meal for her husband ; he did

not l ike the curry she had made,and in his d ispleasure cut h is w ife

down,k i ll ing her . In neither case did it appear that there had been

much previous ill-feeling between the two parties,or that the murdered

person had given other offence to the murderer.Notwithstanding these occasional ebul li t ion s of violence

,a Burman

crowd is qu iet and law—abiding. At the recent Rangoon boat-races ,crowds of from to people were assembled for three days ,and during the whole time only one offence was reported to the police

as having occurred among the vast assemblage. Under ordinary cir

B (IRM A , 3 1311 15 11. 187

cumstances ,’

wrote the Army Commission of 1879,‘ there was no quieter

or more peaceful quarter of Her Maj esty’s Indian Empire than theProvince of British Burma . At the same time

,there is an element of

danger in the unsteady and excitable character of the people, amongwhom the prestige of the Court of Ava i s very great

,and on whom

disturbances or troub les on the Mandalay border might react in an

inconvenient and mischievous fash ion .

’ The maj ority of the respectableclasses are content with British rule

,and the people feel that they have

prospered since the annexation. High wages,bountiful returns to the

farmer, plentiful food, and freedom from Oppression,combine to make

the l ife of an ordinary Burman happy and comfortable.

Women in Burma occupy a much freer and happier posi tion thanthey do in Indian social l ife. They go about freely manage the household, buy the daily supplies in the oa

’

z a'

r,and in every respect take an

active part in domesti c affairs. Indu stry and thrift among women arepromoted by the custom according to which most girls

,even in well-to-do

families, work looms, or keep stalls in a oa’

z a’

r,till they get married.

The girls usually spend the profits of their undertakings on dress orpersonal adornment

,and they are not requ ired to contribute thei r earn

ings to the common family purse . The Burmese wives make successfulwomen of bus iness they conduct no t merely retail trades, but also largewholesale concerns

, on behalf of their husbands, with a l iberal , but at

the same t ime a shrewd,sagacity . The husband sometimes lives in

idleness on the fruits of his wife’s labour. The ratio of female to maleprisoners in Burma jails is less than half even the small proportion ofwomen in Indian prisons .The articles imported into Burma are luxuries rather than necessaries.

During the five years ending 188 1,the average surplus of imported over

exported treasure has been 1,

a year. The greater part of

this si lver and gold is converted into ornaments by both Burmans andKarens. I t would seem

,therefore

,that every household of s ix persons

in Brit ish Burma must have spent on the average about 1 2 a year on

imported articles and j ewellery . These figures indicate a high standardof comfort among Burman families. The average income of a Burmanhousehold is much larger than that of a family in Continental India.

Wealth is widely distributed . The majority of the people are comfortably off

,but there are few rich people . Burmans, as a rule, do not save

money.They are open-handed and lavish in their expenditure, giving

liberally in charity,and to their monasteries or other pious inst itutions .

They spend freely on dress, on j ewels , and on entertainments. The

f anys, or theatrical displays, which are given at the harvest-home , and

on other auspicious occasions in every Burman village, cost a good deal

of money,and are much enj oyed by the pleasure-loving people.

Outside the seaport towns, there are few Burmans who could raise

1 88 B URM A , B RI T I SH

£500 at a fortnight’s not ice even in Rangoon or Mau lmain , there are

hardly a score of Burmans who could raise, or whom the banks wouldtrust with

, £5000 . On the other hand , only a small proportion of the

people are in debt . L andholders get into debt sometimes when diseasecarries off their plough-cattle and gambling lands many Burmans intodiffi cu lties . In a small tract

,where special inqu iries were made by a

settlement officer,it was found that barely 20 per cent . of the cu ltivators

are in debt at all . I t is not yet known how far this freedom from debtis characterist ic of cu ltivators throughout the whole Province . Su its fordebt are few in comparison wi th the popu lation . Money-lenders of

the ordinary Indian type are almost unknown in Burman villages . InRangoon and other large towns

,a certain number of money-lenders from

the M adras coast,—o/zem

’

5 as they are locally called,~—have establi shed

themselves . At one t ime it was feared that they would get possessionof the cultivator

’

s lands, bu t there is no ground for this anxiety . Out

of 6833 cultivators in the neighbourhood of Rangoon town , only 58

mortgaged any part of their holdings in a year ; and in only nine of

these cases did the lands pass into the hands of a native of India .

The rate of interest i s high,and varies according to the security

given .

In all political,social , or special questions which may arise in Burma,

i t shou ld be remembered that there are no hereditary chiefs, nobles ,or great landholders . Even under nat ive rule, the members of theroyal family and the officials constituted the only aristocratic class . InBrit ish Burma the officials

,the elders in the larger villages or towns, and

a few merchants and professional men,are the only persons socially

above the level of the prospe rous cultivators.

The peop le are , as a rule, comfortably housed . Outside the largeseaport towns there are few masonry dwellings . Wood is plentiful, andmost houses are built of timber or bamboos on piles. Their height

above the ground varies with the average depth of the inundations ; butalmost every house is thus raised

,and the sleeping-room is usually in the

upper storey . In poorer parts of the country, houses are built mainlyof bamboos and thatch . In the richer tracts of the delta , and along

the great rivers,they are constructed of so l id posts and well-seasoned

beams,with plank floo rs

,and ado rned with woo d carvings or quaint

pictures . In every such house there is at least one long-armed loungingchair, in which the master of the hou se takes his ease after the day

’swork . The houses of the Karens

,who are less ready to spend money

than Burmans,are usually meaner . In the recesses of the fo rest

,where

some of the Karens sh ift their dwelling-place every two or three years, a

Karen settlement of ten or twenty famil ies live together under a commonroof ; each family having one or more rooms opening on the commonpassage which runs between the two rows of rooms . These settlements

,

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I 90 5 (IRM A , 5 1311 15 11.

55 . per basket in the Rangoon market . The advantages from the

successfu l cu lt ivation of wheat in Brit ish Burma would be three-fold .

First,large tracts of land

,unsuitable for rice cult ivation, would be

brought under the plough ; second, the people would have a dry

weather harvest to fall back upon in case of the partial failure of theirrice ; third, the agricu ltural development of the Province wou ld not

depend on a single crop , and the land revenue would benefit inthe most legit imate way. To encourage wheat cu lt ivation

,suitable

ploughs and seed of the best descriptions of Indian wheat are being

supplied free, and very favourable terms have been allowed to allcult ivators who undertake the experiment .The climate and the soil of Burma are well adapted for the cultivation

and manufacture of tobacco , which thrives alike in the alluvial plains ofthe Ku ladan and Irawadi deltas and in the hill regions of the Province .

The leaf of the Kuladan and the Kyaukkyi regions enj oys a highrepu tat ion . The whole population

,men

,women

,and children

,may be

said to be inveterate smokers . The women have a natural aptitude forthe rolling of cigars , which is one of the chief domestic industries

of the Province . The area under tobacco is acres,or 03 8 per

cent . of the total cultivation . The tobacco grown in Burma is,never

theless,i nsufficient for the wants of the people. Estimating a yield of

7 50 lbs . of tobacco per acre, the total out-turn of the Province is overlbs . of cured tobacco leaf. In 1 88 1—8 2

,tobacco leaf to

the amount of lbs . was imported from India,chiefly from

Madras . Cigars to the extent of lbs . were in the same yearexported from Burma. The net consumption per Burman in the formof cigars i s 7 lbs . The importance, therefore , of tobacco as an article

of domestic consumption in Burma is evident ; and, irrespective of aforeign demand

,there is a large field for private enterprise . Hitherto

,

the leaf has been cured in the rudest fashion ; but i t i s believed thatwith improved cultivation and a better system of curing

,the tobacco of

Burma wil l be able to take a place in foreign markets . With this view,

arrangements have been made for the more scientific cultivation of theplant

,and for curing the leaf on the American method

,by the establish

ment of a tobacco farm and factory under Government auspices, to

merge ultimately into a private enterprise .

Sugar is both a necessity and a luxury to Burmans , and as much in

demand as tobacco . Most of the people are tea drinkers in the

Chinese fashion , and they take a piece of caked sugar wi th each

mouthful of tea that they drink . The local consumption of sugar isgreat

,and as the Province does not at present produce anything like a

sufficient quantity , large importations are made . The area under sugar

cane in Burma in 188 1—8 2 was only 6 2 5 1 acres . L ike tobacco,i t

thri ves more or less in all parts of the Province,but particularly in

B UR i

’l/A , BRI T ISH 191

Shwe-gyin and th e coast Districts . The total product ion of crude brownsugar in the Province in 188 1—8 2 was about 2 7 79 tons , of which 434tons were exported. The total imports by sea and land for the sameyear amounted to nearly 1 tons

,giving a total yearly consumption

of nearly tons, or about 85 lbs . per head of the population . Theuse of sugar by the Burmans in their tea

,which the people of India do

not drink as an art icle of diet,shows that there i s a large local demand

wait ing to be satisfied , and that th is demand would increase withextended cultivation. At present the cu ltivation of the cane is carriedon in the rudest and most primitive fashion the land in many cases is

not even ploughed, artificial irrigation is not thought of, and manure israrely applied. The cane is planted out from August to October, andripens in twelve months .Jute of several kinds grows wild in Burma, but is rarely cultivated .

It is found in great profusion on the sites of deserted or dilapidatedvillages, and on the edges of swamps, and the fibre obtained from eventhe wild plan t i s soft

,glossy, and strong. The importance of jute to

Burma will be obvious when it i s seen that the value of bagging

imported into the Province in 1 88 1—8 2 was 3 2 1 . As the rawmaterial of these bags is a plant indigenous to the Province, encouragement has been given to the people to cult ivate it, and supplies of the

best seeds have been largely distributed .

Cotton i s not a crop which the Burmans care to cult ivate . I tscultivation demands much labour

,and the cl imate of the greater part of

the Province appears to be unsuited for it . In 188 1—82 , the total areaunder cotton was acres. The average yield of cleaned cotton

per acre for the whole Province was, o f field grown, 160 lbs. of hill

grown (taungya), 40 lbs.In a Province l ike Burma

,where the peasants are averse to undertak

ing any cultivation except that which, with the least outlay of labourand money, yields the highest return, and where the people are, as arule

,fond of ease, what is likely to be really useful to them, and to

convince them that much more can be made out of their lands even on

their own methods,i s a series of experimental farms conducted under

the eyes of the peasantry . With this view several have been started invari ous parts of the Province, in which the principal cereals and otherimportant crops are being cultivated according to the Burmese methods,but with care and industry . I t i s hoped that the people will, whenthey perceive the harvests yielding a good return in money, graduallytake to improved methods

,and interest themselves in the raising of new

kinds of produce.The stimulus of an unfailing market for raw produce

has borne very remarkable fruit . When the people saw steam ricemills springing up at the great ports, where they could dispose of theirunhusked rice at good prices

,they found it to their advantage to

192 B UR/51A ,B RI TI SH .

extend the cultivation as fast as they could get land,and cattle to work

it . In 1 867—68

,the area under rice was only acres ; there

were then 7 rice mills in the whole Prov ince . In 1 88 1—82, the number

of mills had risen to 49, and the area under rice cultivation toacres

,or by 89 per cent . in 14 years . The total cu ltivated area assessed

to revenue in 1 88 1—82 was acres, and the total revenue

assessed was j£656, 1 6 2 .

T aung ya or j ziin cu ltivation prevails ch iefly on the Northern ArakanHills . This system consists in clearing a patch of forest land

,sett ing

fi re to the fallen jungle, and then sowing in the ashes a miscellaneouscrop of cotton

,rice

,and pumpkins or other vegetables, all of which

ripen i n about five months . The assessment on s m cultivation isgenerally made by means o f a poll-tax on the husbandman

,or on his

house,irrespective o f the amount of his clearing . The area thus culti

vared in 1 88 1—82 was estimated at acres,as compared wi th

acres in 1 87 5 ; bu t the returns can hardly be relied on, owingto the nomadic habit of the cult ivators. As popu lation increases

,a

tendency from extensive to intens ive husbandry discloses itself,and

j zii ncult ivation is being pushed back more and more into the hills andsparsely—populated tracts , before the advance of plough and t illage.L and Tenures .

— The system of land tenure in Burma is simple .

Government is the sole proprietor of the soil,and deals directly with

the cultivator,from whom it receives a rent varying from rs . to 105 .

an acre . The average assessment is about 3 s . 3d. There are no

o /nz’

ndtirs or large landed proprietors, and no Government or wards’

estates . A new-comer is allowed total exemption from all rent andtaxes for a certain period, to enable him to clear his grant . Govern

ment then levies a rent 20 per cent . lower than in other Provinces ofIndia ; and requires only 2 annrf s (3d. ) an acre for land which may beleft fallow. Besides this, a generous allowance is made to the settler

for failure in crops or cattle, and he can at any time avail h imself offive or ten years’ settlement on exceedingly liberal terms . About onefifth of the area tilled is held under such leases ; the other four-fi fthso f the hold ings being annually re-measured and assessed by revenueofficials

,styled t/zzigyi

’

s,who are paid by a commission on their collections

.

The holdings average about 8 acres in extent .The basis of the land revenue settlement has been — 20 per cent .

of the gross produce, after many deductions , payable to Government inmoney at the rates of the price of grain in the circle wi th in which theland is situated . Practically a lower percentage is taken . In the

Districts of Rangoon , Bassein , and Henz ada, and in the whole of theTenasserim Division, each male engaged in ionngya cultivat ion pays a

tax of two shillings per annum while in the Districts of Toung-

gu and

Prome,and generally in the Arakan Division

,each family is assessed at

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194 B URM A, BRI TI SH:

Rs . 2 5 or £2,

per 1 00 bushels ; in 1 878 (owing to thedemand for grain during the famine in Southern India) , i t rose to £ 1 3

per 1 00 bushels,the highest price realiz ed after that year it fell steadily,

and in 188 2 the price was 5, 2 5 . per 100 bushels . The average

prices of produce rul ing in the Province at the end of 1 88 1- 8 2,per

mo und of 80 lbs . , were—fl for rice , 6s . ; for uncleaned cotton , 2 o s . ; forsugar

,i 7s . ; for tobacco, 305 . 6d. ; for oil-seeds, 105 . 9 Uncleaned

cotton at the t ime of the annexation was obtainable at £1 per 1 00

airs (365 i t now fetches more than four times that sum . Theaverage price of a bu llock has increased from Rs . 10 1 ) to Rs . 60

Bamboos which used to be sold at Rs . 25 (5s ) per 1 000, now

fetch abou t 2,or Rs. 2 0 .

M eans of Coin/nnnicaizon.

— Next to labour,the most urgent want o f

the country is land communication . There are thousands of villages

which are shu t o ff from trade for at least eight months of the year

by reason of the lack of roads . The needs of the Delta and theriver tracts are in some measure supplied by the steamers and boatswhich ply on the rivers and tidal creeks, while the railways supply cheapmeans of transit to the plains which they traverse. But for want o f anetwork of roads connecting the remoter towns and villages with themain lines of communication

,the extension of cultivation and the pro

sperity of the country are retarded . During only four months of the

year can the surplus produce of the country immediately adj oining theriver tracts or plains be conveyed to the river or railway in carts ;during the remainder of the year even this portion is quite shut off

from the means of communication . No fewer than 8 of the 18

Districts o f the Province are destitute o f roads ; they do not possessa single mile of metalled or bridged road outside the headquartertown . Road - making in Burma is slow work

,owing to the wan t

of labour and metal . No road—m e tal is available in many Districtsexcept broken brick ; and in a country wi th a heavy rainfall, a road o f

this material requires constant care and repairs after i t i s made,par

ticularly if the traffic is at all heavy . There are only 1 3 10 miles o fmade road in the whole Province

,portions of which are impassable

during the rains. There is abundance of waterway throughout theIrawadi delta all the year round . The S ittaung valley

,however

,has no

such advantages .

There are now ( 1884) two l ines of railway in the Province. One

,

following the valley of the Irawadi, called the‘ Irawadi Valley State

Railway,’1 63 miles in length , connects the capital Rangoon wi th Prome.

This line was opened in 1 8 7 7 , and the results have been most satisfactory . The other l ine, called the ‘ Rangoon and S ittaung Valley

State Railway,’ also 1 63 miles in leng th , connects the capital wi th the

military station of Toung-gu. This line, now approaching completion ,

B URJ IA, BRI TI SH. 195

will, i t is expected, attract the whole of the trade with Karengni andthe Shan States

,and not only open up fertile districts as yet without

means of communication,but also secure the frontier of Toung—gu,

which in its presen t isolation is exposed to some peril . A navigablecanal

,about 40 miles in length , with locks , between the S ittaung and

Irawadi rivers , has been , after some years in construct ion, now com

pleted ; it i s intended to avoid the dangers of the bore in the Sittaungestuary . It carried tons of boat traffic in 188 1

,besides timber

rafts,and its completion has caused great extensions of cult ivation

in the tract through which it passes—a tract previously water-loggedand without means of communication . A similar canal has now beenundertaken from Rangoon

,through the rich townsh ip of Twantay, into

Thongwa (Thun - khwa) District, between the Rangoon and Irawadi

rivers . Proposals for the clearing of several old channels,the real

highways of Burmese traffic, in order to make them again navigable,

are also receiving attention . During 188 1,two extra services of coasting

steamers were , by the help of Government subsidies,established for the

purpose of affording weekly communication , i nwards and outwards,with the Districts of Kyauk—hpyu, Tavoy, and Mergui, and fortnightlywith Sandoway .

Commerce, M onufaeinres , eie.

— For centuries the seaboard o f Burmahas been visited by ships from many countries . Bassein

,under its

classic name of Kusimanagara, corrupted by the Talaings into Kutheim

or Kusein, and by the Europeans who visited i t into Cosmin, was aflourishing port in the 1 2th century. At a later period we find Arabs

and other Asiat ic races in constant communication wi th Arakan,Pegu

,

and Tenasserim. Towards the beginning of the second half of the

14th century,Muhammadan merchants carried on a brisk trade

between Pegu and the countries east and west. The Arabs brought toBurma goods of European manufacture as well as the produce of their

own country ; and large sea - going boats from M rohaung , the capital

of the Arakan kingdom ,visited the ports of Bengal ,

The principal exports from Bassein and Pegu were gold,silver

,

rubies,sapphires (all j ewels were excessively cheap, or as Frederick

has it,sold ‘ at most vile and base long-pepper

,lead

,tin

,lac

,

rice,and some sugar . The imports from Arabia and the Persian Gulf

to Syriam (an ancient emporium o f Burma, 3 miles from the mouth of

the Pegu river) , were woollen cloths, scarlet velvets , and opium ; andfrom Madras and Bengal,

‘ painted cloth of Masulipatam and white

cloth of Bengala, which is spent there (Pegu) in great quantity.

’ Thetrade of Malacca and places to the eastward was with Martaban

,then a

flourishing port of Tenasserim the imports being porcelain from China,

camphor from Borneo, and pepper from Achin . From Arakan,rice was

the principal export, the imports being musl ins, woollens, cutlery, piece

196 B URJIA, BRI T I SH.

goods,and glass and crockery ware . Tenasserim exported tin largely

The continual wars between the Burmese and Siamese ruined the trade

of the south ; and on the conquest of Arakan by the former in 1 784 ,

commerce was so hampered by vexat ious restrict ions and proh ibitions

that it almost ceased .

After the cession of the country to the Brit ish , Akyab rapidly rose

in importance, and the inland trade with Upper Burma across themountains increased to such an extent that it competed seriously withthe sea-borne trade at Bassein and Rangoon . Owing to the facilities

for inland communication by the creeks, Akyab is and wil l remain the

real port of Arakan . The trade of Tenasserim also, when the Britishcame into possession

, was at a very low ebb . The country , however,had extensive teak forests

,which led to the foundation of the town of

Maulmain,where ship-building could be extensively carried on. The

favourable situation of this town at the mouth of the Salwin , where iti s j oined by two other tributaries

,all three rivers tapping countries

exceedingly rich in teak,has enormouslv developed the t imber trade .

In 1 836—3 7 , the exports from Mau lmain consisted almost entirely

of teak t imber,which real iz ed a revenue of £2 080 ; fi ve years later

i t was £54 18 . In 185 1—5 2 i t had risen to £7 1 63 . In 1 860—6 1

, thetotal value of the imports at Maulmain was and of theexports the total duty real iz ed being and theaggregate tonnage of vessels calling at and leaving the port in the same

year being tons . Ship-building,which during the period of its

greatest activity, from 1 83 7 to 1 858 , was principally for Europeanowners , has s ince almost ent irely ceased, in consequence of the rise inprice of materials and labour. In 1 840 ,

the price of teak was Rs . 2 5a ton

,in 188 1—82 i t was Rs . 63 6s ) ; unskilled labour

rose from 145 . to 305 . a month,and skilled labour from 305 . to £5.

The commercial prosperity of Brit ish Burma has more than keptpace with its rapidly increasing populat ion . Since 1 855, the externaltrade of the Province has risen from to in188 1—82

, as the following figures show. Value of sea—borne tradein 1 88 1—8 2

, imports exports value of landfrontier trade , imports exports total value

,

imports exports aggregating a total of

Rangoon absorbs about 90 per cent . of the whole of theforeign import trade, and about 60 per cent . of the foreign export trade .

The trade, especially the rice traffic to Europe , i s employing steamers

more largely every year . The Indian craft and j unks,which used to

do much of the trade along the coast,to India on the one side and to

the Straits Settlements on the other,are decreasing before the com

petition of the coast ing steamers, of which there are now three or fourlines , besides the mail steamers of the British India Company.

The

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I 98 5 5 1311 1511.

Next to occupations connected with the preparation of rice for themarket

,the most important industry is weaving. At Prome, Shwe—daung,

Yandun,and other towns in the Irawadi valley, there u sed to be a

large production of silkpatroes , inineins , and gazingoanngr (garment pieces

worn by Burmese men and women ) . Bu t the power- looms of Europeare now sending large supplies of these fabrics woven on Burmesemodels . These undersell the local fabrics

,and the latter are now

produced in smaller quantity. The nat ive cloths are 30 per cent .

dearer,but stronger and more durable

,both in texture and in colour,

than the imported fabrics . Almost every Burmese man and womanhas one or more of these silk garment pieces to be worn on festivals,or oftener if the owner can afford it . E fforts are being made topopulari z e improved forms of looms and shu ttles brought from England

in 1880,and their use is being taught in several Karen schools .

The manufacture of earthenware is carried on in most parts of theProvince

,and cons iderable artist ic success has been at tained in the

potteries at Shwe-gyin and Bassein . Drinking vessels,boxes and other

articles of lacquer ware are largely made everywhere , and every Burmesemonk has two or three large lacquer vessels for collecting dailycon tributions of food from his disciples . The groundwork of thesearticles consists of very fine bamboo wickerwork

,on which are overlaid

coats of lacquer,the ch ief ingredient in which is the oil or resin from

the i/zi/s z'

tree . L ittle or no real lac is used in the Burmese ware .

The Burmese exhibit proficiency in the art o f wood—carving ; their

temples,monasteries

,and sometimes their dwelling-houses are orna

m ented with a profusion of quaint and delicate designs,and skilful

master-carvers in wood are much esteemed . Formerly the carversdevoted their labours almost entirely to the ornamentation of religiousedifices, but of late years they have shown themselves ready to complywi th the demand which has sprung up among Europeans for specimensof their handiwork .

Boat-bu ilding, cart-making, mat-weaving, torch-making,the manu

facture of paper,umbrella-mak ing

,ivory-carving

,and stone-cu tt ing are

also branches of industry among the Burmese . Ironsmiths are found inalmost every village

,but their skill i s l imited . In iron the manufacture

of fees for pagodas, and in brass the casting of bells and of imagesof G autama, may be ment ioned . Quaint , beaut iful gold and silver work

is everywhere made . Rep onssé si lver bowls are to be found in everymonastery and in every respectable Burman’s house . Enamelling on

s ilver, or the manufacture of what is known as viello work,is also

practised in Shwe-gyin and Thayet—myo Districts . As a ru le,Burmans

of'

all classes invest their savings in gold and silver ornaments.The

refining and preparation of cutch for the home market in Prome and

Thayet—myo Districts afford employment to a large number of people .

B URM A,BRI TI SH 199

The manufacture of paper from bamboos is also to be tried , and if

successful an important new industry will soon grow up .

The condiment known as ngn-p i (from nga,‘ fish ,

’ and pi,‘to be

pressed made from fi sh,is universally used by Burmans and Talaings

throughout British and Upper Burma. I t is of three kindsnga

-

p i—ganng , or whole fish salted ; tanng tfi d nga

-j'i,

‘ fish paste,’ and

seinm nga-

p i, or‘ raw eaten

,

’ because i t i s eaten uncooked in Arakan

this last i s known as ng a-

pi nyin, and in Tavoy and Mergui as gwe ; byEuropeans it is called balaenong , the name given to it in the Straits of

Malacca . Salt is manufactured all round the coast , but the importat ion of cheap salt from England has seriously affected the manufacture .

The western provinces of China,and the Kakhyen and Shan States

between China and Ava, are to a considerable extent dependent on

British Burma for salt,and large quantit ies are sent to Bhamo . In

1 88 1—82,

mounds of salt were sold at Rangoon for UpperBurma

,of which mo unds

,valued at were exported

to that region .

The [and frontier trade i s conducted mainly by the Irawadi route,and nearly all the traffic is carried by the steamers of the Irawadi

flotilla . This Company began business in 1868 by taking over twoor three old Government steamers and flats . They now possess 30

steamers and 44 flats,and send two or more steamers with flats to

Mandalay twice a week,and a steamer once a fortnight

,or oftener if

need be,to Bhamo

,which place is with in 4 days

’ j ourney of the southwest frontier of China. Their steamers and flats also ply on the creeksand rivers of the Pegu delta. The Company receives subsidiesaggregating in all a year. The service they do to the Pro

vince is immense,as they carry yearly between British and Independent

Burma goods to the value of about 31, millions sterling, besides aboutpassengers—over and above the large traffic they do in purely

British waters . Although they have practically a monopoly of theIrawadi traffic, their charges are not excessive ; for instance , they carry

salt cargoes from Rangoon to Bhamo,a distance of over 750 miles

up stream , for Rs . 1 1 1,

per ton . Three or four steamers

belonging to the King of Burma also ply on the river,but get little

freight, although the trade to Mandalay is entirely in the hands of

Chinese and Musalman merchants . The only other steamers plying onthe rivers in Burma are small craft belong ing to Chinese and Burmese

merchants , which run from Rangoon rather irregularly to Yandiin and

Pegu . Negotiations have been completed with a Maulmain fi rm torun small steamers for a subsidy on the Salwin and Damdami rivers toimportant trading towns outside Maulmain

.

The value of the inland trade of British Burma,by 3 river and 1 7 land

routes,aggregated in 1 88 1—82

, the imports amounting to

2 00 B URM A , BRI TI SH

and the exports to In 1 880—8 1 , theaggregate value of the imports and exports was 5 25 .

A considerable quantity of teak timber from Upper Burma andthe semi- independent States between Siam and Ava enters Britishterritory between the Si t taung and Salwin rivers . Very little other

merchandise enters or leaves Brit ish Burma by either of these rivers,which are hardly navigable beyond the frontier. The trade on theSalwin consists entirely of t imber floated down from the forests borderingthat river and the T houngyin,

which j oins it on the British frontier. A

certain proport ion of the inland trade is carried on pack-bullocks,on

elephants,and on men’s backs

,across the borders of Thayet -myo ,

Kyauk-hpyu, Tavoy , Amherst, and Toung-gu Districts , and by a few of

these Districts cattle and ponies are imported. Three-fourths of the

whole inland trade is registered on the Irawadi route . The Mandalaytrade

,as the traffic with and through Upper Burma is called

,is entirely

in the hands of Chinese, Muhammadan , and Burmese merchants. Withthe except ion of one English firm

,who have taken the cutch monopoly

,

and two or three timber contractors , Europeans have no direct dealingswith Mandalay, though they sell to and buy from the Chinese andnative firms which deal wi th that place . The trade across the landfrontier of Brit ish Burma is, according to the latest published reports

,

nearly one-half of the whole traffic that crosses the land frontier ofcontinental India

,from Karachi on the wes t to Chittagong on the east .

But the Mandalay trade wou ld expand indefinitely,i f only a safe road

existed between Bhamo and the confines of Western China. Theflotilla steamers reach Bhamo from Rangoon in 1 5 or 2 0 days . For themillions of Chinese in Yunan and Southern Sz echuen, the Irawadi andBhamo route would perhaps be the best trade route with Europe.

Mr. Colquhoun,an engineer officer of Burma

,made in 1 88 1 a

most enterprising j ourney from Canton through the Chinese provinces of Kwantung

,Kwangsi

,and Southern Yunan to Esmau on the

Cambodia river. Thence he had intended to make his way through theShan States to Z immeh

,from which there is a good route to Maul

main . But at Esman he was compelled to return northwards up thevalley of the Cambodia river for about 2 20 miles to Talifu in WesternYunan ; whence he came to Rangoon by way of Bhamo and Mandalay. The Cambodia valley

,north of Esmau

,was found to be rich

and studded wi th populous cities,and it had not been previously visited

by Europeans . Esman is about 4 20 miles from the h ighest navigablepoint on the Salwin river, and abou t 480 miles from Maulmain

. For

the greater part of this distance the route passes over hilly,sparsely

peopled country , where a wheeled veh icle has hardly been seen ; and

the peaks between Esman and British territory rarely reach 6000 feet inheight, while the passes probably range from 2000 to 4000 feet . The

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2 02 B URM A,BRI T I SH

District are in progress . L imesz‘one occurs in isolated patches alongthe Arakan Hills from Thayet-myo to Bassein , and in Tenasserim

it forms a range of hills . The best lime i s brought from a place called

Kyauktalone (monolith) near Mau lmain . T in i s found at M aliwrin,

where i t is picked from the beds of streams by Chinese . An Englishfi rm made an exploration of thi s local ity some years ago , but discoveredthat there was not enough tin to repay European capital and labour .The recent abol ition of the export duty is said to have stimu lated theproduction o f the metal in Southern Tenasserim. G old is found insmall quanti t ies at Shwe-gyin , once noted for its gold diggings, whichare now exhausted . A search made for the quartz reefs , from which

the gold in the river is derived , was unsuccessful . There i s lead inShwe—gyin District which has drawn the attention of capi tal ists ; andantimony is found in the T oungwaing Hills at Maulmain

,where i t

occurs disseminated in small grains through the rocks .

Bora hs—At least square miles of hill,valley

,and plain in

Bri t ish Burma are covered w ith forests and woods of one kind or

another . These forests yield ample supplies of t imber,bamboos and

other products to the people of the country . Bu t to the world outsideBu rma

,the forests are chiefly known from the teak timber and the

cu tch (a dye and tannin obtained by boiling chipped wood of the Aeaein

caret/111) which they produce . Teak has been exported for many years

from Rangoon (the value in 1805 was bu t in the earlyperiods the forests in Tenasserim and the Shari States were but l ittleworked . After the cession to the Brit ish of Arakan and Tenasserim

,

the forests were examined,and the Government directed that they

should be reserved as Stat e property . Al though the price of teak hasrisen 50 per cent . , there has been no decrease in the demand . Theaverage annual yield of teak timber from Burma

,for the five years

ending 1 880—8 1,was about tons

, of which tons,worth

about were exported . In 1 88 1—82,the out-turn of teak was

tons from Government forests,and the imports from foreign

territory tons , total tons the exports from Rangoon and

Maulmain being returned at tons . During the five years ending1 88 1—82

,1 3 per cent . of the total quantity was yielded by forests in

Briti sh territory, and 8 7 per cent . by forests beyond the frontier ; and of

the total out-turn 2 3 per cent . was used in the country itself, while the

remainder was exported . On the average , i t may be stated that one- fi fth

of the present teak supply is from forests in Brit ish Burma,and four-fi fths

from trans—frontier forests situated on the upper waters of the Salwin,

Sittaung, and Irawadi rivers . Improvements in water communicationwi ll probably open out fresh sources of teak supply in the upper valleys o fthe Siam and Cambodia rivers— local ities which have not yet been tapped .

The Government revenue derived from forests in Briti sh Burma for

5 URM A , 5 1311 1511. 2 03

188 1—82 was as compared with in 18 7 1—7 2 . The

expenditure in 188 1—8 2 was showing a surplus ofThere seems little chance that the demand for teak wil l abate ; its

employment for a variety of purposes in Europe and other countries i s

sti ll steadily extending. In the trans-frontier forests there has hithertobeen much waste

,and no attempt at conservancy . I t has become

necessary, therefore, i n view of the increasing demand for teak , that the

forests of British Burma should be systematically conserved. The firststep in th is direction was to protect from fi re and from the axes of the

jungle tribes the best teak—producing areas . The Karens and other h il ltribes often prefer a teak forest for their innngyas or nomadic cult i

vation . As already explained,the nomadic cultivator cuts down th e

forest on three to five acres early in the year,burns the timber and

brushwood when dry,sows m ixed crops in the ashes

,and reaps them

in the cold season . The following spring he goes on to another plotof forest

,and treats that in the same way . Meanwhile bamboos and

underwood grow up on the plot he has abandoned . After a period of

seven to fourteen years he returns to his first clearing,or to one of h i s

neighbours’, and begins the process over again or he goes off to

another valley and cuts fresh innng yos there, return ing after 2 0 or 2 5

years to his old ground . I t i s not only the axe of the Karens thatdestroys the teak forests . The fires which they kindle at the season wheneverything i s driest

,spread far and wide

,and kill the trees and saplings

for many miles round a single Karen hamlet . To prevent th is yearlydestruction of valuable forests is the chief aim of the forest offi cials

,and

already 3 2 74 square miles of teak-producing forests have been selectedand demarcated as reserves

,at a total expenditure up to 1 88 1—8 2 of 7 7 7 1 .

The Karens and other hil l tribes dislike forest reservation,partly

because it brings some hardships,but ch iefly because it puts restraint

on the boundless licence they have been wont to enj oy . The attitudeof these people is thus described by the Pegu conservator . He says :‘ The Karens themselves say that once they were like j ungle-fowl

,hiding

where they liked,scratch ing the earth here and there

,and putt ing in a grain

of rice,and eating what came of i t if the 111115 (i.e. spirits) permitted ,

but that now the Forest Department put them into boundaries hereand boundaries there

,and that they feel like pigs in a pen . But after a

certain t ime has elapsed,they rarely deny that their latter state is prefer

able to their former,more especially in or near fi re-traced reserves

,where

work is constantly obtainable. With the careful way in which inquiries are

made and privileges and rights granted, we have a right to expect suchfavourable results. ’ This

,i t must be remembered

,is the statement o f

a forest officer, who naturally thinks well of his own Department. I twould really appear, however, that owing to the large surplus of avail

able land, forest conservation does not press so hard upon the people of

204 B URM A , BRI TI SH

Burma as it does in some of the densely-crowded Distr icts of the Indianpeninsula. Although the area of the reserv es is now so large , there wereonly two breaches of the ru les and no prosecutions in the Tenasserim ,

and only nine prosecutions in the Pegu Circle . Eventually these reserv esw i ll cover an area of some 4000 square miles, out of which at least 2 500

square miles wi ll,wi th in the next forty years, yield annually an average of

about 1 0 cubic feet to the acre, or 1 2 8 tons of teak per square mile . At

this rate the yield of the reserves ought to reach tons per annum .

In addition to the protection of the reserves, small areas are regu larlyplanted with teak each year by the hill tribes in their ianngyar, at a cost

of from Rs . 8 ( 1 6s . ) to Rs . 14 ( 2 8s ) per each acre planted ; and up to1 88 1—82 no less than 8000 acres were covered with teak plantations, ata cost of or £4, 1 2 5 . per acre . The average number ofseedlings per acre is 600 . These plantations are being extended at therate of 1 200 acres a year

,and i t is believed that they ought to be

yielding mature teak about 80 years hence. I t has been calculated thatacres of plantation should yield at least 1 000 tons of teak a

year,bu t i t has still to be proved how far mature teak wi ll come to

perfection in plantations . Sixty or seventy years hence, if teak continues to be in demand

,the forest reserves of British Burma ought to

yield a revenue of a year.A l though teak is the most valuable produce of the Burmese forests ,

there are many other kinds of valuable timber with which the

people build their houses . The iron wood (pyin-

g ao’o) yields large and

durable house-posts,rai lway sleepers

,and piles for timber bridges, while

other variet ies of trees furnish good scantlings and planks . As teak getsdearer

,these woods are coming into more general use

,and someth ing

has been done to introduce the more handsome Burmese woods intothe furniture trade of Europe .

The experimental cultivation of various exotics has been tried

at Mergui and T harrawadi,with success . At Thandaung

,some miles

to the north of Toung-gu ,there are about plants of cinchona

,

which , however, do not thrive so well as could be wished . The cult ivationof tea and coffee at Thandaung

,undertaken recently as an experiment

,

promises to be successful,as the plants of both are growing well .

The interior Districts of the Tenasserim Division,owing to their

sparse population and the absence of communication,still remain

for the most part a term incognito . Hundreds of square miles of wastelands , covered with valuable timber, grass , and bamboos , here await the

enterpris ing pioneers of industries,who have made Ceylon , Assam ,

andother parts of India the centres of a flourish ing commerce . A lmost al l

the products that have gained for the Straits a reputation grow in thesetracts . For tea, coffee, and cinchona, the condit ions of success are saidto be as good as in Ceylon , Coorg, or Assam . On the other hand ,

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206 B URM A ,BRI TI SH

R eziemze, (fin—The statistics given in the foregoing pages illustratethe remarkable progress made by the Province since i t came underBritish administration . Its growing prosperity is not less strikingly

shown by the figures of the preceding table. The revenue of Arakanexpanded between 1 826 and 1855 from to whilethat of Tenasserim rose from £2 6 76 in 18 29 ( three years after itsannexation) to in 1855. Between 1 855 and 1 882

,the revenue

of the whole Province has increased from about a million sterling to

nearly three millions.The proportion of gross revenue contributed by each Division of

Bri t ish Burma is—from Arakan , 1 33 3 per cent . ; from Pegu, 4596 ;

from Irawadi, and from Tenasserim,1 5 14 ; and the average

incidence of taxat ion per head of popu lat ion is 165 . The main sources

of imperial income are land, customs, excise, and forests . Speakingroughly

,the land-tax furn ishes more than one-third of the total revenue

,

customs about one-fi fth, and excise and forests in nearly equalproportions more than one-tenth . Capitation tax and fishery rents formspecial features of the administration . The former is levied on themale population between the ages of eighteen and sixty

,at the rate of

1 05 . a head for married men , and half that amount for bachelors .Exceptions are made in favour of religious and other teachers

,

Government servants , all persons unable to earn their own l iving, andall immigrants for the first fi ve years . Traditional usage affords the

principal argument for maintaining this old-fashioned impost. Thegross amount it realiz ed in 188 1—8 2 was levied on

persons . L and-rate in l ieu of capitat ion tax is imposed in the towns of

Akyab,Kyauk-hpyu ,Rangoon , Prome, Bassein,T hayet-my0,andT oung—gu .

The revenue demand on account of fisheries in 188 1—82 amounted to1 3 The sea-fi shing i s mainly in the hands of natives of India

and the fishermen are a class by themselve s,and as a body not in very

good repute . There is no general salt- tax in Burma as in India,and the

land-tax is kept very low.

Administrative Statistics—There are at present 153 Courts of L aw

in the Province, besides a J udicial Commissioner and a Recorder at

Rangoon . The two last, when sitting together, exercise the powers

of a supreme appellate tribunal . There are also unpaid ‘ honorary '

magistrates ; I 55 courts have both civil and criminal j urisdiction . The

subordinate courts are almost entirely pres ided over by native officials .In criminal work during the year 1 88 1

,there were 30,353 cases reported ,

and persons convicted out of put on trial . The total ofprisoners in the 14 jai ls of the Province was only 2 8 per cent. of

whom were women . The daily average jail population was 47 2 6 ; the total

expenditure, and the average net cost per head, £5 , 35 . 0d.

The police force of the Province during the year 188 1 consisted of

B (IRM A, 3 13127 5 11. 207

7 1 3 1 officers and men equivalent to one policeman to every 102squaremiles

,or to every 524 of population the total cost was

Tlze E rz’ufatz

’

on of the people is under the care of a special department .

It is ch iefly conducted through the agency of the indigenous lay and

monastic schools already described,the p izziflgyz

’

s or monastic order

being nearly all engaged in teaching. Direct Government effort i s

mainly confined to inspection and higher instruction . Missionary

schools are also l iberally aided by the State . In the year 1880,the

number of seminaries under State control or inspection aggregated 30 1 2 ,and the pupils , Of these , 2 645 were monasti c schools attendedby pupils. The above figures are exclusive of the large numberof un inspected monastic schools , for which no statist ics are available.But according to the Census of 1 880, there were in that yearboys and girls receiving instruction of some sort in theProvince, besides males and females able to readand write

,but not under instruction ; proportion of males able to

read and write, 460 5 per cent . of the male population , and of females,

36 per cent. of the female population .

There is a Port Fund at each of the principal ports,Rangoon

,

Bassein,Maulmain

,and Akyab

,the aggregate income of which for

188 1—82 amounted to The effective strength of the troopsof all arms stationed in the Province at the end of March 1 882

,was

5 106 officers and men . There were 2 1 printing-presses at work inthe Province . The only two institut ions of note are the Agri-Horticultural Society and the Rangoon L iterary Socie ty . Situated within thegardens of the former is the Phayre Museum .

There are 7 M mzz'

apalz'

z‘

zks—Rangoon,Maulmain

,Akyab

,Bassein

,

Henz ada,Prome

,and Toung-gu . Rangoon has a population double

,

and a revenue four-fold , that of any other. Municipal inst itutions havebeen now some eight years in existence, and, as a rule, are workingfavourably . The total income of the above 7 municipalities during188 1—82 was of which came from loans

,

from local taxation,and from grants from provincial funds .

The incidence of municipal taxation per head of the town populationranges from 33 . 45d. in Rangoon to 55 . rod. in Akyab .

M edical Aspez/s , Climate, eta—The climate of British Burma ismoderate and equable . Notwi thstanding the heavy rainfall

,the health

of European troops stationed in the Province, which was very badduring the earlier years of occupat ion , is now better, on the average,than in India proper. The great drawback to life in British Burma isthe want o f a sanitarium where Europeans can recru it their strength

.

Many proposals have been made to this end,and several sites have

been suggested on the high mountain ranges of the Province ; but

however pleasant they were found in the summer,they have had to be

2 08 B URM A ,BRI T/S f].

abandoned in the rains,so incredibly rapid is the growth of vegetation

at this season . Attempts have also been made to establish seasidesanitaria—at Dalhousie, near the mouth of the Bassein river

,and at

Amherst,near the mouth of the Salwin river—but without success .

Another site was tried at T hadaung—gyi , a hill 3900 to 4500 feet above thesea

,and with in 23 miles of Toung-

gu, to which place the railway will pro

bably be opened in 1 884 . A lthough th is place is unsuited to Europeansby reason of the constant rain and mist, i t i s still undergoing trial .Another higher ridge called Nattaung, about 70 miles from Toung—gu,has been suggested

,and two sites from 6000 to 7000 feet above sea

level among the ranges behind Mau lmain ; but these three are difficult

of access . The Provincial death-rate in 1 88 1 was,according to the

District returns,slightly over 1 6 per 1 000 . Such returns do no t

,how

ever,stand the test of statistical crit icism

,although the superior

physique,domestic comfort, and archi tectural contrivances o f the

people wou ld in some measure account for a low figure . Themortality among the jail population is 45 10 per 1000 . The death—rateof children under one year of age is 1 8 per cent . of the total deaths ofall ages .In the year 1882

, meteorological observations were taken at 19stations in the Province . The rainfall in Bri t ish Burma i s very large

,

and varies from a total of 2 1 1 inches in the year at Kyauk-hpyu to 43 atProme

,the general average being about 1 2 7 inches . The great Indian

rain«belt, stretching south from the Himalayas along the Bay of Bengal,includes all the seaboard and delta of the Province

,but the more inland

stations are comparatively dry . The greatest heat was during March,

April,and May . It ranged from 109

°

F. at Thayet -myo to 89°

atKyauk-hpyu . The lowest minimum at 10 A .M .

,viz . occurred at

Toung-gu in January . The thermometric mean range was inconsiderable

,varying from 2 5

°

at Thayet—myo to 14°

at Tavoy .

Fever and bowel complaints are the only forms of physical ailmentwhich a Burman recognises

,and he g roups under the former head

all that are manifestly not assignable to the latter . This faulty diagnosisexplains the extraordinary proportion of deaths from fever

,which

are shown in the returns as constitut ing no fewer than 4 7 per cen t .o f the total mortality . As a fact

,severe malarial poisoning is not

common , the chief fevers being febricula and quotidian intermittent .Cholera and small-pox occur as occasional epidemics

,the mortality

from the former in 1 88 1 being 1 4 2 per 1 000,and from the latter ’

48.

L eprosy is rare . There were only 2 589 lepers at the time of the last

Census , constituting 0 69 per 1 000 of the population.The Burmese

very generally resort to inoculation ; but vaccination is being gradually

introduced by Government agency, and a li ttle over 10 per 1000 of thepopu lation were successfu lly vaccinated in 188 1 .

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2 I 0 B URM A ,INDEPENDEN T.

Bhamo ; but the latter is practically useless as a means of c ommunica

tion,owing to the frequent obstacles in its channel . The Burmese

empire wi th its present limits contains no maritime districts , and onlyi solated tracts of alluvial plain it i s in the main an upland territory

,

bounded at its southern extremity by a frontier l ine at the distance ofabout 2 00 miles from the mouths of the Irawadi, i n 19

°

30' N . lat .

From this point the country begins to rise , and thence for abou t 300miles farther

,i t contains much roll ing country intersected by occasional

h ill ranges beyond,all is wi ld and mountainous .

NaturalP roducts .

—A lthough inferiorinpoint of fertil ity to the low-lyingtracts of Briti sh Burma , the upland country is far from unproductive

.

The chief crops are rice (of which the Burmese count 102 different

sorts ), maiz e , millet , wheat, various pu lses , tobacco , cotton , sesamum ,

mustard,and indigo . The sugar-cane appears to have been long known

to the Burmese but,though the climate and soil are extremely favom

able,i t is not generally cu ltivated . A cheap and coarse sugar is

obtained from the j u ice of the Palmyra palm,which abounds in the

tract south of the capital . The cocoa—nu t and areca palms are notcommon . The tea-plant , wh ich is indigenous , i s cultivated in the hillsby some of the mountain tribes a t the distance of about five days’

j ourney,and by others in st ill greater perfection at the distance of about

ten days’ j ourney from Mandalay . I t seems , however, to be ano therplant

,probably the E la'oa’ena’rozz part ial/m ,

which furnishes the principalingredient in the fi /apét, or pickled tea , which forms a favourite Burmesedelicacy and is an essential accompaniment to every soc ial or ceremonial incident . Cotton is grown in every part of the k ingdom and itsdependencies , bu t chiefly in the dry lands and climate of the Upper

Provinces . Indigo is indigenous , and is universally cult ivated, but in avery rude manner ; i t i s sti ll more rudely manufactured , so as to bewholly unfit for exportation abroad . The most common fruits inBurma are the mango , the tamarind

,the guava

,the orange

,the

ci tron , the pine , the custard apple , the j ack , the papaya, and the plantain . The yarn and the sweet potato are grown

,but not extens ively ;

the common potato is largely cult ivated by the Kakhyens on theChinese frontier, where it i s known by the name of ‘ foreigner’s

root .’ Onions are produced ; and capsicum,wh ich

,after salt

,is

the most ordinary condiment used by the Burmese,is cult ivated

everywhere .

Forests—The forests of Burma abound in valuable trees. Among

these teak holds a conspicuous place, though some of the finest teakforests were lost to the Burmese with Pegu . Almos t every descriptiono f t imber known in India grows in the forests

,from which also an

abundant supply is obtained of the varnish employed by the Shans andthe Burmese in their manufacture of lacquered ware .

St ick-lac o f an

B (IRM A,INDE PENDEN T . 2 1 1

excellent qual ity is obtained in the woods,and rubber of late years has

been largely exported.

M'

nerals .

—Burma is rich in mineral s . I t produces gold , silver,copper, tin , lead , antimony, bismuth , amber, coal , petroleum , n itre ,natron , salt , l imestone, and marble, the j ade or ya of the Chinese ,sapphires

,and other precious stones . Gold is found in the sands of

different r ivers,and also towards the Shan territory on the eastern

frontier but the demand is very much greater than the native supply .

There are si lver m ines near the Chinese frontier,but they have not

been worked recently. The mountainous districts of the Shan territory

contain almost all the other metals ; but they are scantily exported ,and the c0pper and t in seen in the capital are imported fromChina. Iron is found in several places

,and is wrought especially at

Poppa, near a mountain o f that name to the eastward of the o ld

capital Pagan,and also at M yedii, north -west of Mandalay ; but ,

owing to ignorance and the want of proper methods,about 30 or 40

per cent . of the metal is lost in the process. L arge deposits of richmagnet i c oxide

,as yet untouched , exist in the ridges east of Mandalay

near the banks of the navigable river Myit—nge,and the same district

contains lime in great abundance and o f remarkable whiteness ; whilestatuary marble

,equal to the best Ital ian kinds

,is found about 1 5

miles north o f Mandalay,to the east of the Irawadi. M ines of amber

ante wrought,among other places , at Hukhong or Payendwen, near the

sources of the Kyeng-dweng . Nitre , natron , and salt are found invarious quarters. Su lphur also occurs in some places

,as in the d is

trie t of Sale—M yo , and in the neighbourhood of the petroleum wells ;bu t the quant ity is comparatively small. Coal has been discovered inpatches

,but not in any quantity worth working. Petroleum is found

near the village of Ye-mangyaung, on the banks of the Irawadi. Hereare upwards of one hundred pits or wells , with a general depth of from

2 1 0 to 240 feet, though some of them reach to the depth of 300 fee t .The l iqu id appears to boil up from the bottom like an abundant spring

,

and is extracted in buckets,and sent to all quarters o f the country .

The annual yield is calculated at tons . A good deal i s now

exported to England .

The precious stones produced in the Burmese territories are chieflythe sapphire and the ruby . They are found about 60 or 70 miles in

a north - east direction from Mandalay, over an area of about 1 00

square miles . All stones are sent to the Crown treasury . No stranger

is ever permitted to approach the spots where these precious stonesare found . The yu or j ade mines are situated in the Mogoung dis

triet,about 2 3 miles south-west of Maing—khiim. M omien

,in Yunan

,

was formerly the chief seat of the manufacture of jade, and sti ll produces a considerable quantity of small art icles .

2 1 2 B UP I /A ,INDE PENDEN T .

Fara? I Vatnraa— Burma , abounding as it does in deep, impenetrablej ungles

,affords extensive shelter to wi ld an imals. E lephants and wild

hogs are very numerous,and the s ingle and double-horned rhinoceros

are not uncommon . There are nearly 30 k inds of carnivora, includingthe t iger

,le0pard, bear, and w ild cat. Quadrumana are found in 6 or

7 dist inct species ; and among ruminan t s , the barking deer, hog deer,Rusa goat - antelope , bison , buffalo, and wi ld ox. Rabbitsare unknown

,but hares are common . There are 2 species o f porpo ises

,

which are found very far inland. The rivers,lakes, and estuaries

swarm w ith fish,including whiting

,mu llet

,carp , barbel , bream , shad ,

and cat-fi sh. Aquatic birds abound in endless varieties . Amongother birds

, pea-fowl

,j ungle-fowl

,pheasant , partridge , quail , and plover

are found throughout the country. Geese,duck , and fowl are exten

s ively domes t icated , and cock-fi ghting is a favourite amusement w i ththe people.

D omestic Aaliy ah — The domestic an imals are the elephant, buffalo ,ox, horse , mule , as s , goat , sheep , and pig. The three firs t are used fOrdraught

,the elephan t being especially useful in dragging timber. The

horse is a small variety,rarely exceeding 1 3 hands in height. L ike the

mu le and ass,i t i s used only as a beast o f burden.

— The Burmese proper may be generally described as of

a short stout,act ive

,well-proport ioned form ; of a brown but never

intensely dark complexion,wi th black

,coarse

,lank

,and abundant hair

on the head,and very rarely any on the face . T he name they give

their own race is Mran-ma (as writ ten ) , corrupted vu lgarly into Ba-ma’

,

and from th is the various forms o f ‘ Burma ’

appear to have beentaken. Besides the Burmese proper

,there are numerous tribes of

T alaungs , T aungthas , Karens , and o thers who occupy the mountainouscoun try towards the east

,many of them in a state of semi-independ

ence ; and all round the northern and north-western frontier and

along the ranges that traverse the upper regions,vast hordes of

Kakhyens , Chins , and Singphos maintain a rough,cateran l ife

,and

come down to levy black-mail on the more peaceful inhabitants . The

Shans, a race of which the Siamese are a part,const itute a great

number o f small principalities along the whole eastern border,subj ec t

some to Burma , some to China, some to Siam,and in a few cases

own ing a double allegiance , accord ing to their position .The Shans

everywhere profess Buddhism , and have some kind of l iterature andthe traces of culture . The Kakhyens are square-faced , s trong-jawed ,and oblique-eyed . They are still in a low state o f ci v il i sation

,are

destitute of letters , and have no t yet been conve rted to Buddh ism .

Their chiefs are supported by offerings in kind,— rece iving a leg of

every animal that i s k illed . One indus tryk the manufacture of toddy

and arrack— is exten s ively carried on by them,and the whole popula

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2 14 B (IRM A ,INDE PENDE N T.

i nto English,Secretary of State would probably express it best . Each

of these chief ministers has his own department or departments,bu t

the distribution of work is a personal matter, and is never unalterablyfixed . Their tit les are not attached to their office or hereditary

,but

are given from time to t ime by the king. There is no such widedifferentiat ion of functions, no such division of labour among theBurmese

,whether officials or common people , as there is among Euro

pean nations . The Wringyi has not only to cons ider politics, revenue,and finance

,but to decide important civil and criminal su its

,to direct

military operations,and on occasion to take the field in person as

generalissimo . Next to the Wringyi’

s in rank,come two officers

,who ,

though they have a customary right to seats in the Hlii t,yet do not

often take part,and have

,i n fact

,l i ttle concern

,in its business .

These are the M imz zfgyz’

l-VzZ/z,and the A t/zz

'

z wézz . The former is the

officer commanding the principal cavalry regiments,the latter is in

charge of civilians,that is to say

,persons other than those of the royal

family.

After these come the l Zna’azcks,who may be called ‘

Under

Secretaries of State,’

or assistants of the Wringyi’

s . Normally they arefour in number, bu t there are often more , for the rank is occasionallyconferred on Governors of important provinces as a reward for goodservice . As a rule

,Wrindouks and all other high officials are known

by the name of some town or D istrict .Next in rank to Wiindouks come the Nab/rarza’aws

,or ‘

RoyalL isteners .

’

Their function is that of carrying communications fromthe king to the Council and rice z/cma. They write these in large note

books wi th gilt covers,which are the insignia of their office . They

too are four in number.

The or‘ Royal Clerks

,

’ are the Assistant Secretaries,

who come next in rank ; of these officials there are about a score ,though the number by custom shou ld be four only

,but as they

have multifarious work , and are really very important officers , thenumber has been increased . Their posit ion is somewhat analogousto that of the registrar of a court . They hold preliminary investigations

in important j udicial matters,and subj ect to the minister’s approval

decide unimportant cases themselves ; in general business , i t is theywho do most of the actual execut ive work .

Next to the Assistant Secretaries are the four in

number, whose duty i t is to record and transcribe royal orders of allkinds, or as we should say, orders of the Government .The seventh grade is that of A t/zong saj

'

ay ,officers who form a rudi

mentary Department of Public Works . They have to keep the publicbuildings in repair, and to build new ones when required .

Next in rank are the and after them the A zrfaj yazclc.

B UR M A,u q PENDEN T . 2 r5

The former are drafters they prepare for issue all letters and orderssent out from the Council . The latter receive and read letters received

from a distance—whence the title—and submit them to the ministers .

These two classes of officers and their assistants are,in fact

, the

correspondence clerks .

The two T/zazca’awgazzs , or‘Receivers of Royal letters

,

’ are ceremonialofficers . Three times a year the king holds a a’aracfr

,called a Kaa

’aw

lzwc/z, which literally means, beg pardon festival.

’At this all h igh officials

and feudatory chiefs, who can , attend and do homage to the king.

The Sessong sayays , the next in rank, make lists of all gifts presentedto the king and read them out at darbars .

The Yong z a zc i s a sort of master of ceremonies, who makes arrangements for a’arba

’

rs, gives notice to the offi cers who are to attend, and

informs them what business is to be done,and what dress they are to

appear in .

The Ncc/zas, or Ushers ,

’ point out to each officer his place at ceremonial meetings of Council and levees.The or Oath Recorders,

’ are employed to administerthe oath of fealty to all who enter the king’s service . The ceremonyused is worth describing . The oath is first written down on paper

,and

read over in a temple before an image of Gautama,the candidate re

pearing the words the paper is then burnt,and the ashes are put into

a cup of water ; the water is then stirred with a small faggot, on whichminiature models of the five k inds of weapons used by the Burmeseare all tied up together ; and finally the person to be sworn in

,drinks

the cup of water. The five weapons referred to are the bow,the spear

,

the sword , the cannon , and the musket .The above are the officers who compose the Hlut-daw or Great

Council ’ of the kingdom .

Of the other class whose authority and responsibil ity are confined tothe palace, or offi cers of the Household, the At

'

nwzéns form the firstgrade . Their office or place of assembly is styled the Bweh - dyke .

The t itle of Atwinwun means Interior Minister,

’

whose duty it is totransact bus iness generally relating to the interior of the palace

,but

especially to take up business from the Council to the king. Therelative rank of the Atwinwuns with members of the Council is notabsolutely defined ; as a rule, they are certainly above the Wrindouks

at the present day.

Next in rank to the Atwinwrins are the who are supposed to be always in attendance at audiences to take down the king’sorders

,and to transmit them to the Hliit. They bear forth in state from

the palace royal letters, and perform similar ceremonial offices . Nextcome the chief clerks and officers who have charge of the lighting of

the palace,and who keep a record of all persons sleeping inside .

2 16 B URM A,INDE PENDEN T .

Beside the Hlt’

it and Bweh—dyke, the public and privy councils , therei s the Shwa-dyke or Treasury,

’which is no t only the treasury, but also

the depository of the archives of the State. The king’s artifi cers are

hereditary servants,and the heads of their families are accounted

officers of the Shwa—dyke .

The country at large is ruled by Provincial Governors , and is dividedinto Provinces (or Myos) , townships , Districts, and villages . The civil

,

military,judicial

,and fiscal administration of the Province is vested in

the Governor or [Wya tt/1212, who exercises the power of life and death ,though in all civi l cases an appeal lies from his sentence to the chiefcouncil of the capital . In all townships and villages

,there are officers

w ith a subordinate j urisdiction . The late king introduced the systemof paying his officials monthly salaries

,but it has been very partially

carried out .

One of the principal items of revenue in Independent Burma isthe capitation

,or more properly

,the income tax. The rate of this tax

varies from 6 to I O rupees ( 1 2 to 2 0 shill ings) per annum on eachhousehold ; i t i s fixed yearly

,and collected in April or May

,either by

the District officers or by special collectors selected for their probity .

The priesthood form a separate order,interdicted from all secular

employment,and supported by voluntary contributions . They are

dist inguished by a special costume,which it would be reckoned

sacrilege in any other person to wear. There is also an order of nunsand priestesses

,who make a vow of chastity

,bu t who may at any time

quit their order. Prostitu tes are considered as ou tcasts . The womenin Burma are not shut up as in many other parts of the East

,and

excluded from the sight of men ; on the contrary , they are suffered toappear openly in society

,and have free access in their own name to

the courts of law,where

,if i ll-treatment is proved

,divorce is readily

obtained .

Rcvcmcc.

—The taxes from which the public revenue arises,are in

general rude and ill-contrived expedients for extortion,and are

vexatious to the people,at the same t ime that they are little productive

to the State . The most important is the house or family tax,which

is said to be assessed by a Domesday Book,

’ compiled by order of

M entaragyi in 1 7 83 . The amount varies greatly in different years,

and to a remarkable extent in different Districts . Next in order is thetax on agriculture , which is also very irregu larly imposed . A largepart of the cult ivated land of the kingdom is assigned to favourites of

the court , or to public functionaries in lieu of st ipends or salaries,or

i s appropriated to the expenses of public establishments,such as war

boats , elephants , etc . and th is assignment conveys a right to tax theinhabitants according to the discretion of the assignee

.The court

favourites who receive these grants,generally appoint agents to manage

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2 18 B URM A,INDE PENDEN T .

tioned,is smelted ; but the Burmese cannot manufac ture steel, which

is brought from Bengal .Bell-founding has been carried to considerable perfection . The

largest specimen is that at the M eng iin Pagoda, near the presentcapital

,which measures 1 6 feet across the lip and weighs about 80

tons . Coarse articles of cutlery, including swo rds , spears , knives , alsomuskets and matchlocks

,sc issors

,and carpenters’ tools

,are manufac

tured i n the capital ; and gold and silver ornaments are produced atevery considerable place throughout the country . Embossed work indrink ing - cups and the l ike is executed with great richness of effect .North of the capital

,and east of the Irawadi

,as before stated

,is an

entire hill of pure white marble,and there are sculptured marble

images of Gautama or Buddha . The marble is of the finest quality,

and the workmen give it an exquisi te pol ish by means of a paste of

pulveriz ed fossil—wood. The chief seat of the manufacture of lacqueredware is at Nyaungu

,near the ancient city of Pagan the ware consists

of thin strips of bamboo,woven in the manner of basket ware

,and

coated with lacquer, elaborately and artist ically ornamented in colouredpatterns . The general use of lacquered ware is

,however

,giving way

before the employment of imported earthenware .

Caz/zzzzcrcc.

— Since Burma was deprived of i ts harbours and marit imeDistricts, i ts foreign commerce has been extremely limited . The tradeof the country centres chiefly in the capital

,and is entirely in the hands

of Chinese,Muhammadan

,and Burmese merchants ; it is carried on

chiefly by way of the Irawadi. The principal imports are— Europeantwi st and piece—goods

,earthenware and porcelain , fru i ts and nuts , rice ,

brass, copper, iron , and other metals , oils , nova-p l and other provisions ,salt, raw silk and silk goods, spices , refined sugar, and woollen goods .In exchange are given

,ponies and cattle

,lacquered ware

,raw cotton

and cotton piece-goods, wheat and gram ,

cu tch,hides

,petroleum

,other

oils , provisions , seed,s ilk goods

,raw sugar

,pickled

tea , and timber .

The total value of trade with Bri tish Burma, for the three years

ending 1 88 1 , is given in the following table :

1880-81 .

Imports ,

Exports ,

£3, 776, 37 I £3 , 559J 97

The decl ine of trade with Briti sh Burma is ch iefly due to the

unsettled state of the country since the death of the late king. The

B URM A,INDE PENDEN T 2 19

arbitrary and oppressive treatment of traders by the presen t ruler ,which has resulted in reducing commercial intercourse between Independent and Brit ish Burma

,necessitated representations on the part

of the Bri tish Government,which wil l

,i t i s hoped

,have the effect of

restoring the trade to its normal s tate . The inland trade with China ,which the Panthay rebellion had interrup ted for years , has recentlysprung into renewed act ivity ; cotton and j ade are exchanged forcopper, lead, i ron , and fruit in yearly increasing quantit ies. The

trade of the northern part of Burma is ch iefly carried on at largefairs held in connection with religious fest ivals. The trade of thecountry wou ld expand indefin itely if the monopolies for certainarticles of export , as cotton , sugar, cutch , and pickled tea, granted in188 1 by the present ruler

,were withdrawn

,and if only a safe road

existed between Bhamo on the Irawadi and the confines of WesternChina .

During the year 1880,two English missionaries travelled from

Bhamo across the hills into Yunan,and through Western China to

the Yellow river,on which they voyaged by boat and steamer to

Shanghai . One of the travellers had been several years in China andknew Chinese well . They were unarmed

,and had only two attendants .

They were molested once only,and that was at a place two days’

j ourney out of Bhamo,half-way from the Irawadi river to the Chinese

frontier. Directly they reached China , they met with uniform friendli

ness and hospitali ty . They found the convention of Chefu thoroughlyknown and observed

,and the people wondering why no British mer

chants had come to settle at Talifu and other towns on the trade

route. The travellers reached Talifu in 2 1 days,the capital of Yunan

in 46 days , and the Yangtsi river in Southern S z echuen in 68 days .At this point they were 1 7 56 miles from Shanghai ; and they did therest of their j ourney by the Yellow river, excepting the 100 miles o f

rapids and rocks,between Quichow and Ichang. The flotilla steamers

reach Bhamo from Rangoon in 1 5 or 2 0 days ; and it seems certainthat for the millions of Chinese in Yunan and Southern Sz echuen, the

Irawadi and Bhamo route would be a far nearer, quicker, and cheaperroute for trade with Europe , if only the road from Bhamo to the Yunan

border were safe . One of the most important articles of trade,i n

addit ion to European cloth goods, is salt, for their supply of which all

the hill tribes are dependent on Burma .

M oney—A gold and silver currency was introduced by the late king.

It corresponds to our Indian coinage .

Wiezgfi ta—The Burmese dry measure is the tang , or basket, which is

divided into 4 quarters and 16 pyz’

s . In long measure the cubit

measures about 1 8 English inches . Four cubits make a fathom ;

7 cubits make a ta, and 1000 tax a mile, corresponding nearly with 2

2 20 B URIlIA ,INDE PENDEN T

English miles . In weights, 100 leyats (or tlclzals) make a was , whichequals 3 6 5 lbs . avoirdupois . Four mats make 1 Icy

-at

,and 2 mnyz

’

s

a mat.

Calm /lan— The current Burmese era commences from April A .D .

639. The year consists of twelve lunar months of twen ty-n ine andthirty days

, one being intercalated every third year . A month i s

divided into two parts , the waxing and the wane ; also into weeks ,which follow the usual order of days . The day and night are each

divided into four periods or beats of three hours each , commencingfrom nine o’clock .

L ang uag e and L z'

terat/cre.

— The Burmese proper use a monosyllabiclanguage

,which shows distinct relat ion to Chinese on one side

,and to

Tibetan on another. In contrast with Siamese,i t i s a very soft and

flexible tongue,and its monosyllabic character i s somewhat modified in

pronunciation. I t is a literary language,and has been under cu ltivation

for perhaps six or seven centu rie s . I t is written with an alphabet ofIndian origin

,and the letters are of a more or less circular form . A

square variety was formerly prevalent . I t has developed a poeticdiction of such complete individuality

,that it i s unintelligible withou t

special study . The national chronicles,or chronicles of the k ings

( J I a/za-raz a If211g ) , trace the royal l ineage up to the very earliestages . Though much of their h istory is no doubt of a questionablekind , the mutual agreement of the chronologies of the mediaeval annalsof the various Indo-Chinese kingdoms is remarkable, and affords astrong contrast to the absence of all written Hindu chronology inIndia proper at the same period . L ibraries are common throughout the country

,principally in the monasteries . Though a certain

k ind of paper is manufactured from bam boo pulp,the usual material

of the book s is the palm leaf,whi le for ordinary notebook purposes

a kind of black tablet,called a paraliaz

'

k,and a steatite pencil are

employed .

H z

’

stozy .

*I t is probable that Burma is the C/zryse R eg/o of Ptolemy ,a name parallel in meaning to S ozzaparanta,

the classic Pal i t itleassigned to the country round the capital in Burmese documents .

The royal h istory traces the l ineage of the k ings to the ancient

Buddhist monarchs of India . This is hypothetical,but it is hard

to say how early communication wi th Gangetic India began .From

the r1 th to the 1 3th century the old Burmese empire was at theheight of its power, and to this period belong the splendid remainso f arch itectu re at Pagan . The city and the dynasty were destroyed

by a Chinese (or rather Mongol) invasion ( 1 2 84 in the reign of

Kublai Khan . Afterwards the empire fell to a low ebb,and Central

Burma was often subj ect to Shari dynas t ies . In the early part of theroth century, the Burmese princes of Toung-

gu ,i n the north—east of

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2 2 2 B URM A,INDE PENDEN T .

the Siamese . His army advanced to Mergui and Tenasserim , both

which towns were taken ; and he was besieging the capital of Siam

when he was taken i ll . He immediately ordered his army to retreat , inhopes of reach ing his capital al ive ; but he expired on the way, in 1 760 ,

i n the fift ieth year of h is age,after he had reigned eight years . In the

previou s year,he had massacred the English of the establi shment of

Negrais,whom he suspected of assist ing the Peguans . He was suc

c eeded by his eldest son,Naung-daw-

gyi, whose reign was disturbed

by the rebell ion of his brother Hsin-phy ti-yin, and afterwards by

one of his father’s generals . He died in li tt le more than threeyears

,leaving one son in h is infancy ; and on his decease the throne

was seiz ed by his brother Hsin-phy ti-yin . The new king was inten t,

l ike his predecessors , on the conquest of the adjacent States,and

accordingly made war i n 1 7 65 on the Manipur k ingdom ,and also on

the Siamese,with part ial success . In the following year he defeated

the Siamese,and

,after a long blockade

,obtained possession of their

capital . But while the Burmese were extending their conquests in this

quarter,they were invaded by a Chinese army of men from the

Province of Yunan . This army was hemmed in by the skil l of theBurmese ; and , being reduced by want of provisions , i t was afterwardsattacked and totally des troyed , with the exception of 2 500 men

,who

were sent in fetters to work in the Burmese capital at their severaltrades . In the meantime the Siamese revolted and while the Burmesearmy was marching against them ,

the Peguan soldiers who had beenincorporated in i t rose against the ir compan ions

,and

,commencing an

indiscriminate massacre , pursued the Burmese army to the gates of

Rangoon , which they besieged, but were unable to capture . In 1 7 74 ,

Hsin-phy ti-yin was engaged in reducing the marauding tribes . He

took the District and fort of Martaban from the revolted Peguans and

in the following year he sailed down the Irawadiwith an army of

m en,and

,arriving at Rangoon , put to death the aged monarch of

Pegu,along w ith many of his nobles , who had shared wi th him in the

offence of rebell ion . He died in 1 7 76 , after a reign of twelve years,

during which he had extended the Burmese dominions on every s ide .

He was succeeded by his son,a youth of eighteen

,called Tsingti-ming

Changuz o’ of Symes ) , who proved himself a bloodthirsty despot , and

was put to death in 1 78 1 by his uncle , Bhodauphra or M entaragyi, who

ascended the vacant throne . In 1 783 the new k ing effected theconquest of Arakan. In the same year he removed his residence from

Ava, which , w ith brief interruptions , had been the capital for four centUries , to the new city of Amarapura

,

‘ the Ci ty o f the Immortals . ’

The Siamese who had revolted in 1 7 7 1 were never afterwards subduedby the Burmese ; but the latter retained their domin ion over the seacoast as far as Mergu i . In the year 1 7 85 , they attacked the island of

B URM A, INDE PENDENT 2 23

Junkseylon with a fleet of boats and an army, but were ult imate lydriven back with loss and a second attempt by the Burmese monarch ,who in 1 786 invaded Siam with an army of men, was attendedwith no better success . In 1 793 , peace was concluded between thesetwo powers, the Siamese yielding to the Burmese the entire possessionof the coast of Tenasserim on the Indian Ocean , and the two important

seaports of Mergui and Tavoy.

In 1 795, the Burmese were involved in a dispute with the British inIndia

, in consequence of their troops,to the number of 5000 men ,

having entered the District of Chittagong, i n pursuit of three robberswho had fled from justice across the frontier. Explanations be ing madeand terms of accommodation offered by General Erskine, the commanding officer, the Burmese commander retired from Brit ish territory

,

when the fugit ives were restored, and all differences for the t imeamicably arranged.

But it was evident that the gradual extension of the British andBurmese territories wou ld in time bring the two powers into closecontact along a more extended line of frontier, and in all probab il itylead to a war between them . I t happened , accordingly, that the Burmese

,carrying their arms into Assam and Manipur

,penetrated to the

British border near Sylhet, on the north-east frontier of Bengal, beyondwhich were the possessions of the Raja of Cachar, under the protect ionof the British Government . The Burmese leaders

,arrested in the ir

career of conquest, were impatient to measure their strength with the irnew neighbours

, and at length ventured on the open violat ion of

Brit ish territory. They attacked a party of Sepoys within the frontier,

and seiz ed and carried off Brit ish subj ects, while at al l points theirtroops, moving in large bodies, assumed the most menacing posit ions.In the south

,encroachments were made upon the British frontier of

Chittagong. The island of Shahpuri, at the mouth of the Naf river, hadbeen occupied by a small guard of British troops. These were attackedon the 23rd September 1823 by the Burmese, and driven from theirpost with the loss of several lives ; and to the repeated demands ofthe British for redress, no answer was returned. Other outrages ensued and at length , in February 1 8 24, war was declared by the Brit ishGovernment.Hosti l ities having commenced, the British rulers in India resolved to

carry the war into the enemy’s country ; an armament, under Commodore Grant and Sir Archibald Campbell, entered the Irawadi river

,

and anchored off Rangoon on the ro th May 1824. After a feeb leresistance this great seaport surrendered, and the troops were landed .

The place was ent irely deserted by its inhabitants,the provisions were

carried off or destroyed, and the invading force took possession of acomplete solitude. On the 28th May, Sir A. Campbell ordered an

2 24 B URM A ,INDE PENDEN T .

attack on some of the nearest posts , which were all carried after a feebledefence. Another attack was made on the ro th June, on the stockadesat the village of Kemmendine . Some of these were battered byart illery ; and the shot and shell struck such terror into the Burmesethat they fled in the utmost precipitation . I t soon , however, becameapparent that the expedition had been undertaken with very imperfectknowledge of the country, and w ithout adequate provision . Thedevastat ion of the country, which was part of the defensive system of

the Burmese,was carried out with unrelenting rigour, and the invaders

were soon reduced to great difficu lt ies . The health of the men

declined,and their ranks were fearfully thinned . The monarch of Ava

sent large reinforcements to his dispirited and beaten army ; and earlyin July

,an attack was commenced on the Bri t ish l ine

,but proved

unsuccessful . On the 8th, the British assau lted . The enemy werebeaten at all points ; and their strongest stockaded works

,battered to

pieces by a powerful arti llery , were in general abandoned . Wi th theexception of an at tack by the Prince of

'

l‘

harrawadi in the end ofAugust ,the enemy allowed the British to remain unmolested during the monthsof j u ly and August .This interval was employed by Sir A . Campbell in subduing the

Burmese Provinces of Tavoy and Mergu i,and the whole coast of

Tenasserim . This was an important conquest,as the country was

salubrious and afforded convalescent stations for the sick,who were

now so numerou s in the Brit ish army that there were scarcely 3000soldiers fi t for duty . An expedit ion was about th is t ime sent againstthe old Portuguese fort and factory of Syriam ,

at the mouth of the Peguriver, which was taken and in October the Province of Martaban wasbrought under the au thority of the Brit ish .

The court of Ava,alarmed by the discom fi ture of i ts armies

,recalled

the veteran legions which were employed in Arakan,under their

renowned leader Maha Bandula,in vain attempts to penetrate the

British frontier. Bandiila hastened by forced marches to the defenceo f his country ; and by the end of November an army of menhad surrounded the Brit ish position at Rangoon and Kemmendine

,for

the defence of which Sir Arch ibald Campbell had only 5000 efficient

troops . The enemy in great force made repeated attacks on Kemm endine w ithou t success , and , on the 7th December, Bandula was

completely routed by Sir A . Campbell . The fugitives retired to astrong posi t ion on the river , which thev again entrenched ; and herethev were attacked by the Brit ish on the 1 5th , and driven in completeconfusion from the field .

Sir Archibald Campbell now resolved to advance on Prome,about 100

m iles higher up the Irawadi river . He moved with his force on thei 3th February 18 2 5 in two divisions , one proceeding by land , and the

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2 26 E URM A, INDE PENDEN T

Europeans had been thrown into prison when the war commenced , wassent to the Brit ish camp with the treaty ratified, the prisoners of war

released,and an instalment of 2 5 la

’

lz/zr of rupees . The war was thusbrought to a successful termination

,and the British army evacuated

the country . The treaty is known in h istory as the Treaty of Yandabil.For some years peaceful relations continued undisturbed . While the

prince by whom the treaty was concluded cont inued in power, i ts mainstipulations were fairly carried out. That monarch , Phagyi-dau or Naung

daugyi, however, was obliged in 1 837 to yield the throne to a usurper whoappeared in the person of his brother, Kounboungmen or T harrawadi.

The latter,at an early period

,manifested no t only that hatred of the

British connection which was almost universal at the Burmese Court , butalso the extremest contempt . For several years it had become apparentthat the period was approaching when war between the Brit ish and theBurmese Governments wou ld a second time become inevitable . TheBritish Resident

,Maj or Burney

,who had been appointed in 1 830,

finding his presence at Ava agreeable neither to the king nor to himself,

removed in 183 7 to Rangoon , and shortly afterwards retired from thecountry . U ltimately it became necessary to forego even the pretence ofmaintaining relations o f friendship ; and the Bri tish functionary in 1 840,

Captain Macleod , was wi thdrawn altogether from a country where hiscontinuance would have been but a mockery .

The state of sullen dislike which followed was after a while succeededby more active evidences of hostili ty . Acts of violence were committedon British ships and British seamen . Remonstrance was consequentlymade by the British Government

,and its envoys were supported by

a small naval force . The offi cers on whom devolved the duty of

representing the wrongs of their fellow-countrymen and demandingredress , proceeded to Rangoon , the governor of which place had beena chief actor in the outrages complained of ; but so far were they frommeeting with any signs of regret

,that they were themselves treated with

indignity and contempt, and compelled to reti re withou t accomplishinganything beyond blockading the ports . A series of negotiations followed

no thing was demanded of the Burmese beyond a very moderatecompensation for the injuries infl icted on the masters of two Brit ishvessels , an apology for the insults offered by the Governor of Rangoonto the representatives of the British Government

,and the re -establish

ment of at least the appearance of friendly relat ions by the reception of

a British Agent by the Burmese Government . But the obduracy of the

king—known as Pagan -meng, who had succeeded his father in 1846

led to the refusal al ike of atonement for past wrongs,of any expression

o f regret for the display of gratuitous insolence,and of any indication of

a desi re to maintain friendship for the future . Another Burmese warwas the result, the first shot being fired in January 1 85 2 . As in the

B URM A,INDEPENDENT 2 2 7

former,though success was varying

,the British finally triumphed, and

the chief towns in the lower part of the Burmese kingdom fell to themin succession . The ci ty of Pegu

,the capital of that portion which ,

after having been conquered,had again passed into the hands of the

enemy, was recaptured and retained ; and the whole Province of Peguwas , by proclamation of the Governor General

, L ord Dalhousie,declared to be annexed to the British Dominions on the 20th December1852 . No treaty was obtained or insisted upon , the British Government being content with the taci t acquiescence of the King of Burmawi thout such documents but the resolution was declared, that any activedemonstration of hosti lity by him would be followed by retribution .

About the same time a domestic revolution broke out which resultedin Pagan-meng’s dethronement . His tyrannical and barbarous conducthad made him obnoxious at home as well as abroad

,and indeed many

of his actions recall the worst passages of the history of the later Romanemperors . His brother

,the Prince of M engdun, who had become

apprehensive for his own safety,made him prisoner in February 1853 ,

and was himself crowned King of Burma towards the end of the year.The late monarch

,known as M engdun

-meng, showed himself sufficientlyarrogant in his dealings with European powers but he was wise enoughto desire to live on peaceful terms with the Indian Government .The loss of Pegu was long a matter of bitter regret, and be absolutelyrefused to acknowledge it by a formal treaty. In the beginning of 1 855he sent a mission of compliment to L ord Dalhousie

,the Governor

General ; and in the summer of the same year, Major Arthur Phayre ,a’

efacto governor of the new Province of Pegu, was appointed envoy tothe Burmese court. He was accompanied by Captain (now Colonel )Henry Yule as secretary, and Mr. O ldham as geologist, and hismission added largely to our knowledge of the state of the country butin i ts main object

,of obtaining a treaty, i t was unsuccessful . It was not

unti l 1862 that the king at length yielded, so far as to conclude a treatyat least of commerce. A British Resident was, until October 18 79,

maintained at the capital . Much interest has been taken of recentyears in the restoration of the trade between China and Brit ish Burma

by the old routes overland, and various important j ourneys in elucidationof the problem have been successfully undertaken .

In 1 86 7 , a Treaty was signed by which Brit ish steamers were per

mitted to navigate Burmese waters, and the appointment of Britishagents at Bhamo and other stations for the supervision of trade

,was

formally authoriz ed. In the following year a Government expedition,

consist ing of Captain Will iams as surveyor, Dr. j ohn Anderson asnaturalist

,and Captain Bowers and Messrs . Stewart and Burn as repre

sentatives of the commercial interests of Rangoon , was despatched under

the leadership of Major Sladen, Political Agent at Mandalay. The

2 2 8 B URM A ,INDEPENDEN T

royal steamer Yena’

fz-Sakj'ci was placed by the King at the service of

the expedition,and letters of recommendation were furnished to the

Burmese offi cials, but in other respects scant courtesy was shown tothe party . Escorted by fifty armed police, the explorers advanced in

safety about 1 35 miles north-east of Bhamo to Momein or Teng-yue

Chow,a principal town of the Muhammadan insurgents, known to the

Burmese as Panthays , then in possession of Western Yunan but beyond

this it was not allowed by the Muhammadan authorities to proceed,on account of the disturbed condition of the country . In 1869, Captain

Strover was appointed fi rst British Resident at Bhamo ; and about the

same time,the Irawadi Flotilla Company started a monthly steamer

service to that town . The King’s interest in the commercialdevelopment of his country was shown by hi s erecting and garrisoninga series of guard-houses through the dangerous parts of the Kakhyen

Hills .In 18 74, another expedition was despatched , consisting of Colonel

Horace Browne,Mr. Ney El ias

,and Dr. Anderson , wi th instructions to

proceed,if possible

,right across the country to Shanghai in China. T o

facil i tate the success of the undertaking, Mr. M argary, a gentleman

familiar with the Chinese language and customs, was commissioned tostart from Shanghai and meet the party at Momein or the neighbourhood . The King s reception of the new mission , which arrived on

December 2 3 , 18 74 , at Mandalay , was favourable in the extreme . On

the 1 5th j anuary 1 8 75 , the explorers reached Bhamo and two daysafterwards Mr. M argary arrived from Hankow. After the mission had

proceeded to the banks of the Nampaung,a river which joins the

Tapeng some distance east of Ponline , they heard rumours of hosti lepreparations in front ; and Mr . M argary volunteered to proceed to

Manwaing to ascertain the truth of the reports . On receiving from him

word that the way was clear,his companions advanced ; but on the

2 3rd of February their camp was attacked by the Chinese,and they

were ultimately compelled to retreat, wi th the sad knowledge that theirgallant pioneer had fallen at Manwaing by the hands o f cowardly

assassins . The Burmese offi cials stood nobly by the mission,though

the enemy assured them that their quarrel was not wi th them but withthe ‘

white devils . ’

The King, who was known before h is accession in 1853 as the Princeof M endiin, died on rst October 1 87 8, and was succeeded , without anyopposit ion

,by one of his sons

,called the T heebaw or T hiobo Prince

,

who massacred almost all the direct descendants o f h is predecessor in

the month of February 1 8 79. Remonstrances were made by the BritishResident at Mandalay against th is barbarity

,but without much effect

,

and the feeling of insecurity which it inspired continued till the close ofthat year. The late king was on the whole

, with all h is faults , the best

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230 B UT CHIREDD IPAL EM CACHAR .

and Muhammadans, 5 33 ; number of houses , 104 1 . A flourishing

agricultural village .

Butchireddipalem.—Village in Nellore District

,Madras Presidency.

—See BACH IREDD IPAL EM .

Buxér.

— Sub—division and town in Shahabad District , Bengal—SeeBAXAR .

Ewot-le .—R iver in Pegu , British Burma— See PA-DE.

Byadg‘i.— Town in Dharwar District , Bombay Presidency. See

BAIADG I .

Cachar —A District in the Chief-Commissionership of

Assam,lying between 24

°

1 2’ and 25

0

50' N . lat . , and between 92

°

28' and

93°

29’ E. long. area

, 3 750 square miles . The Census of 1 88 1 returneda total population of This number includes hill people

,

who dwell in the mountainous Sub-division of Gunj ong or North Cachar,formerly known as the Asalu Sub-division . The administrative headquarters are at the town of S ILCHAR.

The District is bounded on the north by the Kopili and Diyangrivers

,which separate it from Nowgong Distri ct ; on the east by Mani

pur State and the Naga Hills District on the south by the hill country

occupied by the L usha i or Kuki tribe ; on the west by the District ofSylhet and the Jaintia Hills . An Inner L ine

,in accordance wi th the

regulations of the Bengal Eastern Frontier Regulation,No . V. of 1 873 ,

was demarcated in 1 8 75 along the southern frontier, across which Britishsubj ects are not allowed to pass without special permission .

H istory—The name of Cachar preserves the memory of one of the

many kingdoms of indigenous origin which have at various times ruledover the greater part of Assam . When the last of the Cachari Rajasdied wi thout heirs by assassination in 1830 , the British took possessionof the country . But the area then annexed to Briti sh India representedbut a small portion of the territory once owned by the Cachar dynasty .

The Cachari race is supposed to have first establi shed itself,in the

country that now goes by i ts name,in the beginn ing of the i 8th century

,

having been gradually forced southwards from i ts original home .

But their own tradi t ions , combined with the ethnical affinities of theaboriginal tribes now inhabit ing the valley of the Brahmaputra

,show

that the Cacharis must once have been a numerous and powerfu lpeople , dominant over nearly the whole of Assam . No trustworthy

records exist concerning this period of Cachari supremacy . I t i s said tohave preceded that of the Kochs (the Kochs and the Cacharis are ,however, an identical race, the former being the name assumed by the

latter on embracing Hinduism) , and the kingdom seems to have

CACHAR. 2 3 1

included some portion of Eastern Bengal. As a historical fact , theCachari Rajas are first found rul ing in the hill country, now occupiedby Naga tribes

,to the north of the Bareli watershed. Their capital was

at D IMAPUR,at the foot of the hills

,where extensive ruins of brick

buildings and tanks have been discovered amid the dense j ungle . Thehilly tract of North Cachar is sti ll peopled chiefly by Cacharis , althoughKukis and Nagas share the country with them . I t is not proved thatthe Cachari Raja

'

s had any dominion in the Angami Naga countryadj oining Dimapur

,although they probably ruled the hills to the north ,

now occupied by Rengma Nagas . Subsequently they were compelledto remove southward to Maibong

,in a valley between two spurs of the

Barel range,also on the north side of the watershed. Fruit—trees grow

i ng amid the j ungle,and ruined temples of stone

,prove that this settle

ment was of no short duration . It was at Ma'

ibong that the Cacharicourt first came under the influence of Hinduism . The king is said tohave married a daughter of the Raja of Tipperah

,with whom he

received as dowry the upper valley of the Barak . There is reason forbelieving that the Tipperah Rajas are themselves of Cachari descent .Their dynastic t itle of Barman is the same as that of the CachariRajas .H indus from Bengal naturally followed up the river from Sylhet

,

and missionary Brahmans found their way to Maibong as the pioneersof civili sation . The Cacharis of this period appear as a decl iningand fugitive race. Their capital at Maibong was exposed to theaggressions of the Raja of Jaintia and in the beginning of the 18th

century they crossed the Barel range and settled at Kashpur among itssouthern spurs . Nor was this the last move . When the British firstbecame acquainted with Cachar, the residence of the Raja was at

G arheritar, in Bikrampur pargana’

,now the site of a tea-garden . When

the Cacharis had thus transferred themselves to the Barak valley,the

process of conversion to Hindu ism went on apace. Up to that datethey had retained their native forms of worship

,consisting mainly of

the superstitious dread of a multitude of evil spirits,who demanded to

be propitiated wi th the occasional sacrifice of a human being. The

formal act of conversion took place as recently as 1 790 , The reigning

Raja,together with his brother and heir, were placed inside the body

of a large copper cow,and thence produced by their Brahman priests

as Kshattriyas of the Raj bansi caste . The Barmans or members of

the Cachari aristocracy adopted Hinduism at the same time ; but thecommon people

,at least those who occupy the original haunts of the

race and are known as Daos or Parbattias, stil l retain their primitive

religion,and repudiate th e ceremonial restrict ions of Hinduism . The

further history of Cachar is a continuous record of strife and decay.

The last Raja, Gobind Chandra, became involved in the struggle

23 2 CA CHAR.

between the State of Manipur and the aggressive power of Burma,which

had already established its supremacy in the Brahmaputra valley. TheBurmese won the day

,and Gobind Chandra was driven to take refuge

in the British District of Sylhet .In 1 8 2 6

,as an incident in the first Burmese war

,he was restored to

his throne by a Brit ish force. Bu t his English allies did not remain longenough in the country to re-establish his authority . One of his subj ects ,T ularam Senapat i

,the general of the Cachari army , revolted and

succeeded in establ ishing his independence in North Cachar . Finally,

i n 1 830, Gobind Chandra was assassinated ; and as he left no sons , theBritish took possession of Cachar in accordance with a clause in thetreaty of 1 8 2 6. The Sub—division of North Cachar was annexed in

1 854, on the death of T ularam Senapati , also wi thout heirs .The most important events in the recent history of Cachar are

the discovery of the tea-plant growing wild,in 1 855 ; the dispersion

in 1 857 of a body of mut inou s Sepoys , who had made their wayinto the District from Chittagong (rec CHITTAGONG D ISTR ICT) and the

L usha’

i expedition of 1 87 1—7 2 , by which the repeated inroads Of the

hill tribes on the southern frontier were checked . In j anuary 1 880,

however,the Angami Nagas from Konoma in the Naga Hills made

a descent upon a tea-garden in the north of the District,and killed

the European planter with 2 2 of his servants . This led to a militaryexpedit ion against the Naga

’

s in 1880—8 1,and the further annexa

tion of their formerly independent tracts . The actual assailants onthe tea-garden in Cachar were never captured

,bu t relics of the raid

were found in Konoma when the village surrendered, i n March 1880 .

Towards the end of 1 88 1,a Cachari fanatic gave out that he was

possessed of supernatural powers,and that he had been ordained to

restore the ancient Cachari k ingdom . He gathered about h im anignorant following

,who

,after demanding the retrocession of North

Cachar, attacked Gunj ong, the sub-divisional head—quarters station,

which they burnt to the ground,k il ling three persons . They next

attacked the Deputy-Commissioner and sub-divisional officer,who were

ncamped at Maibong, the ancient Cachari capi tal . Nine of the

assailants were shot down , bu t the remainder succeeded in making theirescape into the j ungle. The Deputy-Commissioner received a swordwound in the hand during the fray

,which

,for want Of proper treatment

,

brought on mortifi cation, eventually causing his death .

P/zysz’

cal Asp ects— The District of Cachar occupies the upper portion

of the valley of the Barak . I t i s surrounded on three sides by loftyranges o f hills , being only Open on the west towards Sylhet . These

mountain barriers rise steeply from the narrow plain,overgrown with

dense green j ungle, and broken by a few hill torrents and white cascades .Besides this background of noble scenery

,the valley itself presents a

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2 34 CACHAR.

of the great marshes,give a richness and picturesque variety to the

scenery of Cachar which is generally wanting in the monotonous plains

of Eastern Bengal . The soi l of the valleys i s an alluvial deposit of

mixed sand and clay,in which clay predominates . On the hills and

other elevated tracts,the surface is a rich vegetable mould

,and the

rocks underneath are composed of quartz , schist, and conglomerate .

NO mines or minerals of any value are known to exist in Cachar.Discoveries of coal have been frequently reported , but on examinationthe deposits have invariably turned out to be anthracite or lignite

,not

worth working. Petroleum also has been discovered,but not util iz ed .

The local demand for salt was formerly met from salt-wells ; but acheaper and better supply is now Obtained from Bengal

,and only one

of the salt-wells is still worked . The great natural source of wealth to

Cachar lies in her forests, which are practically inexhaustible . The twomost valuable timber- trees arej a

’

rul (L agerstroemia reginae) and na’

g eswar

or aa’

g fi esar (Mesua ferrea) . Boats, logs, bamboos , canes , and thatchinggrass are exported to Bengal in large quantities . The wood-cutters payl icences at the rate of as . per head, and tolls are levied at Sialtekh g /zat

on the Barak river. In 1 8 76—7 7 , a total area of 745 square miles was

declared Forest Reserves, and placed under regulations for conservancy.

In 188 1,the forests yielded a total revenue of 2 1 5 1 . Caoutchouc, the

produce Of Ficus elastica , is collected chiefly beyond the frontiers of theDistrict. In 1 88 1—8 2 , the registered export of caoutchouc from the twoDistricts of Cachar and Sylhet was 1466 mazma

’s of 80 lbs . each

,valued at

£5864 . Recently, cinnamon and oak trees have been found in the newly

opened country ofNorth Cachar, where the tea-plant also grows wild . Themanufacture of tea-boxes gives employment to many. A saw-mill whicha few years ago existed at Badrpur for the manufacture of tea-boxes hassince been abandoned , and all the boxes are now made by hand . Thewi ld animals found in the District include elephants

,rh inoceros

,buffa

loes, the meteza or wi ld cow,tigers

,black bear

,and many kinds of deer,

including the sa’mb/zar and the liara’ The right of captu ringwild elephants i s a valuable monopoly of Government . The met/za

’ orwild cow (Bo s gavaeus) is domesticated by the hill tribes and kept forsacrificial purposes . The animal chiefly used for agriculture is thebuffalo .

P opulation—The Census of 188 1 returned a population of

residing in the plains, and scattered over the wi ld h illy tracts,

making a total of The Census of 1 8 7 2 was confined to the

regularly-settled portion of the District in the plains, or an area of 1 2 85

square miles , out ofa total of 3 750 square miles , and showed a total population of persons . The number of villages ormazcz as i n 1 88 1 was

i n the plains 3 53, and of occupied houses showing an average of8 19 persons per village, and 8 96 per house . Classified according to

CACHAR . 235

sex, there were in the plains males and females ; pro

portion of males, 53 4 per cent . This large preponderance of males is

due to the presence of the coolies on the tea-gardens . The following

figures relate to the hill tracts . Total population, 3 , namely,males and females . Number of mau zas or village unions, 300,and of houses

, 5470, showing an average of 8 1 5 persons per village, and

44 7 per house . Hindus numbered while there were only 3Muhammadans and 2 Christ ians in this tract ; the remaining

are made up of aboriginal tribes. Classified according to religion, theHindus in the plains

,as loosely grouped together for religious purposes,

numbered or 645 per cent . ; the Muhammadans , or

3 19 per cent. Brahmos, 40 Christ ians , 765 , or'

2 per cent . and hill

t ribes, 9570, or 33 per cent.

Cachar is a remote and backward District, shut in between loftyh ills

, which has but recently come under the influence of Hinducivilisation . The population is largely composed of the neighbouringhill tribes

,included among the general mass of Hindus in the

religious classification just given . The chief aboriginal tribes are

Cacharis, 442 5 in the plain s , and in the h ills ; Kukis, includingthe L ushai clan , 2 794 in the plains , and 64 20 in the hills ; Nagas, 5984i n the plains

,and 402 1 in the h ills ; and Mikirs, 659 in the plains , and

3045 in the h ills . The number of immigrant coolies imported fromBengal and other parts of India in connection with the tea industry isreturned at ( including children) born outside Assam , of whom a

few are Christians , as against a locally-born coolie population numberingAmong the native population

,the Manipuris occupy a pro

m inent place,numbering all found in the plains. They have

m igrated from the State of Manipur with in the past fifty years,and

though the majority now rank as Hindus, some have adopted Islam .

They are the pioneers of cultivation on the skirts of the jungle,and are

an industrious,peaceable race . The women weave excellent cotton

cloth,known as M am

'

purz’

k/zes/z, which finds a market beyond the l imits

of the D istrict and also a kind of fine net , for mosquito curtains . The

men manufacture brass vessels . The Kukis , both in the hil l tractsand in the plains

,are all recen t immigrants from the southern hills

,and

the maj ority live along the southern frontier. There is,however

,a

settlem ent of Old Kukis , as they are termed, from having been the firstimmigrants of their race, on the north of the Barak river. Since

the retaliatory expedition of 1 87 1—7 2 , the Kukis have uniformly

maintained friendly relations with the British officers,and a valuable

trade has been opened at certain fixed marts on the frontier.The population of Cachar is entirely engaged either in rice cultivation

or on the tea-gardens . There is only one town with a population of

more than 5000 souls , namely, S ILCHAR, the civil station and head

2 36 CACHAR.

quarters of a regiment of Native Infantry , which in 188 1 contained

656 7 inhabitants . In conj unction wi th the neighbouring villages,

Silchar has been constituted a municipality, wi th an income,i n

1 88 1—82,of £ 1 167 ; average rate of taxation , 1 s . 8d. per head . A

large trading fair i s annually held here in January,attended by about

people . Other centres of trade are SONA I and S IAL T EKH on theBarak and Barkala

, Udharban, L akshmipur, and Hailakandi .An interesting bond of social organiz ation is to be found in the le/zéls

or primitive agricultural partnerships,which stil l retain their vitality

,and

constitute the ordinary proprietary bodies throughout the District .These Rite/s

,which differ in several important respects from the village

communities of the rest of India,are variously explained either as a

relic of the indigenou s revenue system of the great Cachari kingdom,

or as an invention of the Bengali H indus to protect themselves fromthe exactions o f the Raja. Properly speak ing

,each R/zél consists of a

band of individuals,bound together by no real or fancied tie of blood

,

nor even by community of race or religion , but merely associated for

purposes of common profi t . For collection of revenue, the State didnot look to the individual cult ivator

,but to the mule/lair or head-man

of the R/zél,who was primarily responsible . At the same time

,the

members o f the k/zélwere held j ointly and severally liable for the default

of any of their number and the property of a defaulter, in accordancewi th a principle still known as g/zora

’

wat,was made over to the RM ! to

which he belonged . A certain number of k/zéls were comprehended ina larger corporation

,called a ra

’

j . Such was the fi scal and agricultural

system of Cachar when the Brit ish took possession of the country in1 830 . The conception of individual property

,and separate l iability for

the Government revenue,has been gradually substituted for i t but the

machinery of the k/zél st ill retains a strong hold upon the sent iments of

the pe0p1e,and is continually reappearing at the present day as an

anomaly in the administration .

Ag riculture.

—The staple crop of Cachar is rice, which yields threeharvests In the year the a

’

us,or early harvest , ( 2 )) the sa

’

zl,which

is transplanted , and supplies by far the greater portion of the foodsupply ; (3) the a

’

srci or a’

mazz, which is sown broadcast . The rail

crop is sown in nu rseries in June,transplanted into low—lying fields

in the following month , and reaped about December or January . The

minor crops comprise mustard,l inseed

,pulses

,sugar-cane

,ch illies

,and

vegetables . Cult ivation has rapidly extended since the date of Britishannexation , but even at the present t ime a very small proportion of the

total area is under ti llage . In 1 830, the total cult ivated area was estimated at acres . By 1 88 1—8 2

, the amount had risen toacres, or nearly n ine-fold but this is sti ll only 1 0 per cent . of the total

surveyed area of the District . Almost the whole cult ivated area is under

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2 38 CA CHAR .

salt,tobacco

,brass-ware, etc. The trade with Manipur is said to

be on the decline. The local traffic of the District passes by roadrather than by water. The enterprise of the tea-planters has constructed

,and now maintains, a very complete system of roads

,by

which communication is established between their gardens and theriver Barak . In 188 1 , the number of miles of road open was 2 66,

maintained at a cost of£4300.

Tea Cultivation and M anufacture—The tea-plant was discoveredgrowing wild i n Cachar i n 1855, and the first grant of land for a tea

garden was made in the following year. Reckless speculation in thepromotion of tea companies led to a severe depression , which reached

its crisis about 1868 but since that date the industry has recovered,

and now makes rapid and regular progress . In 188 1 , the total area takenup for tea was acres, o f which acres were under plant ;the total out-turn was lbs . , being j ust double the out-turn

of 1 8 73 . The average monthly number of labourers employed was

of whom were imported from Bengal. The land fortea-gardens has been acquired direct from Government, either on longleases or by sales in fee-simple. I t is estimated that a total sum of

in coin and notes i s annually introduced into the Districtin connection with this industry. A full account of the processes ofcultivation of the plant and preparation of the leaf will be found inthe StatisticalAccount of Assam,

vol . i i. pp . 434—445.

Admz'

m'

stration.—Ia the year 1 870—7 1 , the total revenue of Cachar

District amounted to and the expenditure to £2 Theprincipal i tems among the rece ipts were— land revenue,Opium

, £2 855 excise, £7609 stamps, £8467 forest revenue,

£2 1 5 1 . District detai ls of revenue and expenditure are not availableto me for a later year. In 1880

, the regular poli ce force consisted of

608 officers and men , maintained at a cost of The Districtalso maintains a municipal police in Silchar of9constables, and a body ofrural watchmen or supported by the villagers , and numbering

43 76 in 1 880. The j ail at Silchar, and subsidiary j ail at Hailakandi,contained in 1882 an average daily number of 1 2 1 2 1 prisoners

, ia

cluding females.With in the last few years, education has made considerable progress

in Cachar , under the st imulus of Sir G. Campbell’s reforms,by which

the benefi t of the grant-ih -aid rules has been extended to the pa’

t/rscilcfs

or vi llage schools. Between March 1 8 7 2 and March 188 1,the total

number o f schools in the District increased from 6 to 100.

For administrative purposes, Cachar District i s divided into 3 Subdivisions , with head-quarters at Silchar, Hailakandi, and Gunj ong. TheSilchar Sub-divis ion is further d ivided into 3 t/zdrza

’

s or pol ice c ircles.For fiscal purposes, the settled port ion of the District i s divided into

CALASTRI CAL CUT TA. 2 39

3 talzsz’

ls , comprehending 24 pargaucfs. In 1882 , there were 2 covenanted civi l servants stationed in the District. There were also 3extra-Assi stant Commissioners, with powers of a muuszf or civil j udge1 Special extra-Ass istan t Commiss ioner ; and 3 special Deputy Col

lectors, with magisterial powers. The last were employed in the landsettlement o f the District.Alea

’z'

cal A spects—The climate of Cachar differs from that common

to Eastern Bengal in being less hot and more damp. The rainy

season lasts from April to October, and during the remain ing monthsof the year dense fogs are of frequent occurrence. The average meantemperature throughout the year is about 7 7

° F the range of variationbeing The average annual rainfall for the five years ending1 880—8 1 was inches at Silchar, and 108 59 at Hailakandi . As

ly ing within the mountainous tract that bounds North-Eastern India,

Cachar is especially exposed to earthquakes . In January 1869, a shockof unusual severi ty occurred, which laid in ruins the greater part o fthe town of Silchar, changed the course of the rivers in several places ,and d id damage throughout the D istrict to the estimated value of

Another severe ' earthquake , which did considerable damage

to the town and its neighbourhood , occurred on the 1 3th October1 882 .

The prevailing diseases are fevers, diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, andsmall-pox. Interm ittent fever usually appears every year

,after the

cessation of the rains. Outbreaks of cholera are attributed to im

portation from Bengal, and it has been observed that the path of thisepidemic regularly follows the course of the river and other l ines ofcommunicat ion. In recent years , by reason of the spread o f cult ivation and the adoption of sanitary measures, the general health of thepeople has sens ibly improved. The registration of vital s tatistics isvery imperfectly carried out . There are 2 charitable dispensaries inthe Dis trict

,attended in 188 1 by 63 1 in-patients and 7434 out-door

patients the total expenditure was £603 , towards which Governmentcontributed£45 , including the cost of European medicines, the balancebeing derived from local funds and subscriptions .

Calastri. —Zamz’

ndcirz’

(estate) in the District of North Arcot, MadrasPresidency—See KALAHAST I .

Calcutta—The capital of India, and seat of the Supreme Government s ituated on the east or left bank of the Hugli river

,in lat.

2 2°

34’

2 N. ,and long. 88

°

23’

59 E. I t l ies about 80 miles from the

seaboard,and receives the accumulated produce which the two great

r iver systems of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra collect throughoutthe Provinces of Bengal and Assam. From a cluster of three mud

villages at the close of the 1 7 th century, i t has advanced by rapid

strides to a densely - inhabited metropol is . Wi th i ts surrounding

240 CAL CUT TA.

suburbs,and the town of Howrah on the opposite s ide of the river ,

which is practical ly a portion of Calcutta, i t contained in 1 88 1 apopulation of souls . The central portion , which forms the

Calcutta municipality , had a population in 1 88 1 of In

1 88 1—82 , its marit ime trade amounted to nearly 60 mill ions sterl ing ;but it fluctuates

,according to the state of commerce, from 50 to 7 5

mill ions. Taking it at about 55 mill ions sterling, the exports make up

33 millions and the imports 2 2, showing an excess of exports over

imports of about 1 1 millions sterling.

T/te [ f actory of Calcutta pract ically dates from the year 1 686 . In

1 596 , i t had obtained a brief entry as a rent-paying village

,Kalikata

,

’

in the A z’

zz-f-Akbarz’

, or Revenue Survey, executed by command of the

Emperor Akbar. Bu t i t was no t ti ll n inety years later that it emergedinto historv . In 1 686

,the English merchants at Hiigli, finding them

selves compelled to qu i t their factory in consequence of a rup ture withthe Mughal authorit ies , retreated under their President, Job Char

-nock,

to Sutanati, about 2 6 m iles down the river from Hugli town . Sutanati’

,

then a village on the east bank o f the H iigli, is now a northern quarter

of Calcutta, extending to the present Chitpur Bridge . Their new

settlement soon extended i tself down the river bank to the village

of Kal ikata, between the present Cu stoms House and the Mint ;and afterwards down to Govindpur , which lay on the southern glacis

of the present Fort Wil l iam . Govindpur formed part of what is nowthe maz

’

a’an or great Calcutta plain , and included the exis ting suburb

of Hastings on the river bank . These three river - side hamlets

(namely, Sutanati, Kalikata , and Govindpur) have grown into thecapital of India . In 1 689

—90, the Bengal servants of the East India

Company determ ined to make Calcutta their head-quarters. In 1696

they buil t the original Fort Will iam ; and in 1 700 , they formally purchased the three villages o f Sutanatf

, Kal ikata, and Govindpur fromPrince Az im

,son of the Emperor Aurangz eb .

The site thus chosen had an excellent anchorage,and was defended

by the river from the Marathas , who harried the Districts on the farthers ide . A fort, subsequen tly rebu il t on the Vauban principl e, and amoat designed in 1 74 2 to surround the town , but never completed,combined with the natural position of Calcutta to render it one of thesafest places for trade in India during th e expiring struggles of theMughal Empire. I t grew up without any fi xed plan

,and with l ittle

regard to the sanitary arrangements required for a city. Some parts

l ie beneath h igh-water mark on the Hugli,and its low level has

rendered drainage a most diffi cult problem . Unt i l far on in thelast century, the jungle and paddy fields closely hemmed in th eEuropean mansions with a circle o f malaria. The vast plain

with its gardens and promenades, where the fashion of Calcutta now

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242 CAL CUT TA .

changed in official documents to Al inagar. In January 1 75 7 , th eexpedition despatched from Madras , under the command of AdmiralWatson and Colonel Cl ive, regained possession of the city . Theyfound many of the houses o f the English residen ts demolished

,and

others damaged by fire . The old chu rch of St . John’s lay in ruins.

The native portion of the town had also suffered much. Everyth ing

o f value had been swept away, except the merchandise of the Companywi th in the Fort, which had been reserved for the Nawab. The battl e

of Plassey was fought on June 2 3 , 1 7 5 7 , j ust twelve months after thecapture of Calcu tta. Mir Jafar

,the nom inee of the English

,was

created Nawa'

b of Bengal ; and by the treaty which raised h im to thisposition

,he agreed to make resti tu tion to the Calcutta merchants for

their losses . The English received the Hindus andMuhammadans and the Armenians By anotherclause in this treaty the Company was permi tted to establ ish a min t

,

the visible sign in India of territorial sovereignty ; and the first coin,

which,however, st i ll bore the name o f the Delhi Emperor, was issued

on August 19, 1 7 57 . The restitution money was d ivided among thesufferers by a committee of respectable inhabitan ts . Commerce rapidlyrevived

,and the ru ined city was rebu il t. Modern Calcutta dates from

1 7 5 7 . The old fort was abandoned, and its s ite devoted to the

Customs House and other Government offices . A new fort,the

.

present Fort Will iam ,was commenced by Cl ive , a t a short distance

lower down the river H iigli than the Old one . It was not finished t ill1 7 7 3 , and is said to have cost 2 millions sterling. At th is t ime

,also

,

the or park of Calcu tta, was formed ; and the salubrity of i tsposit ion induced the European inhabitants gradually to shift theirdwellings eas tward

,and to occupy what is now the Chauringhi

(Chowringhee) quarter.From that time

,the h istory of Calcu tta presents a smooth narrative

o f prosperi ty. No outbreak of civil war nor any episode of disaster hasd is turbed its progress

,nor have the calamitie s incident to the cl imate

ever wrought mischief which could not be easily repaired. The great

park intersected by roads , and ornamented by a public garden ,s tretches along the river bank . The fort rises from the war

’

o’a’

u on

i ts western side, and defends it from the river approach ; the stately

mans ions of Chauringhi l ine it s eastern flank ; wh ile Government

House, the Gothic High Court , the domed Post Office, and otherpublic buildings, tower in fine architectural masses at its northern

end . Beyond the European quarter l i e the densely - populated

clusters of huts or‘ villages ’ which compose the native ci ty and

suburbs. Several squares, with large reservoirs and gardens , adornthe city

,and broad, well-metalled streets connect it s various extremities .

A Sanitary Department now attempts the difficult task of introducing

CAL CUT TA.243

cleanl iness into the native quarter. The old contras t wh ich travellershave recorded between European Calcutta as a ci ty of palaces, and

native Calcutta as a city of fi l th , i s not qui te so strongly marked . On

the one hand,the English houses are less splendid ; on the other, the

nat ive bastz’

s are somewhat cleaner and more commodious . Thischange has of late years gone on so rapidly , that i t may be well t o

extract from the Census Report of 187 2 the following description s of

Calcutta by four eye-wi tnesses during the latter half of the last centuryand early in the present one.Calcutta in t/ze last century.

—Towards the end of the last century, th enat ive town

, which then as now lay apart from the English quarter, was

thus described‘ I t i s a truth that

,from the western extremity of Californ ia, to the

eastern coast of Japan,there is not a spot where j udgment, taste,

decency,and convenience are so grossly insulted as in that scattered

and confused chaos of houses,huts

,sheds, streets, lanes , alleys , wind

ings,gutters

,s inks, and tanks, which , j umbled into an undistinguished

mass of fi lth and corruption,equally offensive to human sense and

health,compose the capital of the English Company’s Government in

India. The very small portion of cleanliness which it enj oys is owingto the familiar Intercourse o i hungry j ackals by night, and ravenousvultures

,kites

,and crows by day. In l ike manner it is indebted to the

smoke raised in public streets,i n temporary huts and sheds , for any

respite it enj oys from mosquitoes,the natural production of s tagnated

and putrid waters .’

Nine years later , Grandpre’

thus describes the town‘ As we

,

enter the town,a very extensive square opens before us

,

w i th a large piece of water in the middle for the publ ic use [nowknown as Tank Square or Dalhousie Square]. The pond hasa grass plot round it

,and the whole is enclosed by a wall breast

h igh with a rail ing on the top. The sides of th is enclosure are eachnearly 500 yards in length . The square itself is composed of

magnificent houses, which render Calcutta not only the handsomesttown in Asia, but one of the finest in the world. One s ide of thesquare cons ists of

‘

a range of build ings occupied by persons in civilappointments under the Company, such as writers in the public offices .Part of the side towards the river is taken up by the old fort

,which

was the firs t citadel built by the English after the ir establ ishment inBengal .

Calcutta abounds with all sorts of carriages,chariots

, whi skies , and

phaetons, which occasion in the evening. as great a bustle as in one

of the principal towns in Europe. On the other hand, such animalsas die in the streets or in the houses are thrown into the drains

,and

they l ie there and putrefy. From want, sickness , or accident, many a

2 44 CAL CUT TA .

poor wretch of the human species also expires in the streets. I have

seen the body of a poor creature , lying dead at my door, serve two

nights for food to the jackals .’

In 1 803 , L ord Valentia remarked The town of Calcutta is atpresent well worthy of being the seat of our Indian Government

,both

from its siz e , and from the magn ificent bu ild ings which decorate thepart o f i t inhabited by Europeans . Chowringhee i s an entire village

o f palaces,and altogether forms the finest V iew I ever beheld in any

ci ty. The Black Town,however

,is as complete a contrast to this as

can well be conceived . I ts s treets are narrow and dirty,but the

houses [sometimes]o f two storeys , occasionally brick , bu t generallymud and thatched , perfectly resemble the cabins of the poorest class in

Ireland.

’

‘ The universal custom of the nat ives,

’writes Price

,

‘when they

obtain a small spot on which to bu ild a hut , is to dig a hole, raise one

part o f the ground w i th the earth from the other,and make the walls

o f their house of the same materials from the same place,and then

cover i t with straw t ied on reeds or spl it bamboos ; the hole in theground is made smooth

,and as deep as they can , and when the

periodical rains set in , i t becomes a l it t le pond or tank,in which they

wash the ir bodies and clothes,as d irected by their rel igion . Vegetat ion

is so quick and powerful , and shade so necessary , that in six months’

t ime the l ittle but is absolutely hid from the eyes , and almost from the

knowledge of everybody bu t the inhab itants o f neighbouring huts . A

l ittle path of a foot or two broad is al l those harmless pe0p1e want togo from home into the common h ighway leading to the publ ic market .Thousands o f these huts are run up wherever they are permitted to

bu ild near European se t tlements . Much ground was cleared tomake room for a new fort many thousand huts thrown into the holesfrom whence they had been taken , to form roads and an esplanade ;but every man who lost a hut had ground given h im on which to makeanother

,and always of more extent and more value than what had

been taken away from him .

Much was done by Governor Vansi ttart, L ord Cl ive

,Governor

Verelst, Governor Cartier, and Governor Hastings, to cleanse the town

and make i t wholesome and convenien t. When Mr. Hastings came tothe government, he added some new regulations

,and gave a degree

more power to the officers o f pol ice,divided the Black and White

Town into thirty—fi ve wards , and purchased the consent Of the nativesto go a li ttle farther o ff.

‘ There are no stones, gravel , or other hard substances wi th in 50leagues of Calcutta with which to mend the roads. Burnt and brokenbrick s are all the m aterials we have

,and very expens ive they are ; for

lay them down as thick as you will, so rotten is the so il that in two

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246 CAL CUT TA .

treasury from M ursh idabad to Calcutta. The latter town thus becameboth the capital of Bengal and the seat of the Central Government in

India.

In 1 834, the Governor-G eneral of Bengal was created GovernorGeneral of India

,and was permitted to appoint a Deputy Governor to

manage the affairs of L ower Bengal during h is occasional absence.

But it was not until 1854 that a separate head was appointed for Bengal ,who

,under the style of L ieutenant~G overnor, exercises the same powers

in civil matters as those vested in the Governors in Council of Madras

or Bombay, although subj ect to closer supervision by the SupremeGovernment . Calcutta is thus at present th e seat both of the SupremeGovernment of India

, and of the Provincial Government of Bengal,each wi th an independent set of offices . Government House, theofficial res idence of the G overnor-General of India, or Viceroy, i s amagn ificent p ile rising to the north of the fort and the great park,maz

’

u’ciu . I t was buil t by L ord Wellesley, 1 799

—1804. The offi cial

residence of the L ieutenant-Governor of Bengal i s Belvedere, i n Al ipur,a southern suburb of Calcutta. Proposals have been made from timeto time to remove the seat of the Supreme Government from Calcutta.

I t s unheal thiness, especially in the rainy season , i ts remoteness fromthe centre of Hindustan, and its distance from England, have each

been animadverted upon . These disadvantages have now, however,been in some degree removed

,or their consequences mitigated, by the

efforts of science and modern engineering. The railway and theteleg raph have brough t the V iceroy at Calcutta in to close contact withevery corner of India ; while an ample water-supply, improved drainage,and other reforms, have improved the health of the city. Much,however, st i ll remains to be done for the san itat ion both of the townand suburbs .English civil isat ion has thus enabled Calcutta to remain the pol itical

capital of India . The same agency sti ll secures to the city hermonopoly of the sea-borne trade of Bengal. The river Hugl i has longceased to be the main channel of the Ganges ; but Calcutta alone of allthe success ive river capitals of Bengal has overcome the d ifficultiesinciden t to its posi tion as a deltaic centre of commerce . Strenuousefforts of engineering are required to keep open the Nadiya rivers

,

’

namely, the three offshoots of the Ganges which combine to form the

head-waters of the Hugli. Still greater watchfulness is demanded bythe Hiigli i tself below Calcutta. In 1 853, th e deterioration o f theHiigli channel led to a proposal to found an auxil iary port to Calcuttaon the Matla, another mouth of the G anges. A committee

,then

appoin ted to inquire into the subj ect,reported (not unanimously,

however) that the river Htigli was deteriorating gradually and pro

gressively. At that t ime ‘ science had done nothing to aid in fac ili ties

CAz CUT TA. 247

for nav igat ion,

’ but since then everything has been effected which foresight can suggest . Observat ions on the condition of the river are

taken almost hourly,and the sh ift ing of the shoals is carefully recorded.

By these means th e port of Calcutta has been kept open for ships ofthe largest tonnage drawing 26 feet , and almost seems to have outl ivedthe danger which threatened it. The construction of large wet docksfrom the Hugli at Kidderpur, j ust below Calcutta, has been sanctioned.

A new approach from the sea to these docks, via the MATLA river and

a navigable canal, has been talked of.

TIze M odern City of Calc utta—The true derivation of the name ofthe ci ty appears to be from Kali-ghat, the well-known shrine to thegoddess Kali

,close to the old course of the Ganges, or Adi-Ganga,

about a mile to the south of the Calcutta outskirts . The neighbouringcountry was known as Kal i-kshetra in very remote t imes . The Adi

Ganga'

. is st ill venerated as the ancient channel by which the Gangespoured her purifying waters towards the ocean, before they wered iverted into the presen t Hiigli. This old course

,in many parts now

little more than a series of depress ions and shallow pool s,i s marked

by shrines and burning g /za’

ts for the dead along its route. Amongsuch shrines

,Kali-ghat, although the present temple is of comparatively

modern date, has been celebrated since the preh istoric era of theSanskirt Epic poems . When Charnock settled on the banks of th eHugli

,i n 1686

,a pilgrim road ran through a thick j ungle along the l ine

o f the presen t Chauringhi. This path proceeded via the Chitpur roadthrough marshes and woods, now the site of Calcutta . At Chitpur i tj oined the old highway to M ursidabad and the north . The nearestvi llage to the shrine of Kal i-ghat (the village through which the Chitpurroad passed) was the M o slemiz ed

‘ Kalikata ’of the Ain-i—Akbari, or

Revenue Survey of 1 596, and is the Angliciz ed Calcutta’ of the presentday. A forest

,interspersed with swamps, and infested by wild beasts

and robbers,lay between the shrine and the village. That forest has

now given place to the fash ionable quarters of Chauringhi and TheatreRoad

,together with the adjoin ing except the strip along the

river bank,which was dotted by the old hamlet of Govindpur. As late

as the second half of the last century,Warren Hastings shot tigers in thej ungle that now forms the fine Open space upon which the Cathedrali s built. Servants engaged at ‘ country houses ’ in that neighbourhood

( then a sol itary suburb, now covered with some of the bes t streets of

Calcutta) put off their clothes and valuables before going to their homesfor the night

,lest they should be stripped by robbers on the way.

Chauringhi, with its northern continuations, Bentinck Street and the

ChitpurRoad , forms, therefore, one of the most ancient pilgrim-routesin Bengal ; and th is l in e was dest ined to become the central streetthrough the modern city of Calcutta. The shrine of Kali-ghat stood at

248 CAL CUT TA .

the southern end of it,while the northern end was celebrated for th e

temple of Chiteswari, which gave i ts name to the ancient village of

Chitpur, now a northern suburb of Calcutta . For abou t a centuryafter Charnock’s settlement in 1 686, the English town clustered roundthe old Fort

,which occupied the s ite of the present Customs House

and Post-Offi ce . By degrees it crept along the river bank , bothnorth and sou th

, while the country houses of the wealth ier Englishres idents gradually extended as far as Chitpur at the northern end ofthe central route

,and Al ipur at its south—western extremity . The

maida’

n,or great open plain

,was cleared of j ungle

,partly for the new

or present Fort Wi l l iam (bu ilt 1 7 57 after the battle of Plasseyand the a

’ima

’

ni’ grant had given Bengal to the English . Bu t the

southern corner o f the maia’a/z, toge ther with the now fashionablequarter of Theatre Road which skirts it, remained for some time aswampy and j ungly tract. Until the middle o f the presen t century,the Chitpur road sti ll divided the Engl ish mercan t ile part of Calcuttaalong the river from the native villages or basti

’

s which clustered

Inward to the east of i t. By degrees,however, two inner main routes

were formed from north to south , running nearly paralle l to Chauringhi

and it s continuation,the Chitpur road. The middle of the three

routes is now represented (beginning from the south ) by Wood Street ,Wellesley Street

, College Street, and Cornwall is S treet. The eastern

or most inland of the three routes i s the Circular Road, which stillnominally marks the eastern boundary of Calcu t ta . The northernpart of the Circular Road is formed from the a

’c’

lzris thrown up fromthe Maratha Ditch

,when that ancient defence was erected against the

predatory hordes in 1 742 . A section of i t runs along the route o f theDitch itself, after i t was partly fi lled up

,by orders of the Marquis o f

Wellesley, at the beginning of the presen t century .

These three l ines , runn ing nearly paralle l to the river on the west,are intersected by a number o f cross s treets connecting them with thebank of the Hugli. The most important of the intersecting streets

running east and west are now (beginning from the north) SobhaBaz ar (starting inland from the Hugli bank) , wi th its eastern con t inuat ion , Grey Street , called after a former L ieutenant-Governor of Bengal ,S ir Will iam Grey ; Nimtala

’

(from th e H ugli bank) , w i th i ts easterncontinuation, Beadon Street , called after Sir Cecil Beadon, anotherL ieutenant-Governor ; Cotton S treet, wi th its eastern cont inuation ,Machua Ba

’

z ar Road ; Cann ing Street , called after L ord Canning, theGovernor-General (starting from the river bank) , wi th its eastern con

tinuations , Kulatala and Mirz apur Streets ; Lal Baz ar, with its easterncontinuations, Bow Baz ar and Baitakhana ; the Esplanade, with i tseastern continuat ion , Dharmtala Street, start ing inland from the northeastern corner of the maz

’

a’a’

zz or open p lain . From th is point the

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2 50 CAL CUT TA .

M onuments and P ublic B uilding s—Calcutta i s justly celebrated fori ts monuments. Perhaps the most conspicuous is the tall column towardsthe north-eastern end of the open plain or maz

‘

a'

ctn,in honour of Sir David

Ochterlony. For fi fty years a sold ier, he had served in every Indianwar from the t ime of Hyder downwards,

’ to nearly 1823. I t rises 1 65fee t

,with a Saracenic capital, and presents a noble View of the city

from its top . Among the monuments to G overnors-General may bemen t ioned those of L ord Wil l iam Bent inck ( 1828—1835) L ord

Hardinge ( 1844 L ord L awrence ( 1864 and L ord Mayo

( 1869 An enumerat ion of the Calcutta monuments is , however,beyond the scope of this art icle . One of them is remarkable for

beau ty o f design and spirited execution . The bronz e equestrian statueto Sir James Outram,

‘The Bayard of the East,’r ises on the Chauringhi

side o f the great park, opposite the Un ited Service Club. I t represen tsthe hero with drawn sword , looking round to h is troops, and cheeringthem forward. Nothing can exceed the l ifel ike action of both manand horse and although unve i led by the Commander-ih -Chief as longago as 1874, i t st il l attracts groups of native gaz ers every day, andform s a favourite rendez vous

,round which the European ch ildren o f

Calcutta play with the ir nurses in the evening. I t i s an admirable

example of Foley’s work ; and to this art is t the city also owes severalothers of its most successful statues .T /ze present G overnment House stands at the northern end of the

great park or nzaiclan, and separates it from the European commercialquarter. As already mentioned , i t was buil t by L ord Wellesley, whoheld that ‘ India should be governed from a palace, not from acount ing-house with the ideas of a prince

,and not w ith those of a

retail dealer in musl in s and i ndigo.

’ During the second half of thelast century

,part of i ts s ite had been occupied by Warren Hastings’

town residence,and as appears from a plan of Calcutta in 1 792 ,

also by the old Government House and Counci l House. I t was

commenced in 1 799, and fin ished in 1804, at a cost of £8000 for theground, for the build ing

,and £5000 for the first furn ishing ;

total , about or at the present value of silver,about

The grounds occupy about 6 acres, and the design was adapted fromL ord Scarsdale’s seat of Kedleston Hall

,Derbyshire

,built by Robert

Adam. Four great wings run to each point of the compass,from a

central pile approached by a magnificent fl ight of steps on the north .

The Grand Hall i s one of the finest chambers in any palace ; andbes ides the apartments for the Viceroy and h is staff, the buildingcontains the Council Chamber in which the Supreme L egislature holdsi ts si ttings. Some of the paintings have a h istorical interest

,but not

many of them possess high arti stic value . The seri es of Governors~

General is ne ither so complete nor so deficient in p ictorial meri t as the

CAL CUT TA.2 5 1

remarkable series of Portuguese Viceroys in the G overnment House at

G oa. Various articles of furniture and trophies recall the peri lous earlydays of the Company, having been captured from the European or nativepowers. The two fine full-length portraits of L ouis le Bien Aimé and hisqueen

,with the chandel iers

,and twelve busts Of the Cae sars in the aisles

of the Marble Hall,are said to have been taken from a French ship.

TIze [ J ig/i Court—To the west of Government House , nearer to theriver, s tands the High Court. This imposing structure, in somewhatflorid Goth ic

,was completed in 1 87 2 , on the s ite of the old Suprem e

Court. The design is said to have been suggested by the Town Hal lat Ypres the fron t is faced with stone

,and the capitals of the pillars

of the grand colonnade are beautifully sculptured. The most interest

ing among its many portraits are those of Sir E l ij ah Impey, by Zoffanyo f Sir Henry Russell and Sir Francis W. M acnaughten, both by

Chinnery and of Sir Will iam Burroughs , by S ir Thomas L awrence.

T Ize Town Hall also stands west of Government House , betweeni t and the High Court. I t is a large build ing in the Doric style,approached by a noble fl ight of steps leading up the grand portico. I twas built in 1 804 by the citiz ens of Calcutta at a cost of abou tRs . Among many interesting pieces of art , it contain s amarble statue of Warren Hastings

,by R . Westmac ott, another of the

Marquis of Cornwall is, and a more recent one of Ramanath Tagore, awell-known leader and reform er of nat ive society in Calcutta. Amongother bu ildings of note are the Bank of Bengal , facing the Hiigli, andthe Mint, also on the river. The Currency Offi ce , the Central Telegraph

Offi ce, the General Post-Offi ce , a huge, heavy bui lding, and the new

Secretariat of the Government of Bengal, l ine the four s ides of theh istorical Tank (now Dalhousie ) Square .

C/zurc/zes .—The principal churches number about 30, including

Protestan t ones of many denominations, Roman Cathol ic, Greek , Parsi ,and Hebrew. The Brahma Samaj , or new Theist ic sect of Bengal ,founded by Raja Rammohun Roy, have three places of worship . TheHindu temples are numerous , but feeble in design ; while of the M uham

madan mosques, the only one o f architectural pretensions is the M as/zit

at the corner of Dharmtala Street. I t was built and endowed in 1842 ,

says the inscript ion , by the‘ Prince Ghulam Muhammad

,son of the

late T ip ii Sultan, in gratitude to God, and in commemorat ion of theHonourable Court of Directors grant ing him the arrears of his stipendinT/ze Catfi ea

’

ral Clzurc/z of the diocese of Calcutta, St. Paul’s,at the

southern corner of the maia’a’

n or open plain,was commenced in 1 839,

and consecrated in 1847 . An earlier project,started in 1 8 19, fel l

through from want of funds. St . Paul’s Cathedral i s practically the

work of the late BishopWilson . Of raised for its building and

2 5 2 CAL G UTTA.

endowment, the B ishop gave and the East India Companywhile the whole subscription raised in Ind ia amounted to

only The remain ing were subscribed in England.

About were spen t on the bu ild ing, which is of a style knownin Calcu tta as Indo-Goth ic ; that i s to say, Goth ic adapted by am il itary engineer to the exigencies of the Indian cl imate . The trees

,

which have grown up around it, now help to remedy the deficiencies o fthe arch itecture and the spire rises picturesquely from the evergreenfoliage at the extremity o f the nzaia’a

’

n farthest from the town o f Calcutta .

The Cathedral i s built in the form of a cross,2 4 7 feet in length, with

the transept 1 14 feet, and the tower and spire 2 0 1 fee t in height . Themost remarkable monument is a l ife -siz ed kneeling figure in bishop’srobes , by Chantrey, bearing the single word Heber .’

St. j olt/2’

s C/zurc/z , or the old Cathedral, was commenced in 1 7 84.

I t was erected to replace a sti ll O lder Church,bu il t in 1 7 1 5 , the steeple

of which fell down in the earthquake o f 1 7 3 7 , while the whole Churchwas demolished by the Muhammadans during their occupation o f

Calcutta after its capture in 1 7 56 . The first meet ing o f the committeefor building the present St . John’s was attended by the GovernorGeneral

,Warren Hastings

, and h is Council . The structure costabout ch iefly raised by voluntary subscript ion ; a nat iveRaj a presen ting the old burying-ground , in the midst o f which thechurch stands

,together with two acres of land adj oining

,then valued

at £3000 . The only work of art of importance is the old altar—piece ,The L ast Supper

,painted and presented by Zoffany

,and now removed

to the west entrance . The graveyard around contains,however

,

several tombs of great h istorical interest . First in importance is thatto Johns Charnock, the founder of Calcu tta in 1 686

,

‘

g zci posz‘

guam

in solo non suo p ereg rinatus esset a’iu reocrsus est (lo/num suw eternitatis

a’

ecinzo a’ie j anuarii The mausoleum which covers Job Charnock

i s the oldest piece of masonry in Calcu tta. Slabs commemoratingthe noble surgeon W il l iam Hamilton

,who died 1 7 1 7 , and Admiral

Watson , are bu il t in to i ts walls .Tlze Ola

’[ Mission C/curc/z has a pecul iar interest as having been

erected,1 7 67

—1 7 70 , by Kiernander, the firs t Protestant m i ss ionary toBengal , and at h is own expense . In 1 786, the good Swede found

h imself unable to defray the charges involved by his benevolent

schemes, and the church was seiz ed by the Sheriff. I t was rescued

and res tored to rel ig ious purposes by Charles Grant , afterwards thewell-known East Ind ian Director

,who paid Rs . the sum at

which it was appraised. Kiernander came to Cuddalore,in Madras

,

as a Swedish miss ionary in 1 740. S tripped of his property,and driven

from the place on i ts capture by Count L ally , he took refuge at

Tranquebar in 1 758, and in the following year he arrived in Calcutta .

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2 54 CAL CUT TA.

In 1 7 10, the population was reckoned at from to In1 75 2 , Mr. Holwell estimated the number of houses with in its l imits at

and the inhabitants at persons ; but both these est imatesmust have been far too h igh . In 18 2 2

,the number of inhabitants was

returned at or according to another calcu lat ion,

i n 183 1 , at in 1850, at and in 1 866 at

In 1 87 2 , the first regular Census taken under the supervision ofthe municipal ity returned the populat ion of the town at bu tas the results presented features of doubtful accuracy, another Censuswas taken in 1 876 , which gave the populat ion of the town , excludingthe suburbs

,at The late st enumerat ion , i n 188 1, returned

the population of Calcutta, including Fort Will iam and the Port o f

Calcutta, at and the suburbs at making a total ofexclus ive of Howrah , or with Howrah.

The Census of 1 88 1 was taken s imultaneously on the n ight of the1 7 th February by four dist inct agencies. That o f Calcutta proper,namely

,the area included in the metropolitan municipal ity

,was con

ducted by the municipal ity ; that o f Fort Wi lliam,by the military

authority ; the enumerat ion of the floating and river populat ion wasunder the immediate supervis ion o f the Superintendent of the PortPolice while the operat ion s in the suburbs were carri ed out under thesuperintendence of the Vice-Chairman of the Suburban Municipal ity .

T he total area o f the town , including the Fort and Esplanade , butexcluding the river, i s 503 7 acres, while that of the suburbs is computedat acres , or nearly three t imes as large . The following tableexh ibits the populat ion of th e town and suburbs of Calcutta, with in theabove l imits, on the n ight of the 1 7th February 1 88 1

AREA, POPULATION , ETc., OF THE TOWN AND SUBURBS or CALCUTTA ,FEBRUARY 1 88 1 (EXCLUS IVE or HOWRAH ) .

Number Pop u lation. Number Numb e r IEIumberl

Area of.

ofp ers ons ofhouses0 p ers ons .

occup ied p er perper

.

dacres . h005 3 3 ’ Total . Ma les . Females .acre.

o

gcup le

005 8 .

xc6'

99

346

1 63

Tota l, u 59

Suburbs , I 7°

4S

Grand Total,

Including the area o f the Esp lanade outside the Fort, the popu lation of which, inc luding themaiddn (153) and the Pre s idency Jail have been returned as within the town proper.

CAL CUTTA . 255

Comparison wit/z last Census—Apart from the Fort and the Port,the population with in the strictly municipal area Of Calcutta, which was

in 1 87 6, was returned at in 1 88 1 , showing a decreaseof 1 8 per cen t. ; the fall ing off varying in the d ifferent wards from

to nearly 2 1 per cent. Five wards show an increase varying from

3 9 to 1 39 per cent. Total decrease in certain wards ,total increase in others

,6 188 ; net decrease , 7365 . The variation s

in most instances are sat isfactorily accounted for by the outward

movements o f the populat ion in consequence of municipal or otherimprovements . As a rule

,the tendency has been for the popula

t ion to move back from the river bank , and from the centre of thetown to the outsk irts beyond the strictly municipal area . In thewards along the river bank

,the improvement of the Strand Bank ,

and the removal Of private residences or their convers ion into warehouses for the storage of ju te and other produce

,account for a consider

able decrease ih the number of inhabitants . In some Of the morecentral wards, too , there have been considerable municipal improvem ents , wh ich have Opened out the most crowded thoroughfares bynew roads and clearances, and have had the effect Of driving thepeople farther east into neighbouring wards . A slight increase in theFort population is attribu table partly to the fact that at the Census Of

188 1,a detachment of Native Cavalry was temporarily encamped here

,

and partly to the fact that in February 1 88 1 several mil i tary headquarter Offi ces were in the Fort

,which in Apri l 1 8 76 were in the

hills .

The port Of Calcutta, including vessels proceeding up and down theriver, which in 18 7 2 contained a population of had in 1 88 1 apopulat ion of showing an increase Of souls

,or 59 per

cent. The sea—going population numbered 6 1 53 , on board 192 vessels ,ei ther in port or proceeding up or down the river. The number of

boats censused was 42 20 , wi th a population of souls . Deduct~ing vessels or boats censused before or after the date of the enumeration , the actual population of the port on the n ight of the 1 7 th February1 88 1 was sou ls, as compared wi th on the n ight of the6th April 18 76 . The increase in the sh ipping is partly explained bythe difference in the time of the year at which the Census was taken

and an increase in the shipping naturally explains an increase in the

number of boats . The port Census in 188 1 also included a portion o f

the river north Of the actual port l imits , which was not included on th e

last occasion . Taking the population of the whole of Calcutta and thesuburbs, the result shows a nominal decrease Of 0 2 9 per cen t . in 188 1

,

as compared with the previous enumeration . The popu lat ion withinCalcutta may therefore be considered as stationary ; but it must beremembered that the pe0p1e tend to move outwards to the environs

.

g 56 CAL CUT TA .

As regards accuracy,the Census Officers report that there is no reason

to doubt the correctness of the enumeration .

Religious and Cas z‘e Classifi cation—Of the total population of thetown , port, and suburbs , or 6 2 per cent . , are Hindus ;o r 3 2 2 per cen t . , are Muhammadans ; or 4 4 per cent . , are

Christians ; 488 are Brahmos ; 1 705 Buddhists ; 1 43 Jains ; 986 Jews ;1 4 2 Parsis ; 2 84 Sikhs ; while 7 2 7 belong to other (chiefly aboriginal )rel igi ons . Among the Hindus , Brahmans number and Kayasth s

these two castes numbering about one-fourth Of the totalHindu population . Next to them come Kaibarttas , Chama’rs

,

Sk inners and leather workers , Subarnabaniyas , goldsm iths andj ewellers

,Tantis

,weavers

,Vaishnavs , Bagdis

,

G walas,

Sadgops , Kabars,

Teh’s,

and M ehtars , Of the Muhammadans,no

fewer than are returned as o f the Sunn i sect . Among the

Christian populat ion , out Of a total of Protestants,8 7 68 returned

themselves as members of the Church Of England , 1 869 as members o fthe Church Of Scotland

,85 7 as Bapt ists, 692 as Methodis ts, 2 30 as

Independents or Congregationali sts , and 3 29 as L u therans . O ther

D issenters number 1 1 6. NO less than 4365 persons returned themselves simply as Protestan t , w i th out further specification Of sect, themaj ori ty o f whom belong no doubt to the Church Of England . Roman

Cathol ics numbered Armenians,649 ; Greeks , 1 33 while 1 297

persons have s imply entered themselves as Christ ians , without anyspecification Of sect. Unitarians and Theists were returned at 29 ; and

Agnost ics and ‘ Others ’ at 49 in n umber. The Native Christ ian

community numbered,in 188 1 , 4 1 0 1 , d istribu ted among the following

sects —Roman Catholics , 1 3 58 ; Church o f England, 7 2 4 ; Scotch

Church , 2 4 2 ; Baptis ts, 35 1 ; Methodists , 92 ; Congregat ional ists,

1 3 1 ; Plymouth Brethren , 8 ; other Protestants , 589; and sect no tspecified

,606.

T/ze G overning B ody,or Municipal ity Of Calcutta , was created by

Act vi. Of 1 863 (Bengal Council ) , and has been remodelled by

subsequent legislation , on a basis of popular election . I t consists of abody of Just ices of the Peace or Commissioners

,a certain number of

whom are elected by the ratepayers , whil e the remainder are nominated

by the L ieutenant -Governor of Bengal . The nat ive element i s largelyrepresented in this body . A salaried chairman

,selected by the

L ieutenant-Governor from the Covenanted Civil Service,directs the

whole, aided by a deputy chairman and other subord inates appointedby the Just ices themselves. The Justices or Commissioners receive nopay . In 1882

, the ordinary revenue Of the mun icipal ity amounted to

Of which the principal item s were as follows — House—rate,

taxes, water-rates and sale of water,

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2 58 CAL CUT TA .

necessary to increase greatly the supply Of unfiltered water for thewatering Of streets

,flushing Of sewers, building operat ions, etc. , for

which filtered water was formerly used. In 1 883 , a daily average Of

three million gallons of unfiltered water was pumped direct from the

H iigli for these purposes . Still more powerful engines commenced workin 1 884, j ust below the pontoon bridge . The total cost of fi l tered watersupplied to the town amounted in 188 2 to a fraction less than 4d. perthou sand gallons

,and Of unfi ltered water to 1d. per thousand gallons.

T/ze D rainag e Works are on an equally extens ive scale . The mainsewers are underground and for the proper discharge Of their contentsin the direction Of the Salt L ake

,a pumping stat ion is maintained at

an annual cos t of£3000. The system of underground drainage now

( 1883 ) virtually completed compri ses 36 7 7 miles of main brick sewers,and 1 1 3 14 miles o f pipe sewers ; total length , 1499 1 miles. In 1 863 ,

on the constitut ion Of the present municipality, a health Officer w ith asubordinate establ ishment was appointed . The pract ice Of throwing

corpses into the river has been stopped ; and the burning g/zdts andburial-grounds have been placed under supervision . All refuse andnigh t-soil are removed by the municipal ity by a special railway to theSalt L ake .

7 725 city is liq/Woof by a private gas company, under contract-

wi ththe municipal ity

, 46 2 1 gas lamps and 1 40 oil lamps being paid for at

the public expense The fire brigade consis ted of two steamfi re-engines and five hand-engines . I ts annual cost i s about £2 000.

T126 P oiz'

re of Calcutta is under the control Of the Commiss ioner, whois also the Chairman Of the J ustices . Beneath h im there is a Deputy

Commissioner . The force cons isted in 1 882 of 4 superintendents, 2 19

subordinate officers of various grades, 1 2 2 7 constable s, and 6 mounted

constables, maintained at a yearly cost of of which Government contributed one-fourth . Several m inor bodies

,such as the river

police , Fort pol ice, preventive police , Government guards , etc.,raise

the entire strength of the force in the town and on the river to 2 297

men . The great maj ority are natives,th e number Of European and

Eurasian sergeants and constables being only 8 1 . The Suburban pol iceconsisted in the same year Of 2 superintendents

,60 subordinate Officers

of various grades, 654 constables , and 8 detective o fi icers,maintained

at a cost Of the cost being about equally divided between themunicipali ty and the Government.T/zoj ai/s in Calcutta and the suburbs are the Pre s idency j ail , wi th

a total daily average pri son population in 1 88 1—82 Of 7 5 14 Europeansand 1 146 99 nat ives the Al ipur j ail

,w i th a daily average prison popu

lation of 1999 14 and the Rassa j ail for females,with a daily average

prison populat ion Of 1 7 5 . The Al ipur and Rassa jails are centralprisons, and receive long-term convicts from other D istricts

.

CAL CUT TA. 259

TimStatistics of E ducation in Calcutta in 1883 were as followsThere were 4 G overnment colleges, namely, the Pres idency College,founded in 1855, and attended by 383 pupils in the G eneral Depart

ment and 1 1 in the L aw Department ; the Sanskrit College , establ ishedin 1824, attended by 57 pupils in the Upper and 195 in the L ower

Divis ion ; the Calcutta Madrasa or Muhammadan College, foundedin 1 78 1 , number of pupils 442 ; the Bethune G irls

’ School, with 4

pupils in the College Department. This last-named inst itution haspassed two pupils at the examination of the Calcutta Universi ty for thedegree of RA. There were also 5 colleges mainly supported bymissionary efforts, but aided by Government , which were attended by

95 1 pupils. The number of unaided colleges was 4, three of them undernat ive management. These had an aggregate number of 653 pupils inthe G eneral and 404 in the Law Department. There were also the

College of Engineering at Howrah, attended by 166 pupils ; theCalcutta M edical College, with 1 26 pupils ; the Government School ofArt, with 96 pupils ; and the Campbell Vernacular Medical School, with140 pupils. The total number of schools in Calcutta reported on in1 883 by the Education Department was 291 , with scholars ; 149

Of them were for males, teaching boys ; the remaining 142 arefor girls and Zenana ladies , teaching 5 1 16 pupils . According to adifferent principle of classification , 8 2 schools taught English toboys ; 75 taught the vernacular only to 35 2 1 boys 1 19 were vernacularschools for girls, with 2848 pupils and 3 were normal schools, instructing 68 male and 46 female teachers. Of the total number of pupilsin these schools, 735 per cent. were returned as Hindus

,

Christians, M usalmans, while the remaining 1 7 per cent. wereof other persuasions. The total ascertained expenditure on collegesand special institution s was and on schools of all classes

being a total of of which the Government contributedTile M diea/ Charities of Calcutta comprise the Medical College

Hospital, the General Hospital, the Mayo Hospital (for natives only) ,th e Campbel l Hospital, the Municipal Police Hospital, the HowrahHospital on the Oppos ite side of the river, and minor d ispensaries. InJuly 1882 , the Eden Hospital for women and children was opened, tomeet a want long felt in Calcutta. The General Hospital i s confinedalmost solely to Europeans. The total amount contributed by Government to these - inst itutions in 1 882 was or j ust under 63 percent. of the ir total expenditure . The total number Of persons treatedin these in st itutions in 1 882 was in-door and out-doorpatients, the proportion of deaths to patients treated being 143 7 3 perthousand. Cholera deaths in hospital in 1882 numbered 468 out of atotal of 859 treated, or an average mortality of 545 per cent. The

260 CAL CUT T A.

general hospital mortal ity is largely attributable to numerous admissionsof moribund and hopeless cases in the Campbell and Howrah Hospitals .

In 1 882,the total number of deaths registered in Calcutta proper

amounted to or 30 4 per thousand of the populat ion,as against

a mean registered mortal ity of 294 per thousand in the preced ing tenyears

.This increase is mainly due to cholera, to which 2 240 deaths

were attributed in 1 88 2 , as compared wi th a mean of 1 34 1 during theprevious years . The mortality from other diseases in 1 882 was

diarrhoea and dysentery , 1454 fevers, 36 18 ; small-pox, 1 7 o ther

causes, 5848 : total ,

M orinary Returns are collected in Calcutta by the pol ice inspectors ,and compared with the registers kept by paid clerks Of the municipalityat the burning g/zals and burial-grounds . The death-rate among the

Europeans in 188 2 was 1 5 5 per thousand , among the Eurasians 455 ,

among the Hindus 3 2 6 ,and among the Muhammadans 2 7 1 . The

general death-rate of the population was 30 4 per thousand. Thehighest death-rate was in January

,November

,and December

,and the

lowest in July and August . The rains are the health iest season in

Calcutta , because the two main causes Of mortality, fever and cholera,are at a minimum during those months . A system of birth registrationis also in operation in Calcutta ; but the returns , although slowlyimproving year by year, greatly understate the facts , and there is nodoubt that a considerable number of births escape registration .

Tko M ean T emperafnre of Calcu tta is about 79° F. T he highest

temperature recorded during the last 24 years i s 1 06°

in the shade, andthe lowest The extreme range i s therefore a l ittle overwhile the mean temperatures of December and May

,the coldest and

hottest months , are 68 0° and 86 1

°

respect ively . The average temperature in 1 882 was a fract ion below the mean , ranging from a minimummean Of 67 7 in January to a maximum o f 83 8 in J une. The average

rainfall during 48 years has been 66 38 i nches , —the highest rainfall onrecord being inches in 1 87 1 , and the lowest in ches in 1 837 .

The rainfall in 188 2 was ju st equal to the average,66 18 inches . By

far the greater part Of the rain falls between the months of J une andOctober.

Cyclones— L ike the rest Of the seaboard o f the Bay of Bengal

,

Calcutta is exposed to periodical cyclones, which do much mischief.

Terrible s torms are recorded as having swept across Calcutta in thelast century, throwing down houses and flood ing the city

.The tempest

o f which perhaps the best scien t ific observations exis t is that of 1 864 .

The greate st pressure of the w ind registered has been 50 lbs . to the squarefoot. In the storms of 1864 and 1 867 , the anemometer was blown

away. A great loss of l ife and property was caused along the H ugli bythe storm Of October 5, 1864 . In Calcutta and i ts suburbs

, 49 persons

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262 CAL CUT TA .

commerce of the capital. Calcutta would no longer be dependentupon the shift ing channels of the Hugli ; and Port Canning would afforda place of storage for the mineral O i ls whose increasing importation hasbecome a source Of danger to the crowded sh ipping in the CalcuttaPort

,notwi thstanding the precau t ions adopted to land that explosive

material below its limits . The expense of the scheme wil l be great ; andits considerat ion by Government has not yet arr ived at a stage when it

would be safe to predict the issue . A decision wil l probably be come

to before I reach the art icles MATLA R IVER and PORT CANN ING (an ) .

S/lipping and Tonnag e of Calcutta — I h 1 7 2 7 , the Whole sh ipping

Of the port was estimated at tons . In 1 7 59, 30 vessels sailedfrom Calcutta, aggregat ing 3964 tons burthen . During the 1 1 mon thsending April 18 1 2 , the total trade, both export and import, amounted

to 95 millions sterl ing, carried on by 600 vessels aggregatingtons. The number o f vessel s arriving and departing in 1 86 1—62 was1 793 , wi th an agg regate tonnage of tons ; in 1 8 73

—74,

the number o f vessels was 192 7 , tonnage while in 1 88 1—82,

an aggregate of 2 1 3 2 vessel s arrived and departed , w ith a total tonnage

of tons . The number o f steamers,especially o f steamers

passing through the Suez Canal, is greatly on the increase ; in 188 1—82 ,the arrivals Of steamers at Calcutta numbered 239.

Foreign Sea-oorne Commerce—T he growth of the trade of Calcutta i s

shown by the following figures —In 18 2 0—2 1,the total value Of foreign

exports and imports,including t reasure , was in 1 830

—3 1 ,

in 1 840—4 1 , i n 1 850

—5 1 ,

in 1 860—6 1 , in I 8 70—7 1 , in 1 8 74

—75 ,

and in 1 88 1—8 2, over 55% m il l ions. The value of the

customs duties ( including sal t) was in 18 2 0—2 1,

in 1 830—3 1 ,

in 1 840—4 1 , i n 1 850

—5 1 , in

1 860—6 1, in 1 8 70

—7 1 , The practical

abolit ion of the customs tariff renders a comparison Of 1 88 1 and1 8 7 1 of no value . About 955 per cen t. of the foreign import tradeof Bengal , and 97 8 per cen t. Of the fore ign export trade

,are carried

on through Calcutta. A decl ine to the extent of nearlytook place in the imports of 1 88 1—82

, as compared w i th thoseof the previous year, owing to the reduced receipts of cottongoods. This was mainly due to excessive importations in 1 880—8 1 ,and no t to any fall ing Off in the general s tandard of comfort, the

maintenance o f which is indicated by the fact that th e importsof gold were higher by in 1 88 1—82 than in 1 880—8 1 . Theexport foreign trade during 188 1—82 amounted to 1 1

,showing

an advance of or 1 6 per cent .,over the previous year

. An

Increase of took place in the exports of Indian free merchandise, and a decrease of in rice

,although the quantity

CAL CUT TA.2 63

exported was greater by tons than in the preceding year. Hadthe prices of 1 880—8 1 been maintained , the total exports of al l kindsfrom Calcutta would have been higher by nearly than inthat year.

The fluctuat ion s in the foreign trade Of Calcutta during 1 88 1—82 maybe thus summarised. In the trade with the United Kingdom a fall ingoff of 1 7 8 per cent. took place, owing mainly to the decline in theimportation Of piece-goods . In metals there was a decl ine of about

and candles,precious stones

,umbrellas

,and woollen goods

all fell Off to some extent. Among the exports to Great Britain , j ute ,tea, and wheat showed an increase while l inseed

,raw cotton

,rice, and

indigo decl ined. One-half of the falling off in the trade with HongKong, which amounted to nearly was partly balanced by anincrease of in the trade with the Treaty Ports. L argerimportations of Californian s ilver from Hong-Kong account for thegreater part of the increased imports from that port . Imports from theUnited States

,which fell Off by about in 1880—8 1 , improved

during the year by about due almost entirely to large arrivalsof kerosine oil. A further decl ine of abou t took placein the exports to America

,which in 1880—8 1 were nearly

beh ind those of the previous year,owing in great part to the substitution

o f machine-made ice for the imported commodity. The exports o f

indigo were low in 1 880—8 1 , owing poss ibly to the fear of the productionof artificial indigo

,which checked the Operations of speculators ; and

the poss ibili ty of the ultimate substitution of art ificial dye for the naturalproduct is a contingency wh ich it behoves planters to carefully bear inmind. The trade with the Straits Settlements amounted tobeing larger by than in the previous year

,almost the whole of

the increase being due to the exports Of Opium ,gunny-bags , and rice.

A slight fal l of occurred in the trade with France, which .

however,was still h igher than in 1 879

—80 by The decl inewas mainly due to the large imports of silk goods in 1 880—8 1 , whichhad to some extent overstocked the market. Exports of manufacturedIndian silks to France increased

,and there were large increases in the

exports of wheat and jute . A sati sfactory advance occurred in the tradewith Australia. The advance in the exports of tea

,which amounted to

£5 may be regarded as an indication of a further development Ofthe taste for Indian tea in Australia

,which

,with care on the part o f

the growers, will probably result in the establ ishment in those colonie sof a large permanent market for the consumption of one of the mostimportant products of Brit ish India. The trade of Calcutta passingthrough the Suez Canal, though showing some falling Off in 1 88 1—8 2as compared with 1 880- 8 1

,was yet larger than in any year previous

to 1 880. The value of both imports and exports carried by this route

264 CAL CUT TA .

in 188 1- 8 2 was and there was an increase of one percent. in the proportion of fore ign trade using the canal. The followingparagraphs show the extent and value of the d ifferent staples o fCalcuttafore ign trade.[ ripen s

—Imports of cotton tw ist and yarn in 1 88 1- 82 amountedto lbs. , valued at a considerable decl ine on

1880—8 1 , which was mainly due, as stated above, to excessive importat ion s in the latter year. Cotton goods first became an important art icleof import in 1824 . Metals were imported in 188 1—82 to the value

showing a decline on th e imports of 1 880- 8 1 , chiefly inthe case of copper and z inc. Malt l iquor was imported in 1 88 1—82 tothe extent o f gallons, valued at Imports Of spiritsdeclined from in 1 880—8 1 to in 1 882 . Theimportation of all kinds of wines and liqueurs has fal len of late years.The to tal import of l iquors Of all kinds in 1 87 7

—78 was of

which 2 3 2 per cent. was malt liquor, 44 9 per cent. spiri ts, and 3 1 7

per cent. wines and l iqueurs. In 1 88 1—8 2 the amount had decreasedto of which malt l iquors contributed 24 per cent . , spirits 448per cen t.

,and wines 3 1 per cent. A great increase has taken place

i n recen t years in the importation Of machinery into Ind ia,mainly due

to the extension of manufacturing industry. The value Of importedrailway material rose from in 1 880- 8 1 , to in1 88 1—8 2 , the advance being entire ly under the head of materials forconstruction, mainly for the Central Bengal Railway , the A ssam Railway, and the T irhut State Railway. That mineral Oils are rapidlytaking the place of vegetable Oils for l ight ing purposes

,is evident from

the fact that, while gallons,valued at were imported

in 187 7—78, no less than gallons

,valued at were

imported in 188 1—82 . American petroleum has almost ent irely driventhe produce Of other countries out of the market. Drugs showed an

increase, owing to a rise in arrivals of quinine ; total value O f drugimports in 1 88 1—82 , S ilk imports showed a cons iderablefal ling Off, owing to overstocking in previous years , the imports in188 1—8 2 be ing only lbs . , as agains t lbs. in 1 880—8 1 .

The import of coral also declined , owing, it is said , to overstocking of themarket by the Sicilian coral fi shermen

,whose poverty prevented them

from holding back for a rise in prices. Umbrellas form an importantart icle Of import, the number rece ived being in 1 88 1—82 .

Tea imports from Hong-Kong amounted to lbs.,from the

Straits Set t lements to lbs . , and from other places 66 1 3 lbs . ,total lbs ., against lbs . i n 1880—81 , and lbs . in1879—80.

Exp07 f$ .—The j ute trade made a considerable advance

,from

cwts. in 1880—8 1 to cwts. in 188 1 —increased

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2 66 CAL CUT TA .

the greater part of the remainder. Exports of raw si lk fell both in valueand quantity

,but shipments Of s ilk piece—goods remained comparatively

stat ionary. Bengal silk is no t in a pos ition to compete with the silksproduced in Europe, China , or Japan . A slight increase , from 9460

cwts . to cwts. , in the export of sugar, when taken with the factthat imports from the Maurit ius , the Straits Settlements , and Java fellfrom cwts . to 4079 cwts . , shows fairly conclu sively that theIndian demand is now supplied almost ent irely by local production , andthere is no reason to doubt that an expansion Of the industry would bemet by an increased demand for Indian sugar abroad . A considerablefall ing off took place in the exports of tobacco, which decl ined from

lbs. , valued at in 1 880—8 1,to lbs.

,valued

atTreasure—The imports of gold in 1 88 1—82 amounted to

and of si lver to against o f gold and

of silver in 1 880—8 1 while si lver amounting to was

exported in 188 1—8 2 , against in 1 880—8 1 .

Coasting Trade—The value o f the Calcutta coasting trade in 188 1—82

was as follows : Imports— Indian produce,

foreign mer

chandise , total , Exports—Indian produce,

£3 .36O , I 37 foreign merchandise,

total,

Grand total of coasting imports and exports in 188 1- 8 2 , or

less than in 1 880—8 1 . The fall ing off in the imports was confined

to trade with Bombay , about Brit ish Burma, overand ports ou ts ide Brit ish India

,nearly The imports from

Madras and from the Bengal out-ports rose during 188 1—82 to aboutand respect ively over 1 880—8 1 . Decreased importa

t ions o f piece-goods,railway sleepers

,cutch

,and gambier

,account for

the falling Off in the imports from Bombay and Burma. The increase

in the trade wi th Madras and the Bengal out-ports was due to largerarrivals Of t imber and h ides. The chief remain ing fluctuations i n theimport trade were an increase o f in raw cotton from Bombayand teak timber from Maulmain , and a decl ine o f in castorO i l seed from Coconada and Masul ipatam , and of in raw

cotton from Madras . The low price o f rice cau sed a decline in thevalue of the imports o f that staple from the Ori ssa ports . Cotton twistand yarn of Indian manufacture imported in to Calcutta , rose from

in 1 880—8 1 to in 1 88 1—82 ; and Indian p iecegoods fell from to The piece—goods importedcoastw ise consisted almost entirely of yarn of 3 2

’

s and under, and thedecl ine was due more to the absence of demand than to the compet it ionof Engl ish manufactures with Indian goods of these coarse textures .Export s Of Indian produce coastwise showed an increase in the case ofBombay, Sind , and Brit ish Burma, and of ports not situated in Brit ish

CAL CUT TA . 26 7

India, but declined in the case Of Madras and the Bengal out-ports , thenet result be ing an increase of about In foreign commodi

ties, the most noticeable feature in the export coasting trade was thefalling Off in the exports Of cotton piece-goods and twist to Madras andBurma

,which is accounted for in the former case by the successful

competit ion of European manu factures,and in the latter by the sub

stitution of country-dyed for foreign twist.The Customs duties on cotton piece-goods, as well as on most

other imports, were finally abolished in 1 882 , only the duties on winesand spirits

,arms and ammunition , and a few other articles being

retained on the tariff. For practical purposes, Calcutta is now a free

port.T ire l andward Trade Of Calcutta is conducted partly by railway,

and partly by water. There i s no railway station wi thin the l imits ofthe mun icipality, but three separate lines have their termini in itsimmediate neighbourhood. The East Indian Railway

,whose terminus

is across the river at Howrah , brings down the produce of the NorthWestern Provinces and Behar, and connects Calcutta with the generalrailway system of the Peninsula. The Eastern Bengal Railway and theSouth - Eastern Railway have their terminus at Sialdah, an easternsuburb of Calcu tta. The Eastern Bengal Railway is an important l inerunning across the Delta to the j unc tion of the Ganges and Brahmaputra at Goalanda, now continued towards Darj il ing by the NorthernBengal S tate line. The South-Eas tern Railway i s a short railway

,

connecting the metropolis w i th Port Cann ing, i n the Sundarbans

(2 8 m iles) . I t has a branch to Diamond Harbour, on the H IiglI'

,

38 miles by rail, and about 4 1 miles by water from Calcutta . Thethree ch ief l ines of water traffic are the Calcutta canals

,a

chain of channels and rivers passing round and through the Sun

darbans , open at all seasons of the year, and affording the mainl ine of communication with the Ganges and the Brahmaputra

(2 ) the Nadiya rivers, three in number, which branch off in a southerncourse from the Ganges

,above its junction with the Brahmaputra

,

and ult imately become the HIigli— these Nadiya rivers are with

difficulty navigable during the dry season ; (3) the Midnapurand Hijili canals, leading south towards Orissa. The import trade

,

which thus finds its way from the interior into Calcutta, exclus ive of

Opium and railway materials,was valued at 3 19 in 1 88 1—82 .

Over 1 1 mill ions sterl ing were brought by country boats,nearly 3%

millions by river steamers, 2 1% millions by the Eas t Indian Railway ,6 m ill ions sterling by the Eastern Bengal Railway

,nearly by

the South-Eastern Railway, and over 3% mill ions sterl ing by road . Theexport trade from Calcutta into the interior of the country was valuedin 188 1—82 at Of goods thus sent inland, 45 m il l ions

2 68 CAL IAN—CAI J CUT .

sterl ing went by country boats,I g million by river steamers , nearly 1 6

millions by the East Indian Railway, 45, millions by the Eastern BengalRailway

,by the South-Eastern Railway

,and m ill ion by

road. Total value of inland import and export trade o f Calcutta in1 88 1—82

, 747} mill ions sterl ing.

The gross value of the landward, seaward, and coasting trade of

Calcutta,imports and exports

,amounted to 140 mill ions sterling in

1 88 1—8 2 . In th is aggregate many transactions are included twice :bu t

,on the other hand

,large supplies are daily drawn from the sur

rounding Districts which cannot be registered,and which therefore do

not enter into the above to tal.

Célién —Site Of an Old town in Malabar District MadrasPresidency

,which arose out of a factory built by the first Portuguese

settlers . The railway station of BEYPUR is at or near the spot wherethe factory stood .

Calida—Town , Thana District , Bombay Presidency .

—See KALYAN .

Calicut — l nk in M alabar District, Madras Presidency .

Area, 339 square miles, contain ing 1 town and 38 villages . Houses

,

Population ( 188 1) namely,

males andfemales . L and revenue ( 188 2—83 ) The Sub

d ivis ion contains 3 civil and 4 criminal courts . Chief town , CAL ICUT.

Calicut (Koli/eodze Kohl/enk/czrg a , Cock-crow ing [ i’

olfl eoma Cock

fort —Town and port in the Cali cut ta’infe,Malabar District

,Madras

Presidency ; s ituated on the sea-coast 6 miles north of Beypur, in themidst Of extensive palm-groves . L at. 1 1

°

1 5’

N . ,long. 7 5

°

49'

E .

Houses, 8540 . Population (estimated at in 1 8 2 7 ) had risen by1 88 1 to namely

,Hindu s

,Muhammadans

all M oplas (M appillas) , 2909 Christians , and 43‘ others . ’ Of the adult

male population , about 3 2 per cent . are T iyars or toddy-drawers , 20 percent . boat—bu ilders and boatmen

,and 1 4 per cent . L ubbay traders . The

municipal income for 1 880—8 1 was£46 75 , and the allotment for sanitarypurposes, £63 7 ; the incidence Of municipal taxation , including tolls,being about I S . 32d. per head . Value Of exports in 1 880—8 1

,including

those Of the sub-port of Beypur,

imports, As

the head-quarters of the rich and populous District Of Malabar, Calicut

contains the chief revenue,magisterial

,and j udicial establishments Of

the District, with Government and marine Offices,a customs house

,j ail

,

lunatic asylum, dispensary, hospitals,post and telegraph Offi ces

,

travellers’ bungalow, and bank . The Anglican,L utheran

,and Roman

Catholic Churches have mission s here,with schools ; i n addition to

which there is the municipal school, and several others, assisted bygrants .

Owing to frequent Mopla outrages,a detachment of European

infantry was stationed at Calicut in 1849. I t was removed to the

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2 70 CAL IM ERE POIN T—CAM ALAP UR.

guese , who at once erected a factory, the origin Of the present establishment

.The French settlement dates from 1 7 2 2 , since which year it

has been three t imes in Brit ish possession . In 1 8 19 i t was finallyrestored to the French

,who still hold a few houses and the land

adjoining.The Danish Government established a factory in 1 752 . It

was partially destroyed in 1 784, and soon after incorporated in theBrit ish settlement . An unsuccessful attempt was made in 1 792 to reestablish the claims Of Denmark . The first Brit ish settlement datesfrom 16 1 6 but it was not until the treaty of Seringapatam ,

in 1 792 ,

that the Company acquired any sovereign rights . Between those dates

Calicut was often conspicuous in history. In 1 695 , Captain Kiddravaged the port ; and in 1 766, when Haidar Ali invaded Malabar, theZamorin shut himself up in his palace and set fi re to it, dying withhis family in the flames. In 1 7 7 3 , and again in 1 788, the town waspillaged by the Mysore armies. In 1 790, the British troops occupiedthe town

,holding it t ill the peace two years later. Since then it

has been steadily advancing in trade and population ; and, with theexcept ion of fanatical Mopla outbreaks, the public peace has beenundisturbed.

Calimere Point ( the Callzgieum of Ptolemy) .—A low promontoryin Tanjore District

,forming the most southerly point of the C010

mandel Coast, Madras Presidency . L at. 10°

18’

N .

,long. 79

°

5 2’

E.

The point ought not to be approached within 55 or 6 fathoms . A

pagoda,called Calimere Pagoda, in lat. 10

°

2 2’

N .,long. 79

°

5 1'

E.,

stands about a mile from the shore, and 55 miles to the north-northwest of the southern extremity Of the point. From this pagoda

,the

direction of the coast is about north 1 west to Negapatam distance, 37

m iles —all the land in this space is low and planted with cocoa-nut trees.Calinga..

—Ancient Division of India in Madras Presidency—SeeKAL ING A .

Calingapatam.

—Town and port in Ganjam District,Madras Pres i

deney—See KAL INGAPATAM .

Callayi.—Seaport town , Madras Presidency.

~ See KALLAYI .Calventura, (li nt-mung , or

‘ Bird’s feather —A group of rocks offthe coast of Arakan

,in British Burma

,forming two divisions hearing

from each other north-west and sou th-east,and distant 5 or 6 miles.

The north-west group (lat. 1 6°

55’

N .,long. 94

°

1 5'

30”

E.) consists ofseven irregular black rocks, one Of which resembles an Old church witha muti lated spire. The south-east d ivis ion consists of two high rockyislands covered with vegetation, and connected by a reef wi th 5 to 7fathoms of water upon it. About half-way between the islands therei s a single rock

,dry at low tide.

Camalapur.—Town in Bellary District

,Madras Presidency—See

KAM ALAPUR .

CAM E /1y. 2 7 1

Cambay —Feudatory State with in the Polit ical Agencyof Kaira

,Bombay Presidency ; lying at the head of the gulf of the

same name in the western part Of the Province of Gujarat, between2 2

°

9' and 2 2

°

4 1' N. lat., and between 7 2

°

2 0' and 73

°

5' E. long.

Bounded on the north by the British District of Kaira ; east by thelands of Borsad in Kaira, and Pitlad belonging to Baroda ; south by

the Gulf Of Cambay and wes t by the Sabarmati river, separating itfrom Ahmadabad Distri ct. Area, 350 square miles , contain ing 2 townsand 83 villages ; population ( 1 88 1 ) namely, Hindus

,

Muhammadans,and 2949

‘ others .’ The boundaries Of theState are very irregular ; some villages belonging to the Gaekwar ofBaroda and to the Brit ish Government are entirely surrounded byCambay territory

,while Cambay villages are found in Kaira District.

The country is flat and open,interspersed here and there

,generally in

the vicin ity of the villages,with groves of fine trees, such as the mango,

tamarind, banian or bar, nz’

m, and piped. From the position of the

State between two large tidal rivers, the soil is so soaked with salt thatwater becomes brackish at a l ittle distance below the surface

,and in

many places new wel ls have to be sunk every five years . Bes idesbeing brackish , Cambay well water is unwholesome, often causingpainful boils when incautiously used .

Towards the north and west the soil i s generally black,and wel l su ited

for the cultivation of wheat and cotton . To the east i t is fi t only forthe growth of inferior sorts of grain, abundant crops ofwhich are grown infavourable years. The cult ivators are principally dependent on the monsoon rains for the means of irrigation, there being but few wells. Thesupply ofdrinking water is chiefly drawn from ponds or reservoirs

,in which

water is found throughout the greater part of the year. Near the city of

Cambay skirting the shore of the gulf, and along the banks of the Mahiand Saibarmati rivers, stretch vast tracts of salt marsh land submerged at

h igh spring-t ides . Nodular limestone or kankar mixed with sand andclay is found in large quantities from 1 0 to 1 5 feet below the surface

of the soil. Although no t of the best quality, the l ime obtained fromthis s tone is used by the pe0p1e of the country for bu ilding and otherpurposes . There are no forests . Agricultural products cons ist of th eordinary varieties of millet and pulse , rice , wheat, cotton , indigo ,tobacco, and a little opium. The cult ivation of indigo has of lateyears greatly fallen Off. The chief wild animals are the nilgdi (Portaxpictus) , wild hog, and large herds of antelopes that feed on the shortherbage on salt marsh lands near the sea-coast . During the cold

weather every pond swarms with duck, teal , and snipe.

The populat ion consists of the various Hindu castes found throughoutGuz erat, including the wild tribes of Kolis andWagris Muhammadans

,

Jains, and Parsis. The languages used are Gujarathi and Hindustani.

2 7 2 CAM BA Y.

The chief articles of manufacture are indigo , salt, cloth , carpets,embro idery

,and carved corne lians, which are imported from Ratanpur

and other places in the Raj pipla State . The chocolate-coloured stone

is brought from Kathiawar agates come from Kapadwanj and Sukalt irth on the Narbada (Nerbudda) river, and from Rajkot in Kathiawar.The total imports 187 7

—78, consist ing chiefly of molasses

,t imber

,

clarified butter,grain

,cornel ians, metal, piece-goods , silk, cocoa-nuts,

and sugar were valued at and the exports of tobacco,

wrought cornel ians,and sundries , at In 1878, the shipping

of the port of Cambay amounted in all to 566 vessels of a total burthen

of ton s. Ships of more than 50 t ons never vis it Cambay.

There are no made roads wi th in the limits of the Cambay territory .

The mode of transit into the interior is by nat ive carts, camels, or

pack-bu llocks . For communicat ion by water, except during the monsoon months

,boats Of under 6 tons at ordinary tides, and under 50

tons at spring tides, ply between Cambay and Bombay, Surat, Broach,

Gogo,and other ports. The head of the gulf forms ne ither a safe

nor commodious harbour,in consequence of the constant shift ing of

its bed from the force of the t ides and the currents of the rivers Ma’

hi

and Sabarmati .The name Cambay or li hambhat is said to be derived from enema/2a

or stanza/zatiri/z, the pool Of Mahadeva under the form of the pillar god.

Cambay is mentioned by Masudi (91 3) but the prosperity of the cityis traditionally referred to the grant of i t s present s ite to a body of

Brahmans in 997 . During the r1 th and 1 2 th centuries, Cambayappears as one of the chief ports o f the Anhelwara kingdom ; and atthe conques t of that kingdom by the M usalmans in 1 297 , it i s said tohave been one of the r ichest towns in India.

According to L ieutenant Robertson’s I fistorz'

ealNarrative of Cambay,the Parsis of Gujarat sailed from Persia about the end of the 7 th orbeginning of the 8th century. A great number Of the ir ship s founderedin a storm , and only a few arrived at Sej am , about 70 miles southOf Surat . They Obtained permission to land after some difficulty

,and

on certain conditions the ch ief of wh ich were—that they should speakthe G uz erathi language , and abstain from beef. The Parsis remainedfor many years in the vicin ity of Sej am

, pursuing a coasting trade but

eventually they spread over the neighbouring Districts,and became so

numerous at Cambay that they outnumbered the original inhabitantsand took possess ion of the town . After a short period, however, they

were driven out with great slaughter by the H indus, who held theterritory until conquered by the Muhammadans in 1 297 .

In the 1sth century, with the growing wealth and power of the Gujaratkingdom , Cambay regained its former prosperity, and at the beginning ofthe 16th century formed one of the ch ief centres of commerce in India.

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2 7, CAM BA Y G UL F.

fosse or esplanade ; but the works are now out of repair,and few of the

guns mounted are serviceable. Only portions of the wall remain, en

closing a circumference of not more than 3 miles . The palace of theNawah is in good repair, but built in an inferior style of architecture.The Jama Masj id was erected in 1 3 2 5 A .D., in the t ime ofMuhammadShah the pillars in the interior were taken from desecrated Jaintemples

,and

,though arranged without much attention to architectural

effect,give the mosque a picturesque appearance. Many ru ins sti ll

attest the former wealth of Cambay. It is mentioned, under the name

ofC ambaet, as a place of great trade by Marco Polo andby his countryman and contemporary, Marino Sanudo, as one of thetwo great trading ports of India (Cambeth).The commercial decline o f this once flourishing mart i s due in

great measure to the silting up o f the gulf, and to the‘ bore ’

or

rushing tide in the north of the gulf, and at the entrances of theMahi and Sabarmati (Savamamati) rivers. High spring - t ides riseand fall as much as 33 feet, and the current runs at a velocity of from6 to 7 knots an hour. In ordinary springs the rise and fall is 2 5 feet,and the current 4§ to 6 knots . Great damage i s thus frequen tlycaused to shipping

,the more as the average depth of the channel

is only from 4 to 6 fathoms and the haz ard i s greatly increased bythe constantly-shifting shoals

,caused by the frequent inundation of the

rivers . Cambay is celebrated for the manufacture of agate,cornelian

,

and onyx ornaments . The cornelians come ch iefly from mines in the

vicin ity of Ratanpur, in the Native State of Raj pipla, Rewa Kantha.

The preparation of the stones was thus described in 182 1 by Mr. J .

Willoughby, Assistant to the Resident at Baroda

‘ The Bhils,who are

the miners, commence their operations about September and leave offi n April, when they commence burning the cornel ians . The Operationof burning is performed by digging a hole one yard square

,in which are

placed earthen pots fi lled wi th the cornelians,which to facilitate the

process have for some time previous been exposed to the sun . Thebottoms o f the pots are taken out, and a layer of about 6 or 7 inchesof cow or goat dung, strewed above and below them ,

i s set on fire,

which , when consumed, has rendered the stones ready for the Cambaymerchants .’ The three principal colours of the cornelians are red

,

white, and yellow, the first of which is considered the most valuable.

Cambay Gulf (or G ulf of Cambay) .—The strip of sea whichseparates the Peninsula of Kathiawar from the northern Bombay coast

.

The gulf was in ancient t imes a great resort of commerce,much

frequented by Arab mariners. SURAT l ies at the eastern point of itsmouth the Portuguese sett lement of DIU at the western mouth

, andCAM BAY TOWN at its northern extremity. The gulf receives the twogreat rivers, the Tapti

'

and Narbada (Nerbudda) , on its eastern s ide 5

CAZII EL’S HUM P CANNANORE . 2 75

the Mahi and Sabarmati (Savarnamati) on the north , and several smallrivers from Kathiawar on the west. Owing to the causes mentioned underCambay Town

,the gulf is silting up , and i s now resorted to only by

small craft . The once famous harbours (SURA’

I‘ and BROACH, which see

separately) around its coast have ceased to be used by foreign commerce .

Camel’

s Hump (Waw olmul/ay of I ndian Atlas) .—Mountain peakin the Cal icut z‘a

’

luk,Malabar District

,Madras Presidency. Height ,

7 67 7 feet above the sea. Situated 2 6 miles north-east of Calicut, i n lat .1 1

°

2 6’

N .,and long. 76

°

10’ E.

Campbellpur.—Small cantonment in Attock ta/zsz

’

l, Rawal PindiDistrict

,Punjab . L at. 33

°

47’

N .,long. 7 2

°

23’ E. Occupied by a

regiment of European cavalry. Known to the natives by the name of

Kamalpur,derived from the tomb of Kamal Shah, a Sayyid, which

stands in the village,and is an object o f rel igious veneration among

the people of the neighbourhood . Population ( 188 1 ) 1467 , namely,Hindus

, 7 75 ; Sikhs, 2 2 j ains, 3 ; Muhammadans, 455 ; and‘ Others

,

’

2 1 2 .

canara,North—District of Bombay Presidency—See KANARA.

canara, South—District of Madras Presidency—See KANARA.

Candahar.

—Town in Afghanistan—See KANDAHAR .

Cannanore (Kanmir orKarmamér,Kannan’s Town —Town and

port in Malabar District,Madras Presidency. L at. 1 1

°

5 1’

1 2 N .,

long. 7 5°

24’

44" population ( 188 1 ) namely

,

Hindus,

Muhammadans,and 4087 Christians municipal

income in 1 880—8 1 , 2658, of which was allotted for sanitarypurposes incidence of taxation

,about reg-d. per head . The birth-rate

in 1 880-8 1 was 2 6,the death-rate 18 7 per 1 000 of municipal popu

lation . Being the head-quarters of the Chirrakal ta’

luk, Cannanore

contains the usual public offi ces,magisterial and j udicial

,j ai l

,dis

pensary, schools, etc . and it has also a custom house and marineestablishment . The value of the sea-going trade during 1880—8 1 wasimports

, J£2 02 ,05 1 ; exports,But the chief importance of Cannanore arises from its position

as a military cantonment . It is the head-quarters of the Malabarand Kanara force, being the stat ion of a general of division , withhis staff

,and is garrisoned by 1 European and 1 Native regiment

of infantry. The cantonment is spacious, and intersected by goodroads

,wi th two parade grounds

,ordnance depot

,brigade and com

missariat offices, etc . It lies to the north-east of the fort,a triangular

building covering a rocky point which j uts out into the sea . Across thebay lies the Mopla (M appilla) quarter of Cannanore, where the descendants of the old Arab sea-kings of Cannanore reside

,the town being

otherwise remarkable for the number of its mosques,two ofwhich are of

special fame . Wi thin its l imits stands the fishing village of Thai,with a

2 76 CANNING ,p 01?T CASSER00195 .

Roman Cathol ic chapel, once a Portuguese factory. The cantonment

was made a municipality in 1867 , and in 1872 the town proper wasbrought under the Towns Improvement Act. Anglican, German, and

Roman Catholic missions are established here, with schools attached.

The average annual rainfall is 97 inches .

Cannanore was, according to the legend of the part it ion of hisdominions by Cheraman Perumal, included in the kingdom of the

Chirrakal Rajas, to whom the Mopla (M appilla) sea-kings (AliRajas) owned suz erainty, more or less nominal , down to the time ofHaidar Al i’s invas ion of Malabar. In 1498, Vasco da Gama touchedhere

,and

,being well received, a colony was planted . Seven years

later Vasco da Gama erected a factory . In 1 656, the Dutch effected asettlement

,for the protection of which they built the present fort, which

they occupied t ill 1 766, when it fell into the hands of the Mysore troops.In 1 784, Cannanore was captured by the British , and the reigningPrincess became tributary to the East India Company. Seven yearslater

,i t was again taken ; and since that date has remained in British

hands as the chief military station on the Malabar coast,under the

Madras Presidency.

Canning ,Port.—River port on the Matla river, Bengal.—See PORT

CANN ING .

Carag ola.

—Town and river g/za’

t in Purniah District,Bengal —See

KARAGOLA .

Cardamom Hills.—Range of h ills in Travancore State, MadrasPresidency, lying between 9

°

2 7' and 10

°

4’ N . lat ., and between 76

°

52'

and 7 7°

1 7' E. long. Average height, from 2 000 to 4000 feet above the

sea . The h ills are divided roughly into the ‘ Margari A lum ’ and‘ Kunni Alum ’ groups

,both very sparsely populated

,and unhealthy.

The Kunni Alum , though at a lower average elevation, lies within theinfluence of the sea-breez e, and enjoys , therefore , a rather better climatethan the Margari Alum . The cardamoms collected on these hillsamount annually to about 60 tons , valued at they thrive bestat an elevation of 3000 feet. Wi th the exception of a few small coffeees tates on the southern slopes, the h ills possess no other economicvalue .

Carnatic.—G eographical Division of Madras Presidency .

—See KARNAT IC.

Cashmere.—Native State on the north-east frontier of the Punjab.

See KASHM IR.

Casserg ode I ii/ale in South Kanara District,

Madras Presidency. Area, 103 2 square miles , containing 243 villages.Houses, Population ( 1 88 1 ) name ly

,males

and females. L and revenue, 1 c ivi l and 2 criminalcourts.

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2 78 CAUVEKY.

with a revenue of£7000, and ultimately brings a water-supply into thetown of Mysore. In this portion of its course it forms the two islandsof SER INGAPATAM and S IVASAMUDRAM, which vie in sanctity with thei sland of SR IRANGAM lower down in Trichinopoli District .Enclosing the island of Sivasam iidram are the celebrated falls of the

Cauvery, unrivalled for romantic beauty. The river here branchesinto two channels

,each of which makes a descent of about 200 feet in

a succession of rapids and broken cascades. The scene has been

rendered accessible to visitors by the pri vate munifi cence of a native ofMysore

,who has constructed two stone bridges of rude but solid

workmanship to connect the island with ei ther bank . More than onetragic story of former days has gathered round thi s picturesque spot.The Mysore tributaries of the Cauvery are the Hemavati, L akshman

tirtha, L okapavani, Shimsha, Arkavati, and Suvarnavati, or Honnu-hole.After entering the territory of Madras

,it forms the boundary between

the two Districts of Coimbatore and Salem for a considerable distance,until i t strikes into Trichinopoli District. Sweeping past the historicrock of Trichinopoli, i t breaks at the island of Srirangam into twochannels

,which enclose between them the delta of Tanjore, the garden

of Southern India. The more northerly of these channels is called theCOL EROON (Kolidam) ; that which continues the course of the rivertowards the east preserves the name of the Cauvery. On the seawardface of the delta are the open roadsteads of Tranquebar, Negapatam,

and French Karikal .The only navigation on any portion of the Cauvery is carried

on in boats of basket-work. In Madras the chief tributari es are theBhavani, Noyel, and Amravati. At Erode the river is crossed by themain line of the Madras Railway, by means of an iron—girder bridge,1 536 feet long with 7 2 spans, on piers sunk into the solid rock . Thetotal cost of this structure wasAlthough the water of the Cauvery is utiliz ed for agriculture in Mysore

and also in Coimbatore District,i t i s in the delta that its real value for

irrigation becomes conspicuous. At Srirangam,j ust above the point of

bifurcation , the flood discharge i s est imated at feet per second.

The problem of utiliz ing'

this storehouse of agricultural wealth was firstgrap pled wi th by a prehistoric H indu king

,who constructed a massive

darn of unhewn stone, 1 080 feet long and from 40 to 60 feet broad,across the stream of the Cauvery proper. This dam

,wh ich is supposed

to date back to the 4th century A.D.,i s st i ll in excellent repair

,and has

supplied a typical model to our own engineers. When the British first

came into possession of Tanjore District,in 1 801

,i t was found that the

great volume of the water-supply was then passing unused down theColeroon, which is mainly a drainage channel ; while the Cauveryproper was gradually silting up, and the irrigating channels that take

CAWNP UR. 2 79

o ff from it were becoming dry. The obj ect of the engineering worksthat have been since constructed is to redress this unequal tendency,and to compel e ither channel to carry the maximum of water that canbe put to good use. The chief modern work is the darn or anicutacross the Coleroon, constructed by Sir Arthur Cotton between 1 836

and 1838. This dam is 2 250 feet long, broken by islands into three

sections . The body is of brick,capped with cut stone . I ts thickness

i s 6 feet,supported in the rear by an apron of masonry, 2 1 feet broad .

By means of an elaborate system of self-acting sluices, which have beenconstructed in subsequent years

,the discharge of the two rivers has

now been so accurately regulated that neither is being choked with silt,while the surplus water-supply of both is made available for irrigationthrough a countless number of distributaries. The area already irrigatedfrom this source in 1880 in the three Districts of Tanj ore , Trichinopoli,and South Arcot

,was acres

,yielding a revenue of 3

Cawnpur (correctly, Kdnfzp z/r) . District in the L ieutenant

Governorship of the North-Western Provinces , lying between 2 5°

56’

1 5" and 2 6

°

57' N . lat . , and between 79

°

34'

45 and 80°

38' E. long ;

area,2 370 square miles ; population in 1 88 1

,souls. Cawnpur

is the westernmost District of the Allahabad Division bounded on thenorth-east by the Ganges

,on the west by Farukhabad and E tawah , on

the south-west by the j umna (j amuna), and on the east by Fatehpur.

The administrative head-quarters are at CAWNPUR C ITY.

P/zys z'

cal Aspects—The District of Cawnpur forms part of the Doab,or great alluvial plain between the Ganges and the Jumna ; and it doesnot materially differ in its general features from other portions of thatmonotonous tract . I t consists for the most part of a level plateau ,only varied by the courses of the minor streams whose waters swell thegreat boundary rivers , the Ganges and Jumna, and by the steep ravineswhich channel the friable soil of the plain . The country has a slightgeneral slope towards the south-west

,and all the river channels trend

in that direction . I t i s divided into four main sections by the streamswhich collect and carry away the surface drainage. The Isan cuts o ff asmall angle to the north

,j oining the Ganges shortly after i ts entry within

the limits ofCawnpur next come the Pandu and the Rind,which traverse

the midland portion of the District from end to end ; while to the extremesouth

,the Sengur falls into the Jumna, and encloses between itself

and the main stream a triangular wedge of land. The banks of the

two last-named rivers are marked by extensive ravines of great depth,

which ramify in every direction from the central gorge. Their soil isalmost entirely uncultivable

,and they have a wild and desolate appear

ance,contrasting strongly with the rich and peaceful aspect of the

cult ivated country above .

The G auges and Jumna are navigable throughout Cawnpur District

280 CAWNP UR.

during the rains, for boats of large burthen, but the frequent shallows inthe dry season close navigation to all but small boats. The smallerrivers are dry or nearly so, except in the rains , or when surplus canalwater is d ischarged into them . In the rain s they are crossed by rudeboats

,or by rafts made of a doz en inverted large earthen pots bearing

a platform of hurdle work. Until 1 87 5 , the Ganges at Cawnpur wascrossed by a pontoon bridge , which on the completion of the Oudh and

Rohilkhand railway bridge was removed to Kalpi . The Jumna iscrossed by a bridge of boats , which gives place to a ferry during themonsoon . There are from forty to fifty ferries in the District ; butexcept those over the Ganges

,they are only main tained during the

rainy months.The clay of the upland plain is naturally dry and thirsty

,but it

has been converted into a prosperous agricu ltural region by thewaters of the Ganges Canal . NO fewer than four branches of thatgreat engineering work enter the District of Cawnpur at different pointswhile minor distribu taries run from these in every direction over thesurrounding fields . The plain is now one of the most flourishingportions of the Doab , and only an occasional strip of zirar

,whitened

by the efflorescence known as 7 511,breaks the general prospect of

cultivated fields . No lake of any siz e exists in the District,but

there are several fl u]: or swamps , and a few small patches of waterare formed by the overflow of the canal . A pecul iar feature in pargamiSikandra is a long drainage l ine known as j /zz

'

l Sonau , which stretchesright across the parg ana

’

in to parg ana’

Bhognipur,where its channel

deepens into a regular watercourse . As i ts windings follow those of

the Jumna, from which it is distant abou t two miles,i t may be an

ancient bed of that river,but no tradit ion exi sts to support this theory.

After the rains, the lower levels are occupied by shallow ponds , particularly where irrigation trenches connected with the Ganges Canal intersectthe natural lines of drainage

,thus producing a temporary dam ; but the

pools which collect under these circumstances are soon drained dry bythe cu lt ivators to water their fields . Groves of tamarind and malzzza

’

not uncommonly overshadow the village temples or the more ambitiousmosques . There is no forest land

,bu t here and there tracts of waste

land are covered with dad/c jungle (Butea frondosa), which , however,i s fast d isappearing before the extension o f cultivation . The fauna of

the District in cludes leopards,wolves

,antelope

,deer

,foxes

,wild

hog, and j ackals partridges,peafowl

,and sand—grouse abound

,while

waterfowl are common in the low- lying marshy flats.

H z

'

slory.

-The Dis trict of Cawnpur i s an administrat ive creat ion of

British rule, not dating further back than the latter half of the lastcentury. Under the Muhammadan system its various p arg amis were

d istributed between the Saba/z: of Allahabad and Agra,and its early

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282 CA IVNP UR .

had taken up his residence,in exile, at the picturesque l ittle town

of Bithur on the Ganges, in this District . On the Peshwa’s death hisadopted son

,Dundhu Panth , was not permitted to assume the titles

of his father. As‘ Nana Sahib ’ his name has since become familiar

upon every lip. Shortly after the outbreak at Meerut,this disaffected

prince was placed in charge of the treasury at Cawnpur . Early in Junei t was thought desirable to entrench the barracks, and all Europeanswere brought within the entrenchment . On the 6th of j une, the 2nd

Cavalry and rst Native Infantry rose in revolt, seiz ed the treasury, brokeopen the jail

,and burnt the publ ic offices . They then marched out

one stage on the road to Delhi,and were j oined by the 53rd and s4th

Regiments . The Nana immediately went out to their camp, and persuaded them

,by promises of pillage, to return. He next attacked the

entrenched Europeans with a brisk cannonade,kept up for three weeks .

The strength of the garrison with in the entrenchments wil l never beknown

,bu t i t has been estimated at between 7 50 and 1 000, including

persons o f every rank and colour,sex and age— about 400 males being

able to bear arms . The siege called from the beleaguered a displayO f heroism unsurpassed in history. Under an almost vert ical sun ,wi th the thermometer at between 100

°

and 1 2 0°

F.,the l it tle band

fought with dogged valour beh ind their wretched bulwarks , the ir eyessore with dust and glare

,and their hands blis tered wi th the heated gun

barrels . Three assault s by the rebels were defeated,but at great loss

of l ife to the defenders . Many d ied from sunstroke,and women and

children were struck down by bullets as well as fighting men.

By the 2 6th of June,the position of the besieged became untenable

and they capitu lated on a sworn promise of protection . The Nanaagreed to send them to Allahabad

,and next day they marched out to

the Satichaura g/za’

t o r landing-place and got into the boats but beforethey could push o ff

,they were fired on from all s ides . Two boats only

got under weigh,one of which was at once swamped by a round

shot ; the other went down the river under fire from both banks,and

most of the Europeans were killed . A few escaped for a while toShiorajpur, where some were captured, and the remainder massacred,except four. The soldiers in the boats were mostly shot upon the spotthe women and children were carried off to the Savada Kothi

,where

they were all cu t to pieces, by the Nana’s orders

,at the first sound of

Havelock’s guns outside Cawnpur. About 2 00 hundred bodies weretaken out of the well into which they were thrown

,where the well-known

Memorial now stands .

General Havelock fought the battles of Aung and the PanduNadi on the 1 5th of July, and next day took Cawnpur by storm .

The 1 7th and 1 8th were devoted to the recovery of the city,and the

19th to the destruction of Bithur and the Nana’s palaces

. T wo or

CA IVNP UR . 2 83

three unsuccessful attempts to cross into Oudh were haz arded , but no

actual advance was made until the arrival of re inforcements underGeneral Outram towards the end of August . L ord Clyde’s column

passed through to the rel ief of L UCKNOW on the 19th of October, andColonel G reathed followed a week later. In November, the Gwaliormutineers crossed the Jumna

,and

,being j oined by a large force of Oudh

rebels, attacked Cawnpur on the 2 7th, and obtained possession of theci ty, which they held ti ll L ord Clyde marched in the next evening. On

the 6th of December, L ord Clyde routed them with great loss, and took

all their guns . GeneralWalpole then led a column through the countrytowns, restoring order in Akbarpur, Rasulabad, and Derapur. TheDistrict was not completely pacifi ed ti ll after the fall of Kalpi in May1 858 but that event rendered its reorganiz ation easy

,and when Firoz

Shah fled through it in December 1858, his passage caused nodisturbance.

P opulatz'

on.—Cawnpur is one of the Districts where agriculture and

population have almost reached their utmost limit,and there is a

tendency to emigration towards other parts of the country,where

employment is more easily obtained . In 1 853 , the total populationwas returned at persons . In 1865, it had risen tobut in 1 87 2 , with a slight decrease of area , the number was ascertainedto be The last Census , in 188 1

,taken upon an area

of 2 3 70 square miles (or 34 square miles in excess of the area returnedin disclosed a total population of 396 persons, distributedamong 1970 villages or towns, and inhabiting an aggregate ofhouses . These figures yield the following averages z

— Persons persquare mile

, 498 4 villages per square mile,

'8 houses per squaremile, 848 persons per village

,600 persons per house

, 58 . Classifiedaccording to sex, there were—males, females

,pro

portion of males, 53 2 per cent. As regards rel igious distinctions

,

Cawnpur is more essentially Hindu than the neighbouring Districts .In 1 88 1

,the Census returned the Hindus at or 919 per cent.

of the population ; Muhammadans numbered or 7 8 per cent .Christians, 3 2 00 ; j ains, 1 14 Jews

,2 3 ; Parsis, 1 6 ; and Sikhs, 6 .

Among the Hindu population, the Brahmans rank first,in numbers as

i n caste,w ith a total of persons . The Raj puts were returned

at persons . These two castes form the chief land-holdingbodies in the District. The Baniyas had members

,engaged

,as

usual,in commercial pursuits . Of the inferior castes, the Chamarswere the most numerous most of them are labourers in the

poorest condition . Next come the Ahirs Kurmis

Kachhis Gadarias Koris L odha’s

Telis and Nais Amongst Musalman tribes,the

Shaikhs are the most important .

2 84 CA FVNP we.

With regard to the occupations of the people, the Census Reportclassifies the male population into the following six main divisions :

Profess ional class,including Government officials

,military,

and the learned professions, ( 2 ) domestic servants, hoteland lodging-house keepers, etc .

, 4044 (3 ) commercial class, including merchants

,traders

,carriers, etc .

, (4) agricu ltural andpastoral class

,including gardeners, (5) manufacturing, artisan ,

and other industrial classes, (6) indefinite and non-productive (comprising labourers

,8 men of rank and property

,and

unspecified,including children ),

The village organiz ation is of the same general type which iscommon throughou t the L ower Doab . First comes the body of landowners

,generally Rajputs or Brahmans below them rank the

old hereditary cult ivators, who possess rights of occupancy,and are

Often descendants or clansmen Of former landowners ; th ird in socialimportance are the Baniyas

,shopkeepers , and petty bankers the fourth

stratum consists of tenants-at-wi ll, who t i ll the land for a bare subsis tence while the lowest class of all is composed of the artisans andlabourers

,indispensable to the native system

,such as the barber

,the

potter,the washerman

,the tanner, the scavenger, and the water-carrier.

The District contained in 1 88 1 four towns wi th upwards of 5000

inhabitants,namely

, Cawnpur City (including cantonments) ,Bithur

,6685 ; Bilhaur, 5589 ; and Akbarpur, 5 1 3 1 . These figures

show an urban popu lation of persons,leaving for the

rural population . The greater part of the inhabitants are scattered over

the face of the country in small villages . Of the total of 1970 villagesand towns

, 530 contained less than 200 inhabitants, 7 85 from 2 00 to

500, 394 from 500 to 1000,2 04 from 1000 to 2 000 , and 6 1 upwards

of 2 000 inhabitants . The male adult agricu ltural popu lat ion was

returned at or 2 33 2 per cent . of the total population,

being returned as landholders,

as cult ivators,

1 53 2 as estateOfficers

,and as agricultural labourers .

As regards the condition of the pe0p1e, the Settlement Officer hascome to the conclusion that though a certain proportion o f the agricultural class, such as Chamars and many Muhammadans

,l ive barely

above starvation-point , yet the cult ivat ing popu lat ion as a whole arefairly well off. The extens ion o f i rrigation and the rise in the prices

of produce has placed the indu strial clas ses above want ; while theincreased demand for labour has given a greater fi xity to the dailyincome, small as i t is, of the labouring class . Careful calculations by

the Settlement Officer show that a Chamar, wi th a fi ve-acre holding ,ought to make a pro fi t of £4, 1 2 5 . per annum ; a Kachhi (marketgardener) , wi th an e ight-acre holding , a profit of£9, rs . per annum ;and a Kurmi, with fifteen acres, a profit of£ i 3, 1 1 5 . per annum.

In

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2 86 CA IVNP UR .

has been l ittle room left for increase of cult ivat ion and enhanced prosperity since this part of Oudh passed under Brit ish rule . Someadvance has undoubtedly been made wi thin the last forty years

,mainly

through the enhanced prices for all kinds of agricultural produce.

In the northern parg azza’

s , j oa’

r and wheat are grown in large proport ions while in the southern pargmzds , bare ly 2 per cent. of the area i sunder wheat , and ba

’

j ra forms the staple crop . R ice is chiefly g rown in

Bilhaur, Rasu labad, and the southern part of Shiorajpur while northern

Shiorajpur i s covered with indigo, small native factories s tudding theentire area north o f the Pandu. The sources of irrigat ion are thevarious d istributaries of the Ganges Canal, wells, and in a less degree ,ponds , lakes, and rivers. The total irrigated area in 1 882—83 was

acres,

acres being watered from Government works,

and acres by private enterprise .

The average rates o f rent in Cawnpur for cult ivators with rights o f

occupancy are returned at 85 . rogd. per acre for res ident and 85 . 1 1d.

for non-resident cult ivators . Resident tenants-at-will pay 9s . 43d. an

acre , and non-residen t tenants—at-will, 7 s. 8gd. per acre . Of the entirecul tivated area, 6 1 7 per cent . i s held by cultivators with occupancyrights

,and 1 89 per cent. by tenants-at-wil l while 1 06 per cent. i s s z

’

r

or home-farm land of the and the balance of 8 8 per cent.consists o f revenue-free land

,etc. The adul t male agricultural popu

lat ion,excluding farm-labourers

,numbered in 188 1

,cult ivating

an average o f 3 1 8 acres each . The total populat ion,however

,entirely

dependent on the soil,is returned at or 6 2 3 3 per cen t. of the

D istrict population . Total Government land revenue,including local

rates and cesses paid on land ,A2 or an average of 5s . rogd. percult ivated acre . Total amount of rent actual ly paid by the cultivators

,

including cesses, J£3 76,964, or an average o f 8s. 73d. per cultivated acre.

Cash rents are the rule . Occasionally a landlord sub-lets a port ion o f

his homestead land on the metayer system. Newly—broken uplands,

where the quality of the soil i s a matter o f doubt for the fi rst year,

are also generally held at first on a d ivis ion of the produce . The

agricultural stock o f the District was returned as follows at the timeo f the settlement operations — Plough cattle and buffaloes

,

cows , draught cattle,

sheep,

goats,

In 1 882, the rates o f wages were as follows —Coolies and unskilled

labourers, 5%d. to 62d. per diem agricultural labourers, 4

-é-d. to

5 ,

—id. bricklayers and carpenters, 9d. to rs . Women receive about

one-fi fth less than men , while children are paid from one-half to one

third o f the wages of adults . The following were the average prices of

food-stuffs in 1882 — Wheat, sers per rupee,or 65 . per cwt.

r ice , 1 5 m s per rupee, or 7 5 . 6d. per cwt. j oa’

r, sers per rupee

,or

45 . per cwt. M j ra, 2 5g sers per rupee, or 45 . 45d. per cwt.

CAWNP UR . 2 87

[ Vatural —Cawnpur suffers , l ike other Districts of the

Doab, from drought and its natural consequence, famine . I t is not so

severely visi ted in this respect as the country farther to the west ; butne ither, on the other hand, does it share the comparative immunity ofthe region immediately eastward . I t was th e most westerly of all the

Districts which experienced the terrible famine of 1 7 70. In 1 7 83—84,

both autumn and spring crops failed,and the people and cattle died by

thousands . The distress was worst beyond the Jumna,and the starving

hordes of Bundelkhand crossed the river into Cawnpur only to die on

their arrival . The next great drought was that of 1 803—4, when most

of the M arz'

f crops and the whole raar’

harvest perished for want ofrain . The famine of 1 83 7 visited Cawnpur with frightful severity.

During July,August

,and September no rain fell

,and not a blade of

vegetation was produced ; the cattle died in herds, and whole villageswere depopulated . Thepargana

’

s along the G anges suffered most ; andthough revenue was remitted

,and relief works were started, immense

tracts of arable land fell out of cultivation,as neither men nor cattle

were left to till them . A l ittle of the autumn crops escaped along theJumna

,and a few patches were cultivated for the spring harvest by

means of irrigation . In 1860—6 1 , the distress was worst in the UpperDoab and Rohilkhand, but did no t reach so far east as Cawnpur inits full intensity. The scarcity was quite sufficient

,however

,to put

pressure on the lower classes,and crimes against property became much

more frequent than usual . In 1 868—69, 1 8 73—74, and 1878, Cawnpur

escaped almost unhurt and it is hoped that the existing means ofcommunication

,combined with the grand opportunities for irrigation

afforded by the Ganges Canal, will suffice to protect it in future from

the worst extremity of famine .

Commerce and T rade, eta—The District as a whole has a considerable

agricultural trade in raw materials, especially grain, cotton , and indigoseed . In the ci ty of Cawnpur, saddlery, boots, and other leathernarticles are manufactured in large quantities . The E lgin and Muir

Cotton Mills , under European supervision , afford employment to a greatnumber of hands

,and supply the native weavers with yarn for their

looms . L eather goods , textile fabrics, and tents are largely exported .

There is a large Government tannery and leather manufactory in theold fort

,for the supply of accoutrements for the army. Governmen t

flour mills grind corn for cornmissariat purposes. For many years

past, Cawnpur showed a tendency to increase its business , to the

detriment of other local markets , such as Farukhabad . It has long beenthe principal entrepot for commerce arriving from Oudh , Rohilkhand,the remoter Doab villages, and Bundelkhand . Quite lately, however,symptoms of a reactionary tendency have been observed

,owing doubt

less to the extension of the railway system ,which favours the develop

288 CAWNP UR.

ment of local centres and the general diffusion of commerce . Thebankers and large traders of Cawnpur are chiefly Baniyas and Raj puts .They have correspondents at Calcutta, Patna, Benares, Mirz apur, Allahabad

,Agra

,and Hathras and they act in turn as agents for fi rms at

those places . The means of communication are ample. The EastIndian Railway passes through the whole length of the District, withfive stations wi thin its boundaries . The Oudh and Rohilkhand Railwaysends its Cawnpur branch across the river Ganges by a girder bridge

,

and has a station at the town . The Grand Trunk Road also traversesthe District

,parallel to the Ganges

,w ith a length of 64 miles ; it conveys

most of the local heavy traffic . There are other metalled roads toKalpi and to Hamirpur (crossing the Jumna by pontoon bridges ) ; whileunmetalled roads

,raised and bridged throughout, connect all the minor

local centres . A great deal of country produce, such as grain , indigoseed

,wood, and hides, is still conveyed by water along the Ganges and

the Jumna.

Admz'

m'

rtratiorz.— The ordinary staff of the District consists of a

Collector-Magistrate, two Joint Magistrates, an Assistant,and two

Deputies . In 1876, the whole amount of revenue—imperial, municipal,and local—raised in the District amounted to while in

1 880—8 1 the gross revenue amounted to of which

was derived from the land-tax . In 1 88 1 the strength of the regularDistrict police force consisted of 5 5 2 officers and men , and the cantonment and town police, of 42 8 of all ranks

,maintained at a cost of

of which £7480 i s contributed from the provincial revenue.

These figures show one policeman to every 2 3 9 square miles and every1 1 7 1 of the population wi th an expenditure at the rate of£4, 14s. persquare mile

,and 23d. per inhabitant . The regular pol ice was supple

mented by a body of 2852 e/iaukidrirs or village watchmen,maintained

by the landholders or villagers,or one to every 4 14 of the popu lation .

The District jail contained in 1880—8 1 a daily average of 38 2 prisoners,of whom 348 were males and 34 females. There are 29 imperial and

4 local post-offi ces in the District . The Government has a telegraphoffi ce at Cawnpur, and the East Indian Railway telegraph—offi ces at alli ts stations . Education was carried on i n 188 1 by means of 2 34 schoolsunder State inspection , maintained or ass isted by G overnment, w itha total of 7082 pupils on 3 rst March . The total cost of theseschools in 1 880—8 1 amounted to £5537 , of which £ 1892 was paidfrom the provincial revenue, the remainder being derived from endowments, grants, fees, etc . The above figures do not include privateuninspected schools, for which returns are not available . The Census

of 1 88 1 , however, returned a total of boys at school,o ut of a

total male population of or one in 56 ; and 2 78 girls at schoolout of a total female population of 55 or one in 1987 . For fi scal

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290 CAWNP UR CI T Y.

the river bank,is occupied by the Memorial Church, built on the s ite of

Wheeler’s entrenchments in 185 7 , the club, the artillery lines , and the

various military Offices . The city covers the plain north of the paradeground ; and the Ganges shore is here lined by the Memorial Gardens,enclosing the famous well . The gardens cover nearly 50 acres , and areprettily laid out . Over the fatal we ll , a mound has been raised, whichSlopes upwards unti l i t i s crowned by a handsome octagonal Gothicwall

,with iron gates . In the cen tre of the enclosure is the figure of an

angel in white marble by M aro chetti, wi th arms crossed on her breast,each hand holding a palm branch . Over the archway of the gate isin scribed These are they which came out o f great tribulation and

around the wall wh ich marks the circle of the well : ‘ Sacred to theperpetual memory of a great company o f Christian people, ch ieflywomen and children , who near this spot were cruelly murdered by thefollowers o f the rebel Ni na Dhundu Panth of Bithur, and cast, thedying wi th the dead , in to the well below

,on the xvth day of July

MDCCCLV I I . ’ The expense o f the construct ion of the gardens andm emorial was defrayed partly out of a fine levied on the city afterthe suppress ion of the rebellion . A Government gran t o f £500 ayear is made for the main tenance of the gardens , which is irrigatedfrom the Ganges Canal. In the gardens

,south and south-west of the

well, are two graveyards wi th monuments to those who were massacredor died at Cawnpur during the Mut iny . Farther to the west stands thecivil station , wi th the Bank of Bengal, Christ Church , the theatre, andother European bu ildings . OldCawnpur lies three miles farther along theriver-side, separated from the present city by fields and gardens . The

modern origin of Cawnpur deprives it of architectural attractions ; andit cannot boast of such ancien t palaces or handsome mansions as adornAgra, Benares, and other historic capitals . The few build ings with any

pretensions to beauty or elegance have been erected during the last fiftyyears by bankers

,merchants

,or pleaders . The nat ive c ity was bu ilt

according to no plan , and is badly laid out,abounding in narrow streets

and passages . Except on the undulat ing margin of the Ganges,or

where inden ted by ravines,the si tes of the city

,cantonment and civil

station, are al ike flat and uninteresting . The principal landing-placeon the Ganges is that known as the Sarsiya g /ur

’

t,a noble fl ight of steps

,

surrounded by a vau lted arcade o f brick and stone . Cawnpur also

contains, bes ides the bu ild ings mentioned above, two Roman Catholicchapels , a Un ion Church , a fine market-place

,high school

,club

,and

two racquet courts,etc .

H istory . Cawnpur possesses no historic interest in early times,

be ing a purely modern creation to meet the military and administrative

needs of the British Government. The city first arose after the defeatsof Shuja-ud-daula, Nawab Waz ir of Oudh

,at Buxar

,in October 1 764,

CA IVNP UR CI T Y. 291

and at Kora in May 1 765 . The Nawab then concluded a treaty withthe British

,granting them the right of stationing troops at two places

in his dominions, Cawnpur and Fatehgarh . One of the detachments,

however, was at first quartered at Bilgram ; and it was not ti ll 1 7 78

that the present site became the advanced frontier post in this portion of the newly-acquired terri tory . From the location of a large

body of troops in Cawnpur, the town sprang rapidly into importanceas a trading mart

,and has now developed into a commercial city of

the first rank . In 180 1,the surrounding country came finally under

Brit ish rule,by cession from the Nawab Waz ir

,and the head-quarters

Of a District were fixed in the city . No events of historical noteoccurred between the annexation and the Mutiny Of 1 85 7 but in that

year Cawnpur was rendered memorable by the leading part which itplayed in the operations of the mutineers . The struggle with the rebels

lasted from May to December ; but the station itself was -never lost formore than a few days .News of the outbreak of the troops at Meerut reached Cawnpur

on the 14th of May . Eleven days later,the Nana Dundhu Panth

of B ITHUR,adopted son of the last Peshwa

,Baj i Rao , was placed

in charge of the treasury ; and, on the 3o th of May, the entrenchment of the European barracks began . On the 6th of June, the nativetroops mutin ied

,sacked the treasury

,broke open the jail

,and burnt the

public offices . Next day,the Nana opened fire on the entrenchments ,

which had no other fortification than a mud parapet, 5 feet in height .

After three weeks’ cannonade,the position became untenable

,and the

garrison capitu lated under a promise of personal security and safeconduct to Allahabad . On the 2 7th they embarked in boats on theGanges for Allahabad , at the sat i Chaura g /zdt, a landing-place nearthe spot where the Memorial Gardens now stand . Before they couldpu t off

,they were treacherously fired upon from the bank

,and all

destroyed or captured, except one boat-load , which escaped for the timeinto Fatehpur District . The prisoners , including women and children ,were crowded into a house at Cawnpur, and finally massacred by theNana’s orders

,in the Savada Kothi

,near the East Indian Railway

,

and their bodies cast into the now h istoric well,noticed above. On

the 1 6th of July, Havelock’s small force entered the city

,and the Nana

fled precipitately to Bithur.Four days later

,General Neill arrived with an ample reinforce

ment of 400 Europeans . Havelock thrice advanced unsuccessfullyin to Oudh , and retreated at last to Cawnpur, on the ro th of August .Shortly afterwards

,General Outram reached the city

,and marched

on to the relief of L ucknow,which was successfully accomplished on

the 2 5th. L ord Clyde’s and C01. G reathed’s columns passed throughon different occasions in October ; and on the 2 6th of November

,the

292 CA WNP UR CI T Y.

Gwal ior mut ineers approached Cawnpur. General Windham attackedand defeated the rebel force ; but, being strengthened by Oudh insurgents

,they again assau lted the city, which they wrested from us on the

a7th. They held it,however

,only for a single night

,as L ord Clyde’s

army marched in on the evening of the 2 8th, drove o ut the mutineers,

and utterly defeated them next day, ou tside the c ity, with the loss

of all their guns . After the re-organiz ation of the District,the site of

the massacre was laid out as Memorial Gardens,and an ornamental

bu ilding was placed over the well into which the bodies were flung.

The surrounding wall is pierced with rows of lancet windows or openings

,having trefoiled mu llions ; and handsome bron z e doors close the

entrance . Wi th in stands the marble angel o f M arochetti,already

described . This forms the chief obj ect of interest to visitors in a cityotherwise devoid of h istorical interest . A Memorial Church alsooccupies the s ite of General Wheeler’s entrenchments in the cantonment . The style is Romanesque

,and the material consists of massive

red brick,relieved by buttresses and Copings of buff freestone .

P opulation—The Census of 188 1 returned the population of Cawnpur

city and civil station at souls ; namely, Hindus,

Muhammadans,1 1 1 Jains

,and 7 69 Christ ians 01

‘ Others .

’ The

cantonments contained a population of made up of

Hindus,63 78 Muhammadans , 3 Jains, and 2 4 70 Chris t ians and

‘ others .

’

Grand total,

namely,Hindus

,M uhammadans

,

Jains,1 14 ; Christ ians , 3 194 ; and

‘ others,

’

45 .

Communications,T rade

,etc—The Ganges forms the natural waterway

for the traffic of Cawnpur, and sti ll carries a large portion of the heavytrade . The Ganges canal

,which passes just south of the city, is also

navigable,and affords means of communicat ion fora considerable number

of country boats . The East Indian Railway from Allahabad to Delhihas a station about a mile west of the city ; and the L ucknow branchof the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway

,after crossing the Ganges by a

girder bridge , passes be tween the native quarter and the cantonmentsand j oins the East Indian l ine a l ittle west of the Cawnpur station .

The Grand Trunk Road from Calcutta to Delhi also runs through thec ity and military lines ; while other roads branch o ff southward to

Kalpi and Hamirpur, and northward over the railway bridge, to Unaoand L ucknow.

The chief industry of Cawnpur consists in the manufacture of leathergoods, which is rapidly deve loping from year to year. A large Govern

men t tannery and leather manufactory is si tuated in the old fort,together

with a steam flour mill . T wo large steam cotton mills give employmentto a considerable number of Operatives

,who manufacture yarn

,cloth

,

and tents , and supply the nat ive weavers wi th material for the ir craft ;and several co tton presses , both European and native . These two items

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294 CEN TRAL IND IA .

square miles,with a population ( 1 88 1 ) of souls . T he

whole tract has been roughly described as a great triangle w ith theNarbada (Nerbudda) and Son (Soane) for its hypotenuse, and having

for one side the valley of the Ganges , and for the other the river,Chambal and the Cli ittor hi lls . I t lies between 2 1

°

24’ and 2 6

°

5 2’

N . lat.,and between 74

°

0’ and 83

°

0’ E . long. The Brit ish D istrict s o f

Jhansi and L alitpur, o f the North—Western Provinces, divide this Agencyinto two main divis ions Native Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand,

lying to the east, and Central India proper to the west .The following are the States included with in the whole area

,each

of which see s eparately z— Indore,Dewas

,Bagli

,and 1 5 guaranteed

T/zd/czrrates under the Indore Agency Dhar,Jhabua

,Ali—Rajpur

,Jobat

,

and 13 guaranteed T/za/e

arates under the Bhil or Bhopawar Agency theBri tish pargana

’

of Manpur,Barwani

,and 1 0 guaranteed T/zd/cnrales

under the Deputy-Bhil Agency ; Jaora , Ratlam ,Sitamau

,Sailana

,

md 1 7 guaranteed T /za’

ieurates under the Western Malwa Agency ;

Bhopal,Rajgarh

,Nars inghgarh

,Khi lchipur

,Kurwai

,M aksridangarh,

M uhammadgarh,Pathari

,Basoda

,and 1 7 guaranteed Tlidkzcrates under

the Bhopal Agency ; Gwal ior, and 1 5 minor chiefs under the Gwalior

Agency and the Grina Sub-Agency of Gwal ior Orchha or T ehrr’

Datia,

Samp thar, Panna, Charkhari , Aj aigarh , Bijawar, Chhatarpur, Baon i,Al ipura

,Bironda

,Jaso

,Kalinjar

,Gaurihar

,Khania-Dhana

,and 1 7 other

petty ch iefs under the Bundelkhand Agency ; Rcwa, Nagode, M aihar,Soha

’

wal,Koti

,Sidpura, and Raigaon under the Baghelkhand Agency .

The Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand portion , or the eas tern part ofthe great triangular plateau of Cen tral I ndia

,i s watered by the rivers

Dhasan and Ken flowing into the Jumna,and on the east by the Son

flowing into the Ganges , the Khaim iir range of hi lls— a continuation of

the Vindhyas— rising up along its left bank . The Panna range,with

deep ravines and isolated crags on i ts north—western face,traverses this

Divis ion of Central India, and there is a broken plateau between thePanna and Khaimar ridges watered by the TONS

,a tributary of the

Ganges . To the north,the Bundelkhand division terminates in an

amphitheatre of precipices shaping the country below into a bay

bounded by sandstone cliffs .The larger or Central India division has the great range of the

V indhyas along the whole south , abruptly overhanging the valley of theNarbada (Nerbudda) and present ing th e appearance of a weather-beatencoast—l ine . From its summits

,varying in height from 1 500 to 2 500 feet ,

the northern slope to the Jumna commences,the whole region consist

ing of a broken but elevated country,wi th ranges of hi lls

,watered by

the river CHAMBAL, wi th its tributaries the K e -S IND and B rita i n,and

by the S IND and BETWA,all flow ing into the J umna

,and descending

from the high table-lands in cascades of great height .

CENTRAL IND IA . 295

The mineral resources o f the whole country are considerable—iron ,coal, copper, and l imestone abound ; and in the Bundelkhand portion ,about 1 2 or 1 5 miles north-east of the town of Panna, the capital of theState of that name

,i s an adamantiferous tract from whichdiamonds are

extracted of the value of several thousand pounds sterling a year. Themines are less prosperous now than formerly ; but i t i s bel ieved thatinexhaust ible diamond-producing strata exis t in this locality

,and that, i f

the mines were properly worked,their productiveness would be found not

to have diminished . Most of the territory included under the CentralIndia Agency is well cultivated and fert ile, and the whole of the Malwaplateau most fertile

,producing in abundance and excellence, wheat,

rice, and other grains and pulses , sugar-cane, cotton , and especiallyopium . Tobacco is also much cult ivated

,and is of excellent qual ity.

Population — The popu lat ion of the States under the CentralIndia Agency is of a widely d iverse character, comprising besidesMarathas (the ruling class) , Rajputs, Bundelas , Baghelas , Jats, Kolis ,and a number of aboriginal tribes

,the most numerous being the

Gonds and the uncivilised Bhils . The Census of 1 88 1 was the firstsystematic attempt that has been made to enumerate the populat ionof these States

,all previous returns being mere estimates . The result s

d isclosed a total population of persons,spread over an area

of square miles, contain ing 53 towns and villages, andinhabit ing houses ; average density of population , 1 2 3 1 2

per square mile ; persons per town or village,294 persons per occu

pied house, 5 5 . The populat ion is almost entirely Hindu

,no less than

being returned as belonging to this religion,while only

are Muhammadans . Jains number Parsis, 91 6 ; Christians ,

7065 , principally in the Brit ish cantonments ; Sikhs, 14 55 ; Jews, 38 ;aborigines

,and ‘ others

,

’

7 1 . Brahmans numberand are the most numerous caste

,except the despised Chamars,

in the Central India States . Rajputs are returned at

Other principal Hindu castes—Chamars , Gujars,

Ah irs,

Baniyas, Telis,

Balais ,Kachhis, and Kunbis

,The aboriginal tribes con

s titute 9 per cent . of the population of the Central India States . TheGonds number and live in the Gondwana tract . Next inimportance come the Bhils

,who are returned at They

inhabit the States on the sou th-west corner,and are not found elsewhere

in Central India. Formerly a tribe which l ived by plunder, they are

now gradually settling down as peaceful agriculturists . Kols, who

number are aborigines of the h illy country around Chu tiaNagpur

,and are only found in Panna among the Central India States.

Climate —The northern part of Central India has a climate partaking of the torrid character of the neighbouring tracts of the North

296 CEN TRAL IND IA.

Western Provinces and Rajputana. In these parts,the climate during

the rainy season,and for a short t ime after, is exceedingly unheal thy,

fevers being then rife in consequence of the moisture imbibed bythe superficial alluvial soil being prevented from pass ing off by animpenetrable substratum of sandstone . During the dry and ho t seasons,the climate is not unhealthy. The middle

,the southern , and the

western parts, or those occupied w i th in the Malwa tract, with l ittle

excep t ion,have a m ild and rather equable cl imate

,resu lt ing from the

greater elevat ion of the surface . The cool season comprises the periodfrom November to February, the ho t season succeeds and con t inues tothe middle of June , when the periodical rain s set in and last to the

close o f September,the average fall be ing about 50 inches . During the

rains the thermometer has a moderate range , rarely more than from 7 2°

to 80°

F. ; i n the winter i t sometimes falls three or four degrees belowfreez ing-point. During the su l try season the hot w inds are comparat ivelym ild , and of short duration , though the thermometer some t imes rises tonearly 1 00

°

during the day,bu t the n ight s are for the most part cool

and refreshing.A trunk road from Gwalior to Bombay

,T i a I ndore

,runs through the

whole length of the Central India divis ion of the territory, wh ile goodroads connect the capitals of the various states throughout the wholetract wi th each other and with the neighbouring large towns in Britishterritory. The ‘ Raj putana-Malwa Railway ,

’ from Ajmere , connectswith the Great Indian Pen insula Railway at Khandwa s tat ion , passingthrough the territory on the wes t T ill Neemuch, Ratlam,

Indore, and

Mhow (M an), a small branch of the l ine connect ing wi th Ujj ain . The

Bhopal S tate Railway, branching off from Itars i station of the GreatIndian Pen insula Railway, runs to Bhopal , while the Sindhia S tateRailway has been completed between Agra and Gwalior T ia Dholpur,the surveys for an extens ion o f th e l ine Tia Jhans i and L al itpur toBhopal be ing in progress . The Jabalpur (Jubbulpore) extension l ine ofthe East Indian Railway from A llahabad to Jabalpur runs through theBundelkhand port ion of the country.

The highest representative of the Paramoun t Power in Central India

i s the Agent to the Governor-General of India,who resides at Indore

His au thority is the un ifying principle that pervades the administrationof the many states of Central India committed to his care. He is the

friend and counsellor o f all the rul ing ch ie fs ; he is the guardian of

chiefs during their minority ; and he is the medium of communicationbetween th e Imperial Government and the native Daroa

’

r i . He is,

moreover , a minister of war for Central India, having large bodies oftroops at his d isposal . He exercises the functions of a H igh Court of

Judicature , original and appellate , with in the l imit s of the Res idenciesand Cantonments. He exercises a supervis ion over the opium -tax

,

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2 98 CEN TRAL P 130VI A’

GE S .

soil,containing the Districts of RA IPUR and B ILASPUR . In th is

divis ion is also included the District of SAMBALPUR,a rugged and

j ungly country,composed o f crystall ine and metamorphic rocks .

Sambalpur is not, however, part of Chhatisgarh proper,ei ther

geographically or historically . It was originally attached to the SouthWe s tern Fron t ier Ag ency o f Bengal, and l ies principally in the valley ofthe Mahanadi. L ast o f all

,to the extreme south

,almost cu t o ff by

forests and wild semi- independent States , i s a strip of territory, of variedgeological structure

,s tretch ing along the left bank of the Godavari

,

and attached to Chanda Dis trict .The h ill plateau is thus succeeded by a lowland plain

,and again a

larger and loft ier plateau by a larger plain , ending in a mass o f hil l andforest

,which i s probably the wi ldest part of the whole Indian peninsula.

But even the comparat ively level port ions of th is area are broken byisolated peaks and straggling h il l ranges and nowhere in India are thechanges of soil and vegetat ion more rapid and marked than in theNarbada (Nerbudda) country . There ,

’writes Mr . Charles Gran t ,

‘ in thepleasant winter months , the eye may range over miles of green cornlands

,broken only by low black boundary ridges or dark twisting foot

paths . The horiz on is bounded here and there by hil l ranges,which

seem to rise abruptly from the plain ; but on approaching them,the

heavy green of their slopes is found to be divided from the softer hueso f the young wheat by broad belts of gravelly soil

,— here carpe ted wi th

short sward and dotted w ith noble trees,there uncovered

,and con

trasting their brown -red tin ts w i th the deep black of the valley lands .But the greenness of English scenery is wanting. I t i s only infavoured reaches of the rivers

,where the pools never dry up

,that the

water-loving shrubs keep their verdure and brilliancy throughout the

yean ’

On the Seitpuras , the grander alternations of scenery are evenmore frequent . ‘ The hills are h igher and more abrup t

,the black

soi l depos its deeper , and the water—supply more abundant. In themidst of the grim rolling plateaux of basalt lurk little valleys cultivatedl ike gardens, —oases of sugar-cane and opium — which

,but for their

inaccessibility , would tempt away the best cult ivators of the plains .’

The rivers, with the ir rapid streams and l impid waters , lend a singular

charm to the Province . Such is the sacred NARBADA,as it dashes

through the glens , and leaps in wild waterfal ls from the heights of

Amarkantak , i ts bright waters gl istening against the black basalt ic rock,or as i t winds along the narrow channel between the glittering MarbleRocks ,

’or works i tself into the whirlpool of Makrai ; and such are

the \VARDHA and \VAING ANG A, foaming, after the rains, in torrents

along their deep and rocky beds ; and the G OD . \ VAR I,where it forces a

passage through the heart of the mountains which formerly marked the

CEN TRAL PROVIN CE S . 299

frontier of the Province . At this point the Godavari’

may justly claimthe ti tle of the Indian Rhine . Pent in for 2 0 miles between the hills ,the river flows in a deep and narrow channel

,wi th a fierce curren t

that sometimes lashes itself into boil ing Whirlpools,till

,escaping from

its prison,i t spreads itself in a broad smooth surface

,and, flowing on

in a mighty stream,leaves the Central Provinces beh ind . To the east ,

i n Bhandara and parts of Chanda District, l ies the lake country of

the Province .

‘ There,

’ says Sir R . Temple,

‘ an irrigation tank is not a piece of

water wi th regular banks,crowned wi th rows or avenues of trees , wi th

an artificial dyke and sluices,and wi th fields around it

,but it is an

irregular expanse of water ; i ts banks are formed by rugged hills,covered with low forests that fringe the margins where the wi ld beastsrepair to drink its dykes

,mainly shaped out of spurs from the h ills,

are thrown athwart the hollows,a part only being formed by masonry

i ts slu ices often consist of chasms or fissures in the rock ; its broadsurface is often

,as the monsoon approaches

,lashed into surging and

crested waves .’ NAWAGAON,the largest of these lakes

,is 1 7 miles in

circumference,wi th a depth in places of 90 feet . Nor have the Hindus

failed to appreciate the beauties of the country . Wherever,as at

BHERAGHAT,a splendid view unfolds itself wherever

,as at M uktag iri,

the plash of a waterfall echoes through the trees,—there in all likel ihood

rises an ancient temple . The spirit of the old nature-worsh ip yet livesi n the legends that consecrate these lovely scenes .Forests —The Central Provinces cover an area of square

miles,of which little more than one-th ird is under cultivation . Yet

the forests are no t so important as might have been expected . Thegreater part of the waste land is covered by scrub j ungle

,and produces

bu t li ttle valuable timber. Nature may have doomed the stonyhighlands to barrenness

,but the improvidence of man has desolated

many of the fertile tracts . Each most valuable tree has had its specialenemy . The teak fell before

-

the ravages of the charcoal-burner,who

found that i ts close-grained wood produced the most concentrated fuel .The rd! (Shorea robusta) , when tapped, supplies an excellent resin andmany a noble tree has consequently been girdled and left to perish.

But still more destructive has proved the habit of da’

lzya or nomadcultivation

,now fortunately on the wane

,by means of which clear

ances are made by firing the forest and j ungle . At present,the

northern part of the Province is almost destitute of tree forests. In thesouth

,amid the scanty population in the hill chiefsh ips which border

the Nagpur and Chhatisgarh plains, the forests have suffered least.Under the system of conservancy introduced in 1860

,considerable

progress has been made in arresting the course of destruction . The

woodland is divided into reserved forests,under the special control and

300 CEN TRAL P180VIN CE S .

management of the Forest Department, with an aggregate area in

1882—83 of 2588 square miles ; and square miles of unreserved

or excess wastes, which, at the Settlement, Government retained for

i tself. These latter are managed by the District o fi icers . Experienceshows that wherever fire is kept out of the forests, the power of naturalreproduction may be relied upon . In 188 2—83 , an attempt was madeto protect acres ; and actual protection from fire was afforded

to acres . The total cost amounted to £ 155 7 , the averagebeing £1

,2 5 . 6d. per square mile .

Coal—The large coal - fi elds which extend under various parts of

the Central Provinces , and the excellence of the iron-ores, gave rise toexpectations which at present seem unlikely to be realiz ed . For themost part

, on analysis, the coal has proved of inferior quality. I t contains neither sufficient fixed carbon for iron-smelting

,nor combustible

volatile gases to such an amount as to adapt i t for generat ing steam .

At present the only important colliery is that at Warora, which turnedout tons of fair quality in 1 882 . Production of coal has largelyincreased of late years in consequence of the consumption of this coalby the Great Indian Peninsula Railway Company .

[ f ora—The Central Provinces is also rich in its i ron—ores, particu larlyin Chanda District, and a scient ific examinat ion in to the resources of

th is District was conducted in 188 1—82 by R it ter von Schwarz , a gentleman of great experience in iron-mining in Aus tria

,and his report

promises favourably for the future. He considered that with theconstruction of an ironwork at Dungarpur, and the erection of more

blast furnaces,there was no reason to doub t that Chanda District alone

was capable o f turn ing out tons of iron or s teel yearly . Hereported further that

,bes ides supplying India with much of her steel

and iron requ irements , Chanda was able to open ou t an export tradew i th England in art icle s which were now imported from the Continent ,particularly in Ferro-manganese and Brescian steel.E amon— The early history of the Province consists entirely of the

conj ectural interpretation of fragmentary inscriptions,which record

the names of unknown princes,and relate their deeds with oriental

hyperbole . We learn how the ir benefi cence made earth better thanheaven

,how the world trembled at the march of their elephants

,and

how the sea was swollen by the tears of queens widowed by their

conquests . But from this source l ittle positive knowledge can beob tained . It seems established that in the sth century a race of foreign

( Yarn/m ) orig in ruled from the Satpura plateau . Again,between the

ro th and 1 3th centuries, we can discern a dist ingu ished line of L unar

Rajput princ es governing the country round Jabalpu r (Jubbu lpore) ,while a territory south of the Satpuras was held by the fi re~descended

Pramara princes of Malwa. The Chanda dynasty of Gonds probably

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30 : CEN TRAL PR OVIN CE S .

the rise of the Gond power until the advent of the Marathas,Gondwana

enjoyed practical independence . The Gonds wil l ingly owned thesupremacy o f the Emperor at Delhi, and the distant monarch wiselycontented h imself with nominal ly including in his domin ions the w ildand rugged country o f the Gonds . Wi th all i ts drawbacks

,th is was a

happy period for Gondwana. The people prospered under a rudefeudal sys tem ; and the tanks and tombs and palaces , and above allthe bat tlemented stone walls, long s ince too wide for the shrunken cityw ithin

,test ify to the abil ity and bene fi cence of the princes. Indeed

,

the rulers appear to have been in advance o f the ir subj ects ; and much

of the improvement then effected arose from the prudent l iberal ity w ithwhich the w iser Rajas encouraged Hindu husbandmen to settle on theland. Bu t the invasion of the Marathas abrup tly ended the peacefulprogress of Gondwana . In th e ten years from 1 74 1 to 1 7 5 1 , theBhonsla family establ ished its dominion over th e three kingdoms ofDeogarh

, Chanda, and Chhatisgarh, while the last Gond dynasty, thato f Garha-Mandla

,fell before the same race in 1 78 1 .

The founders of the Maratha power had the virtues as well asthe vices of mili tary leaders , and at first the Gond pe0p1e fel tthe effect of the conquest less than their feudal ch iefs. Butin the end o f the 1 8th century , the Marathas began to sufferfrom the want of money, and every variety of fiscal expedient wasc ontrived to grind taxes from the unfortunate pe0p1e . In short

.

a poor man cou ld neither shel ter nor clothe himself,nor earn his

bread,nor eat it , nor marry , nor rej oice , nor even ask his gods for

bet ter weather, w ithou t contributing on each individual act to the

necess itie s of h is al ien ru lers . This oppress ion brought abou t itsnatural resu lt. The ruined husbandman forsook his farm

,and j oined

the robber—bands tha t wandered through the country. By degreesthe se increased in number ; and from their s tand ing camps in theNarbada valley , a marauding cavalry, under the name o f Pindaris

,

spread desolat ion over the land . Encumbered neither by tents norbaggage, and rid ing in part ies o f two or three thousand

,they carried

fi re and sword wherever they went,even to the gates of the capital .

So last ing has proved the terror they inspired,that to this day there

are places in the valley of the Wardha where the shopkeepers wil l notpublicly expose their goods . Thus

,harassed in every way, the country

had become utterly exhausted when,in 18 18

,Apa Sahib was finally

deposed. At that t ime the English annexed the region s ince known asthe Sagar (Saugor) and Narbada (Nerbudda) territories, while undertaking the management of what remained o f the Bhonsla kingdomduring the minori ty o f Raghuji 111. Raghup attained h is maj ority in1 830 , bu t on h is death in 1 853 . withou t a child

,his dominions lapsed

to the Brit ish Government . At first,i t may be that the administra t ion

CEN TRAL PROVIN CE S . 303

erred in overrating the resources of the country ; but under the morelen ient assessment of later years an era of prosperity has begun.

In 1 860, the Niz am ceded a strip o f territory on the left bank of the

Godavari, formerly styled the Upper Godavari District, cons isting of

6 tail/flex, namely , Sironcha, Naogaon , Albaka, Cherla, Bhadrachalam ,

and Rakapalli. The two last-named ldluks were transferred to Madrasin 1 8 74 . The four fi rst-named are still at tached to the CentralProvinces, and now form a Sub—division of Chanda District. In 186 1 ,

the Central Provinces ’were formed by the union of the sagar (Saugor)and Narbada (Nerbudda ) territories w ith the Nagpur Province . In1864, the new admini stration obtained an accession of terri tory by theaddi t ion of Nimar District ; and in the following year it rece iveda further accretion of 700 square miles o f country

,wh ich formerly

con st ituted the Nat ive State of BUERAG HOG ARH in Central India, buthad been confiscated in 1 85 7 .

P op ulation—The table on page 304 exhibits the area, population , etc .,

of each o f the British D is tricts and Native States included wi thin theCentral Provinces, as disclosed by the Census of 188 1 .

The 1 5 Native States are attached to 5 Brit ish Districts, althoughthey are under the direct administration of their own chiefs . Makrai

,

wi th an area of 2 1 5 square miles , i s attached -to Hoshangabad Districtwhile the largest State

,Bastar

,square miles, is attached to

Chanda. The remaining 1 3 are attached to the three Districts of the

Chhatisgarh Divis ion— namely, Chhuikadan, Ranker, Khairagarh andNandgaon

,with an aggregate area of 2 658 square miles , to Raipur

District ; Kawardha and Sakti, with an area of 100 2 square miles,to

Bilaspur Dis trict ; and Kalahandi, Raigarh, Sarangarh, Patna, Sonpur,Rairakhol , and Bamra, with an aggregate area of square miles

,

to Sambalpur District . Including Feudatory States, the average areaof each D is trict is 6 293 square miles , the smallest be ing Narsinghpur

( 191 6 square miles ), the four largest being Chanda squaremiles) , Sambalpur square miles), Raipur square miles ) ,and Bilaspu r (8800 square miles ) . Excluding Feudatory States

,the

average area of each District is 4691 square miles, the 5 largest Districtsbe ing—Raipur square miles), Chanda square m iles),Bilaspur ( 7 798 square miles ) , Mandla (4 7 19 square miles ) , and Sambalpur

(45 2 1 square m iles) . Total area of Native States , square milespopulation average density, 593 per square mile.The area of the Cen tral Provinces in 188 1 (including Nat ive States)

was less by 886 square miles than the area returned in 1 87 2 , owing tothe transfer to the Madras Presidency in 1 874 of the Bhadrachalam and

Rakapalli kiln/es of the former Upper Godavari District. The actualdifference

,however

,proves to be only 5 18 square miles , on account o f

[Sentence confi rmed on p . 305.

CENTRAL PROVINCE S.

CENSUS or THE CENTRAL PROVINCES

BRIT ISH D ISTRICTS.

POPUL ATIO N .District or State.

Males . Females . Q

24,040 580.862 1 15

1 18

Total , 862 .375 101

Total, 1 29

1].

o i Britishis trxcts . 9 838.79I H 6

NAT IVE STATES.

rdha,

kadan or

17 4639

940

9052 1 5

lNative States ,

(1To talCentral) vinces , 102

43

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306 CE NTRAL PROVIN CE S .

strength and confidence . By deg rees they issued from the Satpurah ills

,and occupied the rich valleys beneath. But the superiority of

the Aryan race man ifes ted itself in peace as in war ; and step by stepthe aboriginal tribes were driven back a second t ime to the stony

uplands,as the Hindu farmers in increasing numbers cleared the fertile

plain s below. Those who remained were absorbed by the higher race ,and now form the lowest s tratum of the Hindu social system .

Though Gondwana comprised the greater part of the CentralProvinces , the non-Aryan tribes now form a minority of th e popult ion

.The Censu s of 1 88 1 returned the ir total number, including

those who have embraced H induism,as wel l as those who st ill

adhere to their primitive de ities , at o f whominhabited British territory, and the Feudatory States . Theproportion of these tribes to the total popu lation of each Districtvaries from 55 5 8 in Mandla, to only 2 2 8 in N imar. Though the termaborigines ’ i s commonly applied to them

,i t must be remembered that

this is merely a convenient expression , serving to dist inguish the tribesin question from races of Aryan descen t . In the gravels and clays

which apparently mark the Miocene and the Pliocene periods,remains

of animals now extinc t in India co-exist wi th the bones of others st il lfound in the Central Provinces . Of later date , however, and scatteredthrough the upper soils of large areas

,agate knives and implements

have been dug up in the Narbada (Nerbudda) and Nagpur country ;and to a yet later epoch belong the polished celts

,axes

,and other

shaped stone implements, which exactly resemble those abundantlv

found in Northern Europe . Beyond these indications,we know

nothing of any inhabitants of the Provinces who may have preceded

the so—called aboriginal tribes . These consis t of a southern and anorthern section , distinguished as the Dravidian and the Kolarianraces . From their curiou s intermixture w i thin a l imited area

,Mr.

Hislop concludes that the Dravidians,entering India by the north

west,here crossed the stream of Kolarian immigrants from the north

east . One of the Gond hymns , wh ich he has preserved , relates howthe Gonds were created near Mount Diwalag iri in the Himalayas ; howtheir gluttonous and impure habits caused a foul odour to arise , whichoffended the nostri ls of Mahadeva and how Mahadeva

, while bathing,made a squirrel out of part o f his body , and sent i t to flee with tail

erect before the Gonds . The Gonds pursued the squ irrel,and followed

it into a cave, which was the god’s prison on earth . Then Mahadeva

arose and placed a stone 1 6 cubits long at the entrance of the cave,

and stationed a giant to guard it . But four brothers had remained

beh ind. They travelled on over h ill and dale,t i ll by the j ungly road

they reached Kachikopa L ohargarh, the Iron valley in the Red Hills .There they found a giant, who was at first inclined to eat them ; but

CEN TRAL PROVLNCE S . 307

becoming pacified, gave them h is seven daughters in marriage. From

these unions sprang the present Gond race. This legend,at any rate,

i s consis tent wi th the theory that the Gonds entered the country from

the north , and intermarried w ith the inhabitants they found there.

Point ing to the same conclusion is the fact,that t ill lately they buried

the ir dead with the feet turned northward,so that the corpse might be

ready to be borne to the home of i ts people . But apart from thesespeculations

,the Gonds justly claim attention as in some degree a

progress ive race,which

, w ith Aryan peoples all around, succeeded informing and upholding for 200 years an independent power, and whichst ill maintains its separate nationality. From the upper classes

,indeed ,

the pure Gond is rapidly disappearing. Most of the so -called Gondchiefs

,and of the families which call themselves Raj-Gond

’or Royal

Gond,

’ are of mixed blood,though wi th the aboriginal ty

‘

pe stil ldominant . Ye t

,while they outdo the Hindus themselves in cere

monial refinements,purifying even the ir faggots before using them for

cooking, they retain a taint of their old mountain superst it ions somest il l seek to atone for their desertion of the gods o f their fathers

,by

worsh ipping them in secret once every four or fi ve years, and by placingcow’s flesh to their l ips

,wrapped in a cloth

,so as no t to break too

Openly with the Hindu divin it ies. But the plebeian or Dhar-Gond isgenerally of purer blood

,owing to the contempt with which the Hindus

regard him . The lowest of the Hindu castes ranks above him,and only

the M hars and Dhers take place beneath him in the social scale. Tohim the contact of a h igher civil isation has brough t harm rather thangood . Amid a Hindu population

,his stalwart l imbs make him a useful

drudge, but his spirit is broken , and h is old frankness has vanished .

In the h ighlands,however

,the Gond

,less contaminated by Hindu

influence , appears to greater advantage .

In the Feudatory State of Bastar, the h ill tribes constitute atleast three - fi fths of the population . There the Marias form themost numerous caste. The Maria carries a -small iron knife in h isgirdle

,and a hatchet hangs from his shoulders ; but his favourite

weapon is the bow. This is made of bamboo ; and a strip of thebark o f the same useful plant

,secured by cords to the ends

,supplies

the bowstring ; the arrows are of many forms, but all pointed wi thiron . The Marias are skilful archers ; they use the feet to bend the

bow, while they draw the string with both hands, sending an arrowalmost through the body of a deer. The Maris are still wi lder,and invariably fly from their grass -built huts on the approach o f

strangers. Once a year,an officer collects their tribute for the Raja

,

which is paid in kind . He beats a tom-tom outside the village,and

forthwith h ides himself ; whereupon the inhabitants bring out whateverthey have to give, and deposit it in an appointed spot. The customs

308 CEN TRAL RR o VINCE S .

of the different hil l tribes are very s imi lar. The Bhils,indeed

,are

singular in the j ealousy they exh ibit about the honour of the ir women .

The Halbas , who in Bastar make their l iving by distill ing spirits, and

worship a pantheon of glorified dis ti llers, have , unlike the other w ildtribes

,settled down in Raipur as successful cultivators, hold ing their

own in the open country.

P/zys z'

eal Appearance, eta—Nearly all the hill tribes have the blackskin

,the flat nose

,and the th ick lips, which at once proclaim them of

other than Aryan blood. Nearly all dress in the same way. For bothsexes

,a cloth wound about the waist constitutes the chief article of

attire . Necklaces of beads, ear-rings of brass and iron , brass bracelets,and girdles of town

’

s or twisted cords, find favour in the eyes o f youngmen and women . The latter often add chaplets of the large whi te seeds

of the lam a grass, or even a cloth flung carelessly across the shoulder.

They seldom wear any covering on the head and some,as the Marias

,

shave away the hair, leaving only a top knot. The ladies,however

,

commonly add to their attractions by wearing false hair. In the hymnalready cited, the god alleges as one cause of his displeasure against thefirst created Gonds

,that they did not bathe for sixmonths together. I t

must be confessed that in this respec t the h ill-tribes of to—day do notbel ie their ancestry ; and though they carry their scanty costume with acertain grace

,their dirtiness, and the tattoo marks on their faces, arms,

and thighs,have a repellent effect on European observers . For the

most part l ight-hearted and easy- tempered, when once their shyness isovercome

,they prove exceedingly communicative ; but while naturally

frank,and far more truthful than Hindus, they are nevertheless arrant

thieves,though their pilfering is generally managed in the simplest and

most maladroit manner. All are fond of music,part icularly the G ad

bhas,who celebrate their festivals by dancing to the sound of a drum and

a fife . Sometimes they form a ring by joining hands,and advance in

step towards the centre, and again retire while circling round and round.

When wearied with dancing, they sing. A man steps out of the crowd,

and sings a verse int/tronzp tn , a woman rej oins, and the pair chant in

alternate strains, for the most part rallying each other on personal

defects . All are addicted to drinking. In short,so slight are the dif

ferences between the various hill tribes, that in Chanda, where the

forest country meets the more civi lised plain,the Gonds

,as the h ighest

class among them , are recru ited from the wilder clans ; and the

ambitiou s M aria. styles himself firs t a Koitiir, then a Forest or JunglyG ond

,and at last, as time goes on

, claims the dignity of a G ond pureand simple .

The indolence and improvidence of uncivi lised peoples manifests

itself especially in the manner in which these hil l tribes cultivate

the soil. The husbandman who practises the a’a’

lg'

a sys tem first

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3 ro CEN TRAL PROVIN CE S .

after him,who bring the fugi t ive back . Throughout the Central Pro

v inces the Gonds worship cholera and small-pox, under the names of

M ari and Mata Devi. T o appease the wrath of these divinit ies, theyoffer sacrifices ; and , cleaning their villages , they place the sweepings on

a road or track , in the hope that some traveller wil l be infected, and soconvey the disease away into another village . But in addit ion to his

g ods , the Gond peoples the forest in wh ich he l ives with spirits of allk inds

,most of them able and only to o will ing to infl ict evil upon him.

To propi t iate them,he sets up pd

’

fs,consist ing of a bamboo , with a

piece of rag tied to the end,a heap o f stones , or the l ike. There the

spirit takes up his abode,and then

,at each festival in the family, the

spirit has h is share of the banquet .The Baiga

'

s,wi th whom some authorit ie s identify the Bhaimias , are

the acknowleged priests of the hill tribes . Physically finer men thanthe ordinary Gond

,and suspassing him in courage and skill as sports

men , they have won for themselves a respect which is rarely abusedand in any question

,whether of a religious observance or of a boundary

dispute , their decis ion is final. When a Gond falls vict im to a tiger, theBaiga is called in to lay the sp irit o f the dead, and to charm away the

additional power wh ich the t iger has derived from h is prey. TheBaiga goes through certain movements

,representing the tiger in his

fatal spring ; and , lastly, takes up wi th h is teeth a mouthful of the bloodstained earth. This done

,the jungle is free again . Wh ile worsh ipping

the same gods as the Gonds,the Baigas have a special reverence for

M i i Dharitri—mother earth .

How far serpent—worsh ip prevailed in Gondwana has given rise tomuch specu lat ion . The Gond of to-day would be more l ikely to eat asnake than to worsh ip it. Bu t traces of a serpent cult ye t remain , themost curious of these being the ancient temple of Buram Deva inChhatisgarh. It con tains no image but that of a cobra

,near which are

two inscriptions , one being a l is t of twenty-two kings , who trace theirdescent to the un ion of a snake wi th the daughter of a holy man whol ived south o f the Narbada . The name of Nagpur

,and the number of

non-Aryan families wh ich claim a Nagbansi connection , seems to show

that snake-worsh ip formerly existed in G ondwana’

t. Probably it was

never more than an aristocratic cult,confined to certain houses . As

i t s practice ceased , the claim to serpent descen t died out as well, and

the exist ing Nagbansi famil ie s have become, or aspire to be , Raj puts .That the shy and timid hill tr ibes should be capable o f offering

human sacrifices has appeared incredible t o some writers ; but thecu stom has ex isted at certain places within the memory of the presentgenerat ion . In the temples of Kali i n Chanda and L anj i

’

,and in the

famous shrine o f Danteswari in Bastar,many a human head has been

presented on the altar. The victim was taken to the temple after sun

CEN TRAL PIEOVINCE S . 3 r I

set , and shut up w ith in its d ismal walls . In the morning when the

door was opened,he was found dead , to the glory of the great goddess ,

who had shown her power during the night by descending to suck hisblood .

Births and marriages are celebrated by some pecul iar customs , andno ceremony is reckoned complete Wi thout a drinking bout . The pre

tended abduction of the bride forms part of the wedding ceremony .

Somet imes a visitor w il l serve for his wife during a stated number of

years, after the manner of Jacob ; but more frequently the wife ispurchased by the bridegroom . For th is reason , the cheaper plan o f

marrying a near relation finds favour with the poor or frugal lover. As

a rule, the Gonds bury their dead , and sometimes kill a cow over thegrave but the more prosperous families now sometimes burn an adu ltcorpse, after the manner of the Hindus . Waking the dead forms an

important part of the funeral rites.17 5/M u P opulation—The gradual displacement of the hill tribes in

one of their last refuges by Hindu races is clearly shown by the simplefact that

,whereas the so-called aborigines (outside H indu influences )

number less than two millions,the H indus

,i n 1 88 1 , numbered

thus forming per cent . of the inhabitants of theCentral Provinces

,including Native States . The denser the popu lation,

the greater is the proportion of Hindus,varying from 8 per cent . in

the Nagpur plain and Wardha valley to 565 7 per cent . on the satpuraplateau.

A few isolated hermits were the first Aryans who ventured to invadethese central forests ; and the Ramayana lamen ts the sufferings theseholy men endured amid the savage tribes . These shapeless and illlooking monsters testify their abominable character by various cruel andterrific displays . These base-born wretches implicate the hermits inimpure practices

,and perpetrate the greatest outrages. Changing

their shapes and hiding in the thickets adj oining the hermitages, thesefrightful beings delight in terrifying the devotees. They cast away the

sacrificial ladles and vessels,they pollute the cooked oblations , and

u tterly defile the offerings wi th blood. These faithless creatures inj ec tfrightful sounds into the ears of the fai thfu l and austere eremites . At

the time of sacrifice , they snatch away the jars, the flowers, the fuel, andthe sacred grass of these sober-minded men .

’ But though ruled byRaj pu t ch iefs at an earlier period

,the country was not really opened

out to Hindu settlement till the time ofAkbar,whose armies penetrated

to the easternmost parts of the valley of the Narbada. The oldest

rupees found buried here date from this reign . The mass , however, ofthe Hindu population is of later date

,and may probably be referred to

the time ofAurangz eb . Between the Hindus north and those south ofthe satpuras the contrast both in character and appearance is s triking.

3 1 2 CEN TRAL PRO I’

IA'

CE S .

The Maratha of the Nagpur rice-lands has nei ther the energy nor the

independence of the peasant who t ills the wheat-fi elds by the Narbada ;and on a festal day, when a southern crowd presen ts a mass of whi tecloth ing and enormou s red turbans, the more northern people may beknown by their costume of ”la/ma green, and their j aunty head-dress

o f white cloth .

L ora! Sada—While worshipping the usual d ivinit ies of the Hindupantheon

,the Hindus of the Central Provinces , more especially the

Jharias , or older set tlers, have con tracted various local bel iefs andhabits . The adorat ion of the dead prevails universally. Thus, inHoshangabad

,the Ghori (M uhammadan) k ings o f M alwa have attained

the dignity of gods , while near Bhandara the villagers worship at thetomb o f an English lady . Most castes place l ittle or no restrict ion on

widow-marriage,and generally the marriage tie is but l it tle regarded,

i llegit imate children succeeding to property equally wi th those born in

wedlock . But the non-Aryan belie f in the powers of evil especiallydominates the conquering race . Throughou t the Province, Mata Devi,the goddess of small—pox

,is held in ven e ration . The prevalence of

witchcraft also presse s heavily on the Hindu . So infested by witches

was the wild h ill country from M andla to the eastern coast, that at onetime no prudent father wou ld le t h is daughter marry into a family

which did no t count among its members at least one of the dangerou ssisterhood . Even now

,shou ld a man

'

s bullock die , his crop fail , orsickness befall h im

,he imputes the calamity to wi tchcraft. The

suspected sorcerer in such a case is arres ted,and a fi sherman’

s netbeing wound abou t his head to prevent him from bewitch ing his guards,his innocence is tested by the fl icker o f a flame or the fall of a p z

’

pal

leaf. In Bastar this ordeal is followed by sewing him up in a sack ,and lett ing him down into water wais t -deep. I f he succeeds in rais ingh is head above water, his guilt is held manifest . Then the v i llagersbeat the cu lprit w i th rods of tamarind or the castor-o il plant, and

shave his head . L astly,they knock out his tee th

,so that the wi tch

can nei ther mutter charms nor revenge h imself by assuming the form ofa tiger.T/ze Sat7zd11zz

’

s .

—Perliap s the most interes t ing movement among theH indus o f the Province is the rel igious and social upris ing of theChamars of Chhatisgarh. Upper India contains no more despisedrace . In the d istribu tion o f employments nothing had been left to

them but the degrading handicraft o f sk inn ing dead cattle. But in the

plain of Chhatisgarh the wan t o f labour had adm it ted them to the ranko f cul t ivators , and prepared them to break the humiliating tradition.

About fifty years ago, Ghasi Das , an unlettered but remarkable

vis ionary, w i thdrew into the wilderness , after bidding h is followers meethim in s ix months’ t ime at Girod . Thither

,on the appo inted day, the

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3 r4 CEN TRAL P ROVIN CE S.

ord inary Kabirpanthis are generally admitted to the fai th at theres idence of the local ma/zcmt or priest . A piece of ground havingbeen cleaned and consecrated

,the rel igious pass-word (mantra) i s

blown in the orthodox manner into the ear of the convert , and he ispresented wi th some betel leaves and sweetmeats a necklace of woodenbeads is then placed round his neck, and he is not supposed to eat or

drink thereafter without wearing th is necklace. The convert then

makes offerings to the rim/cant,accord ing to h is means. Those who

become ascetics wear necklaces of a differen t pattern , and also wear a

peaked skull-cap. These ascetics travel about asking alms and ( thosewho can read) explain ing their sacred books.The chief g uru or head of the faith in the Central Provinces resides

at Kawardha, the capital of a Feudatory State attached to BilaspurDistrict. He does not appear to be more learned than his disciples ,and is said to be more careful of his own secular concerns than of thesp iritual welfare of h i s followers. He appoints a certain number of

depu t ies called and ma/zcmts from the more advanced of hisfollowers , who, after paying a good sum for the privilege, travel throughthe country, and recoup themselves by contributions from their own

disciples, o f whom they manage to get together a large number . Theyare not bound to observe celibacy

,but numbers of them assume that

state for the sake of the peculiar sanctity which the multitude ascribe

to i t. Unlike the Chamar Satnam is, all of whom follow some sort of

a secu lar occupat ion,the Kabirpanthis include a cons iderable body

who , though not professing celibacy l ike the H indu yet te

semble them a good deal in their habits and customs . They go

about in pairs,begging from door to door, reci ting moral precepts in

verse to the accompaniment of a single stringed instrument , resemblinga guitar, and two pieces of black wood beaten one against the o ther tokeep time. The Kabirpanth is profess allegiance to the g um at Kawardha,but keep their earnings to themselves. They are generally well versed inthe doctrines of their sect

,and often enter in to controversies w ith

members of other sects,defending their pos it ion by quotations from the

metrical polemics of Kabir,and annually convert ing a number of

persons from the lower orders of H indus . As Kabirism does noti nvolve loss of caste, or any sort of social degradat ion ; as i t does not

impose any wearisome or costly ceremonial ; as its doctrines are more

s imple and better suited to the unders tanding of the masses than thoseof Hinduism ; and as they are embodied in a series of s impleHindustani verses , easily understood and remembered by all , Kabirism

has gone on increasing in strength and prosperity. I t i s worthy of note

that in the Central Provinces,almost the whole of the Kabirpanthis

are married , whereas in Northern India the greater part of them are

vowed to celibacy.

CE rVTRAL PROVINCE S . 3 1 5

The greater number of Kabirpanthis in the Central Provinces are thePankas

,Telis

,and G andas, which classes have adopted the religion en

masse. But among other castes who have j oined the fraternity areBrahmans (very few) , Raj puts , Baniyas, Naus, Dhobis, and even M uham

madans . The Brahmans and Rajputs are expelled from caste on theirconversion to Kabirism

,and thenceforward occupy the same position

as i s held by Hindu baz’

rdg z’

s ; and it i s from them that theand ma/zam‘

s are mostly selected. The Kabirpanthis of the presentday recognise and retain caste dist inctions as tenaciously as the most

orthodox Hindus,and all ceremonies are performed by Hindu priests

according to established ritual. Ordinarily, no Kabirpanth i of one

caste will eat food cooked by a member o f another, and it i s onlywhen they meet at Kawardha on some festive occasion that therule is somewhat relaxed . The different castes

,of course, never

intermarry. In their social relations,habits

,and superst it ions, the

Kabirpanthis d iffer but sl ightly from the Satnamis .

T/ze are a small sect peculiar in the Central Provincesto Sambalpur District and its attached Feudatory States

,and number

only 91 3 members. Their religion , which is o f quite modern origin ,appears to have sprung into existence in the Angu l and DhenkanalStates of Orissa as recently as 1866. The name o f the founder of therel igion is unknown, and its followers state that he is a formles s spiritualbeing

,who resides in heaven . His chief disciple Gobind Das is dead

and another disciple Narsingh has erected a mat/z or temple to hismemory in Banki. The sect has also another temple in Banki at

M albahar. They have a religious book of predictions called M alz’

ka,

and are divided into three sects— the KumbhipathiaG osains, the Kana

pathia G o sains , and Ashritas . The two former sects have renouncedthe world

,and the followers of the one do not eat with those of the

o ther. The third sect,the Ashritas, are not ascetics or cel ibates, nor

are they turned out of caste. They look up to the other two sects astheir g urus or spiritual guides, and follow their teaching. They bathe

in the early morning, and prostrate themselves before the sun at thetime of its rising and setting, never eating after sunset. Each sect hasa separate temple or place of prayer. They recognise the Bhagavat

,one

of the Hindu religious books, but interpret it differently to the H indus .They do not acknowledge the images of the Hindu gods

,arguing that as

no mortal has ever seen the Supreme Being, i t is impossible to form hisimage. Although believing in the existence of the th irty-three crores ofHindu gods and goddesses , they do not worship or obey them ,

assertingthat it is not necessary to obey the servant

,but only the master. Their

worship consists of prayer and praise to the immaterial Being,whom

they call Alek/z.

7 7m are not numerous in the Central Provinces,and

3 i 6 CEN TRAL PRO VJN CE S .

are returned in the Census Report as a nonconformist sect of Hindusrather than as a separate rel igion . They fol low the doctrines of Nanak ,the founder of the Sikh religion , who taught the people that prayerconsisted in meditation on the Supreme Being, and that all externalforms of worship were s inful . Na

'

z/l,E rin

, and Smin (the repet it ion of

the holy name,the giving of charity , and cleanliness of body) , form the

essence o f his teach ing. Nanak,who taught his principles 1 00 years

after Kabir,respected the Vedas

,and derived his tenets therefrom

,

bu t did not recognise the Sastras . Whilst the aim of Kabir wasto leave one common religion for Hindus and Muhammadans alike

,

that of Nanak was to popu lari z e the teaching o f the Vedas . Kabirdenounced the Hindu incarnations as impostors

,whilst Nanak admitted

that they were inspired men . The essence of the two religions is thesame

,wi th this difference

,that Kabir’s faith claims to be a rel igion by

itself,whi lst that of Nanak may be said to be an offshoot of the

Vedantic religion of the Hindu s . The Nanakshahis are a devoteeorder within the Nanakpanthi sect .T/ze are followers of Singhaji, a local saint, himself a

Gauri or herdsman by caste,in whose name Hindu temples have been

erected in Hoshangabad and Nimar D istricts,which are frequented by

pe0p1e of all castes . They are returned in the Censu s among theHindus.T/ze D/zamz

’

s are a local sect found only in Damoh and SagarD istricts

,followers of Prannath, and known also as Parnamis , who

combine the reading of the Kuran wi th Hindu Observances. They arealso included in the Census among the Hindus .

17 mi n Carries —Of the recognised Hindu s castes , the upper classesconsist of Brahmans

,Raj put s

,Kayasths ,

Kal ita or Kulta,a cognate caste to the Kalitas o f Assam ,

pecu l iar toChutia Nagpur and the Chhatisgarh Division of the Central Provinces,

in number ; Ban iyas or traders, The lower Hindu castes ,exceed ing in number

,are the following

,arranged according to

number, and not according to social rank . Chamar , the most numerousbu t one o f the lowest castes in the Central Provinces, Skinners, leather

dealers , agricu ltural labourers , etc.

,i n number, o f whom about

one-hal f belong to the Satnami sect Kurmi,the principal agricultural

caste,

Teli,o il-pressers

,cult ivators

,carters

,etc . ,

Ahir , cattle-rearers and dairymen , cu lt ivators , and farm-servants,

Mahar, weavers , day—labourers , village watchmen,grass-cutters

,etc.

,

L odhi , landholders and cu ltivators , Ganda,weavers ,

cu lt ivators, field labourers , etc.

,Mehra

, weavers , cu lt ivators ,and village watchmen

,Gauri

,herdsmen

,M arat ,

gardeners and cul ti vators,

Dhimar,fishermen

,s ilk rearers

,

domest ic servants, water-carr iers, etc .

,Kewat or Keut, the

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3 18 CEN TRAL PRO VIN CE S .

5849 Ii hurah58 16 Khalmeswar

,

5736 Ashti,5685 Rehh

’

,

56 15 hdohgaon,

5584 hdoharh5543 Deo li

,

5515 Séonen

Of the total number o f villages and towns in the CentralProvinces

,including the Feudatory States

,considerably more than one

half,or contain less than two hundred inhabitants ;

have between two hundred and five hundred ; 3 7 64 between fivehundred and a thou sand ; 7 36 between one thou sand and two thousand ;1 30 between two and three thousand ; 68 between three and five thousand ; 36 between five and ten thousand ; 7 between ten and fifteenthousand ; 3 between fifteen and twenty thousand ; 3 between twentyand fifty thousand ; and 3 upwards of fifty thousand inhabitants .

Occupations—Excluding the 1 5 Feudatory State s, the Census Report

returned the male population of the Brit ish D istricts accord ing tooccupat ion in the following six groups Professional class

,including

civil and mil itary officers, Government officials of every description,

and the learned professions , ( 2 ) Domestic class , includinghouse servants, inn and lodging—house keepers, etc .

, (3) Cornm ercial class , including merchants

,traders

,carriers

,etc .

,

(4) Agricultural and pastoral class , including gardeners ,(5 ) Industrial class, including manufacturers and artisans,(6) Indefinite and non-productive , i ncluding male ch ildren , persons ofunspecified occupations

,etc .

,

Ag rz'

czz/z‘zm a— In the year 188 2—83 , the area under cu l tivation was

estimated at acres , o f which rice , wheat, and other foodgrains occupied acres

, or about 85 per cent. of the whole .

Cotton was grown on acres, ch iefly in Nagpur , lVardha,Nimar

,Narsinghpur , Chhindwara, and Seigar ; and these six Districts ,

w ith Raipur and Bilaspur, have also the largest area under oil-seeds .The cult ivat ion of tobacco is almost confined to Raipur.Nearly every form o f land tenure found in India exists in the Central

Province s . Besides the estates of feudatory and o f non -feudatory

chiefs , known as the succession to which follows the lawo f primogeniture, what is termed the tenure prevails mostwidely . The estate, whether the property o f one or many owners

,is

managed by a single proprietor, and the land is chiefly held by cult ivators whose rents are thrown into a common stock . The profi ts are

divided , or the losses made up, in proportion to the respective shareso f the different proprietors .

The total agricultural populat ion of the Brit ish Districts o f the Central

CENTRAL PROVINCE S . 3 19

Provinces,male and female

,amounted in 188 1 to or 384 0

per c ent. of the whole average cultivated and cultivable area, 9 acresper head of the agricul tural population . L anded proprietors numbered

tenants with occupancy rights, assistants in homecult ivat ion

,tenants at will , agricultural labourers

,

herdsmen,graz iers

,etc.

,Total area of British Districts

,

square miles,of which square miles are assessed for

Government revenue or pay a l ight quit-rent,while square miles

are revenue-free and unassessed . Total amount of Government assessment

,including local rates and cesses levied on land, or

an average of gfid. per cul t ivated acre. Total rental actually paid bythe cult ivators, or an average of rs . 9d. per cultivatedacre. These averages are, however, below the general rates paid forGovernment (Rizalsa

’

) land, as they include the payments made bythe zanzz

'

no’

ciri estates, which are only nominal and of the nature of

quit-rents.Commerce and M anufactures.

— The only important manufacturescons ist of weaving, and smelting and working iron-ore. The t issuework of Burhanpur, and the r ichly embroidered wearing apparel produced in parts of Nagpur and Bhandara, command an extensive salebeyond the Province ; and the excellence of the ores smelted nearGadarwara deserves notice. The internal trade is conducted by means

of markets and fairs, the latter of which for the most part had a rel igiousorigin and sti ll retain a religious character. The chief external trade i swith Bombay westward. The principal imports consist of cotton piecegoods, hardware, salt, cocoa-nuts, European liquors , tobacco, etc. andthe principal exports are raw cotton, grain , g/iz

'

,oil-seeds

,and Indian

p iece-goods. Next in importance is the trade with the North-WesternProvinces and Calcutta, the main imports being sugar from Mirz apur

,

piece-goods, indigo, j ute bags, European liquors, etc. and the exports,

cotton for the mills at Cawnpur, lac, iron , grain , etc. Wi th the Cen tralIndia State s a cons iderable traffi c exists but w ith the Nizam’

s Domin ionsand Berar, and other parts of India, the trade is comparat ively smal l.The Malwa opium, which passes through the Province for export to

China, now goes through Nimar to Bombay by rail without be ingregistered as in former years . E xcluding this Opium and other throughtrade

,the totals may be thus presented —In1ports, in 1882-83,

tons—value, exports,in 1 882- 83 , tons—value

,

£4, total imports and exports,

tons

M eans of Communication— The want of good means of communica

tion , especially important in a land- locked region,has greatly retarded

the progress of the Central Provinces. After the rains,the larger rivers

become navigable, but the rocky barriers which occur in thei r channelsrestrict the use of this mode o f transit. In 1882

,the total length of

3 2 0 CE N TRAL PR O VIN CE S .

water communication was returned at 1 37 3 miles . The making of

roads,which may be said to date from the establ ishment of the Bri tish

power, is rendered difficu l t by the nature of the country ; and, taughtby experience

,the local engineering department has now laid down the

principle that black—so il roads should be constructed on the principles

applicable to a morass . In 1882,the total length of made roads

throughout the Province was returned at 2833 miles. Nagpur formsthe centre of the road system . From that city branch off— the northernroad

,to Seoni and Jabalpur (Jubbulpore) the eastern l ine, by Bhandara

and Raipur, to Sambalpur ; the north-western , to Chhindwara ; and thesou thern and south-western , to Chanda orWardha. But besides theseroads

,of which the first only can be called complete , numerous ancient

tracks w ind over h ills and across the rocky beds of streams, along whichthe Banjaras drive their long trains o f pack-bu llocks. The GreatIndian Peninsula Railway enters the Central Provinces near Burhanpur,and runs along the valley o f the Narbada

,passing Hoshangabad

,

Narsinghpur,and Jabalpu r

,t i ll it emerges from the north-east corner

o f the Province, near Balihri. Starting from Bhusawal, a tributaryl ine connects Wardha and Nagpur w i th the main railway

,sup

plying communication wi th the coal-fi elds of Warora. A furtherbranch is being constructed from Nagpur to Chhatisgarh, the com

ple tion of which will open up the great granary of the CentralProvinces ; 146 miles of this line up to Rajhangaon were opened inFebruary 1 883 .

The following i s a l ist of the different Ch ief Commissioners whohave administered the Central Provinces since their constitut ion into aseparate adm inistration — Colonel E . K . E ll iott

,1 1 th December 186 1 ;

L ieutenant -Colonel J . K . Spence (officiating) , 2 7 th February 186 2 ;

Mr. R . Temple (officiating), 2 5th April 1 86 2 ; Colonel E . K . E lliott ,1 8th December 1 863 ; Mr. J . S. Campbell (officiating ), 1 2 th March1 864 ; Mr. R . Temple, 1 7th March 1864 ; Mr. J . S . Campbell

(officiating ) , 2 4th April 1 865 ; Mr . R . Temple,6th November 1 86 7 ;

Mr. G . Campbell , 2 7 th November 1 86 7 ; Mr. J . H . Morris (officiat ing ),i 6th April 1 868, confirmed 2 7th May 1 870 ; Colonel R . H . Keatinge ,V .C.

, C.S . I . (officiat ing) , 8th July 18 70 ; Mr. J . H . Morris,

6th J uly 18 7 2 ; Mr . C. Grant (offi ciating), ri th April 1 879 ; Mr . J . H .

M orris , 1 5 th November 1 879 ; Mr. W. B . J ones, 3o th April

1 883 and Mr. C. H . T. Crossthwaite (officiat ing) , rst April 1884.

—The administration is carried on by a Chief Comm iss ioner , aided by a Secretary and a Jun ior Secretary , in direct subordination to the Government o f India. The courts

,civil and criminal

,

are separately controlled by a chief judge,under the name of Judicial

Commiss ioner. The administrat ive staff consists of 4 Commissioners, 18Deputy Commiss ioners

,1 3 Assi stant Commis s ioners , 33 extra-Assistan t

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3 2 2 CENTRAL PROVINCE S.

the temperature of Nagpur is nearly the same as that of Calcutta,but is much lower than that of the Upper Provinces. In the coldweather the temperatures of Nagpur and Calcutta again approach eachother

,while that o f the Northern Provinces remains much colder. The

Districts above the satpuras have a temperature more nearly approachingthat of the North-Western Provinces, wh ile the satpura plateau Dis

tricts have from thei r superior elevation a somewhat cooler cl imate.As regards moisture of the atmosphere, in the spring and hot weather,from February to May

,Nagpur is far below both Bengal and the

Northern Provinces . In the rainy season , the moisture of Nagpurexceeds that of Northern India, but is cons iderably below that of

Calcu tta. After the rains have ceased, i t again falls very rapidly to alower point than is obtained either in Calcutta or Northern India.The mean annual rainfall of the Province is 45 inches, of which

4 1 inches fall in the monsoon season from June to October. This isa much h igher fall than occurs in the Upper Provinces ; but owingto the rapid drainage of the country, this heavy rainfall is fully required.

Any considerable diminution in the quantity occasion s loss of thecr0ps and a scarcity of water in the hot weather. This does not oftenhappen

,but in 1 868 a mean deficiency of 1 5 inches was followed by

drought and famine in 1 869. The arrival of the monsoon occurs withgreat uniformity over the whole Province, usually before the z oth

J une .

The Central Provinces be ing w ith in the t ropics,the changes in the

direction of the wind, as the different seasons come round, are veryregular. The north-easterly w ind sets in in October, and continuessteadily in th is direction, or easterly, through November and the earlypart of December ; in the latter part of that month it slackens, andsoutherly winds are frequen t ; the north-east wind, however, continuesthe prevailing wind till the end of January or beginn ing of February.

In February and March the wind is variable,but southerly and south

westerly winds are more frequent . In April , the prevailing wind isnorth-west, and it continues from th is d irection until about the middleof June, when the monsoon sets in , the general d irect ion of which iswest and south-west. Westerly and north - westerly winds are thestrongest ; the north-east and easterly winds are generally light. A

clear sky commonly accompanies the north—east and easterly winds,

and their comparative dryness i s shown by the rap id decrease of therelative humidity of the atmosphere in the month of November

,when

these winds prevail wi th the greatest steadiness ; the wind from thenorth-west is , however, the driest wind. South and south—westerlywinds bring clouds, and are commonly followed by electric disturbancesand showers. The currents of air that traverse Central India differcons iderably from those that prevail i n the G anges valley and Northern

CHABRAM AU 0114 130114 2: 3 23

India,particularly as regards the relative frequency of winds from the

south-east and east . In the Ganges valley and the North-WesternProvinces

,south-east and easterly winds are frequent from March t il l

October. In this part of India,a south-easterly wind is rare at al l

seasons north-easterly and easterly winds prevail in the cold weather,but after February an easterly wind never blows except for a fewhours from some local atmospheric disturbance.

Chabrémau.

—Talzsz’l and town in Farukhabad District , NorthWestern Provinces—See CHHIBRAMAU.

Chach—Tract of country in Attock tufi sz’

l,Rawal Pindi District,

Punj ab,consisting of a fertile valley

,lying along the east bank of the

Indus,north of the Attock Hills. The river channel here contains

numerous islands,whose herbage

,naturally watered by percolation ,

affords pasturage for the flocks of the surrounding country. Irrigation ,except from wells

,is impracti cable in the valley i tself ; but a proposal

i s under consideration for a canal drawing its suppl ies from Ghaz i inHaz ara District . HAZRO is the chief commercial and agriculturalcentre of the Chach valley. The population consi sts of H indus andMuhammadans.

Chachana.

—Petty State of Jhalawar in Kathiawar,Bombay Presi

deney ; cons isting of 1 village,with 1 independent tribute - payer.

E st imated revenue, £2 29 ; tribute of £3 1 , 165 . i s paid to the Brit ish

Government.

Chéchrai.—Sub-ta’

luk of Umarkot la’

luk,Thar and Parkar D istrict

,

S ind,Bombay Presidency—See UMARKOT tdluk.

Chairman—Chief town in Umarkot tcz

’

luk, Thar and Parkar District,Sind

,Bombay Presidency. Population ( 187 2 ) 1 649, namely, 1 83

Muhammadans (Raj put and Kumbar) ; and 1466 Hindus (chieflyBrahmans

,L ohano s , M engwars , and Bhils) , shopkeepers and traders.

No later population stat ist ics are available to me. Distant 48miles from Umarkot. The mun icipal revenue in 1 87 3

—74 was

£ 1 53 , but the mun icipality was aboli shed in 1878 on the introduct ion into Sind of Bombay Act vi . of 187 3. Head-quarters of

wi th civi l and criminal courts. Also Government school

and d/zarmsa’

la.

Chadchat—Petty State in the Palanpur Agency, Gujarat (Guz erat)Province

,Bombay Presidency, known as santalpur and Chadchat the

latter has 1 1 villages . E stimated area of the whole, 440 square miles ;

population,exclusive of santalpur, ( 1 88 1 ) 5330, consist ing of 2803

males and 2 52 7 females ; of these, Hindus number 5097 ; M uham

madans , 1 68 ‘ others,’65 . The rul ing family are Jhareja Rajputs ,

related to the Rao of Cutch (Kachchh) , and follow the rule of primogeniture. They hold the rank of t/zcikurs . Es t imated revenue (wi th

Sz’

mtalpur) in 1 88 1, £3360, The country is flat and open. There

3 24 CHAG DAH CHAINP UR.

are three different kinds of soil—clayey , sandy, and black. Only one

crop of the common grains is produced during the year. Salt is

obtained in considerable quant it ies . There are no rivers, but numeroustanks

,which in ordinary seasons retain water ti ll March, when the

inhabitants depend on the ir wells. Water is found from 5 to 20 feet

deep - See also SANTALPUR .

Chag dah.—Town in Nadiya District, Bengal ; si tuated on the left

bank of the Hagli. Stat ion on the Eastern Bengal Railway, milesfrom Calcutta . Population ( 188 1 ) 8989, namely, 6343 Hindus and2 646 Muhammadans area of town s ite, 2 500 acres . Municipal in

come ia 188 1- 82 , £303, equal to an average taxation of 7§d. per head

of the population w ith in municipal l imits . Chief mart of the j uteexport trade

,giving its name to the fibre grown throughout the Dis

trict. The river here is considered sacred ; and on certain festivals,Hindus flock to Chagdah to wash away their s ins in its water.

Chaibasa.—Chief town and adminis trat ive head-quarters of Sing

bhiim District,Bengal situated on rising ground overlooking the righ t

bank of the river Roro, and commanding a pleasant view. L at. 2 2°

3 2'

50 N . , long. 85°

50’

57”

E . ; population ( 188 1 ) 6006, namely,5 1 20 Hindus , 7 78 Muhammadan s , and 108 ‘ others area of towns ite

,640 acres ; number of houses , 1 052 , mostly bu ilt of mud or sun

burnt bricks. Municipal income in 1881—82 , £2 74 , equal to anaverage taxation of 85d. per head of the population within municipal

l imits. Besides the Deputy-Commissioner’s res idence and the ordinary

Government buildings, there are a few masonry houses, forming a shorts treet

,belonging to grain and cloth merchants. Jai l, police station,

post-offi ce, Governmen t Engl ish school, charitable dispensary. A largefair

,attended by visitors from all parts of Singbhtim,

is heldannually at Christmas t ime on the last day of the year, races, nationaldances

,and athlet ic sports take place. Chaibasa i s the only place in

the District which has permanent shops,occupied by dealers in torar

si lk cocoons, cloth , and grain .

Chainpur.—Town in Shahabad Distr ict

,Bengal ; s ituated 7 miles

west o f Bhabua. L at. 25°

2'

1 5”

N .

,long. 83

°

3 2’

30" E . Formerly

the residence of the Chainpur Rajas,who were expelled by the Pathans

about 2 50 years ago ; and stil l held by Muhammadans. Population

( 188 1) 2964. The old fort o f Chainpur yet stands, surrounded by aditch , and defended by a stone rampart flanked with bast ions ; i t hasa large gate in the northern , and a smaller one i n the southern , curtain.

The space within is covered w ith bu i ldings,partly of brick and partly

of stone, wi th several large wells . Mosque,in good condit ion

,built as

a tomb over Fateh Khan , who married a daughter of the Emperor

Sher Shah. Ruined temple of M andeswari, built by one of the earlierChainpur Rajas, 5 miles east of the town .

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3 26 CHAKLAS I CHAR M/AL .

ChafiklétSi._

r

Fown in Nadia’

d Sub-divis ion , Kaira District, Bombay

Presidency. L at. 2 2°

39’

N .,long. 7 2

°

59’ E. Population ( 18 7 2 ) 708 1 .

No later statistics are available to me , but the populat ion has now

probably fallen below 5000 inhabitants, as the town is not returned in

the Census Report of 1 88 1 .

Chakrabéiri.— Village in Howrah District, Bengal. Noted for its

manufacture of d/zutz’

s and scams (cloth garments for men and women).

Chakrata.—Mountain cantonment in Dehra Dan District , North

Western Provinces . L at. 30°

43'

0”

N .,long. 7 7

°

54'

2 0” E. Founded

in May 1866 ; first occupied in April 1869. Stands upon the range of

hi lls overlooking the valleys o f the Jumna (Jamuna) and the Tons, inthe region known as Jaunsar Bawar. A small nat ive town has gatheredround the cantonment ; popu lation ( 1 88 1 ) 1 3 2 7 . Seat of a cantonment magistrate post-offi c e l ines for a European regiment. Reachedby a mountain cart-road from Kal s i .

Chékultor.

—Village,wi th annual fair, in M anbht

’

im District , Bengal .L at. 2 3

°

14’

0”

N ., long. 86

°

24'

0” E. Fair commences on the occasion

o f the c/z/uita’

pardb or umbrella festival in September, and lasts abouta month ; resorted to by traders from Ba

’

nkura , Bardwan, Birbhtim,

L ohardaga,and Haz aribagh . Brass vessels and brass or shell orna

ments are the ch ief art icles brought for sale.

Chakwal.—Tu/zs z’l of Jhelum (Jehlam) District, Punjab, occupyingthe central port ion of the District to the north of the Salt range ;s ituated between 3 2

°

45'

o" and 33

°

1 3’

0” N . lat.

,and 7 2

°

3 1'

0" and

7 3°

1 7'

o" E. long. ; area, 8 1 8 square miles ; populat ion ( 1881 )namely, males and females Muhammadans

numbered Hindus,

S ikhs, 5 1 2 3 . Total area under

cultivation—raw, acres, of which 1 are under rice le/zarz

’

f,acres, of which acres are under bo

’

j m’

. Total area ofcult ivat ion , acres, o f which acres are twice cropped .

Total number of estates,2 47 , of which 1 2 are 3 2

and 203 The administrative staff consists of aand munsz

'

f, who pres ide over 1 civil and 2 criminal courts. Numbero f police circles 3 strength of regular police

, 65 men villagewatchmen 1 3 1 .

Chakwal.—Town and municipality in Jhelum (Jehlam) District,Punjab, and head-quarters o f Chakwal ta/zs z

’

l. S ituated midwaybetween Pind Dadan Khan and Rawal Pindi

,and 54 miles sou th-east

Of Jhelum town . L at. 3 2°

55'

50"

N , ,long. 7 2

°

54' o" E . Founded

by a M hair Raj put from Jammu,whose descendant s stil l own the

surrounding land . S ituated on ris ing ground,and naturally drained

by several deep ravines . Popu lat ion in 188 1, 5 7 1 7 , namely, 3 2 79

Muhammadans, 2 045 Hindus, and 393 S ikhs . Number of occupiedhouses, 920. A third-class municipality

, wi th a revenue in 1 88 2—83

CHALAKUD I—CHAL JS GA01V. 3 2 7

of £390 ; expenditure, £363. Manufacture of shoes, of more thanlocal reputation ; also of parti-coloured cotton-cloth . Considerableexport trade in grain and other country produce . Talzsz

’

lz'

,police station,

circuit house, dispensary, school, and dist illery.

Chalaklidi.—R iver in the State of Cochin , Madras Presidency ;rises in the Mukundapur district

,and

,after a tortuous course of 68

miles , empt ies itself into the backwater a few miles from Kranganen.

Chalan Bfl .

—L ake or large marsh in Raj shahi District, Bengal ,lying between Singra. a village on the Nattor and Bogra road , and thenorth bank of the Baral river in Pabna District ; situated between2 4

°

10’

0" and 24

°

30'

0 N . lat. , and 89°

1 2’ o" and 89

°

2 2'

30" E. long .

L ength from north-west to south-east,2 1 miles ; greatest breadth , 10

miles ; total area, about 1 50 square miles in the rains , and 2 0 squaremiles during the dry season. I t is a depressed bas in

,sunk below the

level of the surrounding country, except at the southern extremity, fromwhich its waters are discharged . Principal feeders , the Gur and Nandakuja, both navigable streams . In the dry season

,the average depth of

the area covered with water is 3 feet, but a tortuous navigable channelruns through it, with a depth of from 6 to 1 2 feet all the year round.

The lake abounds in fi sh and water-fowl . The neighbouring swamps

are said to be a permanent seed-bed for the dissemination of endemiccholera.

Chaléuni.—R iver in Bhagalpur D istrict , Bengal . R ises in a marshin parg anu

’ Harawat,enters parg ana

’

Nardigar at Thalla Garh i village,and after a rather tortuous course falls into the L oran at Pandua. I ti s not used for irrigat ion

,and is too shallow for boat traffic. R ice is

grown in many parts of its bed .

Chélisg éon.—Sub-d ivision of Khandesh District, Bombay Pres i

deacy. Area, 504 square miles ; con tains 1 3 2 villages . Population

( 188 1 ) persons,or males and females . Hindus

number Muhammadans, 457 1 ;‘ others

,

’

4091 . The Subdiv is ion is situated in the extreme south of the District at the foot ofthe Satmala range, which , running east and west in a wall—l ike l ine ,separate Khandesh from the Deccan uplands . Watered by the Girnariver

,which flows from west to east through the northern villages

,and

by its tributaries the M anyad and the Ti tur, which in their turn arefed by several m inor streams . Besides these, and the Jamda canal ,water is afforded by 2 000 wells. The soi l i s mixed

,much of i t towards

the south,south-west , and north being hard and s tony. The black

soil of the Girna valley,though better than in the surrounding parts

,i s

generally faulty,as it rests on a subsoil either o f gravel or rock .

Cultivated area ( 1878 acres , of wh ich grain crops occupied acres , or 6 19 7 per cent. oil-seeds , acres

,or

per cen t . fibres , acres, or 2 2 8 2 per cent . the remainder being

3 28 CHAL I SG AOjV—CHALIBA.

under miscel laneou s crops , such as sugar-cane , chill ies , tobacco , etc.

The Sub—division contains 2 criminal courts and 1 police station

s trength of regular pol ice , 74 men village watchmen (c/zauRé

1 1 5 .

Chalisgaon.—Town in Khandesh District , Bombay Presidency,

and head-quarters o f Chalisgaon Sub—division . S tation on the GreatIndia Peninsula Railway, 30 miles sou th of Dhulia town , with which it

is connected by a fine,partly-bridged road . The town i s of l ittle

importance, except as being the head-quarters of a Sub-division ,although its trade has much increased since the open ing of the railway .

Population ( 187 2 ) 394 1 . No later population statist ics are available

to me .

Chamardi.— Petty State of G ohelwar, District of Kathiawar, Gujarat

(Guz erat ) Province, Bombay Presidency. I t consists of one village,wi th three independent tribute-payers . Est imated revenue in 1 88 1

,

£900, from which £76, 1 05 . i s paid as tribute to the Gaekwar, and

£9 to Junagarh.

Chamarlakota —Town in Godavari District , MadrasPresidency ; situated in lat . 1 7

°

3’

10 N .,and long . 82

°

1 2’

50 E .,

7 miles north of Coconada. Popu lation ( 1 88 1 ) 496 1 , namely, 440 1Hindus

, 546 Muhammadans , and 14 Christ ians . I t was formerly amilitary station

,but was abandoned in January 1 869. The barracks,

fi rst built in 1 786, st il l remain . Chamarlakota is connected by canalswith Rajamahendri (Rajahmundry) and Coconada. Station of a

L utheran Church Mission .

Chamba..—One of the Punjab Hill State s under the Government ofthe Punjab. A mountainous tract lying to th e north of Kangra and

G t’

irdaspur Dis tricts , be tween 3 2°

10'

30 and 33°

1 3'

0” N. lat .

,and

between 7 5°

49'

0 and 7 7°

3'

30 E . long ; shut in on almost everys ide by lofty hill ranges . Bounded on the north -west and westby the terri tories of Kashm ir

,on the east and north—east by Brit ish

Lahiil and L adakh , and on the sou th and south -east by the Districtsof Kangra and G iirdaspur. Est imated area

, 3 1 80 square miles.Populat ion ( 1 88 1 ) The Raj puts

,to which caste the chief

belongs , are few in number, and only inhab i t the valleys on the outerslopes o f the H imalayas . In Barmaor

,and in the tract s bordering on

the British parg a zm’

s of Ntirpur in Kangra and Patankot in Gurdaspur,there is a considerable Brahman population o f a simple and even

primit ive type engaged in agriculture,and as shepherds in the winter

mon ths , who are strangers to the e laborate H induism of the plains,

and are looked up to by their neighbours not so much on rel igious

grounds as because of their purity of race . Associated with these is aclass of Khattris

, who are bel ieved to be degenerate Brahmans ; theyengage in agriculture and trade

,and the military and civil service of

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330 CHAfl/[ B AL

of pheasants are found , two of wh ich yield a revenue o f some £400a year for their skins . E ight passes connect Chamba proper wi thPangi and Chamba L ahul . The rivers are all well bridged, and there

are more than 300 miles of good roadways . A portion o f the Central

Asian trade passes through Chamba. Cloth , cutlery, o il, leather, andspices are exported to L adakh , Yarkand, and Turkistan . The importsare ch iefly d am s (a narcot ic preparation of hemp ), pas/zmz

’

rm,carpets,

and brick tea, consigned to the markets of North-Western India,especially Amritsar.The rul ing family of Chamba claims to be of Kshattriya descent .

The present Raja,Sham S ingh

,was born in J uly 1 866

,and the

admin istration of the State is carried on during hi s minority by aBrit ish oflicer in concert with native official s . The results have beenvery beneficial to the State , the revenue ris ing in e ight years from

to By 1 874—7 5 i t had further increased to about

and by 1882 to exclusive of £5000 representingrevenue-free grants . The Raja ranks 1 sth on the l ist of Punj ab ch iefs ,and is entitled to a salu te of 1 1 guns . His mil i tary force consists of1 gun

,and 1 60 military and police . Chamba is an ancient Hindu

principal i ty, and came into Briti sh possession in 1846. A part was

at first made over to the Maharaja of Kashmir ; but , by agreementin 1847 , i t came again ent irely under the Brit ish Government,and a sazzaa

’ was given to the Raja,assigning the territory to him

and to h is male heirs,who are entitled to inherit according to Hindu

law ; and on failure of direct i ssue,to the heirs of the brothers

according to seniori ty . The late chief,Raja Gopal S ingh

,having by

misconduct incurred the displeasure o f the British Government , was

in 1 8 73 required to abdicate . The internal administration is still

largely modelled on the ancient pat tern of Northern Indian societies .

The revenue is collected by a residen t agent,who represents the

subj ects towards the State,but collects the share of cus toms duties

for the Raja. He is usually entitled the ( Izar, and corresponds in some

respects to the lambarda’

r or village head-man in certain parts of BritishIndia. He has , under h im ,

a or village accountant,and a

bar‘m z’

l or rural constable. The purely State officials in each pargazza’

are the koa‘zwz’

l or magistrate me/zm or surveyor ; amén or assessor ;and a varying number of durbz

'

a’

ls,entrusted with m iscellaneous

execut ive duties .

In 1854 , the sanitarium of Dalhousie was made over to the BritishGovernment, and a remiss ion of£2 00 made in the tribute . In 1867 ,

a further remission of£500 per annum was allowed in compensat ionfor land taken up to form the cantonments of Bakloh and Balun

,where

British troops are now stationed . The tribute now paid is £500 perannunr

CHAM BA CHAM BAL . 33 1

Chamba.- Cli ief town in Chamba State, Punj ab, and the residence

of the Raja. L at. 32°

29’

N . ; long. 76°

10’ E. Population in 188 1 ,

5 2 18 , namely, Hindus, 4390 ; Muhammadans, 730 ; Sikhs, 43 and‘ others,

’

55.

Chambal —River of Central India, and one of theprincipal tributaries of the Jumna (Jamna) rises in Malwa, about 8 or 9miles south-west of the military station of Mhow (M an), at an elevationof 2 0 19 fee t above sea-level, amidst a cluster of summits of the Vindhyarange, having the local name ofj anapdrd, on the crest of the watershedwhich divides the great basins of the Ganges and the Narbada (Nerbudda) . Thence it flows down the slopes of the Vindhyan range, witha general northward course

,for 80 miles

,receiving the waters of the

Chambila,a stream of almost equal length and volume

,which takes i ts

r ise in the same range. About 40 miles from its source it is crossed bythe l ine of the Raj putana-Malwa Railway at Chambal Station . At thetown of Tal

,25 miles lower down, the river turn s to the north-west,

and, winding with a sinuous detour round the fortress of Nagatwara,shortly rece ives a second great tributary, the S IPR I , which also has itsorigin in the Vindhyan mountains . Passing by a tortuous coursethrough the gorges of the M okandarra Hills, the Chambal next entersthe depressed tract of Haraoti (Harowtee) . Previously to reachingthis rugged region

,it is crossed at the Gujarat Chat, on the route from

Nimach (Neemuch) to the M okandarra Pass, by a ford which becomespracticable after the rst of November, while during the rains a ferryboat is maintained for the convenience of traflic. Through the Mokandarra uplands

,the Chambal glides between almost perpendicular clifl

'

s,

expanding at its ac9th mile into a picturesque lake, from whose bed itescapes over a rocky barrier

,by a series of magnificent cascades

,the

chief of which has an estimated fall of 60 feet. At the city o f Kotah,

50 miles below this p icturesque scene, the Chambal is at all season s adeep and large stream

,which must be crossed by ferry, even elephants

being unable to ford i ts shallowest part. At Parantir, 3 1 miles fromKotah

,the road from Agra to Mhow (Mau) passes the river by a ford ,

i ts breadth varying from 300 yards in the rains to 30 yards in the dryseason .

After receiving the waters of the KALI-S IND, PARBA’

I‘

I , and BANAS,its principal confluents, the Chambal assumes the dimensionsof a great river ; and continuing a north-easterly course

,is crossed

,

45 miles farther down, by a ferry on the Gwalior and Nasiraba'

d

(Nusseerabad) road. Maintaining the same direction for 55 miles, i tflows under the city of Dholpur

,on i ts left bank

,and runs through a

picturesque valley, bounded by fantastic hills in every variety of outlineand contour. The river here i s crossed by the Sindhia State Railwayfrom Agra to Gwalior. At length, after passing into the British District

33 2 CHAM BAL CHAM PAHAT].

o f E tawah,it flows in a deep bed , surrounded by wild gorges and

ravines,to j oin the main channel of the Jumna

, 40 miles below Etawah

town,in lat. 26

°

1 5’

0” N . and long. 79

°

1 5’

2” E. I ts total length

,

including the various windings,amounts to 650 miles ; the distance in

a straight line,from the source near Mhow to the j unction with the

Jumna,may be taken at abou t 330 miles . The Chambal is l iable to

sudden floods,and during heavy rain it discharges a greater volume of

water than the Jumna itself. After the two rivers have united, thecrystal current of the mountain stream may be dist inguished for somedistance from the muddy waters of the main river. In t imes of flood

,

communication be tween the two banks is often interrupted for daystogether

,no boat being able to l ive in the turbu lent rapids . The

Chambal is identified with the Charmanwati of Sanskri t writers . Thechief ferries are at Udi, Bahraich , Sahaswan , and Path. The averagefall of the river may be estimat ed at 2 % feet per mile .

Chambal—Town in the head-quarters Sub-d ivision of ChittagongDistrict

,Bengal. Population ( 1 88 1 ) 5000, namely, 2 34 1 males and

2 659 females.

Chambra M ala.. —~ Mountain peak in “7aina’d I‘d/11k

,Malaba

’

rDistrict

,Madras Pres idency ; situated 19 miles south of Manantoddy

(M anantadi), in the richest coffee tract of the Wainad L at. 1 1°

32'

N .,

long. 76°

7’ E. Height

,6500 feet above the sea .

Chamiéni. —Town in Unao District , Oudh ; situated about 1 1 milefrom the L on river, 2 0 miles south-west ofUnao town . Population ( 188 1 )40 10 , namely, Hindus , 2 6 23 and Muhammadans

,1 387 . Village school .

Chamomeril (or [ so — L ake in L adakh,Kashmir Sta te

,in

the elevated table - land of Rupshu , lying between the valleys o f the Sutlej

(Satlaj) and the Indu s. L at. 3 2°

55’

N .,long. 78

°

1 5'

E . E levation

above sea-level,

feet. Surrounded by mountains,some of which

r ise to a height of 5000 fee t from the water’s edge . The water isbrackish , and no t good for drinking purposes

,although horses and goats

drink it. Though it rece ives several considerable streams,i t has no

e fflux, the level being maintained by evaporation . L ength from north

to south , 1 5 miles ; breadth , from 3 to 5 miles .

Chémpa. —Estate or in Bilaspur District, Central

Provinces . Area, 1 2 0 square miles,wi th 65 villages and 63 7 7 occu

pied houses . Populat ion ( 1 88 1 ) namely,males and

females average dens ity o f population , 198 5 per square mile .

The chief is a Kunwar. At Champa, his head-quarters (lat . 2 2°

2'

0"

N . ,

long. 82°

43'

0"

dwell a considerable number o f weavers whosemanufactures find a ready sale in the adj oining market o f Bamnidehi.Champahati.—Small village and station on the Calcutta and South

Eastern State Railway, 1 5 miles south-west of Calcutta, in the Districtof the Twenty-four Parganas

,Bengal.

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334 CHAM PARAN.

almost without inhabitants, its magnificent h ill, the fortifications , thesite of the old Hindu town , and the ruins of the Musalman capital, st il lmake Champaner a place of much interest .

Champéran.

— District of the Patna Division , occupying the northwest corner of Behar, under the L ieutenant - Governor of Bengal ;lying between 2 6

°

1 6' and 2 7

°

30’

N .,and between 83

°

55' and 85

°

2 1’ E.

long. Total area, 353 1 square miles ; population , according to the

Census of 188 1 , souls . The administrat ive head-quarters are

at the town of Motihari , situated in lat . 2 6°

39'

N .,and long. 84

°

58'

E.

Champaran District i s bounded north by the Independent State ofNepal east by Muz affarpur D istrict south by Muz affarpur and Saranand west by Gorakhpur D istrict, in the North-Western Provinces , andby a portion of Nepal territory called Raj Botwal. The northernfrontier

, where not naturally formed by rivers , i s marked by ditches andmasonry pillars ; for some distance it runs along the summit of the

Sumeswar range. On the east, the Baghmati river consti tutes a naturalboundary wi th Muz affarpur for a distance o f 35 miles ; and similarlythe Gandak i s the con t inuous south-western boundary from T ribem

’

Gha'

t to Sattar Ghat . Owing to changes in the course o f the Gandak,a tract of land , consist ing of 35 villages , on the farther bank of theriver is now arb i trarily included within the j urisdiction o f Champaran.

H istory—This tract of country has no history o f i ts own . It was

separated from Saran , and erected into an independent District, asrecently as 1 866 ; and at the present t ime the j udge of Sa

'

tran periodically visits Motiha

’

ri to hold the Sessions. But though Champarancontains no large towns or sites that can be connected with h istoricaleven ts

,there are local tradit ions and ruins o f archaeological interes t

that point back to a preh istoric past. The earl iest remains show that

Champaran formed an integral part of the great kingdom of M agadha

which flourished before the Christian era. At the village of L auriyaNavanagarh there are three rows of huge tumuli , which have been

visi ted by General Cunningham . A small s i lver coin o f a date anteriort o the invasion o f Alexander the Great

,and a seal of black earthen

ware with an in scription in the Gupta character,have been found .

From these and other indicat ions,General Cunningham is induced to

bel ieve that the tumul i contain the graves of early k ings,who l ived

between 1 500 and 600 B .C . In the same ne ighbourhood stands a pillar,

inscribed wi th the Buddhist edicts of Asoka. I t i s a single block of

polished sandstone, 33 fee t high , the diameter tapering from 35 inchesat the base to 2 6 inches at the top. The capital supports a statue ofa l ion facing the north , and the abacus is ornamented wi th a row of

Brahmani geese . A s imilar column , of less graceful d imensions , is tobe seen at the village of Araraj. At Kesariya is a large brick mound,supporting a sol id tower or sit/pa of the same material 6 2 feet h igh and

CHAj l/PARAIV. 335

68 feet in diameter,which is supposed by General Cunningham to have

been erected to commemorate one of the acts of Buddha. Close by are

the ruins of a small temple,and the head and shoulders of a colossal

image of Buddha. Another class of remains bear witness to a latergeneration of kings, who are described in local legend as Raj put immigrants . Their capital was at Simraun

,on the Nepal front ier, where

there are extensive ruins of fortificat ions and tanks now overgrown withj ungle. Tradit ion says that Simraun was founded by Na

'

nuapaDeva in1 097 A.D . and that the seventh and last of the royal line was driven

northwards into Nepal by the Muhammadans in 1 3 2 2 .

The Musalman sarfea’

r of Champaran was cons iderably smaller thanthe present Bri ti sh D istrict. In 1 582 , according to the rent-rol l ofT odarMall

,Akbar

’

s finance min ister it was composed of three parg arza’

r,

covering a total area of big/tar, and paying a gross revenue thatmay be computed at When the East India Company

obtained possession of the a’z’

wdm’

o f Bengal in 1 765 , the area wasest imated at 2 546 square miles, and the revenue was Thewhole was settled w ith the sons of Jagal Kishori Singh

,the owner o f

the Be ttiaRaj, which family still owns the larger half of the so il o f theDistrict. The remainder is held principally by two other great landowners

,the Raja of Ramnagar on the Nepal frontier

,and the family

known as the Madhubani Babus, founded by Abdul Singh , a memberof the Be ttiafamily. In recent t imes , the only historical event that hastaken place in Champaran i s connected with the Mutiny of 185 7 . The1 2 th regiment of Irregular Horse was then stat ioned at Segauli

’

. Thecommandant , Major Holmes , expressed himself confident of the loyaltyo f h is men. But one day in July , the somim or troopers suddenly rosein mutiny

,massacred their commandant , his wife and children , and all

the Europeans in the cantonments . Still more recently, Champaran

has been severely vis ited by the two famines of 1 866 and 1874, both ofwhich were caused by seasons of deficient rainfall. The District i specul iarly exposed to such calamities. It is backward in civilisation

,

has comparatively l i ttle trade or accumulated wealth and,t i ll the open

ing of the branch of the T irhut State Railway, it lay remote from the

ordinary channels of communication. I t has now,however

,been

placed in direct communication wi th the principal marts and seats

of commerce.

P kysz'

mlAspects .—Champaran consists of an irregular triangle , with

i ts apex toward the south-east. Its sides are formed by the two bordering rivers, the Gandak and the Baghmati ; its base on the north isclosed by the low hills on the Nepal fron tier ; while i t is b isectedthroughout it s en tire length by the Buri or Old Gandak. The southernportion resembles in all respects the adjoining Districts of Séran andMuz affarpur, and perhaps exceeds them in ferti li ty. The land is almost

336 CHAM PARAN.

uniformly level,and under continuous cult ivat ion . Towards the north

the country becomes undulat ing and broken , until i t reaches its highestelevation in the Sumeswar range , which averages 1 500 fee t above sealevel

,the highest point being 2 2 70 feet. In some places these h ills are

inaccessible to man . The character of the surface varies,being rocky

and barren in some places, while in others it is studded with trees orcovered with grass. At the eastern extremity of the Sumeswar rangei s situated the pass leading to Deoghat in Nepal , through which theBri tish army successfully marched during the Gurkha War in 18 14

- 1 5.

The other principal passes are the Sumeswar, Kapan and Harlan

Harha.

The ascent to the Sumeswar pass l ies up the bed of the J iiri Pa'

m’

river,amid romantic scenery. About 200 fee t below the summit

there is sufficient ground for a small sanitari um , where the temperature

does not exceed 80°

F. in the ho t weather,and pure water is to be

found and to which a good road might be con structed. I t overlooksthe Mauri valley in Nepal and from the summit, the enormous mountains of Diwalagiri, Gosa inthan, Urnapurna

'

, and Everest are clearlyvisible. This northern tract i s covered w ith forest, from which thefinest t imber-trees have long ago been carried away. I t also containslarge grass prairies

,low-lying and watered by many streams

,which

afford pasturage to numerous herds of cattle. The large rivers,

navigable throughout the year by boats of 100 mam a’s,are —The

GANDAK,locally known as the Sdligna

’

mi, flows southwards from Nepal,

touches on Champaran at Tribenig /m'

t in the extreme north-west, whence

it flows south-westwards partly through the District, but for the mostpart marking i ts western boundary , t ill i t leaves Champaran at its southwest corner. The r iver is reported to be navigable throughout theyear by boats of about forty tons burthen , but navigation is rendereddifficult, owing to the narrow and tortuous course during the hot andcold season , and to its impetuous current in the rains . The breadth of

the stream is two or three miles at places during the rains,but in the

cold weather the stream is rarely more than a quarter of a mile across.T he river is nowhere fordable it changes its course nearly every year

,

exhibiting the operations of alluvion and di luvion o n a large scale.The L ITTLE GANDAK, which is known by a variety of names in differentparts of i ts course, take s its rise in the Sumeswar hills, and flows throughthe centre of the District from north-west to south-east till i t entersMuz affarpur. Navigable throughout the year for the greater part of itscourse by boats of from 7 to 15 tons . In the dry weathe r i t is fordablein many places, but in the rains the many hill streams which j oin itmake it an impetuous torrent . The BAGHM AT I forms part of theeastern boundary of the District for a d istance of about 35 miles.Navigable by boats of 15 or 18 tons burthen for a portion of i ts course.

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338 CHAM PARA/V.

number of villages, 7 766 number of houses , ofwhich

are occupied and unoccupied . Average density of population,

487 5 7 per square mile ; vi llages per square mile, persons pervillage

,2 2 1 ; persons per occupied house , 6 0 9. Classified according

to religion the popu lation consists of —Hindus , M uham

madans , and Chris t ians, 1936 .

Among the aboriginal popu lat ion are included the T harus,who

wi th the Nepal is (although not returned separately in the Census

Report) are almost entirely confined to the two frontier t/za’

mis of

L auriya and Bagaha. The T harus are a race o f Indo-Chinese origin,

i nhabit ing the malarious tara’

z'

along the foot o f the Himalayas .

They are honest and industrious people , who util iz e the water ofthe h ill streams for their scanty patches of rice cultivation . Anothertribe almost pecul iar to Champaran i s the M aghya Dom ,

whose numbers are not given separately in the Census Report , but probablydo no t exceed 800 souls . They are a nomad tribe

,with inveterate

habits of thieving ; and i t has been proposed to break up theirorgani z ation by special pol ice measures . An attempt was made in

188 2 to induce these Doms to se ttle down in a small colony,and

was so far successful that in 1 883 about 2 50 Doms were settled in thenorthern half of the District , under the supervis ion of the magistrateand police authori t ies . They are reported to be living an orderly lifelike their neighbou rs

,subsist ing by the cultivat ion o f their fields

,in

basket-weaving,or as day-labourers , etc . The Gonds

,an aboriginal

tribe,are returned at out of a total aboriginal population of

various tribes and castes o fThe superior castes of Hindu s are well represen ted. The Brahmans

,

who are specially encouraged to settle on the Be ttia estate,number

the Rajputs , the Babhans or military Brahmans,to

which caste the Raj a of Be ttia himself belongs, Of the

Stidra castes , the most respectable are the Kayasth , or writer caste,who form the majority of subordinate Government officers

,

i n number ; Ban iya, or traders, Nap it, barbers, L ohar,

blacksmiths , Kumbhar, potters,

Kurmi,

and Koeri , the two ch ief cu lt ivat ing castes ; Kandu , confectioners , Baru i, growers of the betel plant, Goala

,

herdsmen , the most numerou s caste in the District, who bear a badreputat ion for hones ty, Kahar

,domestic servants and

palanqu in-bearers , Dhobi, washermen,

Sonar,gold

smiths , Tatwa,weavers, Teli

,trades and oi l

sel lers , and Mallas , boatmen , The lowest castes,or

semi-Hinduiz ed aborigines , comprise z—Nuniya, saltpetre makers byhereditary occupat ion , who also supply the best labourers and spades

men to be found in the District, Kalwar,spirit-sellers

,

CE 4M PARAN. 339

and the cognate degraded castes of Chamars , Dosadh ,Musahar

,Bind

,and Dhanuk, The

number of Hindus not recognis ing caste was returned at 305 1 , of whom2 345 were Vaishnavs. Many of the M usalmans are immigrants from

Patna and the North-Western Provinces . By sect,they are divided

into Shirts and 1 3 2 6 Sunnis .The Christ ians include 1 8 14 nat ive converts , under the charge of

two Roman Cathol ic missions at Be ttiaand Chuhari. The former was

founded in 1 746 by an I talian priest , who had been invited into theDistrict by the Raja of Bettia. The Chuhari mission was establ ished in1 7 70 by three priests who had been expelled from Nepal . The m iss ion

represents al l that i s now left of the famous Tibetan Mission which sogreatly excited the interest of Europe in the las t century

,wi th its

wonderful accounts o f L ha’

ssa and its Grand L amas .

The population of Champaran is entirely rural . The villages aresomewhat larger than in the res t of Behar

,but th is is no indicat ion

o f a tendency towards urban l ife. The largest town is BET T IA, witha population of MOTIHAR I , the civil station, hasinhabitants. The other towns contain ing upwards of 5000 inhabitants,are MADHUBANI

,wi th 7025 and KESAR IYA

,w ith 52 56 . SEG AUL 1

,about

1 5 miles from Motihari, the scene of the Mutiny of 185 7 , i s sti l l ocenpied by a regiment of nat ive cavalry . L arge fairs for rel igious obj ectsand for trade are held annually at BET T IA, S ITAKUND , ARARAJ

’

,and

TR IBENI GHAT. The chief centres of trade are Bettia, Champattia, and

Bagaha, on the Gandak. Of the 7 766 towns and villages comprising theDistrict

, 5004 are returned as contain ing less than 2 00 inhabitants 2048

from 2 00 to 500 ; 593 from 500 to 1 000 ; 10 7 from 1000 to 2000 ; 7

from 2 000 to 3000 ; 3 from 3000 to 5000 ; 2 from 5000 to 1

from to and 1 upwards of inhabitants . The

primitive organi z ation of village officials is represented at the presentday by the j ét/z rayat or head-man and the paz

'

wa’

m’ or accountan t

.

Both these, however, have now become servants of the z amz’

na’

a’

r ratherthan officials of the community.

The people of the District are, as a rule, badly off. The wholeagricul tural population is in debt to the makdj ain, or village moneylender

,who has advanced money or grain on the security of the next

crop. Though rents are low, and the produce of the land good , thecul tivators are in constant difficul ties , partly through th is system of

mortgaging the ir future crops , and partly from improvidence.The ‘

droughts and floods to which the District is liable,render matters

worse and Champaran, with one of the most fertile soils in Behar, is

probably the poorest D istrict in that Province . The influence o f thefew great proprietors, who practically own the entire District

,the

general ignorance of the peasantry, the system of rack-renting and short

340 CHAM PARAN.

leases,have all combined to h inder the cult ivator from acquiring any

permanent interest in the soil. To the general rule of poverty,how

ever,the T harus form a marked exception . They cultivate w ith great

care the fert ile tam z'

or sub-montane lands in the north of Ramnagar

pargami ; and their general prudence and foresight have raised themfar above all other castes in Champaran. During the famine of 1 874,not one of them came to the relief works and they then asserted thatthey had sufficient rice in store for s ix months’ con sumption.

Classified according to occupation, the Census Report returns themale inhabitants under the six following main divisions Professional class

,including Government official s and the learned

professions, ( 2 ) domestic servants , etc .

, (3) com

mercial class, including merchants,general dealers

,carriers

,etc.

,

(4 ) agricultural and pastoral class,including gardeners

,

(5 ) manufacturing, artisan, and other industrial classes,(6 ) indefinite and non-productive (comprising general

labourers and unspecified,

’ including children ) ,Aniz

’

guz’

lzks.—Champa

’

ran abounds in place s of h is torical interest,

many dating back to a period anterior to the Christ ian era. SIM RAUN,

now in ruins , i s s ituated partly in British and partly in Nepal territory,the frontier l ine pass ing through the walls . The ruins are in the form

of a square , surrounded by an outer and an inner wall , the former being14, and the latter 1 0 miles in circumference . On the east side, six orseven ditches can still be traced between the walls

,and three or four on

the west side. Inside are the remains of massive buildings,and of a

large tank, measuring 333 yards by 2 1 0 . I ts sides are composed of thefinest burnt bricks, each a cubi t square and a mam zd (80 lbs . ) inweight. The remains of palaces and temples d isclose some fi nelycarved basements , wi th a superstructure of beau tiful bricks. The

citadel i s situated to the north , and the palace in the centre ; but bothonly exist as tumul i from 2 0 to 2 5 feet high , covered wi th trees andjungle. Tradition says that Simraun was founded by NanuapaDevaA .D . 1097 . Six o f his dynasty re igned wi th much splendour

,bu t the last

of the line , Hari Singh Deo , was driven out in 1 3 2 2 or 1 3 2 3 by theMuhammadans .T wo miles to the south of Kesariya police station

,stands a lofty

brick mound , 1400 feet in circumference , capped by a solid bricktower, 6 2 feet in height . General Cunningham assign s the date ofthis tower to between 2 00 and 700 A .D .

,and concludes that i t was

built on the top o f a much older and larger stupa . About a mile

north -north-east of this tower, i s a low mound w ith the walls of a smalltemple 1 0 feet square , containing the head and shoulders of a colossalfi gure of Buddha. This is supposed to have been the site of a

monastery, as the remains of cells are still v isible. At Arara

’

j, about

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342 CHAM PARAZV.on

abou t 6000 cwts. The cult ivation of sugar-cane is said to have beenintroduced from Gorakhpur in the beginning of the present century .

Manure,in the shape Of cow-dung and s it or indigo refuse

,is used for

special crops,such as sugar—cane , tobacco , Opium, and indigo.

Irrigat ion is commonly practised in the north of the District,especially

by the T harus , who lead the water to their fields from the h illstreams by art ificial channels sometimes several miles in length . In

the south o f the District wells are occasionally dug for purposes of irrigat ion . Tanks are extremely rare. An elaborate scheme for utiliz ing the

destructive flood-waters of the Gandak has long been under the con

sideration of Government . Almost the entire soil of Champaran i s inthe hands of three large landowners , who u sually farm out the ir estateson short leases to middlemen

,and the rent is frequently paid in kind .

Though rents are not high , as compared wi th the neighbouring Districts,this system is unfavourable to the independence of the cult ivators , whoare described as being in poor circum stances. Owing to a successiono f excellent harvests of late years

,the cultivators are now ( 1883) in

better circumstances than at any period during the past twenty years .The Koeris and Kurmis are sk illed agriculturists , and capable of

managing large holdings higher ren ts are taken from them than fromthe favoured castes o f Brahmans

,Raj puts , and Babhans . The average

rent of land on which food—crops are raised varies from 3 5 . to 65 . peracre. A large extent of waste land is st il l available for t illage in the

central and north-western parts of the District .Natural — Champaran is exceptionally exposed to natural

calamit ies . The famines of 1 866 and 1874, caused by drought, produced great and general distress in this District. In each case

,also

,

the end of the drought was attended by destruct ive floods . Thecalamity of drought can only be remedied by encouraging facilities for

importation , which wil l be provided by the Bettia branch o f the TirbatState Railway. The m ischief caused by floods

,though equally over

whelming as that caused by drought,is not so extens ive in its area , and

the embankment along the left bank of the Gandak w il l effectuallyprotect the low-lying fields . Famine rates are reached when rice sells

in the beginn ing of the year at 1 2 5 . per cwt. Bu t i t must be recollectedthat the maj ority of the people do not eat rice

,bu t depend upon barley

and inferior grains .I ndustrial—There are altogether 2 6 l ines of road in Champaran,th an aggregate length of 438 miles . In the year 1 874—75 , a to tal sum

of£82 5 2 was expended by the D istrict Road Committee . External

commerce is chiefly conducted by the rivers, wh ich lend themselves more

easily to export than to import. The T irhtit State Railway from Muz affarpur to Be ttia, through Motihari, now ( 1883 ) nearly ready to be Opened,wil l place the Distr ict in direct connection wi th the main channels of

CHAM PARAN. 343

communication. The indigenous manufactures are confined to theweaving of coarse cotton cloth and blankets

,and the making of pottery.

The preparation of indigo is almost entirely conducted by Europeancapital and under European supervision . The industry of sugar-refi ninghas been introduced from the neighbouring District of Gorakhpurwith in the presen t century. Sal iferous earth is found in al l parts of the

District ; and from this a special caste,called Nuniyas , earn a scanty

l ivel ihood by extract ing saltpetre and Other sal ine substances , includinga considerable quantity of untaxed salt. Apart from its local trade inagricultural products

, Champaran possesses commercial importance as

occupying the h igh road between Patna and Nepal. Both the local and

through traffic of the District,so far as it did not escape registration , i s

included in the following totals , which refer to the year 1 876—7 7

Exports,

chiefly indigo O i l-seedst imber s ugar and cotton goods whichlast are despatched northwards in to Nepal imports

,ch iefly

salt piece-goods and food-grains receivedfrom Nepal . The principal river marts are B ettia

,Gobindganj ,

Bagaha,Barharwa

,Pakri

,and Manpur . The greater portion Of the

t rade wi th Nepal crosses the frontier at Katkanwa.

Administration—Champaran was separated from Saran,and erected

into an independent D istrict , in 1866 . In 18 70-7 1 , the revenue

amounted to of which was derived from the land

the expenditure was £5 including on account ofmil itary payments

,thus leaving a ne t surplus of In

188 1—82,the total revenue amounted to Of which

was on account o f land-tax. In 188 1—82,the regular police cons isted

of a force of 34 1 men of all ranks,of whom 40 were employed in town

or municipal duty, main tained at a total cost of £4843 , and a villagewatch of 2 363 men , who received emolum ents in money or land fromthe landowners to the estimated value of £6 2 2 7 . The total force

,

therefore,for the protect ion of person and property numbered 2 704

Officers and men , being 1 man to every 1 3 0 square mile or to every

63 7 persons in the population . The es t imated aggregate cost was

£ 1 equal to an average of£4, rs. 1 0 .1;d. per square mile and 1§d.

per head of population . There i s a j ail at the civil station Of Motihari,

wi th a subordinate lock-up at Bettia. In the year 188 1 , the dailyaverage number of prisoners was 4 2 0, being 1 prisoner to every 4099 ofthe population. The Motihari j ail has a bad reputat ion for its excessiveunhealth iness

,and a new prison is now ( 1883 ) i n course of

construction.

Education in thi s remote District has hitherto been in a backwardcondition . I t is only since the introduction of Sir G. Campbell’s

reforms,by which the benefi t of the grant-ia-aid rules has been extended

344 CHAM P/IRAN S UB -D]VI SI ON .

to the village schools or that primary instruction has had anyexistence in Champaran. In 1 870

—7 1 , there were only 2 schools in the

District,attended by 5 1 pupils . In 1 8 7 2

—7 3, after the reforms above

mentioned had come into Operation , the number of schools increasedto 78, and the number Of pupils to 1 2 2 2 . By the 3 rst March 187 5, the

schools had further increased to 1 82,and the pupils to 3805.

The greatest increase has taken place since that date and in 188 1—82there were 36 upper primary schools, attended by 1 2 6 1 scholars

,and

930 lower primary schools , wi th 75 76 pupils ; total, 966 schools,attended on the 3 rst March 1 882 by 883 7 pupils .For administrative purposes Champaran District is d ivided into 2

Sub-divisions and into 1 0 t/zana’

s or pol ice circles . There are 4

pargana’

s or fiscal divisions ; but one o f these , pargana’

M ajhawa, whichincludes the Be ttia Raj, the Ramnagar es tate, and the greater part ofthe Madhubani estate

,covers an area of 15 mill ion acres, and for fiscal

purposes is divided into 2 5 tappa’

s or minor revenue areas . In

1 88 1—82 there were 7 magisterial and 3 civil courts open , and 2

covenanted civil servants stationed in the District. The two towns ofMotihari and Bettia, with an aggregate population of souls

,had

in 1 88 1—8 2 a total municipal income of £ 1 249 ; average rate of

taxation,1 0d. per head .

M edical A spects— The cl imate of Champaran i s described as com

paratively cool and dry . The rainy season lasts from June to September.The hottest month Of the year is May, at which time hot winds from

the west frequently prevail. The cold weather lasts from November toMarch. The nights are then cold and bracing, and light winds blow.

The annual rainfall at Motihari town for the 2 3 years ending 188 1 was

479 2 inches . In the latter year, 5 7 0 6 inches fell, or 9 14 inches above

the average.Endemic diseases of a malarious origin prevail

,especially in the

north of the District . In Ramnagar,in termittent fever assumes its

most fatal type. Goitre,with it s attendant cretin ism

,is common.

Cholera is rarely absent from some part o f the District,and outbreaks

of small-pox are no t in frequent . [For further information regardingChamparan District, see the Statistical A ccount of B eng al, vol . xiii . pp.

2 2 0 to 3 1 8 (T riibner CO . , L ondon , 1 87 A lso the B engal Census

Report for 1 88 1, and the P rovincial Administration Reports for the

years 1 880 to

Champaran— Head quarters Sub-division of Champaran District,

Bengal . Area, 1 5 18 square miles , with 4594 villages andhouses , of which are occupied and 5633 unoccupied .

Population ( 188 1 )— Hindus,

Muhammadans,

and Christ ians , 1 1 1 total, v iz . males and

females. Average density Of population,6 70 per square mile ; houses

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346 CHANAR TAHSJ L AND T O IVZV.

namely,Hindu s

, 3 244 Muhammadans, 80 and tribes profess ingaboriginal religions, 1 56 . Trade in castor seed with the Niz am’sterritory ; and in g/zz

’

, silk cocoons , and thread wi th the east coast .Weekly market

,post-Offi ce , and school .

Chanar (Clzunar) .— Ta/zs z’

l of Mirz apur District,North-Western

Provinces,lying along the sou th bank of the Ganges

,and consist ing in

large part of the last outlying terraces which descend from the Vindhyanrange . Area, 558 square miles, o f which 244 are cult ivated populat ion

( 188 1 ) land revenue , total revenue,

rental paid by cu lt ivators, In 1 883 , the Sub-divis ion contained 1 criminal court and 7 police stations strength ofregular pol ice , 79 men village watchmen

, 38 1 .

Chanar.

—Fortress and ancient town in Mirz apur D istrict, NorthWestern Provinces. Situated in lat . 2 5

°

7’

30”

N .

,and long. 8 2

°

55'

1"

E.

,

on the south bank of the Ganges,at the point where the river takes its

great bend northward towards Benares . Distant from Benares 26 milessouth-west

,from Mirz apur 2 0 miles east . Population ( 188 1 ) 9148

namely,6667 Hindus, 2 386 M usalmans

, 5 1 Christ ians, and 44 Others ;area of town site

,2 1 1 acres. Municipal income ( 1 88 1 ) £7 1 0.

The fort o f Chanar is built upon an outl ier o f the Vindhyan range—a

sandstone rock j utt ing into the Ganges,and deflecting the river to the

north . I t lie s nearly north and south,800 yards in length , 1 33 to 300

in breadth , and 80 to 1 7 5 feet above the level of the surrounding country.

The circumference of the walls is about 2400 yards . The presentfort ifications were for the most part constructed by the M usalmans ,

apparently from materials obtained by pull ing down sti ll older Hindu

bu ildings. Sculptured stones,with fi gures of Hindu deit ies and heroes

in high rel ief, are found bu i lt into the walls and pavements , w ith theircarved faces scornfu lly turned downwards into the e‘arth . O rnamentsbearing the trace of Buddhist workmanship

,such as bells and flowers ,

and even fragmentary j atczleas , the sacred Birth-stories , occur. Many ofthe stones bear the imprint of masons’ marks— tridents

,swords

,fishes,

and characters derived from the Nagari and Pal i alphabets . While themagaz ine and main portions of the fortress stand on a conspicuousheight , defended by natural precipices, the lower part l ies scarcely abovethe inundation level of the Ganges

,and was flooded in 1 8 7 5 .

Tradit ion assigns a high an t iquity to the fort of Chanar. BhartiNath , king o f Ujain, and brother of the half-historic V ikramaditya, is

said to have chosen this sol i tary wooded rock overhanging the Ganges

as the site of his hermitage . The great Prithwi Raj a is also said tohave dwelt in the fortress and a mut ilated slab over the gateway longcommemorated its ransom from the Muhammadan invaders . The

present buildings are, as above mentioned , the work o f later Musalmanconquerors , who adapted the ancient H indu fortificat ions to their more

CHANCHRA. 347

modern military requirements . The fort passed through many changesof masters, under the Pathan and Mughal dynasties ; i t was held for

Akbar, by a general whose descendants st ill l inger in obscurity aroundits base ; and it finally fel l into the hands of Raja Balwant Singh of

Benares about the year 1 750 (see M IRZAPUR Disrrucr) . The Brit ish

troops, under Major Munro, attacked it without success in 1 763 buti t came into our possess ion after the battle of Buxar, in the following

year. After Raj a Chai t S ingh’s outbreak in 1 78 1, Warren Hastingsretired to Chanar, where a force was collected under Major Popham ,

which expelled Chai t S ingh from his strongholds in the neighbourhood ,and finally drove him into the Gwal ior territory. Hast ings was fond ofthe situation and climate of Chanar his house is still pointed out onthe summit, and remains the principal edifice to this day.

The fort i s now used as a place of confinemen t for State pri soners, andi s held by a small garr ison . The ordnance enclosure and the magaz ineare at the north-west end of the plateau overlooking the river. Thefort i s armed with 18 guns, of various cal ibre up to 3 2 - pounders,four 8-inch mortars

,and 1 200 barrels of gunpowder. The garrison

would have to be strengthened to over 500 men if the place were tobe defended against an attack ing force

,as several pos it ions would have

to be held outside. Warren Hastings’ house i s now used as barracksfor a company of British infantry ; and h is staff-quarters adj oining toi t form ( 1883) the residence of three Krika prisoners. A l i ttle to theeast lies the tomb of a Muhammadan saint

,whose p iety was clearly

established, when he was carr ied prisoner to Delhi , by h is fettersdropping off each evening at t ime of prayer. The last act of the dyingman was to shoot an arrow from the fort into the jungle, to fix the s ite

of h is tomb. His mausoleum lies at a rather long bow-shot from thefortress ; other Muhammadan mausoleums have grown up around it ,and a cemetery in a beautiful garden. It is visi ted each year by crowdsof devotees , both Hindus and M usalmans, but especially the former,who present Offerings of rice

,and tie a knot on a long string which

hangs down in the sanctuary,breathing at the same t ime a w ish or a

vow. The town of Chanar is the seat of a flourishing nat ive l iterarysociety

,and has a reading-room

,telegraph office, and dispensary.

Chanchra..—Village in Jessor District, Bengal ; about a mile southof Jessor town , and the residence of the Rajas of Chanchra or Jessor.L at. 2 3

°

9'

0”N .,long. 89

°

14'

45 E. The Chanchra family tracesi ts origin to one Bhabeswar Rai, a soldier in Khan-i-Az am’

s army ,who received a grant of 4 pargana

’

s out of the territories conqueredfrom Pratapaditya (mile JESSOR D ISTR ICT). He died in 1 588 A . O.

,

and his successors added considerably to the original domain. His

grandson , Manohar Rai ( 1 649 i s looked upon as the prin

cipal founder of the family ; and at his death, the estate was by far

348 CHANDA .

the largest in the neighbourhood. His second successor divided thefamily property into two parts , retain ing a three-fourths share, knownas the Yusafpur estate , for himself, and making over the one-fourth ,known as the Sayyidpur estate , to a brother, who some years afterwardsdied without heirs. At the t ime Of the Permanent Settlementthe Yusafpur estate was in the hands of Srikant Rai, who fell into

arrears Of land revenue . His property was sold, parg ano’

after f org o /lei,and finally he became a pens ioner on the bounty of Government.His son

,Banikant Rai, succeeded by a su it in regain ing a port ion of

the ancestral estates,gave up his pens ion , and became again a landholder.

On his death a long minority occurred , during which the estate wasunder the management of the Court ofWards , and greatly increased invalue . The last possessor

,Baradakant Ra

’

i,received a grant in 1 823 of

one of the parg ana’

s confiscated in the time of his predecessors. The

t i tle Of Raja Bahadur and a Alli/lat of honour was also bestowed onhim

,in recognition o f h is position , and for services rendered during the

Mu t iny . His son,G yandakant Rai, succeeded him ,

and is the present

( 1883) holder o f the estate .

Chanda.

~ District i n the Nagpur Division of the Chief - Commissionership of the Central Provinces , ly ing between 19

°

3 1’

and

2 0°

53’ N . lat. , and between 78

°

5 2’ and 80

°

59'

E . long. I t forms an

irregular triangle,with i ts northern base resting on the Districts

of Wardha, Nagpur, and Bhandara ; its western side bounded by theWardha r iver

,and its south-eastern by the Bastar S tate and Raipur

D istrict. Popu lation in 1 88 1,

area,

square miles .The administrative head-quarters of the District are at CHANDA, whichis also the principal town .

P hysical Arpects .

— Except in the low-lying region in the extremewest , along the Wardha river, Chanda i s thickly dotted with hills , sometimes ris ing isolated from the plain

,sometimes in short spurs or ridges,

all running towards the south . East o f the wainganga river, the hillsincrease in height, and form a broad table—land

,at i ts highest point

about 2 000 feet above the sea. The WA iNG ANG A flows through thecentre o f the D istr ict from north to south

,ti l l i t meets the Wardha

at Seoni , where their un ited streams form the PRANH I'

I‘

A. The eastern

regions o f Chanda are drained by the headwaters of the Mahanadi,which flows in a north-easterly direct ion

,and by the Indravati. Each

of these r ivers rece ives the waters of many large streams,which in

the ir turn are fed by countles s rivulets from the h ills . In many places

the streams have been formed into lakes,by throwing up dams

across the sloping lands which they intersect . Such artificial lakes are

found in greatest number in the G arhbori and Brahmapuri po rgancis ,

‘

as many as 3 7 can be seen at once from the heights of Perz agarh.

T o the abundance of its waters Chanda owes the luxuriance of

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350 CJJ ANDA .

Chanda became a province o f the Bhonsla family. The loss of itsindependence marks the close of it s prosperity . Contested successions among the Maratha rulers afforded an opportun ity for anunsuccessful Gond rising in 1 7 73 under the son of Nilkant Shah, who,after being defeated and imprisoned , was in 1 788 pensioned off by theMarathas on £60 a year. The Maratha succession was then adjustedby one claiman t slaying the other wi th his own hand.

Chanda next suffered from the Pindaris. About 1 800, these or

ganiz ed band itti spread over the D istrict , t ill few villages had escapedpillage

,and hundreds were left wholly desolate. The Pindaris

ncited to action the predatory castes throughout the country, andbetween 1802 and 182 2

, one—half the populat ion is said to have beenk illed Off. Even in the walled ci ty of Chanda, the number of housesd imin ished in nearly this proportion . The death Of the Maratha Rajain 18 16 left the success ion to h is only son, Parsoji. Blind, lame, andparalyz ed , and with an intel lect as feeble as h is body, this unhappyprince

,after being used as a tool in the hands Of contending court

fact ions,was found dead in his bed— strangled, as was afterwards dis

covered, by the secret orders o f his cousin, Apasahib, who, as next of

k in,now became Raj a of Nagpur. After various acts of treachery and

hostility,ApaSah ib surrendered to the Briti sh, and was re instated by

them ,but faithlessly allied h imself wi th the Peshwa against them . In

1 8 18, he was seiz ed by the R es ident a t Nagpur, on the eve of histhrowing h imself into Chanda. His ally, the Peshwa Baj i Rao , pushed

on to meet him wi thin . 1 0 mile s of Chanda,when his progress was also

checked by a Brit ish force and on the 1 7 th April 1 8 18, he was routedat Pandarkankra, west of the Wardha river. The English army thenlaid siege to Chanda, and on the 2nd M ay carried i t by storm in spite

of the desperate resistance of the garrison . The leilcfcla'

r (commandant) himself fell fight ing gallantly at the head of h is soldiers and

the conquerors, admiring his courage , spared his house amid the sack

Of the town.

The faithless Apa sah ib was deposed by the Brit ish Government ;and the administration of the coun try was conducted by the Res ident,act ing in the name and during the minori ty of the new Raja,Raghuji, wi th British offi cers in charge o f each District. Under their

adm inistration, the d isaffected Gonds re turned to habits of order,plundering was checked, assessments were reduced, irrigation works

were restored, and education was encouraged. But when,in 1 830, the

government was made over to the Raja,h is narrow and grinding policy

checked the progress which had begun , and plundering again prevailedthrough the country. In 1 853 , Raghuji 111. died without an heir ;and Chanda, with the rest o f the Nagpur Province

,was incorporated

into the British Empire, the administrat ion be ing conducted by a

CHANDA. 35 [

Commiss ion under the Supreme Government. During the M utiny, th ewild nature of the country

,the innate predatory habits of the Gonds ,

and the proximity of the Haidarabad territory , caused great anxiety ;but i t was not t il l March 1858 that order was disturbed. Babu Rao , apetty chief of M onampalli in the Ah i

’

ri then began to plunderthe Rajgarh pargazza

’

. He was soon joined by Vyankat Rao , z amz’

na’a’

r

ofArpalli and G ho t and the two leaders , collecting a band of Rohillasand Gonds, openly declared rebell ion . On the night of the 29th April,M essrs. Gartland

,Hall, and Peter, telegraph employés, were attacked

by a party of the rebels near Chunchgnndi, on the Pranhita river.Messrs. Gartland and Hall were killed, but Mr. Peter contrived toescape, and j oined Captain Crichton , then Deputy Commis sioner.Afterwards, disguised as a native, Mr. Peter succeeded in del iveringto a leading lady z amz

’

zzda’

r,L akshmi Bai, a letter from Captain

Crichton and by her exertions Babu Rao was captured. He suffereddeath at Chanda, on the z rst October 1 858. Vyankat Rao escapedto Bastar ; but in April 1 860 he was arrested by the Raja o f

that State, and handed over to the Bri tish authorities, by whom he

was sentenced to transportat ion for l ife , with forfeiture of all hisproperty .

P opulatz'

ozz.—The populat ion of Chanda District (after allowing foran increase of 1085 square miles by the incorporation of four marks ofthe abolished Upper Godavari District in 1878

—79) was returned,

according to the Census of 1 8 7 2 , at In 1 88 1 the populationnumbered showing an increase of or 16 1 6 per cent.,in the nine years . This rapid increase, above the natural excess ofbirth s over deaths, is attributed partly to a considerable immigrationfrom the Niz am’s territories into the S ironcha Sub-division

,and partly

to the greater accuracy of the Census of 1 88 1 . The details of theenumeration are as follows -Total population

,namely

,

males and females spread over an area ofsquare miles

,and living in 2 804 villages and towns number of houses ,

of which are occupied and unoccupied ;average dens ity of population, 60 2 per square mile number of villages

,

'

2 6 per square mile number of houses, 1 3 7 4 per square mile personsper v illage

,232 ; persons per occupied house, 43 8. Class ified

according to rel igion, the population consisted of—Hindus,

Kabirpanthis, 1064 Satnamis, 1 73 ; Muhammadans, Sikhs,

5 ; Christians, 289 Iains, 7 3 7 ; and aboriginal tribes still professingthe ir primitive forms of faith, The ethnical divis ion returnsthe undoubted Hindu castes at indefinite castes at 3685and the non-Hindu or aboriginal tribes at of whom

were Dravidian Gonds, 1466 other Dravid ians, and 25 13 Kolarian

tribes or unspecified.

352 CHANDA .

Among Hindus proper, Brahmans numbered 6458, and Raj puts

2 2 2 1 the inferior Hindu castes above 5000 in number being

Kurmis,the principal agricultural caste, and the most numerous

i n the District, M ahars, weavers, day - labourers , and

village watchmen, Gauri , herdsmen , carters, etc. ,correspond

ing to the Goala caste in Bengal, Mara, cultivators,T eh

'

,oil—pressers, Mara, cult ivators, Dhimars ,

fi shermen,dealers in j ungle products, etc. , Koshti’

,weavers

,

Kalar,spirit-sellers, Nai, barbers, 5466. As regards

the occupat ion s of the people, the Census Report classifies the malepopulation into the following s ix main d ivis ions Professionalclass

,including Government offi cials and learned professions

,6937 ;

( 2) domestic servants, etc.,2 291 ; (3 ) commercial class , including

merchants, traders, carriers, e tc., 3988 ; (4) agricultural and pastoral

class,including gardeners, 5 ) manufacturing, art isan , mining,

and other industrial classes, (6 ) indefini te and non-productive

(compris ing 3004 general labourers, and unspec ified,including

ch ildren) ,There are only three towns in Chanda District with a population

exceeding 5000—viz ., CHANDA, the District capital, population ( 188 1 )WARORA

,802 2 ; and ARMOR I , 5584. Towns with 1000 to

5000 inhabitants, 74 ; villages with from 2 00 to 1000 inhabitants,

795 3 with fewer than 200 inhabitants, 1932 . The only municipalitiesare Chanda and Warora, with a total populat ion of and an

income in 1880—8 1 o f£2 282 .

Antiquities and Places of Interest—The ch ief arch itectural obj ects of

interest are the cave temples of Bhandak, Winjbasam'

, Dewala, and

G hug iis ; the rock temple in the bed of the Wardha, near Ballalpur

the ancient temples at Markandi , Neri, Batala, Bhandak, Wairagarh ,Ambgaon ,waghnak,andKeslabori

’

the monoliths nearChanda the forts

o fWairagarh and Ballalpur and the walls of Chanda town , i ts system ofwaterworks

,and the tombs of the Gond kings . The following places

are also worthy of vis it —the rapids of th eWardha at Soit,the junction

of the Wardha and the Wainganga at Seori , the Ramdighi pool near

Keslabori, the M ugdai spring and caves in the Perzagarh hills nearDoma

,and the different iron mines , coal seam s, and stone and clay

quarries.

Agriculture—Of the total area of square miles

,only 1 148

were cultivated in 1881 and of the port ion lying waste 5840 werereturned as cult ivable , and 3 797 as uncultivable. L ess than a fourth

of the cult ivated land is irrigated— en tirely by private enterprise . Theprincipal crops con sist of rice and sugar-cane ; excellent cotton , j oa

'

r,

o il-seeds , wheat , gram , and pulses are also grown , and the Chanda paingardens are famous throughout the Province. The area under the

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354 CHANDA.

on the south,the capital of the Deccan. The ch ief manufacture

cons ists o f the weaving of fine and coarse cotton cloths , which oncefound the ir way as far as Arabia, and are sti ll largely exported to

Western India.Silk fabrics are well made , although the demand for

them is no t great and there are also stuffs manufactured of a mixture

o f s ilk and co tton . L arge numbers o f tasar si lkworms are bred in theforests

,and the wound silk thence obtained forms an important item of

export. Considerable quant ities of excellent iron are smelted, both forhome and foreign use and from the resources o fChanda in coal, cotton ,and iron

,and the abundance o f labour, the rise of great manufacturing

industries may be confidently anticipated as soon as further means oftransit are opened up . The important colliery ofWarora was producing,in 1 8 7 7 , coal at the rate of 3500 tons per month , and giving employmentto 350 men ; but this output had declined to a total of tons for

the year 1 88 1—82 . The coal sells,when screened

,for 1 05 . a ton, and

has proved sufficiently good for locomotive fuel on the railways . The ironresources of the District were scientifically inqu ired into in 188 1—82 by agentleman of great experience in iron-mining in Austria, and his opinion

of the prospects for iron in Chanda i s most favourable . Wi th the construct ion o f an ironwork at Dungarpur, and the erection of more blastfurnaces

,there seemed to h im no reason to doubt of Chanda turn ing

out tons of iron or steel yearly. He reported further that,

besides supplying Ind ia with much of her steel and iron requirements,

Chanda is able to Open an export trade to England in certain articlesnow imported into England from the Continent, particularly in Ferro

manganese and Brescian steel.

Communicat ions in 1 88 1 —By theWaingangaand Wardha rivers, atcertain seasons

,2 5 2 miles ; made roads, second—class , 4 2 miles ; rail

roads,1 7 miles, being the coal-branch line from Warora to Wardha,

where it j o ins the Great Indian Peninsula Railway system .

There is a fi rst—class di spensary in the ci ty of Chanda, with branchdispensaries at Armori

,Brahmapuri

,and Warora .

Adminfi tratz’

om—In 1 86 1, Chanda was formed into a separate Brit ish

District. I t is adm in i stered by a Deputy Commissioner, w ith Assistants

and Total revenue in 18 76—7 7 , imperial and local,

o f which the land revenue yielded Total cost of

District officials and police of all kinds,

By 1 88 1—82 , the

total revenue had increased to or nearly doubled itself,while

the land revenue had increased only to the expenditure

on offi cials and police amoun ted to Number of civil andrevenue judges in 1 88 1

,10 ; o f magistrates, 1 2 . Maximum distance of

any village from the nearest court,1 30 miles average d istance

,20 miles .

Number o f po l ice, 6 1 5, costing £86 2 3 ; being 1 policeman to about

every 1 7 5 4 square miles and every 1 055 persons . The daily average

CHANDA. 355

number of convicts in j ail in 188 1 was 97, of whom 9 were females .

The number of Government or aided schools in the District underGovernment in spection was 64, attended by 3735 pupils.Alertieal Aspects .

—The rainy season sets in about the middle o f j une,and lasts t il l the end Of September. Showers

,on which the dry crops

and sugar-cane are dependent,are also expected in November and

December. Average annual rainfall, 507 inches ; rainfall in 1 88 1 ,

568 inches,or 59 inches above the average. Temperature in the

shade at the civil station during the year 1 88 1—May , highest reading1 1 5

°

F .,lowest reading July

,highest reading lowest 7 2

°

December,highest lowest

From the middle of September to the end of November,malarious

fever prevails throughout the District,exposure to the n ight air being

especially dangerous. Cholera frequently occurs,and dysentery ,

diarrhoea,and small-pox carry Off large numbers but it may be hoped

that the increased attention paid to vaccination wi ll mit igate the lastmentioned scourge . [For additional information regarding Chanda,see the Settlement Report of the District by Major C. B. L ucie Smith

Also T Ize Central P rovinces G az etteer, by Charles Grant, Esq ,

C.S. (second edit ion , Nagpur, the Central P rovinces Census

Report for 1 88 1 ; and the Annual Administration Reports for tlze

Central P rovinces from 1 880 to

Chanda—Chief town and administrative head—quarters of ChandaDistrict

, Central Provinces. L at. 19°

56'

30”

N.,long. 79

°

20'

30" E.

populat ion ( 188 1 ) chiefly Marathas and Telingas,the latter

including most o f the tradesmen and art isans. Hindus numberedKabirpanthis, 4 ; Sikh , I Muhammadans , 1 308 Chris tians ,

79 ; Jains, 1 1 2 ; and aboriginal tribes, 293. Principal agriculturalproducts —pa

’

n leaves,sugar - cane , and vegetables ; manufactures

of fine and coarse cotton cloths , silk fabrics, brass utensils , leathersl ippers

,and bamboo work. Chanda carries on a considerable

trade,especially at the great fair, which begins in April and lasts

three weeks . The town is surrounded by a continuous wall of cut

stone , 55 miles in circuit, crowned with battlements, and havinga crenelated parapet and broad rampart. There are 4 gates and

5 wickets . Inside the walls are detached villages and cultivatedfields

,and without l ie the suburbs. Chanda stands amid charming

scenery. Dense forest stretches to the north and east ; on the southrise the blue ranges of M anikdrt

’

rg while westward Opens a cultivatedroll ing country

,with distant hills. Set in this picture

,sweep the long

l ines of the ramparts now seen, now lost , among great groves of ancien ttrees. In front gl itters the broad expanse of the Ramala tank ; whilethe Jharpat and Virai flow on either s ide. The citadel

,now enclosing

the jail,contains a large well with an underground passage

,leading no

356 CHANDA CHANDARNAGAR .

one knows whither. The tombs of the Gond kings , the Achaleswar,Maha Kali

,and M urlidhar temples , with the massive monoliths at

Lalpet,form the most striking monuments in the place. The public

buildings consist of—the l’otma’

le’

with garden in front , the z z'

lo’

schoolhouse

,the dispensary

,the travellers’ bungalow, and the sara

’

z'

. Nearthe Jatpura gate is the Victoria market ; and a public park extendsbetween the city and the civil station

,which l ies to the north of the

city,with the military cantonment at the west end, and the civil l ines in

the centre and east. This park contains the District court-house, thehead-quarters police station-house, a Christian cemetery, quarters fora regiment of Native infantry, and post-offi ce . Municipal revenue

( 1880—8 1 ) £ 1 2 83 , of which £ 1001 was derived from taxation, or an

average of rs . 3d. per head of population .

Chéndé..— Rargana’

of Sultanpur District, Oudh , lying between

pargana’ Patt i of Partabgarh District on the south , and pargana

’

Alde

mau on the north. Area, 1 30 square miles, of which 7 3 are cultivated ;Government land revenue

, £97 73. The villages , which number 290,

are nearly all in the possession of Bachgoti Raj puts the Rajkumars ,one branch of that clan , owning r14 and the Rajwars , another branch ,1 38. About half the pargana

’

,or 1 46 villages , i s held in and

144 villages in z amz’

neleirz’ tenure . Population Hindus,

Muhammadans, 5382 total

,viz . males and

females. Among high castes,the most numerous are Brahmans

and Rajpu ts among low castes, Chamars

and Ahirs The road from Jaunpur to L ucknow runs through

the pargana’

.

Chéndélai. Small or estate in the M 131 ta/zsz'

l of

Chanda District, Central Provinces. Area, 1 7 square miles, containing

7 villages, with 1 1 7 occupied houses , and a population ( 188 1 ) of 675.

The z amz’no’ém’

is of recent creation , having been granted to the firstholder abou t 18 2 0.

Chandan.

— Ri'

ver rising in the h ills near Deogarh,in Bhagalpur

District,Bengal. I t flows a northerly course, and is fed by numerous

tributaries . As i t approaches the Ganges,it throws Off branches to the

east and west ; and at its point of j unction with the great river,near

Bhagalpur town , its main channel is reduced to insignificant dimensions.Greatest width

,1 500 feet from bank to bank . Except in the rains, its

channel i s a mere bed of coarse sand ; but i t i s l iable to sudden andviolent inundations, which do great damage to the surrounding country.

Embankments are constructed on both sides .

Chandarnagar (popularly C/zzeno'

ernag ore, correctly C/zano’

an-nagar

City of Sandalwood settlement,within the boundaries of

H tigli District, Bengal s ituated on the right bank of the Hugli river a

short distance below Chinsurah. L at. 2 2°

5 1’

40"

N.

,long. 88

°

24’

50 E.

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358 CHANDRAL L CHANDR’

IJAL J .

Chandbali.— River port on the left bank of the Baitaran i river,

Balasor District, O rissa . L at. 20°

46'

30 N . , long. 86°

47'

56" E.

This place has risen to importance only within the last few years, andi s now the centre of a rapidly growing trade . Several steamers plyregularly between Calcutta and Chandbali, and an idea has beenentertained of making the latter a sea-bath ing place for the metropolis.Value of imports , 1 87 3

—74 , exports 1 88 1—82

,

imports exports The trade in merchandise

is supplemented by a passenger traffic , which in 1 8 74—7 5 amounted to

persons either way . A portion of these passengers are pilgrimson their way to and from the shrine of Jagannath—chiefly up

-countrypeople of the middle class

,who can afford to pay their fare by rail

to Calcutta , and by steamer to Orissa . There i s also a strictly localpassenger traffic of Uriyas , who resort to Calcutta in considerablenumbers in search of domestic service.

Chanderi— District in Gwalior State, Central India. Contains 380

villages,transferred in full sov ereignty to the Brit ish Government by

the treaty of 1 860,among other Districts

,for th e maintenance of the

Gwalior Cont ingent. Chief town , CHANDER I .

Chanderi— Town in Sindhia’

s terri tory, Gwal ior , Central India,and head-quarters o f Chanderi D istrict ; at presen t an insignificant

place, but once a fortified town of importance and splendour.L at. 2 4

°

4 2'

0 N .,long. 78

°

1 1'

o E . Distant 1 05 miles south ofGwalior, 1 70 south of Agra, and 280 south of Delhi . Accordingto the A z

'

n-zlAkoarz’

,i t contained stone houses , 384 markets,

360 caravanserais, and mosques . ’ The fort,surrounded by a

sandstone rampart,and guarded by ci rcular towers, i s s ituated on a

high hil l. I t was a place of great s trength , and at one t ime sustaineda siege of eight months. The ru ins wh ich remain show that some of

the build ings of the ancient ci ty must have been of considerable sizeand magnificence . Among other memorials of the former greatnessof Chanderi

,a pass cut through a sol id rock

, 100 feet high,is con

spicuous . The rock bears an inscription,stating that the lofty gate of

Gumti and Karauli , near the tank, was built in 1 30 1 by Ghias-ud-di’

n,

Emperor of Delhi.

Chandgaon.

~—Town in the head-quarters Sub-division of ChittagongDistrict. Population ( 1 88 1 ) 52 76 , namely, 2 602 males and 2674

females .

Chandisthan.— Shrine in Basdeopur village , Monghyr District,

Bengal ; sacred to Chandi , the tutelary goddess of the place . Theshrine is covered by a small brick building

.

Chéndkhali.— Village in Khulna District,Bengal ; si tuated on the

Kabadak, about 10 miles north of the point where that river enters theSundarban forest . L at. 2 2

°

3 2’

0”

N. , long. 89°

1 7'

30 E. Chandkhal i

CHANDKO—CHAND OD . 359

was one of the villages founded about 1 7 82 by Mr. Henckell, the

Magistrate , i n pursuance of h is scheme for the reclamation of theSUNDARBANS. I t i s now a leading mart in this part of the country, towhich the villagers bring their rice for sale

,purchasing in return their

l ittle home stores and necessaries . Monday is the market day,and the

picturesque scene is thus graphically described by Mr. J . Westland in

his District Report on Jessor If one were to visit Chandkhal i on anordinary day, one would see a few sleepy huts on the river bank, andpass it by as some insignificant village . The huts are

,many of them

,

shops , and they are s ituated round a square ; but there are no purchasersto be seen , and the square is deserted . On Sunday, however, largenative craft come up from all directions

,but chiefly from Calcutta,

and anchor along the banks of the river and creek,wait ing for the

market. On Monday, boats pour in from all directions laden withgrain, and others come with purchasers. The river, a large enoughone, and the le/za

’

l or creek,become alive with native craft and boats

,

pushing in among each other, and li terally covering the face of thewater. Sales are going on rapidly amid all the hubbub ; and thetraders and merchants are fil l ing the ir ships wi th the grain which the

husbandmen have brought alongside and sold to them . The greaterpart of the traffic takes place on the water ; but on land , too, i t is abusy sight. On water or on land, there is probably a representativefrom nearly every house for miles around. They have come to selltheir grain and to buy their stores numberless hawkers have come tooffer these stores for sale—oil, turmeric, tobacco , vegetables, and all theother luxuries of a peasant’s l ife. By even ing

,the business is done

the husbandmen turn their boats homewards the hawkers go Off tothe next market village , or procure fresh suppl ies ; and wi th the firstfavourable t ide the sh ips weigh anchor

,and take the ir cargoes away to

Calcutta. By Tuesday morn ing the place is deserted.

’Chandkhali i s

also the principal seat of the Sundarbans wood trade. Police outpoststat ion.

Chandk o.—The old name for a fertile tract of alluvial land in

Sind,Bombay Presidency, on the right bank of the Indus, lying be

tween 26°

40' and 2 7

°

20' N . lat. , and between 6 7

“

2 5’ and 68

°

E . long.

I t i s inhabited by the Chandia tribe, to the chief of whom a portion

was made over in jo’

gz’

r by the Talpur dynasty in 18 18. In 1 842 , wanMuhammad

,the then having shown sympathy with the hostile

Mirs, this estate was seiz ed by M fr Ali Murad of Khairpur. Sir C.

Napier, however, restored it . In 1 859, the original portion was confirmed to the present ch ief

,Ghaibi Khan Chandra. The chief town of

this tract is GHA I BI DERO.

Chéndod.— Village and place of Hindu pilgrimage in Guj arat

(Guz erat) , with in the territory of the Gaekwar of Baroda, Bombay

360 CHAND OR S UB -D I VI S I ON AND T OWZV.

Pres idency ; population ( 1 88 1 ) 4 2 00. Situated 30 miles south-east

of Baroda,on the righ t bank of the river Narbada (Nerbudda) , in

lat. 2 1°

58’N . ,and long. 73

“

29'

E . , and 1 2 miles south of Dabhoi,

w ith which town it is connected by a narrow-gauge State Railway, a

branch of which terminates there. Close to Chandod is the villageof Karnali

,and territory o f the petty Raja of Mandwa . Both these

villages,the temples, and certain sacred spots on the river, are twice a

year vis ited by from to 2 persons . The chief fairs areheld on the full moon o f Kartik (October—November) and Chaitra

(M arch and April). Forbes wrote a century ago , what is s till thetruth ‘ No place in the Western Province of Hindustan is reputed soholy as Chandod ; none at least exceed i t ; i ts temples and seminariesalmost vie with the fane of Jagannath and the colleges of Benares . ’

Should the Narbada take the place of the Ganges in the estimation ofthe pious

, Chandod would become its Benares. Branch post-offi ce ;two dlzarmsa

’

la’

s .

Chandor (or Cledno’

zoar) .—Sub-divis ion occupying the centre ofNasik District

,Bombay Presidency . Area ( 1 88 1 ) 385 square miles,

contain ing 2 towns and 1 06 villages , with 8 1 7 7 occupied houses.Popu lat ion

,namely, males and females

H indus numbered Muhammadans,24 14 and others

,

’

4400.

Except in the eastern corner , which is roughened by bare h ills andwhich drains eas t to the Girna , Chandor is a waving plain , sloping gentlydown to the Godavari . In the centre and south the soil i s a deep richblack alluvium

,yielding heavy crops o f wheat and gram . In other

parts, the soil is poor and shallow. The Sub-divis ion is well providedwi th roads. The cult ivators are generally in debt

,but some villages

show signs Of material comfort . Of acres under cultivationin 1880—8 1

,grain crops occupied acres, or per cent. ;

pulses,

acres,or 1 2 1 1 per cent. oil- seeds

, 565 2 acres , or

4 7 7 per cent . ; and miscellaneous crops, 2 2 5 7 , or 190 per cent . In1 880—8 1

, the number of holdings was returned at 3530 , wi th an averagearea of a l it tle over 43 acres, paying an average rental to Governmentof £3, 55 . 75d. Divided among the agricultural populat ion

,these

holdings show an average allotment o f 1 722 acres per head , each paying

an average land- tax of£1,63 . 6d. In 1883 , the Sub-division contained

2 criminal courts and 1 police station streng th of regularpolice

, 2 8 men ; village watchmen 1 30.

Chandor — Town in Chandor Sub-division,Nasik

District,Bombay Presidency ; s ituated in lat. 2 0

°

19'

40 N.,and

long. 74°

19'

0”

E . ,at the foot of a range of h ills varying from 4000

to 4500 feet in height, 40 miles north-east of Nas ik town . Population

( 1 88 1 ) 4892 , namely, Hindus , 355 1 ; Muhammadans , 106 1 ; j ains,73 ; Chris t ians, 6 ;

‘ others,

’

2 0 1 . Before the opening of the railway,

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362 CHANDRA—CHA JVDRAG IR I .

miles on either side . Water carriage is available almost to the very

spot ; and during the summer months there is a cool sea-breez e , day

and n ight.

Chandra — R iver in Kangra D istrict,Punjab

,and one of the

principal headwaters of the Chenab . Ri ses in L ahul, from the side ofa huge snow-bed

,more than feet above the sea , on the south

eastern slopes o i the Bara L acha Pass. Becomes unfordable a mile

below i ts source . Flows south-eastward for 55 miles , when it sweeps

round the base of the Mid-Himalayas,until i t is j oined by the BHAGA

river at Tandi,after a course of 1 15 miles, in lat. 3 2

°

33’

N .

,and long.

7 7°

1' E. For the first 7 5 miles , the valley of the Chandra is entirely

uninhabited,the bare hi lls sloping down to it s bed and hemming it in

with broken cl iffs. Their s ides , however, yield a scanty pasturage forsheep and goats during the summer months . Near the Palamo Pass

,

the river expands in to a lake three-quarters of a mile in length .

Permanent habitations first occur near Koksar,at the foot of the

Rohtang Pass . From this point the Chandra enters a wider valley,dotted with villages and cult ivated fields. On the southern side

,how

ever,the mountains overhang its bed in precipitous masses, a cliff

above G hondlari s ing to a sheer height of feet from the water’sedge. After its j unction with the Bhaga

,at Tandi

,the united stream

bears the name of CHENAB . The fall on the Chandra from its source

to Tand i averages 65 feet per mile .

Chandra..—P argana in Sitapur D istrict , Oudh , lying between theGumti river on the west and the Kathna on the east

,both rivers

meeting at Dudhuaman in the extreme south ; bounded on the northby Kheri D istrict. This parg ana

’

was held successively by the Bais,Ahirs

,Sayyids , and Gaurs ; the latter acqu iring i t about 2 00 years ago ,

under a Chieftain named Kiri Mall,whose descendants st ill hold 1 30

out o f the total number of 1 50 villages. Area, 1 29 square miles, ofwhich 915 are cu lt ivated. The average incidence of the Governmentland revenue is I S. rr-gd. per acre of cult ivated area

,I S. 63d. per acre

o f cultivable area, or rs . 5d. per acre of total area. The cause of thislow rate is the poorness of the soil . Population ( 1 88 1 )namely, males and females

Chandra Drona.

—Hill range,Kadur District

,Mysore State .

—SeeBABA BUDAN.

Chandrag iri (‘ M oon-l n

’

ll Z iilale of North Arcot District,M adras Presidency. Area

, 548 square miles , containing 2 towns and1 35 villages. Houses

,population ( 1 88 1 ) namely

, 47 ,090

males and females . The most northerly tel/21k o f the District,adjoin ing Cuddapah . The Eastern Ghat s run through the north,while the Karvaitnagar hills occupy most of the south of the ta

’

lu/e.

Indeed, the entire tract may be said to consist of hil ls, more or less

CIJANDRA G IRI T0W'

N AND RI VER. 363

bare or rocky, and of narrow valleys rich with the alluvial soil broughtdown from the hills. I ts phys ical characteristics render i t one of themost fertile divis ions of North Arcot, the water-level being always h ighand the scrub j ungle on the hill s affording abundance of leaf manure.

The Chandragiri Telugu cultivators are probably the best in theDistrict, hard-working, and fond of high farming. Extensive and

valuable forests cover about 300 square m iles, but these have onlyrecently been brough t under a proper system of conservancy. Theland revenue demand in 1 882—83 amounted to £8 166 . In the sameyear, the tdlule contained 2 criminal courts

,be ing subj ect in civil

matters to the j urisdiction of the munszf’s court at T ripati. Number

of police stations 10 strength of police force,104 men .

Chandrag iri. Town in the Chandragiri teilule, North ArcotDistrict, Madras Presidency ; situated on the right bank of theSuvamamukhi river, 1 6 miles south of the T ripati railway stat ion,in lat. 1 3

°

35'

15”

N. , and long. 79°

2 1'

30 E. Population ( 188 1 )4193, namely, 38 1 1 Hindus and 38 2 Muhammadans. As the headquarters of the telly/e, i t contains the usual sub -divis ional publicoflices, jail, post-offi ce , etc. Historically, Chandragiri presents much

of interest, having been , after the defeat of Talikot in 1564, the res idence of the Rajas of Vijayanagar. The fort

,built about 15 10, fel l

in 1646 into the power of the Golconda chief, from whom it waswrested , a century later, by the Nawab o f Arcot. In 1 758 i t was heldby Nawab Abdul Wahab Khan

,who in virtue of its possession as sumed

the protection of the sacred town of T RIPAT I. In 1 782 , Haidar Ali

compelled the fort to surrender, and it remained subject to Mysoreuntil the treaty of Seringapatam in 1 792 . I t is buil t on a huge

granite rock ris ing about 600 feet above the surrounding country,and, both from i ts site and fortifications

,must in former t imes have

been impregnable by storm. Its ch ief interest l ies in the fact that herewas signed

,in 1640, the original treaty granting to the East India

Company the s ite of Fort S t. George or M adras. The modern townof Chandragiri is neatly built, to the east of the hil l on which standsthe fort. The old town, which in former t imes must have been veryextensive

,has almo st d isappeared

,and i ts s ite converted into fertile

fields. The surrounding country is very productive, and the scenerycharming. Interesting archaeological remain s are found , consist ing of

deserted temples, grand tanks, and fine carved mantap/ams.

Chandrag iri (or — R iver in South Kanara District,Madras Presidency ; r ises ( lat. 1 2

°

2 7’

N ., long. 75°

40' E. ) in the

Western Ghats near Sampaj i, and, after a westerly course of 65 miles,enters the sea 2 miles south of Cassergode, in lat. 1 2

°

29’

N . ,long.

75“

1’

6” E. When in flood

,the stream is utiliz ed for floating down

the timber cut on the G hats, but, except for about 15 miles above its

364 CHANDRA G UNA—C[ IANDRARUR .

mouth,i t is not at other seasons navigable . A fort, situated on

its left bank,commands this portion of the river. The Chandragiri

forms the northern boundary between the Malayalam and T uluvu

countries ; and the traditions of the pe0p1e forbid any Nair woman to

cross i t.

Chandraguna.

— Village and head - quarters Of a police stationin the Chi ttagong Hill Tracts

,Bengal ; situated on the river

Karnaphuli’

. Administrat ive head-quarters of the District unti l 1868,

when they were transferred to Rangamati . Considerable river traflici n timber and hil l products

,rice

,salt

,spices

,piece-goods, cattle , tobacco ,

etc . Revenue tol l station.

Chandra-g utti ( M oon —Proj ecting peak of the WesternGhats

,in Shimoga District

,Mysore State ; 2 836 feet above sea—level.

L at. 14°

2 7'

0 N . ,long. 74

°

58’

2 5 E . Formerly a fortified strongholdof a series of local chieftains . On the summit is a temple dedicated toRenuka

,the mother of Parasu Rama. The village at the eastern base

has a populat ion ( 188 1 ) of 809.

Chandrakona..— Mountains in Mysore State — See BABA BUDAN .

Chandrak ona.

—Town and head-quarters of a police circlein Midnapur District

,Bengal . L at. 2 2

°

44’

20”

N . ,long. 8 7

“

33’

2 0” E .

The site Of a factory in the time of the East India Company, with alarge weaving population

,most o f whom ,

upon the withdrawal of the

Company from their commercial concerns,were forced to give up their

hered itary occupation and take to ag ricu lture. I t st il l contains manyweaving families

,who produce cotton fabrics of superior quality ; and

is also a large trading centre . Population ( 1 88 1 ) Hindus, 456Muhammadans—total

,namely

,6059 males and 6 198 females

'

area of town s ite, 3840 acres ; municipal income ( 1 88 1—82 ) £353 .

Chandranagar (or — French town and settlementin H iigli District , Bengal— See CHANDARNAGAR .

Chandranath.

— Village in Chittagong District , Bengal. L at. 2 2°

3 7'

55”

N .

,long. 91

°

43’

40”

E . Situated on Sitakund Hill,and a

frequented place of pilgrimage — See S ITAKUND .

Chandrapur (wi th P admapur) .—E state or in SambalpurD istrict Central Provinces. Formed in 1 860 from two Government

fi zz/grand s. Certain landholders having j oined the Surendra 8a rebellion

in 1 858, the ir estates , worth about £300 per annum ,were confiscated

and granted to RaiRtip Singh , a Rajput, at that t ime a Deputy Collectorin the District. On the amnesty

,these estates were restored at the

petit ion o f their former owners ; and as the Government revenue from

Chandrapur and Padmapur then amounted to £755, Maj or Impey,the Deputy Commissioner

,recommended that

,to compensate Rai

R iip Singh , these pargana’

s should be made over to h im for 40 years,subj ect to a fixed payment of£4 1 3 . Both extend along the Mahanadi

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366 CHAND DYNA—CHAN G B HARAR .

m il es from Bombay) is about a mile distant . Travellers’ bungalow near

the stat ion .

Chéndfi ria.. —Trading village and mun icipal ity in Khulna DistrictBengal ; s ituated on the east bank of the Ichhamati. L at. 2 2

°

54

45 N. ; long. 88°

56’

45 E. Population ( 188 1 ) 3534. Municipal

income in 1 88 1—8 2 , £248 ; average rate of taxation , rs . 4%d. per head

o f population .

Chandwar.

—Sub - divis ion and town in Nasik Di s trict,Bombay

Presidency—See CHANDOR .

Chang Bhakar.— Native State of Chutia Nagpur, Bengal, lying

between lat . 2 3°

29' and 23

°

55'

30”

N. ,and long. 8 1

°

3 7' and 82

°

23'

30 E . ; area, 906 square miles. Population ( 188 1 ) I t formsthe extreme western point Of the Chutia Nagpur Division , projectinginto the Baghelkhand State of Rewa, wh ich bounds it on the northwest and south ; on the east , i t marches w ith the State of Korea, ofwhich , until 1848 , i t was a feudal dependency . L ike Korea

,it contains

large areas o f coal-bearing rocks , and good coal has been found by theGeological Survey . The general aspect o f Chang Bhakat i s that of a

dense and tangled mass of hills , ravines , and plateaux, covered wi th sa’

l

j ungle,and dotted at intervals wi th small vi llages . The most prominent

o f the hill ranges takes a serpentine sweep from north-east to south

west,and rises in occasional peaks to upwards o f 3000 feet above sea

le vel. The scenery in the interior of the country‘

is for the most partmonotonous . Hill after hill repeats the same general outl ine

,and is

clothed with the same sombre masses of sa’

l fol iage . Portions of both

northern and southern front iers rise into bold cl iffs,and seem to present

an almost inaccessible barrier to a hosti le advance . Notwithstandingthese strong natural defences the State suffered so seriously in formerdays from Maratha and Pindari inroads

,that the chief g ranted eight of

h is fron tier villages to influential Raj puts o f Rewa to secure their

co operation agains t the marauders . The only rivers in the State are

two unnavigable hill streams,the Banas and the Neur

,both of which

take their rise in the range separating Chang Bhakar from Korea.

The seil forests are largely resorted to during the hot weather asgraz ing grounds ; and a tax imposed on all cattle entering the country

for this purpose forms the principal source Of the Raja’s income.

Tigers , bears, and leopard s abound ; and wi ld elephants,t ill recently

,

committed such seriou s ravages among the crops as to cause theabandonment of several v il lages . The Bhaya

, or Chief, of ChangBhakat i s a Raj pu t by caste

,belonging to a collateral branch of the

Korea Rajas . His res idence i s in the village of Janakpur,a mere

collection of wretched huts. The Chief s dwelling is a double-storiedrange of mud bu i ldings enclosing a courtyard . His annual revenue is

returned at £300 ; tribute, £38. The populat ion in 188 1 , classified

CHAN GREZHING CHANNA G IR I . 36 7

according to rel igion , comprised H indus and 45 Muhammadans .

The Dravidian Gonds form the most influential race in the State ,but neither they nor the other aboriginal tribes are returned separatelyin the Census R eport, State by State , and are apparen tly included asHindus by religion . Among the Kolarian tribes are a curious race

,

called M uasis or Kurus , who . are iden t ified by Colonel Dalton withthe Kurs of Betal, Hoshangabad, and Nimar in the Central Provinces. Their deities are derived from H indu mythology

,and in

social customs they partly conform to Hinduism and partly toGond practices . In 1 870

—7 1 , the remains of extens ive rock excava

tions, supposed to be temples with monasteries attached,were

discovered near the village of Harchoka in the north of the State .

It is inferred that these remains,together wi th the fine old mango

groves found here and there in the heart of the j ungles,were the

work of a more civil ised race than the present inhabitants of ChangBhakat . The Kols and Gonds neither build temples nor plant grovesand the existence of such remains would seem to point to e ithera previous Aryan occupation, or to the ascendancy of one of thehighly-civilised Central Indian Gond kingdoms, which were swept away

by the Marathas towards the end of the eighteenth century . Theaboriginal races are generally poor, and their crops barely suffice fortheir actual requ irements . Their ordinary cloth ing consists of l ittle morethan a wais t-cloth bu t on festivals the Kolarians appear in clean whiteclothing

,while the Gonds affect colours . The Hindus are generally

well dressed,and the better classes of all castes wear qu ilted garments

of dark-coloured cotton,with caps to match . Two hill passes lead into

the State,which is intersected by two j ungle roads .

Chang rezhing .

—Village in Bashahr State, Punjab , near the north

eastern frontier,d ividing that principali ty from Chinese territory, 3

miles east of the L i, or river of Spiti. L at. 3 2°

3'

N .

, long. 78°

40’ E.

Inhabited in summer only by peasants from the neighbouring hamlet of

Change . Forms,according to Thornton , the farthest eastern l im it o f

European explorat ion in this d irection , the Chinese populat ion of the

adjacent country vigilantly interfering with all further progress.

Chang sil.—Range of mountain s in Bashahr State, Punj ab , lying

between 30°

56’ and 3 1

°

2 0' N. lat. , and between 7 7

°

54' and 78

°

1 2’ E .

long.Proceeds in a south-westerly direct ion from the Himalayan

range,and forms the southern boundary of Kunawar. Traversed by

numerous passes,having elevat ions of between and fee t

above the sea.

Channagiri.-Ta

’

tuk in Sh imoga District , Mysore State. Area, 467square miles ; population ( 1 88 1 ) namely, males andfemales Hindus numbered Muhammadans , 4405 and

Christ ians, 3 1 7 .The south and west of the leilak are crossed by lines of

368 CHANNAG IR I—CHANRA YRATNA.

hills,the streams from which un ite to form the g reat Sulekere tank,

40 miles in circumference, and thence flow northwards as a singlestream

,the Haridra

,into the T ungabhadra. The remainder o f the

ta’

lze/e consis ts of open country, with extensive graz ing grounds . Thenorthern tract is exceptionally fert ile , and contains much garden and

sugar-cane cultivat ion . Total revenue ( 1 883—84) of which

£9247 was deri ved from the land—tax . The ta

’

lnk contains 1 criminal

court,with 6 police stations (t/zdnds ) strength of regular police, 56 men

village watchmen

Channag iri— Village in Shimoga District, Mysore State, and head

quarters o f Channagiri 2 5 miles by road north—east of Shimoga.

L at. 14°

1’

N .

,long. 7 5

°

59'

E. ; population ( 188 1 ) 3 14 1 , including severalL ingayat traders ; municipal revenue ( 188 1—82 ) £ 10 1 .

Channapata, (or C/zennapatnam, Handsome —Together withSukravarpet, a town in Bangalore District, Mysore State, 3 7 miles byroad south-west from Bangalore . L at. 1 2

°

38'

N. , long. 7 7°

1 3' E.

Population ( 188 1 ) of Channapata, 1 240 ; o f Sukravarp et, the industrialquarter

, 5840, of whom 2 7 1 0 are H indus, 3 1 1 5 Muhammadans , and1 5 Christians. Municipal revenue , £50 ; rate o f taxation

,2d. per

head . The fort was built about 1 580 by j aga deva Rayal, who foundeda family that ruled unt il 1 630 , when they were overthrown by theWodeyar of Mysore . I t now contains a palace erected by a relative ofthe late Maharaja

,but has been much depopulated by fever. Sukra

varpet, lying to the north-east, i s celebrated for the manufacture oflacquered ware and toys , fine steel wire for strings of musical instruments

,and glass bracelets. I t contains a large number of Muhammadans

belonging to the L abbay and Daira classes, who t rade with the westerncoast . North of the pét are two large Musalman tombs—one erectedto the memory o f the rel igious preceptor o f T ip ii, the other for acommandant of Bangalore, who was distingu ished for his humani ty to

T ipt’

i’

s Brit ish prisoners. Until 187 3 , head-quarters o f a ta’

ln/e of thesame name .

Chanraypatna— Tritonor Sub-divis ion in Hassan District

,Mysore

State . Area, 454 square miles ; populat ion ( 1 88 1 ) namely,males

and females Hindus numbered M uham

madans , 958 ; and Christ ians , 2 04. The ta’lnlz drains southwards to

the Hemavati river, and contains many large tanks. The countryis generally open and well cult ivated , the principal h ills being the

i solated Jain set tlement of Sravan Belgola. The soil,except in the

north-east where i t i s shallow and stony, is generally ferti le, andproduces the usual ‘ wet

’

and ‘ dry ’ crops . L and revenueexclusive of water—rates

, £ 1

Chanraypatna..—Village in Hassan Dis trict

,Mysore State

,and

head-quarters of Chanraypatna ta/zsz’

l ; 2 4 miles by road east of

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3 70 CHAPRA CHARAM A].

division comprises the 5 police circles of Chapra, Dighwara,Parsa

,Manjh i

,and Mashrak . In 1 882 i t contained 1 6 magisterial and

civi l courts,a regular pol ice force of 369 men , and 2 0 1 7 eitaukz

’

o’a’

rs or

vil lage watchmen .

Chapra,—Chie f town and administrative head-quarters of Saran

Distric t,Bengal ; si tuated on the left bank of the Gogra , about a mile

above its confluence w ith the Ganges , in lat . 2 5°

46'

4 2"

N .,and long.

84°

46’

49 E. A long straggling town , 4 miles in length , with a breadth

nowhere exceeding half a mile. The site is very low, and in years of

high flood only protected from inundations by the embanked tramway

road on the west , and by a new embanked road o n the north . Popula

t ion Hindu s,

Muhammadans,

Christians, 1 07

total,

namely,

males and females. The town con

tain s the usual Government courts and offices , j ail , police station , handsome sara

’

z'

or rest-house , Government English school, and charitabledispensary . I t has also a station of the German L u theran Mission .

Chapra has suffered much commercially from the recession of theGanges

,which formerly flowed close under the town ; while its main

channel is now a mile distant in the cold weather. I t i s st ill , however,a place o f importance , and contains many wealthy native bankinghou ses . Goods of all k inds are obtainable in the oa

’

z a’

r,pottery and

brass utens ils forming a specialty . At the end o f the last century,the

French,Dutch

,and Portuguese had factories at Chapra. The District

of saran was then famed for i ts saltpetre, and the Chapra mark wasespecially esteemed ; bu t th is trade has been on the decline for manyyears past . Roads radiate from Chapra to Sonpur

,Muz affarpur

,

Motihari,Sewan

,and G uthni. Municipal revenue ( 188 1—82 ) £2 354 ;

expenditure, £2 3 70 ; average incidence o f taxat ion, rs . per head of

population wi thin municipal limits .

Cha-prauli.— L arge village in Meerut (M irath) District , North

Western Provinces . L at. 2 8°

50’

1 5 long . 7 7°

36’

30”

E . ; population

( 188 1 ) 6 1 1 5 , namely , 4 780 Hindus, 93 7 M usalmans , and 398 Jains .Stands on a raised si te

, 40 miles from Meerut city . L arge communityo f Sarangi Ban iyas , possessing a handsome temple . Said to have beencolon iz ed by j at s in the 8th century . About 1 50 years ago ,

the originalinhabi tants received among them the Jats o f Mirpur

,who had been

almos t ru ined by the incurs ions of the S ikhs ; and since that t ime thetown has largely increased . Agricultural centre

,w ithou t trade or

manufactures . B a’

s a’

r, sara’

z'

,police station

,post-offi ce .

Charamai. —L ake in Bashahr State , Punj ab ; near the summit ofthe Barenda Pass, at an elevation of feet above sea- level . L at.

3 1°

2 3’

N .

,long. 78

°

1 1'

E . From its bed the river Pabur takes itsr ise, and immediately precipitates i tself over a ledge of rock

,in a fall

of 1 00 fee t . Massive beds of snow surround the lake,while others

CHARAP UNJ I CHARKHAR]. 37 :

form a natural bridge over the Pabur, or hem it in with froz en cl iffs

of ice .

Charapunj l.— Town in the Khasi Hills, Assam —See CHERRA

POONJEE .

Charda.. —Pargane£ in Bahraich District, Oudh ; bounded on thenorth by Nepal State , the Rapt i river marking the boundary line ; onthe east by Bhinga pargana

’

; and on the south and west by Nanpara .

The history of th is parganci is virtually that of NANPARA . Occupiedsuccessively by hill Chieftains, the Ikauna family, and the Sayyids, i t was

finally bestowed upon a relative of the Nanpara Raja,and held by him

and his descendants t il l 1 857 , when the estate was confiscated for therebell ion of i ts holder, and conferred upon loyal grantees. I t is inter

sected by the Bhakla river, which divides it into two d istinct tracts .The country between the Bhakla and the Rapt i l ies low,

and has a richalluvial soil. The tract west o f the Bhakla forms a portion of thetableland described under BAHRA ICH parg ana

’

. Area, 206 square miles,ofwhich 142 are under cult ivat ion , and 5 1 cult ivable waste . Govern

ment land revenue, average incidence,2 5 . M id. per acre of

cultivated area, 2 5 . 43d. per acre of assessable area,and 2 s . 2§d. per

acre of total area. Population ( 188 1 ) namely, males andfemales ; number of vil lages, 1 7 7 . Two Government roads

intersect the pargana’

. Several market villages,three Government

schools,police station

,post-offi ce .

Chardwar.

— Fiscal Division or ma/za’l in Darrang District,Assam .

Area, 1 1 2 0 square miles . In the north is the Chardwar forest reserve ,lying between the Belsiri and M ansiri rivers , wi th a total area of 80square miles . This reserve includes an experimental plan tation of

caoutchouc trees (Ficus elast ica) , covering an area of 803 acres. The

proportion o f failure among the seedlings and cuttings has been about

18 per cent.

Charkha.Petty State in South Kath iawar, Gujarat (Guz erat )

Province,Bombay Presidency ; consisting of one village, with 4 inde

pendent tribute—payers . E st imated revenue ( 188 1 ) £1 200 . Tribute

of£50, 65 . is paid to the Gaekwar, and 3 , 1 65 . to Junagarh .

Charkhari.—Native State in Bundelkhand , under the Central IndiaAgency and the Government of India ; ly ing between 2 5

°

2 1'

and 2 5°

36' N . lat . , and between 79

°

40’ and 79

°

58’ E. long. Area, 7875 square

miles ; population ( 1 88 1 ) namely, Hindus, 6 2 73

Muhammadans,1 00 Jains, 945 aborigines , and 6 2 others ;

’ number

of villages,2 87 number o f houses , average density of popula

tion, 18 1 per square mile . The present Maharaj a Dhiraj jai

Singh Deo,was born about 1 853. L ike al l the Bundela chiefs, he is

descended from Raja Chattar sei. His ancestor, Bij i Bahadur, was thefirst who submitted to the authority of the British a sanarl confirming

3 72 CHARKHARZ—CHARSADDA .

h im in his principal ity was granted to h im in 1804, and confirmed in

18 1 1 . His successor remained faithfu l to the Brit ish Government

during the Mutiny, protecting European officers and native officials .In reward for his services, he was gran ted the privilege of adoption, a

j dgr’

r of£2 000 a year in perpetuity, a dress of honour, and a salute of1 1 guns . The revenue of the State i s 5 ld

’

k/zs of rupees per annum

(sayCharkhari.—Chief town of Charkhari State in Bundelkhand

,

Central India situated on the route from Gwalior to Banda, 4 1 miles

from the lat ter place. L at. 2 5°

2 4’ N. long. 79

°

47' E. Occupies

a picturesque site at the base of a high rocky hill surmounted by a fort,

to which access can be obtained only through a fl ight of steps cut inthe rock

,on such a scale as to be practicable for elephants. T wo

neighbouring elevation s command the fortress for all purposes of

modern warfare. Below the town lies a large lake ; good roads ,embowered among trees, lead from it in all direct ions ; and a tank,commenced as a rel ief work , irrigates the surrounding fields.

Charmadi (or K'

oa’

ekal; called also the B una’ or Cofee

i n the Uppanagadi ta’

lu/e, South Kanara District, Madras Presidency.

L at. 1 3°

4'

30"

N . ; long. 75°

2 7’

0”

E. Opened in 1 864, and now oneo f the main lines for wheeled traffic , and specially for coffee transportbetween Mangalore and Mysore.

Charmunsha.. —'I‘ own in the head-quarters Sub-division of Noakhal iDis trict

,Bengal. Population ( 188 1 ) 7 363 , namely, 3638 males and

37 2 5 females .

Charré..—Village in M anbhtim District, Bengal. L at. 2 3°

23'

0 N. ;

long . 86°

2 7'

30” E. S ituated near Purulia town

,and containing two

very old Jain temples, called (ten/s or o’ezftilaj

'

as, built of roughly

cut stone, without cement , and clamped together with iron bands.There were originally seven of these temples

,but five have fallen into

ruins , and the fragments have been used for building houses in thevillage . O f the remaining two , the most perfect is tower- shaped,te rm inating in a dome of hori z on tal courses of stone about 30 feet high,w ith a c ircular fin ial l ike a huge cog

-wheel,and the remains o f flag

roofed colonnades on both sides. The slabs forming the roof are greatblocks of granite from 5 to 9 feet in length , 2 to 23; in breadth, and1 foo t thick . There is no carving about the temples

,nor any object of

worsh ip in the shrines ; but on the stones scattered about, t races of thenude Tirthankaras , or j ain deified saints, are visible. The construction

of some large ancient tanks in the vicin ity is also attributed to theSrawak j ains.

—Town in Peshawar District,Punj ab

,and head-quarters

o f the Hashtnagar ta/zsz'

l, s i tuated on the left bank of the Swat river,16

miles northe ast of Peshawar, in lat . 34°

9' N . long. 7 1

°

46'

30"

E.

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3 74 CHA TA—CHATRA .

lat ion res id ing in 106 villages . Hindus numberedMuhammadans

, 7605 ; and Jains,6 . Up to a very recent period

almost the whole o f the fez/1551was pasture and woodland and in con

sequence of the demand for cult ivators to Open up the soil , the unusualfeature is reported that tenants wi th occupancy rights pay an averagerental about 10 per cen t. more than that paid by tenan ts-at-will . The

land revenue in 1 88 1—8 2 amounted to to tal Governmentrevenue

,including rates and cesses, rental paid by cult i

vators , The M i ni! contained in 1 883, 1 criminal court and

3 police stations strength of regular police, 36 men village

watchmen 1 82 .

Chadian

— Town in Mu ttra District,North -Western Provinces

,and

head-quarters o f Chata L at. 2 7°

43’

N . ; long . 7 7"

3 2'

50 E.

Distant 9miles west of the Jumna, and on the northern border of the

[ta/grand

,2 1 miles north-west from Muttra town . Area

, 94 acres ;population ( 1 88 1 ) 60 14 ,

namely, 4958 Hindus and 1 056 M uham

madans. A small municipal revenue in the shape o f a house-tax islevied under the provisions of Act xx . of 1 856 for police and cons ervancy purposes . The principal feature o f the town is its large fortl ike saw

’

z’

, covering an area o f over 6 acres, w i th battlemented wallsand bastions

,and two lofty entrance gateways of decorated stone—work,

dating from the t ime of Sher Shah or Akbar. During the Mutiny

of 1 85 7 , i t was occupied by the rebels , who , however , had to blow

one of the towers down before they could effect an entrance . Thetown contains a second-class pol ice station

,imperial post-offi ce , school ,

and encamping ground for troops . Weekly market held every Friday.

Chatari.—Village in Khtirja ta/zsil,Bu landshahr District

,North

Western Provinces, s i tuated on the Al igarh road, 2 1 miles east of

Khurj a town . A prosperous village,and site of a large weekly cattle

market . Good school ; post—offi ce .

Chairman—Village and head-quarters of a pol ice outpost

,in Bankura

District,Bengal. L at. 2 3

°

1 8'

30"

N. ; long. 8 7°

0’

2 0” E.

Chaitra— Town in Haz aribagh District,Bengal ; situated about

36 miles north-west of Haz aribagh town . L at. 24°

1 2'

2 7"

N . ; long.

84°

55’

E. The chief market of the District,carrying on a considerable

trade with L ohardaga,Gaya

,Shahabad

,Patna

,Bardwan

,and Calcutta.

A large cattle fair,held annually during the D ara/lard festival , is

attended by butchers from Calcutta . Population Hindus,8833

Muhammadans, 3058 ;‘ others

,

’

9 : total,

namely, 56 1 3 males

and 62 8 7 females . Mun icipal income ( 1 88 1—8 2 ) £488 ; averageincidence of taxation , ggd. per head . On the 2nd October 1 85 7 , an eu

gagement took place at Chatra between H .M .

’s 53rd Foot— supported

by a detachment o f Rattray’s Sikhs—and the Ramgarh Battal ion,which

had mutin ied at Ra’

nchi,and was marching to j oin the rebel z amiua’a

’

r

CHATRAP UR CHAUKIDAN GA . 3 75

Kunwar (Kooer) Singh at Bhojpur in Shahabad. The mutineers,posted

in great force on the brow o f a h ill , made a stubborn resistance, butwere defeated with a loss of 40 men and all their supplies .

Chatrapur.

~—State and town in Bundelkhand, North-Western Provinces—See CHHA'

I‘

ARPUR.

Chatrapur (Chatterpur, Satrap zfm m) .— Town in Ganjam District,

Madras Presidency ; situated 19 miles north-east of Barhampur (Berhampur), and 5 miles distant from Ganjam town . L at. 19

°

2 1’

N .,

long. 85°

3’ E. The residence of th e Collector of the District

,and of

the Superintendent of Pol ice . There is a school here,endowed by a

late Collector, Mr. A. P . Onslow, wi th some house property, which

includes the house usually occupied by the Collector. The oldestrooms in this house were built by Captain Evans , who managed a horsebreeding establ ishment here

,which was broken up abou t 1 8 14 , after an

existence of sixteen years. A weekly market i s held on Thursdays,when native cloths and other goods are brought from Berhampur and

Ganjam for sale. Provisions for Europeans have usually to be broughtfrom Berhampur, and even for natives the ba

’

z dr is but indifferently

suppl ied. The public buildings consist of a subs idiary jai l, the pol icehospital and police l ines , and the Collector

’s court.

Chatsu.

—Town in Jaipur State,Raj putana ; distant about 24 miles

south-east from Jaipur,on th e Agra and Nasirabad route . An importan t

town, in which eight annual fairs are held , most of them largely attended.

A dispensary is maintained here by the Maharaja.

-V illage in Jessor Distr ict, Bengal ; s ituated on thebank of the Kabadak river. A sugar manufacturing and refining village ,surrounded by groves of date palms .Chaughat — Formerly a tdluk of Malabar D istrict ,

Madras Presidency ; but in 1 860 amalgamated wi th Ku tnad and Vettat

tanad and formed into the presen t ta’lzzk o f PONANIChaughét Town in the Ponan i té/ub, Malabar

District,Madras Pres idency. L at. 10

°

35’

N . ,long. 76

°

3’

5 1 E.

houses, 105 7 populat ion ( 1 88 1 ) 5535 , namely, 2 7 68 Hindus, 1 7 1 2

Muhammadans,and 1 055 Chris tians . Formerly the head-quarters o f

the CHAVAKKAD (CHAUGHAT) ta’

luk,and st ill con tain ing subordinate

j udicial and administrat ive offices local funds school, etc.

Chauka,—R iver in Oudh one of the names assumed by the Sarda

in the lower part of it s course through Kheri and Sitapur Districts ;afterwards becoming th e Dahaur

,and u lt imately j oin ing the Kauriala

at Kutai Ghat,where it becomes the Gogra or Ghagra.

—See SARDAand GHOGRA .

Chaukidéng é .—Mine in the Ram'ganj coal tract, Bardwan District ,

Bengal ; situated in the Singaran valley ; total thickness of seam , con

sist ing of alternate layers o f coal and shale, 1 5 feet 9 inches thickness

376 CHA UL .

of coal in seam, 14 feet 6 inches . This coll iery was first worked in

1 834 ; i n 1 86 1 much damage was cau sed by fire, owing to the liabili ty

of the Ram’ganj coal to spontaneous combustion . The mine was

closed about 1 878, and up to 1 883 had not been re-opened.

Chaul ( 6 716211, orRew’

azzda) .— T own in Al ibagh Sub-division , Kolaba

District,Bombay Presidency. L at. 18

°

33'

N. , long. 7 3°

0'

E. Popula

t ion ( 188 1 ) 5355, namely, Hindus, 5 2 82 ; M uhammadans, 30 ; ando thers

,

’

43 . Area of town site, 2 8 7 1 acres . Situated on the coast about

30 miles south of Bombay, and on the right bank of the Kundalika river,or Roha creek. Chau l is a p lace of great ant iquity . Under the namesof Champavati and Revatikshetra, local H indu traditions trace i t to thet imes when Krishna re igned in Guj arat, B .C. 1 2 00 It seems probablethat Chaul or Cheul i s Ptolemy

’s (A .D . 1 50) headland and emporium of

Symulla or T ymulla ; and i t has a special interest, as Ptolemy mentionsthat he gained information abou t Western Ind ia from people who hadcome from Symulla to A lexandria. About a hundred years later (A.D.

i t appears in the Periplus o f the Ery thraean Sea as Semulla, thefi rst local mart south ofKalliena ; and in 642 it i s called Chimolo byHwen T hsang . Chaul next appears under the names Saimur and Jaimurin the writ ings of the Arab travelle rs of the tenth, eleven th , and twelfthcenturies. The Russ ian trav e l le r Athanas ius Nikitin ( 14 70) calls it

Chivil. Thirty-fi ve years later ( 1 505 ) the Portuguese first appearedat Chaul, and a few years after were allowed to build a factory there.

In 1 583 the Dutch trave ller J ean Hugues de L inschot described

Chaul as a fort ified ci ty wi th a good harbour, and famous for trade .

I t was then a great cen tre o f manufactures,with ve1y deft and hard

working craftsmen , who made a great number of chests and Chinesel ike cabinets

,very rich and well wrought, and beds and couches

lacquered in all colours . There was also a great weaving industry incotton and s i lk. A s late as 1 668 (Bruce

‘

s Annals ), the weavers of

Chaul are mentioned as making 5000 p ieces o f taf atz’

es a year.The insecurity of nat ive rule at Chaul was of great advantage

to Bombay. The silk-we ave rs and o the r skilled craftsmen of th

town were induced to settle i n Bombay , where the first s treet wasbuilt to rece ive them 5 and the ir descendan ts o f several castes, coppersmiths, weave rs, and carpenters, are st i ll known as Chaulis, thuspreserving the name of their o ld home . Upper and L ower Chaul,o r, as they are more often called , Cheu l and Revdanda, are amongthe prett ies t and most intere s t ing places i n Kolaba District

,and

can be reached either by land from Alibagh , or by sea. The beginn ing of the 7 miles of land j ourney from Alibagh i s made troublesome by the Alibagh creek, but beyond the creek most of the way liesthrough shady palm groves. Except the Portuguese ruin s in Revdandaor L ower Chaul , the Musalman mosque, baths , and castle of Rajkot in

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3 78 CHAUSA CHED

villages,1 2 ; occupied houses , 10 1 ; population ( 1 88 1 ) 5 26 . A wild

j ungle tract,the grant o f which to the holder appears to have been

made on cond i t ion o f his guarding the neighbouring hill passes .

Chausé..— Village and police ou tpost station in Shahabad District,

Bengal,and a station on the East Indian Railway ; 4 miles west of

Baxar town,and close to the east bank of the Karamnasa. Population

( 1 88 1 ) 2 484 . Noted as the scene o f the defeat of thei

Emperor

Humayun by the Afghan Sher Shah,in June 1 539. The Emperor

,

w ith a few friends,was barely able to escape by crossing the Ganges

,

but 8000 Mughal troops perished in the attempt . In the followingyear

,after a second defeat of Humayun near Kanauj

,Sher Shah

ascended the Imperial throne of Delhi .

Chausér.—Canal in Shahabad District, Bengal a branch of the Son

(Soane) Canal system ,leaving the Buxar Canal at the second mile

,

which latter takes o ff from the Main Western Canal at the 1 2 th milefrom the headworks at Dehri. The canal , which is 40 miles inlength

,is des igned for irrigation purposes only

,and has a discharge of

545 cubic feet of water per second . Capable o f irrigat ing acres

ofHzan’

f and acres of M N crops .

Chévakkéd.

— Town and ta’

luk in Malabar District, Madras Presideney— See CHAUGHAT .

Chawindah.

—Village in Zaffarwal {fl/15 27,Sialkot District

,Punjab.

L at. 3 2°

2 0’

45” N. long. 74

°

45'

1 5”

E . Distant from Sialkot 14 milessouth-east

,on the road to Zaffarwal. Purely agricu ltural communi ty

,

c onsist ing chiefly of Bajwa Jats,the proprietors of the surrounding

lands.

Chedambaram.

—Town and shrine in Sou th Arcot District,Madras

Presidency—See CH IDAM BARANI .

Cheduba (or fl/m z-azmg ) .— Island on the east coast of the Bay ofBengal

,forming a townsh ip in Kyauk-

pyii District , Arakan BritishBurma . L at. 18

°

40'

to 1 8°

56’

30”

N . ; long . 93°

30'

to 93 47'

E . ;

population ( 188 1 ) area,2 40 square m iles . Head-quarters at

Cheduba or Man -aung. The general appearance and character of

Cheduba are those of a ferti le,well-wooded island . A narrow plain ,

sl ightly above the sea-level,ext ends round the coast wi th in l ie irregular,

low, undulat ing h ills , varying in heigh t from 50 to 500 feet , enclosing

several detached mounds (the highest abou t 1 400 feet), wi th steep ,well-wooded sides . In the extreme north-west corner is a so -called

volcano,

’ from which flames i ssue,bu t wh ich are really due to a copious

discharge of inflammable gas , and no t to volcan ic action . Petroleumis found in several places on the island . A cons iderable quantity of

rice is exported coastwi se ; and Cheduba is noted for the excellence ofi ts tobacco. The townsh ip is divided into 8 revenue circles the gross

revenue real iz ed in 188 1—8 2 was £5 2 1 7 . T wo derivations are given

CHED UBA CHEN/IE . 379

for the name ‘Man-aung ,’which signifies ‘ overcoming of the evil dis

position .

’According to ancient t radition, a governor of the island ,

appointed by San-da-ri King of Arakan, who re igned some 2000

years B.C.,so oppressed the people, that they complained to the

sovere ign,who summoned the governor to appear before him. On the

governor refus ing to attend the cou rt , the monarch struck the sea witha rod

, and ordered it to bring his d isobedien t subj ect into his presence.

The sea obeyed, and in a few days the dead body of the rebel waswashed ashore near the royal city. According to another account, the

island was the place of transportation for those cons idered to be pol it ically dangerous, whose evil d isposit ion was thus overcome by thei rbeing rendered powerless. The classical name i s Mek-ka-wa-df. Thename Cheduba, by wh ich the island is known to Europeans and nat ivesof India, is said to be a corruption of Char-dhuba, or four capes,

’ fromthe headlands at the four corners of the i sland. A shoal, with probablyonly two or three fathom s at low water, has lately been discovered 8miles to the north-west of Beacon Island , Cheduba. In October 1878,the Government deemed it necessary to warn mariners that ‘ the wholeof the neighbourhood of Cheduba and Ramri (Ramree) islands isimperfectly known

,and careful navigation is necessary.

’

Cheduba (or M an-aung ). - Small town, situated on the Un river, inthe north-wes t of the island of the same name in Kyauk-pyri District ,Arakan Divis ion

,Brit ish Burma. Population ( 188 1 ) 103 2 . Contain s

a court-house,market, school, and pol ice station.

Chellakere.—Vi11age in Chitaldriig (Chitaldroog) District, Mysore

State 18 miles east-north—east by road from Chitaldrug. L at. 14°

18'

N. ,

long. 76°

43' E. population ( 188 1 ) 1 5 1 3 municipal revenue

_( 18 74—75 )1 1 rate of taxation, 2d. per head. The inhabitants are mostly

L ingayat traders,to whom belongs the chief build ing in the place, the

temple of Chellakere-amma. Head—quarters of the Dodderi ta'

luk.

Chellapalli.—Town in Kistna District, Madras Presidency. Fopu

lation ( 188 1 ) 56 1 5, namely, 5 1 1 8 Hindus and 497 Muhammadans ;

houses, 586.

Ghenab —River in the Punjab , and one o f the five streamsfrom which the Province derives its name . R i ses in the snowyHimalayan ranges of Kashmir ; pursues a winding course through thegorges of Jammu and enters Brit ish terri tory in S ialkot District, near

the village of Khairi Rihal . Receives the waters of the Tavi , a considerable confluent, and forms for some 1 8 miles the boundary betweenSialkot and Gujarat Districts. Flows in this portion of i ts route throughthe alluvial plain of the Punj ab, in a wide and shift ing bed of sand.

It afterwards forms the l imit between the Rechnaand the Jech Doabs ,where many flat-bottomed coun try boats navigate its stream . A belt of

low-lying alluvial soi l fringes either bank for some miles inland ; but

380 CHENARI—CHEN GAL PA 7 :

beyond th is narrow z one, the water of the r iver becomes pract icallyuseless for purposes of irrigation . Passing along the whole westernborder ofGuj ranwala District , the Chenab next enters the desert region

of Jhang,where it occupies a broad valley, nearly 30 mi les in width ,

cons isting o f modern depos its, through which the changing stream cuts

itself a fresh channel from time to t ime . The presen t bed l ies aboutmidway be tween the high banks which confine the central valley ateither end . The shores are for the most part cult ivated down to thewater’s edge

,the area under t i llage having considerably increased s ince

the se ttlemen t of the country. Numerous i slands s tud the river, butconstantly change their places with every inundat ion. The depth o f thestream is here about 1 0 feet during the cold weather, ris ing to 1 6 feetin the rainy season. At Timmu , the Chenab and the Jehlam (Jhelum)unite. A railway bridge crosses the Chenab at Waz irabad and abridge of boats conveys the road from Jhang to Dera Ismail Khan.

Chenari. — Village in Sasseram Sub-divis ion , Shahabad District,

Bengal. Popu lat ion ( 188 1 ) 2 536 , namely, 1844 males and 1 692 females.A municipal un ion , with an income in 1 88 1—82 of£82 .

Chendia.

— Seaport in North Kanara District, Bombay Pres idency

The creek where goods are landed , called Aligaddi, 1s 6 miles southof Karwar ; and the v illage of Chendia is about a mile and ahalf inland.

Chendwar.—Hill in Haz aribagh District

,Bengal

,near Haz aribagh

town ; height , 2 8 16 above sea—level, and 800 feet above the elevatedplateau on which i t is s ituated. L at. 2 3

°

5 7'

1 5 N. , long. 85°

2 8'

30" E.

Chengalpat‘ The brick District in the

Presidency of Madras, lying between 1 2°

1 3' and 13

°

54’ N . lat.

,and

between 79°

35' and 80

°

2 3'E . long. Extreme length

,1 1 5 miles ;

extreme breadth, 42 miles. Area, 2 84 2 square miles population ( 188 1 )

souls . In point of s iz e, Chengalpat rank s twentieth, and in

population sixteenth , among the Dis tricts of the Madras Presidency .

The Bay o f Bengal bounds it on the eas t ; on the nor th l ies NelloreD istrict ; on the south, South Arcot and on the west

,North Arcot

Distr ict . The District con tains 6 towns and 1997 v illages. L andrevenue ( 188 1—8 2 ) total revenue,P /zys z

'

ml Ay a la—The Distr ict generally presents a flat and uninteresting aspect. The land seldom rises to an elevat ion of more than

300 feet , and in many places near the coast it s inks be low the sea-level .L ong reaches of blown sand

,which with in the last few years have

become covered with larch-l ike plantations of casuarina-trees, and

which are often separated from the mainland by backwaters or lagoons ,form the ch ief feature of the coast scenery. Inland

, g reat expansesof flat rice plains, interspersed wi th groves of cocoa-nu t and tamarindtrees, in which l ie the villages of the people ; sandy plains, stony and

gravelly was tes, and stretches of poor pasture land,covered in most

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2 82 CHEN GAL PA TJ

the land of this descript ion bordering on the sea . This tree y ields rapidreturns

,attain ing in favourable locali t ies i ts full growth in abou t fifteen

years ; and as there is a large and increasing demand for firewood inMadras

,the enterprise has attained such proport ions as to materially

change the phys ical aspect of long stretches of the coast,which wil l in

a few years be sti ll more altered by this means as the plantat ionsmature . The flora of the District includes the cocoa-nu t and palmyrapalms

,the mango

, p z’

pal, banian , tamarind , M imi (Acacia arabica ) ,marg osa, and (Garcinia cambogia) . As might be expectedin a me tropolitan District , closely cul t ivated and traversed by manyroads and canals

,as well as by the railway , there is no large game,

except ing in the north-western part o f the Kambakam range,where the

sa’

mb/zar, pig, and wild sheep are in considerable numbers , and leopardsand bears are occasionally found . A few antelope stil l l inger in the

plains at the foot of the h ills . Crocodiles in large numbers are found inthe Karungul i tank , and in no other . I t is no t known when and howthey were introduced . The tank was constructed in 1 795 by the then

Collector of the District , Mr. Place , and communicates with others .Snakes

,as in other parts of the Presidency

,are common .

[ fi'

slorJu— Chengalpa t formed part o f the ancient kingdom of Vijay

anagar, and is studded throughout with places of historical interest ;indeed

,there is hardly a village within 30 miles south and west of

Madras that is not mentioned by the historians of Sou thern India .

A fter the overthrow of the Vij ayanagar dynasty at Taliko t in 1 564, the

Raya kings fell back on Chandragiri and Vellore ; and the vicin ity of

Chengalpat to the latter fortress makes it probable that the power of thefamily extended over the present District . At any rate

,when in 1639

the East India Company negot iated for the site of the present city of

Madras,i t was from Sri Ranga Raya that the gran t was finally obtained .

During the struggle between the Bri t ish and the French for the masteryo f the Karnatic , Chengalpat and many other towns in the Dis trict werethe scene of constan t fight ing. In 1 760 , the D istrict, o rj dg z

’

r,as it was

then and long after called , was granted to the East I ndia Company inperpetuity by Muhammad Ali

,the Nawah o fArcot, for services rendered

to him and his father and in 1 7 63 this grant was confirmed by the

Emperor Shah A lam . From 1 763 t i ll 1 7 80 i t was leased to the

Nawab and during that period was twice ravaged by Haidar Ali, oncei n 1 768 , and again in 1 780. On the latter occas ion , the Mysore ch ief

almost depopulated th e District ; and what fire and sword had left

undone, famine completed . Since that year,the h istory o f the District

consists ch iefly of a chronicle o f terri torial arrangements and transfers.In 1 784 i t was d ivided into 14 separate farms , and rented out. Fouryears later it was parcelled out into collectorates

,which again in 1 793

were un ited into one ‘ District .’ In 180 1

, the Sattiawad division and

CHEN G AL PAT. 383

the territory about Pul icat (ceded to the Dutch by the Nawab) were

added to Chengalpat. The former was transferred in 1804 to North

Arcot, but re-un ited to thi s District , partly in 1 850, when 53 o f itsvillages were incorporated with the Ponneri lath/k ; and altogether when

the remain ing 90 were subsequently made over to the T iruvalltir id/u/c.

The ‘ home farms,

’ and some other villages which t ill 1 798 formed the

jurisdiction of the ‘ Recorder’s Court ,’were in that year separated from

the Chengalpat Collectorate , and placed under the officer then called

the L and Customer,’but subsequently appo in ted Collector of Madras .

’

In 1860, the town ofMadras, the sea-customs excepted, was transferredto Chengalpat ; but in 1 870 the former arrangement was reverted to ,and the Collectorate of Madras remains dist inct from that of th is

District.Population

—Several attempts have been made to enumerate theinhabitants. The first Census , taken in 1 795

—96, when the District

was j ust beginning to recover from the Mysore devastations,gave a

total populat ion of inhabi t ing houses. The next,in

1850, showed souls ; in 1 859, l iving inhouses ; in 1866 , in dwellings . The enumeration of

187 1 disclosed a popula t ion of persons ; and the last regular

Census of the 1 7 th February 188 1 returned a total population o f

l iving in houses and 2 003 villages , among which areincluded 6 towns . The increase of populat ion in the decade 18 7 1

1881 was or 46 per cent . Number of persons per square mile,

345, ranging from 598 in Saidapet to 2 69 in Chengalpat idly/cs . Inpoint of densi ty Chengalpat ranks s ixth in the Pres idency . Numberof persons per house

, 6 9. The proportions o f the sexes are nearlyequal

,the males numbering the females or 50 2

males to 498 females in every 1000. Classi fi ed according to rel igionthere were H indus

,Vaishnav s and Sivaites being in almost

equal proport ions ; Muhammadans , chiefly Sunnis ;Christians

,of whom 8 1 per cent . were Roman Cathol ics ; Jains and

Buddhists,2 29 ; and

‘ others,

’

30. Among the Christ ians, Europeans

numbered 1 683, and Euras ians 1 1 74, the remainder being nat ives .

Under 10 years there were and between 1 0 and 20 years

By caste,the Hindus were distributed as follows Brahmans ,

or 34 1 per cen t. of the total population Kshattriyas (warriors) ,6435, or 06 9 per cent . ; Shetties (traders ), or per cent.

Vallalars (agricul turists ), or 193 1 per cent. Idaiyars (shepherds), or 5 89 per cent . Kammalars (artisans) , or 2 3 3per cent . Kanakkan (writers ) , or 1 6 1 per cent. Kaikalar

(weavers), or 3 79 per cent . ; Vanniyan ( labourers) ,or 20 33 per cent . ; Kushavan (potters), 7 7 7 5, or 08 2 per cent. ;Satani (mixed castes) , or 1 5 5 per cent . ; Shembadavan ( fi sher

384 CHENG AL PAZT

men ) , or 1 7 1 per cent . ; Shanan (toddy-drawers) , or

1 94 per cen t . ; Ambattan (barbers) , 9655 , 01 1 0 2 per cen t. Vannan

(washermen) , or 1 3 9 per cen t . ; Pariahs , or 2 5 93 per

cent . ;‘ others ,

’01 6 49 per cent . Class ified according to

occupation,

per cent. of the total population , or malesand 1949 females , belong to the professional class ; 05 7 per cent. , or

2664 males and 2919 females , to the domest ic ; per cent. , or

9057 males and 1486 females, to the commercial ; 306 0 per cent . , ormales and females , to the agricultural ; 97 7 per cent . ,

or males and females,to the industrial ; and 56 2 8 per

cen t., or males and females ( including children) , tothe indefinite and non - productive, 6 5 1 per cent. among the last

being returned as ‘ occupied .

’About 502 3 per cent . are returned

as ‘ workers,

’

on whom the remain ing 497 7 per cent . o f the popula

t ion depend . Of the males 67 1 3 per cent. , and of the females 33 1 9per cen t. were ‘ workers.’ There were educated or under instruct ion

persons,or males and 5 13 2 females ; the percentage

be ing 1948 for th e male and for the female population.

Pariahs are numerically the strongest caste ; the Vanniyans comenext and after them the Vallalars . These three castes are extensively

influenced by European contact ; for, though the great maj orityengage only in the agricultural and servile labour that tradition

assigns them ,many o f them have pushed to the fron t

,and they

now fil l one- third of the oflicial posts with in the reach o f natives .

Of those in ‘ the professions,’ i t i s noteworthy that in th is District,

which l ies near the capital, and is therefore under the influence of theBriti sh example of toleration and ind ifference to caste

,there are as

many Pariah s as Brahmans. From the same cause,and from the

progress of education, orthodox Hinduism shows s igns of losingground

,and an advanced Monotheism is mak ing way. There are,

however,no Brahma Samaj centres . The chief towns of the District

are—CONJ EVERAM (populat ion ST . THOMAS’ MOUNT, amilitary cantonment SA I DAPET T IRUVAT IYUR

CHENGAL PA’

I‘ PUNAM ALL I , cantonment (482 1 ) Trau

VAL LUR (6 2 4 2 ) PALLAVARAM, cantonment Conj everam is theonly municipal town in the District. Bes ides these

,there are 36 town

ships wi th from 2 000 to 3000 inhabitants , making the total urbanpopulat ion about 20 per cent . of the whole . The villages with lessthan 500 inhabitants each , number 1443 . The neighbourhood of the

capital naturally exercises great influence on the surplus adul t labouro f the D istrict

,but th is is nevertheless essentially agricultural. The

people are much attached to the ir lands,and the l iteral interpretat ion

given to mz’

rész'

rights (aide infra) Strengthens this attachment .Ag rz

’

azl/ure.—The land nowhere attains the high fert il ity of some of

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386 CHEN GA‘

LPAT .

crop may be estimated at about 3, 4s . per acre the net profit to the

cul tivator,after deducting land revenue , cesses, etc .

, and value of

labour,the major portion Of which in the case of the actual cult ivator

goes in to his own pocket, averaging 1 , 9s. 6d. per acre, exclusive of

the value of the straw,for each crop. In favourable situations , such as

the neighbourhood of tanks and river channels , two crops are Obtained

in the year. On dry land , the assessment varies from 6d. to 45 . per

acre,the average being a trifle over 35 . the rdyaz

‘

wdrz’

holdings average

7 acres each . Deducting the land revenue and other expenses, thecultivator’s net annual pro fi t averages 1 3s . per acre , or 011 his total

hold ing , £4 , 1 7 s. 6d. The chief wet-land crop is r ice o f three kinds“ samba

,éar

,and manakalai—divided by the cu lt ivators into 3 1

variet ies. On dry lands th e staple crops are m g r, mmg u , c/zolam,

saméu,indigo

,pu lses

,o il-seeds , ground-nuts, chillies , and tobacco .

Natural —Many years have been marked by great scarcity ,arising from various causes ; but in five only did the scarcity amountto famine. In 1 7 33 , from neglect of i rrigat ion ; in 1 780 , from theravages o f the Mysore troops ; in 1 7 87 , from drough t ; in 1 785, fromextraordinary floods

,which destroyed the tanks and water channels ;

and in 1806—7 , owing to a general failure o f the rains throughout thePresidency

,the District suffered from famine . In 1867

—68,prices rose

very high ; and during the famine of 1 8 76 , the starvation point wasnearly reached . When paddy or unhusked rice rises to 8 lbs. for thesh illing

,especially i f that price is stationary for any length of t ime

,

measures o f State rel ief become necessary. The District i s peculiarlyl iable to cyclones

,the month s Of May and October being the usual

periods of visitation . Between 1 746 and 1 846, fi fteen disastrous cycloneshave been recorded

,and 1 87 2 was marked by the occurrence Of a most

destructive storm of th is kind . The cyclones are generated in the Bayof Bengal , and approach the coast o f the District ( the town o f Madrasbeing frequently touched by their centres) from the south—south—east,afterwards assuming a west or west-south-westerly d irect ion . The area

within which the ir action is usually felt extends from 109 miles north to1 2 0 miles south of Madras . They have from the earliest t imes caused

g reat destruction to sh ipping, strewing the coasts with wrecks , breachingthe tanks, sweeping away villages , and infl ict ing on the country mostd isastrous losses in cattle and other live stock. The rainfall aecompanying a cyclone averages 6 inches .Commerce and Truffa fi T he trade of the small coast towns has long

ago been attracted to Madras ; and , except at the Presidency town,there is now no commercial activi ty along the seaboard . PUL IKAT alone

maintained its independence as a trading port unti l 1 864 ; but in thatyear its customs house also was removed

,and the coast o f the District

i s now deserted . L and trade (except the local interchange Of field

CHENG Az PAT . 387

produce and the necessaries Of l ife) exists only in the unremunerativeform of through traffic ; while such industries as the manufacture of

spirits for local consumpt ion, and the planting Of tamarind groves ,belong rather to the city of Madras than to Chengalpat District. T he

salt manufactured for Government gives employment to many thousand

families,chiefly mz

’

ra’

s z’

dcirs having hereditary rights to the manufacture

and the annual out-turn is valued at Weaving occupiesabout persons, but—e xcept the finer musl ins of Arni

,the art of

making which is nearly extinct , and confined to only a few families ,and the coloured cloths Of Conj everam—none of the District manufactures have more than local repute. Metal-ware to a small extent,and indigo

,the making of which is on the increase, comple te the l ist

of the non-agricultural industries. The fresh-water fisheries yield anannual revenue Of about £ 1 14 but the sea fishery

,though yield ing

no revenue,and not under any kind of Offi cial control

,is a most

important industry . T he number Of large boats employed is over 400.

An extensive trade is carried on in fresh fi sh,brought into Madras from

as great a distance as 2 0 miles, in baskets slung on a pole or on men’s

heads,and thence exported by rail to Bangalore and other places .

The variet ies most pri z ed are the Indian mackerel (Scomber kanagurta),mango fish (Polynemus paradiseus ), mullet, seer (Cybium) , and pomfret

(Stromateus). Turtles from Pulikat, and oysters from Sadras and Covelong

,supply the Madras market. There were , in 1 88 1- 8 2 , 675 miles

of road in the District, nearly all metalled or gravelled throughout , and

80 miles Of coast canal . The South Indian Railway passes through theDistrict in two directions, one the main l ine for 65 miles south ,running from Madras past S t. Thomas’Mount, Pallavaram , Chengalpat,and M adhurantakam ,

and the other,which is a branch l ine from Chen

galpat to Conj everam and Arkonam on the Madras l ine, for 3 1 milesnorth-west. The Madras Railway also passes for 40 miles Of i ts coursethrough the Tiruvalliir and Saidapet ta

’

luks.

Admimktm tz’

om— The District i s d ivided for revenue purposes into6 ta

’

lulzs , namely , CHENGALPAT, CONJEVERAM,M ADHURANTAKAM

, PON

NERI,SAIDAPET

,and T IRUVALLUR

,each w i th i ts sub-divisional nat ive

establishment subordinate to the head-quarters at SA IDAPET, the revenueand magisterial j urisd ictions being in every case conterminous . Thesessions are held at Chengalpat, 30 miles from Saidapet , where also thesub-collector and civil surgeon are stationed . Within the l imits of theDistrict

,but under independent jurisdiction, l ies the Presidency town

of MADRAS. The total revenue of the District was returned in 188 1—8 2at and the total expenditure on civil administration at

The principal i tems of receipt were as follows z—L andrevenue

,sal t

,excise on spirits and drugs

,

stamps,

and licence tax, £ 1 1 79. Chief items Of

388 CHEN G ALPAT .

expeni iture—L and revenue and excise collect ion , and salt

establ ishment s, The police force aggregated,i n 1 88 1

, a

total strength of 1 7 Officers and 930 men , maintained at a cost of

or about 4d. per head of the populat ion. Of this force,nearly one - half were j ail and salt guards, the actual number of

constables on general duty being 499, or one to every 532

; square milesand every 1967 inhabitants . There are 1 3 j ails in the District , wi th anaverage daily population of 160 prisoners, and cost ing annually£ 1439.

Educat ion has recently made marked progress, and female educationis spreading ; 10 per cent. Of the population can now read and wri te.The District being in clos e proximity to the Presidency town , thecolleges and schools there , for the most part, provide higher education.

The Saidapet High School , which teaches up to the College entranceexamination

,i s the only purely Government educat ional ins t itution now

w ithin the District. There are 4 aided schools , which also preparefor the matriculation examination . There were in 1 88 1

, 580 schoolsconducted on the results grants system, which were under the supervision of the L ocal Fund Board . The number Of pupils wasand the sums paid as results grants was £ 1388. The total cost toGovernment Of education in the D istrict in 1 88 1—82 was £2 1 58, inadd it ion to£1388 paid by the L ocal Fund Board on account of grantsto the schools mentioned above . Chengalpat contain s only one

municipali ty, CONj EVARAM , and 3 military cantonments—ST . THOMAS’

MOUNT,PALLAVARAM , and PUNAM AL L I .

M edical Aspects—The climate , considering the latitude , may becalled temperate

,and the extremes Of heat and cold experienced inland

are here unknown . Both monsoons affect the District. The meantemperature for the whole year, day and night, i s about 8 1

”

F., vary

ing from 63° to The annual rainfall averages 4 1 inches. This

fi gure cannot be held to be absolu tely accurate , but care having been

of late years taken in gauging the rainfall, i t i s not very far from thetruth . In 1846, 20 inches of rain fe l l in as many hours , and the

whole District was flooded. Chengalpat has the reputation Of being

one of the healthiest Districts in the Pres idency . The fevers which

devastate so many other parts , are almost unknown in it . The annual

death-rate,according to the mortuary returns , is 2 2 per thousand.

Epidemic cholera has unti l recently been frequent, and, in 1 875—76,

caused in Conj evaram alon e 1067 deaths out Of 1 57 7 . Since then ,however, there has been but l ittle o f th is d isease . Ague in the colddamp weather i s not uncommon , and small -pox and ophthalmia areprevalen t diseases . [For further informat ion regarding Chengalpat, seethe M anual of C/zeng alpaf D istrict, by C. S . Crole, Esq., C.S.

, Madras ,1 879. Also the M adras Census Report for 1 88 1 ; and the Annual

Administration Reporls of fl uM adras G overnment from 1880 to

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390 CHEN GAM A CHER/1.

garrisons and stores from outlying forts ; and the stronghold of

Chengalpat was thus actually abandoned in 1 7 58. Considerations of

i ts importance soon,however, persuaded our Government to re-occupy

i t,and wh ile the French were advancing from the south , a strong

garrison was thrown into it from Madras . L ally , the French General ,

arrived just too late, and , finding it impregnable except by regu lar siege,made the mistake of leaving it in h is rear, and passed on to Madras.

During the siege that followed , the garrison of Chengalpat renderedinvaluable assistance

,no t only by securing the country north of the

Palar,but by sallying out with disastrous effect upon the rear of the

investing enemy . In 1 780, the British force , after the destruction

o f General Baill ie’s column , found refuge here ; and during the wars

w i th Mysore , this fortress was once taken by the enemy, re-occupiedby the Bri t i sh

,and twice unsuccessfully besieged . I t was from the

Palegar or Nayakkan of Chengalpat and Chandragiri that the Brit ish

c rig inally obtained permission , in 1639, to build the town ofMadras.

Chengama (T z’

ng remtta or —A pass connect ing theDis tric ts o f Salem and South Arco t , Madras Presidency. L at. 1 2

°

2 1’

to 1 2°

2 3’

45"

N . ; long. 7 8°

50' to 78

°

5 2'

35 B . As the direct route

to the Baramahal from the Karnatic,i t has been the scene of several

importan t even ts . In 1 7 60, Makdum Ali entered the Karnatic by thispass ; and here , i n 1 76 7 , Haidar Ali, pursu ing the Bri t ish in theirretreat on T rinomalai

,recei ved a severe defeat . T wo years later, the

Mysore army retreated by the Chengama, and in 1 780 returnedthrough i t to destroy General Bai llie’s column . In 1 791 , Tipu led off

his forces—the last army that invaded the British Karnatic—by thesame rou te .

Chennag iri.- l uk and village in Shimoga District

,Mysore State.

See CHANNAGIR I .

Chepauk .

—A quarter of MADRAS TOWN .

Chera. (or Kerala) . —Name o f one of the Oldest kingdoms inSouthern India. Its exact local ity is st il l a subj ect o f dispute , but i t is

quite certain that it lay on the western coast . I t i s doubtful whetheri t was s imply synonymous with Kerala

,which was the name of the

whole western coast , including Travancore , or whether i t was an oldername for the kingdoms o f Kerala and of the Korigu kings combined.

I f the latter, i t embraced , bes ides the present D istricts of Kanara andMalabar and the Native States of Coch in and Travancore , the Districtso f Coimbatore and Salem

, wi th parts of Mysore and the Nilgiris . Inthe oldest historical days

, Chera , Chola , and Pandya formed thethree great southern kingdoms

,the confines of which met, according to

tradition, at a place on the Kaveri (Cauvery) river, 1 1 miles east of Karur.Probably the larger country was at different periods broken up into two

divisions, the coast and the inland , which again united under the old

CHERAND—CHERAT. 391

name, provincial i sms in language giving rise t o various pronunciat ions .The date of the origin of the Chera dynasty is unknown, but it was in

existence early in the Christ ian era. Towards the end of the ninth, orbeginning of the tenth century, the Chera country was overrun by theCholas. T o the Chola dynas ty succeeded

,after an interval of anarchy,

the rule of the Hoysala Ballalas of Mysore,who held the country t il l

they were overthrown by the M uhammadans i n A.D. 13 10. The latter

were shortly afterwards driven out by a Hindu confederation,headed

by the ris ing ch iefs of Vij ayanagar,and for two centuries were held in

check , while the Vij ayanagar empire , which absorbed the ancient Stateof Chera, grew to its greatest height of prosperity and grandeur. In1565, the Vijayanagar kingdom was destroyed by the Muhammadansbut the Chera country was firmly held by the Nayakkas of Madura,till the period when the whole of southern India was decimated bythe constant stri fe between the ris ing kings of Mysore

,the Madura

Nayakkas , and the Muhammadans . In 1 640, the Chera country wascaptured by the armies of the Adil Shah i dynas ty of Bij aypur, and wasseiz ed by the M ysore king in 1 65 2 . Perpetual strife ensued, endingonly on the downfall of T ipu

’

t Sultan and the capture of Seringapatam .

See also CHOLA.

Cherand.—Vil lage i n Si ran District

,Bengal ; s ituated on the main

stream of the Ganges, 7 miles east of Chapra, i n lat. 25

°

43’

4 1 N . ,

long. 84°

5 2’10

” E. Contain s the remains of an old fort, the history ofwhich is unknown, and a ruined mosque.

Cherat.—Hill cantonment and san itarium in Nawashahra ta/zstl,

Peshawar District, Punjab ; l ies in lat . 33°

50'

0"

N., and long.

7 2°1’

o" E., at an elevation o f 4500 feet above sea-level, on the west

of the Khattak range, which divides the Districts of Peshawar andKohat distant from Peshawar 34 miles south-east, from Nawashahra

25 miles south-west. The site was first brought to notice in 1 853 byMajor Coke, who observed it during the exploration of the Mir Kalanroute to Kohat but some years passed before act ive steps were takenfor its occupation, owing to the fear of polit ical complications w ith thesurrounding Afridi tribes. In 1 86 1 , a temporary camp , establ ishedduring the autumn months, proved a complete success and since that

t ime,troops have been annually moved up with great benefi t to their

health. Even in the hottest seasons, the temperature seldom exceeds80

°

F. The water-supply comes from a spring at Sapari, nearly 3 milesdistant ; est imated outflow, gallons per diem in the driest seasonof the year. There i s another spring , very much nearer the station, th ewater of which is sl ightly sulphurous ; it i s used for bathing. Towardsthe end of June

,the temperature in the shade rises as high as

but once the rain falls,the climate becomes very pleasant. The hill i s

rocky,but is not void of vegetat ion the wild ol ive (kabu), dodom

’

a, and

392 CHERP UL CHARJ CHE ER/s F UN/f.

other wild bushes grow in abundance, and in the spring there is anabundance of wild flowers . The place is st ill called a camp, no regularcantonments having yet ( 1883) been laid out, and the men till recentlyl ived in tents . Huts

,however, have now been built for the better

accommodat ion o f the detachments . The land belongs to the UriaKhel Khattaks o f the three villages of Shakot, Silakhana, and Bhaktipur. When the troops are away in the winter, the people of these

v il lages receive £2 0 a month for taking care of the Governmentproperty left . There is a small Roman Catholic Chapel, but noProtestant Church , al though the chapla in of Peshawar makes occasionalvis its . The h ill commands a v iew of the whole of the Peshawar valleyon one side, and on the other o f a great part of Rawal Pindi and ofthe Khwara valley in Kohat District .

Cherpulchari-Town in Malabar District

,Madras

Presidency ; si tuated 1 0 miles from the Patambi railway station , in lat.1 0

°

53’

N .

,long. 76

°2 2

'

20” E . Houses

, 7 14 ; population ( 188 1 ) 4501 ,namely

, 3668 Hindus, 829 Muhammadans , and 4 Christians . Formerly

( 1 792—1800) the station of the Southern Superintendent under Bombay,and ( 1860) the head-quarters of the Nedungana

’

d ta’

laé . Contains asub-magisterial es tabl ishment

,post—offi ce , t ravellers

’ bungalow,etc. It

was annexed to Mysore in 1 7 66, and was the scene of troubles with theZamorin

’

s family in 1 790.

Cherra (Khas i , Sa/z — Petty State in the Khasi H ills, Assam.

Population ( 1 88 1 ) 8055 ; revenue, £855 , chiefly from market dues .The presid ing ch ief

,whose ti tle i s Stem, is named U H ajan Manik.

The principal products o f the State are—oranges,betel-nuts

,honey,

bamboos lime,and coal . Manufacture of bamboo mats and baskets.

The Khasi word of Soh—rah,from wh ich the l ittle S tate and its capital

derive their name , i s the name of an edible frui t—tree .

Cherra Punj i (Khasi, Sa/z-ra’

lz —The principal v illage o f

Cherra State, Khas i Hills , Assam a name now also given by custom toan abandoned Brit ish station in the Khas i Hills District

,about 30 miles

south of Shillong, and 4588 feet above sea-level . L at. 2 5°

1 6’

58"

N . ,

long. 91”

46'

42 E. populat ion ( 1 88 1 ) 2 7 29. Cherra Punj i was earlychosen as the res idence of the chief Brit ish official in the Khasi Hills .The adminis trative head-quarters of the D istrict were removed toShillong in 1 864, and Cherra Punj i was abandoned . The s tation

,

which l ies to the south of the panj z'

or village,which forms the residence

of th e chief of the State, i s now ,save for a da’lz bungalow

,police

station , and post-offi ce , entirely deserted ; and the remains o f the

sol idly-built houses, now mere roofless walls choked with j ungle , forma melancholy spectacle . North o f the plateau on which the stat ionstood, and south of the vil lage

,is the Christ ian colony of Nong-Saulia,

which forms the centre of operat ions of the Welsh Calvin istic Miss ion .

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394 CHE J VAJR CHHAN UYA .

year i t came under the direct admin istrat ion of the East India

Company.

Cheyair— R iver in Cuddapah District, Madras Presi

deney ; a tributary of the PENNAR. Flows for some miles through

the Seshachellam hills,and is crossed by the rai lway near Nandalur,

the scene of a terrible disaster in 18 70 . Owing to its steep andprecipitous course

,the u t i l iz at ion of its waters for irrigat ion is almost

impossible.

Cheyair (Cfi éj'éru — R iver in North Arcot District ,

Madras Pres idency rises in the Jawadi range (lat. 1 2°

30’

N.,long. 78

°

50' and after a course north-east of about 90 miles, during which it

flows past T rivatur and feeds many irrigat ional works , i t j oins thePALAR in Chengalpat District , in lat . 1 2

°

4 2’

N .

,long . 79

°

55' E .

Chhachrauli—Chief town of Chhachrauli ta/zsz’

l,Kalsia State,

Punjab. Populat ion ( 188 1 ) 5389, namely , Hindus, 3447 ; M uham

madans,1699 ; Sikhs , 2 08 ; Jains , 35. Number of occupied houses,

7 56

Chhagan G0bra.—Village in Athgarh S tate, Ori ssa . L at. 2 0

°

34’

0"

N . ; long. 85°

5 1’

o” E. Inhabited exclusively by a small communi ty

of native Christ ians , under the charge of the Baptis t Mission at

Cuttack. The village has a small chapel,and is prett ily situated on a

slight eminence,surrounded by well-cult ivated rice-fi elds . T wo o ther

Christian hamlets adj oin i t .

Chhélépék .—Dep6 t in Rangpur D istrict , Bengal. Trade in jute

and lime .

Chhaliar. Petty State o f Rewa Kantha, Guj arat, BombayPres idency . Area

,1 1 square miles

,contain ing 24 villages ; est imated

revenue, £1 2 00

,of which £340 i s paid as tr ibu te to the Gaekwar

of Baroda. The Chohans es tabl ished themselves here at a veryearly period. The original l imi ts o f the State embraced Vakhtapur

and Raj pur,which were subsequently assigned to cadets of the

family.

Chhalla..— Petty State of j halawar in Kath iawar, Bombay Presidency ;consist ing of 1 village

,wi th 2 independent tribute-payers . Est imated

revenue in 1 87 6, £2 30 ; tribute of£97 i s paid to the Brit ish Government , and £ 7 , 1 65 . to j unagarh .

ChhanchiaM irganj .—Dep6 t in Rangpur District , Bengal. Tradei n rice and j ute .

Chhanuya (or Chantal—Port on the Panchpara river, BalasorD istrict

, Orissa. L at. 2 1°

N . long. 87°

6'

2 1” E . Frequented by

native sloops for cargoes of rice . The Saratha river j o ins the Panchpara a‘ short d istance above the point where the united stream falls

into the Bay of Bengal . The entrance from the sea is impeded by

a bar , covered at low t ide with only a few inches of water. With

CHHAPARA CHHA TARP UE . 395

the rise of the t ides , vessels of about 100 tons burthen contrive to

get in . Above the bar there is no want of water,and the river i s

navigable by sea-going craft as far as M ahadanf, 9 miles from the sea in

a direct line. The exports consis t almost ent irely of r ice there are noimports.

Chhapérar—Decayed town in L akhnador ta/zsz

'

l, Seoni District,Central Provinces, s ituated 2 2 miles north of Seoul town, on theJabalpur road. Population ( 188 1 ) 2 881 , namely, Hindus, 2 063 ; M u

hammadans, 644 Jains, 16 1 aboriginals, 1 3. Formerly a considerable

place, but sacked in the last century by th e Pindaris, from which it hasnever recovered . Excellent camping ground in the neighbourhood ;travellers’ bungalow.

Chhéta..—Ta/zsz'

l and town in Muttra Distric t,North—Western

Provinces—S“ CHATA.

Chhatak .—Village on th e left bank of the Surma river

,i n Sylhet

District, Assam ; 3 2 miles below Sylhet town . L at. 2 5“

2’

10"

N. ;

long. 91°

42'

20” E. Up to th is point, the Sunni is navigable by

steamers all the year round ; and Chhatak is a thriving seat of rivertraffic, where the l imes tone, oranges, and potatoes of the Khas i H illsare collected for shipment to Bengal. The articles rece ived in exchangecomprise cotton goods, salt, sugar, rice, pulses, and hardware. In

1881—82, the exports from Chhatak by native boats were valued atThe steamer traflic i s ch iefly a trans i t one to or from Cachar,

Sylhet, and Shillong. The tlidna’ or pol ice c ircle of Chhatak has a

populat ion ( 188 1 ) ofChhatarpur.

—Native State in Bundelkhand , under the CentralIndia Agency and the G overnment of India. I t l ies to the south ofHamirpur District

,bordered by the Dhasan and Ken rivers, between

24°

2 1'

and 25°

1 6' N. lat ., and between 79

°

3 7’

and 80°

2 8’ E . long.

area, 1 1 69 square miles revenue,about £2 Populat ion ( 1 88 1 )

namely, Hindus, 55 10 Muhammadans, 749 Jains, and

9 Christ ians ; number of villages , 3 1 5 number of occupied houses,average dens ity of population , person s per square mile.

The founder of the presen t l ine of chiefs was an adventurer, who haddispossessed the descendan t of Chhatar $511 in the days of Marathadisturbances. On the Bri t ish occupat ion of the Province in 1 804, hi ssubmission was secured by the guarantee of his possessions. H ereceived semads to that effect in 1 806 and 1808 and it is under thesecharters , and one of l ike import in 1 8 1 7 , that the estate is held . Thechief received the ti tle of Raja in 1 82 7 . The present rule r i s RajaBishen Nath Singh

,a Puar Raj put by caste, who was born in 1867 .

During his minority, Chaubi Chubi Dhanpat Ra

'

i,a Deputy Collector in

the North-Western Provinces,was appoin ted to superintend the State .

He died in 1 876. The Raja’

rkeeps up a mil itary force of 62 horse and

396 CHHA TARP UR CHHA T I SG ARH.

1 1 78 infantry and police , with 3 2 guns and 38 gunners . He receives a

salut e of 1 1 guns .

Chhattarpur,

—Chief town o f the State of the same name,

Bundelkhand, Central India Agency ; situated in lat . 24

°

54'

N. , long .

79°

38’

E . , on the route from Banda to Seigar (Saugor) , 70 miles southwest of the former and 1 00 miles north-east o f the lat ter . Population

( 188 1 ) namely, Hindus,

1966 Muhammadans,and

354‘ others .’ It is a thriving place , having manu factures of paper

and coarse cutlery made from iron mined from the adjacent hil ls . The

mos t strik ing architectural obj ects are the ruins of the extensive palaceof Chhatar 5 511, the founder of the short-l ived independence of . Bundelkhand

,in whose honour the town rece ived i ts name . Close by is his

mausoleum,a large structure of mass ive proportions and elaborate

workmanship,surrounded by five domes . Most o f the houses in the

town are low, and the s tree ts narrow, but a few of the residences of themore wealthy inhabitan ts are spaciou s and well bu i l t.

Chhatisg arh (‘ The thirty- six forts — The south-eastern Divis ion

or Commissionership of the Central Provinces , lying between 20°

1'

o and 2 2°

33'

30 N . lat. , and between 80°

2 8'

o" and 84

°

24'

o E .

long. Comprises the Districts of Raipur,wi th the four attached

S tates o f Chhuikadan, Kanker,Khairagarh

,and Nandgaon ;

Bilaspur,with the two attached States of Kawardha and Sakt i ;

and Sambalpur,w ith the seven attached States o f Kalahandi

,Raigarh

,

Sarangarh,Patna

,Sonpur

,Rairakhol, and Bamra. Total area

,

including feudatory States, square miles ; population ( 188 1 )The area of the Brit ish Districts was square

miles ; number of towns and villages, number o f houses,of which were occupied

,and unoccupied ;

popu lat ion namely, males and femalesave rage density o f population , 1 2 8 7 persons per square mile ; villages

per square mile,'

48 ; houses per square mile, 3 7 persons per village,2 66 ; persons per occupied house

, 3 5 1 . Classified according toreligion

,the popu lat ion o f the Bri t ish Dis tricts consisted of—Hindus,Kabirpan this

,Satnam is, Kumbhipathias ,

692 ; S ikhs, 10 ; j ains, 530 ; Muhammadans, Christ ians, 966 ;aborigines

,E thnically, however, the aboriginal tribes are

returned at the difference representing the number who haveembraced some form o f Hinduism . An account of a remarkablereligious movement which has of late years sprung up among the

Chamars of Chhatisgarh, wil l be found in the article on the CENTRAL

PROV I NCES .

The following brief description of the Chhatisgarh Divis ion is quotedfrom Tbe Central P rof it/M es G az etteer, Introduct ion , pp . xxiv. , xxv.

(second ed ition , Nagpur , 1870) The Nagpur plain is terminated on

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398 CHHINDWARA.

early part of the last cen tury, and restored by a Brit ish Collector, isthe principal bu ilding. The other buildings are the offi cial

,civil

,and

revenue court-houses, police station, good school, and imperial post ~

o flice. A municipal revenue for pol ice and conservancy purposes islevied by means o f a house-tax , under the provisions of Act xx . of

1 856 . Good halting-place and encamping ground for trave llers and

troops.

Chhindwéré..—District in the Narbada Division o f the Chief

Commissionersh ip of the Central Provinces, lying between 2 1°

20’ and

2 2°

50' N . lat . , and between 7 8

°

14'

and 79°

2 3’ E. long. Bounded on

the north and north-west by Nars inghpur and Hoshangabad ; on thewest by Bettil ; on the east by Seoni ; and on the south by Nagpur,while i ts south-western corner touches Berar. Area

,after latest changes

391 5 square miles ; population ( 188 1) The admini

s trative head-quarters of the District are at CHHINDWARA, which is alsothe principal town .

P /zysz'

eal Aspects —Chh indwara natural ly divides itself into a h ighland and a lowland region

,the former of which

,under the name of

the Balaghat,occupies the greater part of the District . The Balaghat

consists of a section of the Sa’

tpura range,extending northward to the

outer l ine of hills south of the Narbada (Nerbudda) valley. I t rests forthe mos t part upon the great basal t ic formation

,which stretches up

from the south-west across the Satpura H ills,as far east as j abalpur

(j ubbulpore) . The highest of these ranges starts from the confines ofthe Hara i j a

’

g z’

r,and continues westward across the District

,with a

mean breadth of 8 miles,the ascents being steep on the north

,but

much easier on the other side. A beautiful valley skirts the southernbase

,and i s again divided by an ill -de fi ned range of h ills from the

central plateau , through which l ies the descent to the plain of Nagpur.The average height of the Balaghat is 2 000 feet above sea-level . TheZ erghat, or lowland region , comprises three pargana

’

s in the south-westangle of the District , touching upon Nagpur and Berar and extends in

an open and undulat ing country . In some parts of the uplands,the

scene for miles i s bare of trees but the southern slopes of the Sa'

ttpuras

are well wooded . Teak and raj , the latter often o f considerable siz e,are plentiful in these forests , besides the ordinary woods, which are

largely exported to the neighbouring District of Nagpur. The totalarea of Government reserved forests in 1880—8 1 was 7 36 square miles.Along the streams which intersect the country

,o fwhich the Kanhan is

the most considerable, l ie strips and patches‘

of j ungle,while the

villages are often surrounded wi th groves of mango and tamarind trees.At Anom

’

, near M ahuljhir, on the eas t of the Mahadeo Hills, a springo f hot water gushes from the ground. Trap covers the greater part ofthe District, rest ing in the south d irectly on the plutonic rocks, and in

CHHIND IVARA. 399

the north on sandstone . It encloses an alluvial depos it,which at

Butariato the east, and at M islzinwarato the south ofChhindwara, andat other places, yields remains of the Eocene period. The soil isgenerally black where it overlies the trap

,and red where i t rests on

sandstone or plutonic rocks. The only important m ineral product ofChhindwara is coal . The coal-fi eld at Barkol, the oldest known in theDistrict, has been experimentally worked for some years but the highcost of carriage has prevented success. I t contain s two seams, of whichthe upper one alone has been explored . This will yield over 5 feet ofcoal, with heat ing qualit ies equal to two-th irds of the best Welsh coal.Four m iles west of Sirgori, a fine seam occurs in the bed of the Penchriver but whether i t extends to the north, beneath the trap in the river,has not yet been ascertained . Coal has been found in many otherparts of the District ; but the places above named appear the mostl ikely to prove suitable for mining purposes . Wild beasts formerlyabounded in Chhindwara, but the persistent efforts of who arevery numerous in this District

,have greatly d iminished their numbers

of late years. The tiger, the panther, and the bear occas ionallyprove destruct ive to human l ife, while the hunt ing cheetah

,the

wild dog,and the wolf are also met with . The crops suffer from the

ravages of the wild boar, and of many kinds of deer. The numerou sfoxes and jackals keep down the small game in this District but thereare hares

,partridges, and quails for the sportsman . In the cold season

,

snipe,wild-fowl, and kulang visit Chhindwara, but the locali ties in

which they are found are very few. In the j a'

g z'

r estates in the Szi tpuraHills

,the bison may also be found .

History—The midland Gond kingdom of Deogarh had its capital inthis District. Its founder

,Jatha, subverted the ancient Gau l i power

above the g luits and h is descendants cont inued to rule unt il the adventof the Marathas. None of them, however, made any name in h istorybefore Bakht Buland , who vis i ted Delhi , and purchased the protectionof Aurangz eb by h is t imely convers ion to the M uhammadan faith .

This prince showed energy, both within and w i thout his kingdom.

He carried his arms southward beyond Nagpur, and made acquisit ionsfrom Chanda and from Mandla wh ile he invited settlers, both

M uhammadan and Hindu , from al l quarters into the country which

he governed. The next Raj a, Chand Sultan , res ided principally atNagpur. On h is death , the struggles which arose from a contestedsuccession were finally composed by the Marathas and by the m iddle

of the 1 8th century,the sovereignty of the Gond Raj as becam e

virtually extinct. The mountainous parts of the Dis trict have long

been occupied by pet ty Gond or Kurku ch iefs, who owned a feudalsubjection

,first to the Gond Rajas, and afterwards to the Marathas

and although the Gonds welcomed and supported ApaSéhib in h i s

400 CHHIND WARA .

opposit ion to the Engl ish in 1 8 19, the Brit ish Government has con

tinued the pol icy o f allowing the petty Rajas to retain the ir lands andrights as tribu taries . On the death of Raghuji the whole Districtfinally lapsed to the Briti sh Empire in 1 854 . Since then

,in 1 865 ,

the j a’

g z’

r o f Bariam-Pagara , and part o f Pachmarhi , in the MahadeoHills

,w ith the magnificent forests of Bori and Denwa

,have been

t ransferred to Hoshangabad District.P opulation

—The popu lat ion of Chh indwara District in 1 87 2 , afterallowing for subsequent tran sfers , was returned by the Census at

At the last enumerat ion in 1 88 1 , the Census disclosed atotal popu lat ion of oran increase of ( 1 79 2 per cent . ) inthe n ine years ; th is large increase , however, is in part nom inal, beingattributable to bet ter enumeration in the z amz

’

nddrz’

s . The details

of the Census o f 1 88 1 are as follows z—Total population,

namely,males and females spread over an area o f

391 5 square miles, and l iving in 1 833 villages and towns ; number ofoccupied houses, average density o f popu lation , 95 persons persquare m ile ; villages per square mile, 04 7 ; houses per square mile,1 88 ; persons per house , 50 7 . Class ified according to re ligion

,the

population con sisted o f—Hindus,

Kabirpanthis, 55 28 ; Sat

namis,6 ; Muhammadans , Christ ians , 7 7 ; Jains , 1 45 1 ; and

tr ibes profess ing aboriginal rel igions,

The aboriginal tribes,

includ ing 7 2 46 who have embraced other forms of rel igion , number

in all. Of these , are Dravid ian Gonds , and ofthe Kolarian tribe of Ktirktis . Among Hindus

,the Brahmans number

6 765, and Raj puts 7 5 74 ; the inferior Hindu castes above 5000 innumber being—Ahir

,the most numerous caste in the District

,herds

men,etc.

,Ktirmf

,the principal cu lt ivating caste

,

Mehra,weavers

,and village watchmen

,Bhoer, an indus

trious class o f cult ivators remarkable for the ir sk ill in irrigation,

Teli, o il-pressers , and traders , L odhis , landholders,and cu lt ivators

,8456 ; Katia, weavers, 6963 ; Mal i, gardeners , 66 2 5 ;

and Kalar, or sp iri t sellers, 5656. O f the two great Muhammadan

sects , are re turned as Sunnis , and 1 34 as Shias . Regardingthe occupations of the people

,the Cen sus Report classifies the male

populat ion into the following s ix main divis ions Professional

class,including Government official s

, 395 1 ; ( 2 ) domest ic servants,etc . ,

6 1 3 (3 ) commercial class , including merchants , traders , carriers,etc.

,1843 ; (4 ) agricul tu ral and pastoral class , including gardeners,(5) manu facturing, arti san , and other industrial classes ,

(6 ) indefi nite and non-product ive (comprising 192 5 labourers and

unspecified , including ch ildren ) , There are only 3towns in Chhindwara District wi th a populat ion exceeding 5000— v iz .

CHHINDWARA, the D istrict head-quarters (populat ion , PAND

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402 CHHI ND WARA.

area cult ivated in 188 1 by each head of the regular ag ricultural popul at ion or 45 7 0 per cent. of the District population ) was 9acres the amount of Government revenue and local cesses levied fromthe landholders was and the amount of rental

,including

cesses,paid by the cult ivators , was or an average of I S. 25d.

per cult ivated acre . The condition of the peasantry is fairly prosperous,

and, except in the town of Mohgaon, there are very few beggars. Therate of wages per diem for skilled labour varies from rs . to 2 5 . for uhskilled labour from 3d. to 9d. The parganei of Khamarpam

'

producesthe best breed of cattle for draught purposes . The cattle are wh ite, w ithno great bulk of body, and the dewlap is unusually large they appearclosely akin to the pure Guj arat breed

,and are quite d ist inct from what

are locally called the Gond cattle,a smaller kind but famous as good

milk-yielders .Commerce and T rade.

—The weaving of cotton cloth constitutes theonly important manufacture in Chhindwara. In L odhikhera and someother places

,excellent brass and copper utens ils were formerly made

, but

the industry has fallen off considerably o f late years. The village marketssupply the means for carrying on trade with in the Dis trict . The onlyso-called imperial road

,by which a l ittle external traffi c is carried on

,

runs between Chhindwara and Nagpur, descending into the low countryby the Silawanf g/zat. The descent has been rendered easy ; but fromRamakona to the l imits o f Chhindwara District , the l ine l ies over avery difficult country

,ch iefly consist ing of black cotton-soil

,cut up

incessantly by watercourses with deep channels and muddy beds .The local roads are practicable during fine weather for wheeledconveyances

,except in the h il ly country of the where

the natural difficult ies are so great that the j ourney is rarely attemptedexcept by camels

,pack-bullocks or buffaloes. The imperial road has

da’

le bungalows at Chhindwara and Ramakona,and also station

bungalows for the PublicWorks Department at Borgaon and Umranala,

at Amrawala on the Narsinghpur road, and at G onawari on the Pachmarhi road. There are sara

’

z'

s at Chhindwara, Ramakona, L odhikhera,Sausar

,Pandhurna

,Amarwara

,and Chaurai .

Administration.

—In 1 854, Chhindwara was formed into a separateD istrict of the British Government of the Cen tral Provinces. It isadministered by a Deputy Commissioner, with 1 Ass is tant and 2

ta/zsz’

lddrs . Total revenue in 1 88 1—8 2 , of which the land

revenue yielded Total cost of District offi cials and police

o f all kinds , £855 2 . Number o f civil and revenue j udges of all sorts

wi th in the District, 6 ; magistrates , 5. Maximum distance from any

village to the nearest court,64 miles ; a verage distance, 29 miles .

Number of police , 383 , cost ing £446 1 , being one policeman to every 1 0

square miles and to every 973 of the populat ion . Daily average number

CHHHVD 7VARA—Cf[ H/PIA 403

of convicts in j ail in 188 1, 73 44, of whom 49 1 were females . The

number of Government or aided schools in the District in 188 1 was

35, attended by 1842 pupils .

M edical Aspects—The cl imate above the g lzdts is temperate andhealthy. In the cold season, frost i s not uncommon . Before May

,

the hot wind causes l ittle annoyance, and during the rains the weatheris cool and agreeable. Average annual rainfall

,inches ; rainfall

in 188 1—82 , inches, or 8 73 inches above the average. Thenumber of death s registered during the same year was 7 733 , of whichfevers caused 3678 . Two charitable dispensaries during that yearafforded medical re lief to in-door and out-door patients . [Forfurther information regarding Chhindwara, see the Settlement Report ofthe District , by W. Ramsay, CS ,

1 86 7 . Also the Central P rovincesG az etteer, by Charles Grant, Esq .

, C.S. ( second edition , Nagpur, 1 870,

pp. 1 62—169) the Census Report of t/ze Central P rovinces for 1 88 1

and the Annual Administration Reports of these Provinces from 1880

to—Sub-d ivision or ta/zsz

'

l in the nort h of ChhindwaraDistrict

,Central Provinces. Area

,2 82 7 square miles ; number of villages,

1426 occupied houses,

Population ( 188 1) namely,

males and females average density ofp opulation ,92 7 1 persons per square mile Government revenue and cesses leviedfrom the landholders

,ren tal , including cesses, paid by the

cultivators,

or 1 5 . 15d. per cultivated acre. The ta/zsz’

l contains 4 civil and 4 criminal courts , with 14 police stationsincluding outposts ; strength of regular police force , 133 men ; villagewatchmen 82 2 .

Chhindwéré..— Chief town and admin istrat ive head-quarters of

Chhindwara District, Central Provinces . L at. 2 2°

3’

30” N . long. 78

°

59’ E. Situated on a dry, gravelly soil , 2 200 feet above sea~level,

and surrounded by ranges of low hi lls, with a bel t of cult ivatedfields and mango groves between. The supply of water is plent iful ,but that used for drink ing comes from the wells outside the town .

Population ( 188 1 ) 82 20, namely, Hindus, 5 7 7 7 ; Kabirpanthis , 16 2

Muhammadans, 1 7 57 ; Jains, 2 24 ; Christ ians, 5 7 aborigines

,243 .

Municipal income ( 1 88 1 ) £7 1 2 rate of taxat ion , rs . 8d. per head .

The station is in parts well wooded . I t has a public garden,District court-house

, Commissioner’s circui t house, j ail, ta/zsz

’

lz’

and

police stat ion,char itable dispensary, Free Church mission, Anglo

vernacular school, and sara’

i.

Chhipia..—Small village in Gonda District, Oudh. L at. 2 2

°

3’

30 N . long. 78°

59' o” E . Of no commercial importance, and only

noticeable for its handsome temple, erected in honour of a celebratedVishnuvite re l igious reformer in Western India, named Sahajanand,

404 CHHOL A OTA BHA G IRA TH].

who was born in this village about a century ago,and ultimately suc

ceeded to the headship o f the great Vishnuvite monastery at Junagarh .

His followers claim for him divine honours as an incarnat ion of

Krishna,and worship h im under the title o f Swami Narayan. His

descendants are sti ll at the head of the sect . About thirty years ago,

the sect which he had founded in Guj arat determined to erect atemple at h is birthplace , the whole of the works o f which are not yetcompleted . The fane itself i s entirely of stone and marble

,imported

from Mirz apur and Jaipur (Jeypore) . I t is to be surrounded on threesides by charitable bui ldings for the convenience of travellers and theaccommodation of the members of the order. The north side isalready finished , and consists of a row of double-storied brick houses ,w ith a fine wooden verandah , carved and painted . The unfinishedbuildings to the fron t are broken by a handsome stone arch 2 0 fee th igh

,and closed by a strong iron door

,imported from Gujarat. Behind

the temple i s a large ba’

z a’

r, and two square brick houses

,wi th turrets

at each corner for the accommodat ion o f the spiritual chiefs of theorder. T wo large fairs are held here annually, on the occasion of

the Ram-nami festival,and at the full moon of Kart ik. Throughout

the year,pilgrims of all classes of society, and from the most distant

parts of India , visit the birthplace o f their deified leader.—L ofty range of the Himalayas , forming the eastern boun

dary of Sikkim,and separating i t from Bhutan and Tibet. It runs

sou th from the immense mountain of Dankia feet) , situated 50miles east-north-east of Kanchanjanga, and is, throughout its length,much higher than the paralle l SING AL ILA range, which forms the westernboundary between Sikkim and Nepal . The most northern pass is the

T ankra feet ), from the L achung valley to the Ammochu valley.

Next in order towards the south is the wel l-known Chhola’

. passfeet) . This pass is on the direct route from Tumlong

,the winter

residence of the S ikkim Raj a, to Chumbi , h is summer residence inTibet. Seven miles south of the Chhola

’

pass is the Jelep passfeet), much frequented by Tibet traders wi th Darj il ing, and connectedwi th that station by a good bridle road . South of the Jelep pass, therange is a wilderness o f forest .

Chhota. Bhég‘irathi.—A branch o f the Ganges in Maldah District

,

Bengal . Only navigable during the rains, and almost dry in the hotseason. I t is, however, the o ld bed of the great river i tself, and is stillrevered as at leas t equal in holiness to any other part of the Ganges.The course of the Chhota Bhagirathr

’

i s first east and then south,

bordering for 1 3 miles the ru in s of the city of Gaur. I t eventually falls

into the Pagla or Pagl i, a larger offshoot of the Ganges given off fartherdown and before regain ing the parent stream it encloses an extensive

island,1 6 miles in length

,forming the south part of Maldah District .

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406 CHHOTA UDAIP UR—CHZCACOL E .

Malwa to Baroda and the sea passes through the territory. There are

1 1 schools in the State, w i th an average daily attendance of 348 pupils .

On account of the maladministrat ion of the late Chief, a system of j ointadministration has been introduced as a temporary measure by theBritish Government

,and an administrator appointed to aid the Chief in

carrying out necessary reforms.

Chhota Udaipur.

—Principal town of the State of Chhota Udaipur,in Guj arat

,Bombay Presidency ; situated on the main road from Baroda

to Mhau (Mhow), about 50 miles east of Baroda, 1 1 5 miles west ofMhow, 105 miles south-east of Ahmadabad, and 1 1 0 miles north-east of

Surat ; in 2 2°

2 0' N . lat . , and 74

°

1’ E. long.

Chhuikadan (or Kondka) .— Petty State in the Central Provinces.—See KONDKA.

Chhuikadan.

— Principal village in Kondka or Chhuikadan chiefship

,attached to Raipur District , Central Provinces . Population ( 188 1 )

2 148, namely, Hindus , 1897 Kabirpanthis,1 1 6 and Muhammadans

,

1 35. The chief’s res idence is a substantial stone build ing, standing in

a fortified square .

Chhuri.— E state in the north-east o f Bilaspur District, CentralProvinces. Area

, 3 2 0 square miles , of which acres are cult ivated,

and acres cult ivable ; 1 34 villages 5644 occupied houses ;populat ion ( 1 88 1 ) namely

,males 8 1 39, and females 7949 ;

average den sity of the population , 50 2 7 persons per square mile. The

ch ief i s a Kunwar.

Chibrémalu . Ta/zs z’

l and town in Farukhabad District , North

Western Provinces—See CHHIBRAMAU.

Chibu. Ta/zsz’

lofBandaDistrict,North-Western Provinces—SeeM AU.

Chicacole (C/zikakol, Srikdkulam) . Ta'

luk of Ganjam District,

Madras Presidency . Area, 402 square miles ; houses, population

( 1 88 1 ) namely,

males and females. Number

of vi llages, 30 1 , including 3 towns . Formerly the central d ivis ion of

the ancient Buddhis t and Hindu kingdoms of Kalinga (Kielingkia o f

Hwen T hsang ) , and contain ing the capital of the Mughal circar

(sarkcir) o f Chicacole . Down to A .D. 1 568 , i t was part of the territory

of the G ajapati Rajas of Orissa ; but shortly after the overthrow of thatsovereignty

,in the year mentioned

,by the invasion of the Muhammadan

general of Bengal, the whole of the sarka’

rs as far as Chicacole cameunder the Kutab-Shahi rule

,and their governors res ided in the town .

But i t was no t unt il 1 7 24 that H indu influence finally succumbed ,when Asaf Jah , the great Viceroy of the Deccan , and the first Ni z amul-Mulk

,took actual possession

,collected the revenue

,and appointed

a civil and mil itary establ ishment. Wi th the rest of the ‘ Northern

Circars,’ i t was assigned by the Niz am to the French in 1 753, and to

the Brit ish in 1 766 . Under Muhammadan rule, Chicacole was divided

CHI CACOL E . 407

into the three divis ions of Ichapur, Kasimkota, and Chicacole. Thelast two, on British occupation , became parts of V iz agapatam District ,the demesne lands ‘ Chikakor-havil i ’ being leased to the Raj a ofViz ianagaram t ill 1 787, when they came under direct administrat ion .

In 1802, Chicacole was transferred to Ganjam. North of the town of

Chicacole, the country is Open, level, and well watered, s tudded withgroves and marked by stretches of rice lands ; to the south, the soi lis dry and rocky

,bearing traces of iron and interspersed with granite

boulders. L and revenue The tdluk contains 1 civiland 3 criminal courts, with 6 pol ice stat ions strength of

police force, 93 men.

Chicacole (Clzikakol, Srika’

kulam) .—Town in the Chicacole Mink,Ganjam District, Madras Presidency ; s ituated 4 miles from the sea onthe Languliyaor Nagavali r iver (here bridged) , and on the Grand TrunkRoad, 567 miles north-eas t o f Madras. L at. 18

°

1 7’

25”

N., long.

E. ; houses, 3008 populat ion ( 188 1 ) namely,Hindus, 1 184 M uhammadans, and 84 Christian s and others." Twentyper cent. of the populat ion are traders ; and eigh t per cent. muslinweavers

,the manufactures of Chicacole rivall ing in delicacy of texture

those of Dacca or Arn i. The munic ipal revenue averages £702per annum , the incidence of taxation being about 10d. per head of

the rateab le population. For many years cons idered an importantmilitary stat ion ; for a t ime ( in the civil head-quarters of theDistrict ; and, unt il 1865, the sessions station of the District j udge. As

the head-quarters of the ta’

luk,i t now contains subordinate revenue,

j udicial, and magisterial establ is hments ; j ail, dispensary, post and telegraph offices, schools, and hospi tal. Most of the public build ings aresituated within the ditch of the old fort

,to th e south of which l ies the

native town , a straggling, cramped collection of houses, but containingmany mosques—notably that of Sher Muhammad Khan theFauj a

’

dr or military governor of the Kutab Shahi dynasty of G olkonda

to bear witness to the importance of the old city under its Muhammadanrulers. In 1 791 , Chicacole was nearly depopulated by famine, and it againsuffered severely from scarci ty in 1 866. In 1876, a flood threatened itwith utter destruct ion

,and swept away six arches of the L angulya

bridge. The nat ive names of the place are (Hindu) Srikakulam and

(Muhammadan ) M ahfuz Bandar,after the small port so called at the

mouth of the river,—M ahfuz Khan being the son of the celebrated

Fauj ddr of Chicacole, named Anwaruddin Khan , afterwards Nawab ofArcot. I t was also once called G ulchanabad, the happy rose-garden .

’

The name Chicacole (Srikakulam) has been erroneously derived from

sikka,a seal

,and kolna, to open , as the letter-bag s from G olkonda to

the ‘ Northern Circars ’ used to be opened here for distribution—See

NORTHERN CIRCARS.’

408 CHI CACOL E CH IKALDA.

Chicacole (C/zikakol, Srikcikulam). —River in M adras Presidency.

See L ANGUL IYA.

Chichali.—Mountains in the Punjab—See MA IDANI .Chichgarh

—Extensive but poor estate or z amz’ndcirz’, near the southeastern borders of Bhandara District , Central Provinces . Population

( 1881 ) 9954, namely, males 5037 , and females 491 7 . The populationcons ists chiefly of Halbas (to which caste the chief belongs) , G onds,and Goalas ; area, 23 7 square miles, o f which only 1 2 are cult ivated ;69 villages. The forests abound in valuable t imber, especial ly teak .

Each of the two chief villages , Chichgarh and Palandur, are Government pol ice outposts

,and the former possesses an indigenous school.

One of the main District roads passes through th is chiefship by aformidable pass near Chichgarh, more than 3 miles in length , borderedby dense bamboo j ungle. At the foot o f the pass the chief has dug awell and built a sardi.

Chichli.—Town in Gadarwara ta/csz'

l, Narsinghpur District , Central

Provinces. Population ( 188 1 ) 2 2 19, namely, Hindus, 1 82 7 M uham

madans , 260 ; tribes profess ing aboriginal religions, 1 32 . Manufactureof brass utensils .

Chikadandi.—Town in head-quarters Sub-divis ion , Chittagong Distrie t, Bengal. Population ( 1 88 1) 58 29, namely , 26 79 males and 3 150females .Chikakol.—Ta’lule and town , Ganjam District

,Madras Pres idency.

—See CHICACOLE.

Chikalda—V illage and san itarium in the M elghat tcilnl’

,Ellichpur

District,Berar ; s ituated in lat. 2 1

°

24'

N. , and long. 7 7°

2 2'

E. , on a

plateau (about 5 miles in length and three-quarters of a mile broad)3664 feet above the sea ; distant about a mile and a half from Gawilgarhfort

,and about 2 0 m iles from E l l ichpur. The usual road from the

latter place winds up the western s ide of the G awilgarh Hill ; but anew line, giving eas ier access to the sanitarium , has been laid out andis in course of completion. The ascent is for the most part easy,and i s made on horseback . Supplies and baggage are brought up bybullocks or camels . Chikalda has been a favourite Bera

'

r sanitarium

s ince 1839, when the first bungalows were buil t on the plateau . The

cl imate is equable,cool, and bracing ; mean temperature , 7 1

°

F., varying from 59

°

in the coldest to 83° in the hottest months. The scenery

is beautiful, and the vegetation luxuriant and varied in characterroses , clematis, orchids, ferns, and lil ies succeeding each other with thechanging seasons. E xcellent potatoes are grown

,and the tea-plant

flourishes ; coffee of fine quality has also been succes sfully grown inone of the private gardens . Till the complet ion of the new road abovealluded to, carts can only reach Chikalda uni Chatong, a d istance of 30miles.

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4 10 CHIKHL I—CH IKM A GAL UR .

Chikhl i population ( 188 1 ) 4396 . The total revenue of the tdZu/z,in

1 883—84, amounted to of which was derived from

the land—tax. Number o f c ivil courts,2 ; criminal courts , 6 ; pol ice

stations 5 ; strength of regular police, 2 23 men ; v illage

watchmen,299.

Chikhli. —Sub-division of Surat District,Bombay Presidency. Area

,

1 67 square miles ; number of v illages , 62 . Population ( 188 1 )namely

,males and females . Hindu s number

Muhammadans, 5409 ;

‘ others,

’ The Sub-division consists oftwo parts

m raised plateaux wi th intervening belts of low-lying land . Theelevated tracts are seamed by rocky watercourses the soil

,being poor

and shallow,i s cult ivated only in patches

,and yields l ittle bu t grass

and brushwood. The low-lying lands between these raised plateauxcontain a very ferti le soil

, yielding superior crops of grain, sugar-caneand fruit . Watered by the Ambika

,Kaveri

,Kharera

,and Auranga

rivers,which flow through the Sub -division from east to west. Of

acres,the total area of cultivable land

,acres were in

1 8 73—74 fallow or under grass, and acres actually under cult i

vation . Cereal crops occupied acres ; pulses , 84 1 3 acres ; oil

seeds, 5692 acres fibres

,2 36 acres ; and miscellaneous, 1 1 79 acres .

These figures include lands bearing two crops in the year. The total

assessment on Government land fixed at the time of the Settlement

( 1864 ) was or an average of 6s . 4d. per acre,varying from

2 5 . 65d. per acre for “ dry ’ crops to 14s . rrgd. for rice land, and1 7s . 85d. an acre for garden land . These rates remain in force till1 893—94. At the time of Settlement

,the Sub-div ision contained 5994

distinct holdings , with an average area of nearly 1 6JZ acres , each paying an average rental o f £5 , 7 5 . 25}d. ; the area per head of the agricu ltural populat ion is a l ittle over 3} acres, paying an average rent of

£ 1, 35 . 5 .1; d. The Sub—division con tained in 1 884 , 2 criminal courts

and 1 police station strength of regu lar pol ice force, 3 7 men,besides 5 2 3 village watchmen

Chikhli.~ —Town in Surat D istrict , Bombay Presidency, and head

quarters of Chikhli Sub-division situated in lat . 20°

46'

N .

,long. 73

°

9’ E.

A small town of less than 5000 inhabitants , and of no importance

except as the head-quarters of the Sub-d ivis ion . Besides the usual

Government revenue courts and police offices, Chikhl i contains a

post-offi ce and dispensary .

Chikmag aliir.

_ Ta’

1zzk in Kadur District,Mysore Native State .

Area, 4 1 2 square miles . Population ( 188 1 ) namely,males

and females Hindus number Muhammadans, 4405 ;

and Christ ians, 3 1 7 . L and revenue ( 1 874 exclus ive of water

rates, or 65 . 8d. per cultivated acre . The surface includesfertile valleys watered by perenn ial streams

,and forest-clad mountains,

CHJHM AGAL UR CHIA’

ORI . 4 1 1

on the slopes ofwhich coffee i s grown . The td/uk contains 1 criminal

court, and 9 police stat ions (tfza’

nds) strength of regular pol ice, 90men , bes ides 257 village watchmen

Chikmagaliir Town of tile Young er—Chief town of

Kadur District, Mysore Native State ; 1 30 m iles west-north-wes t of

Bangalore. Lat. 13°

18'

15"

N. , long. 75°

49'

20” E. Population ( 187 1)

202 7 , including 65 Muhammadans and 8 2 Christians. No laterdetails of population are available. The head -quarters of KadurDistrict were removed from Kadur town to Chikmagalur in 1865 ,

and the new stat ion has since greatly increased in prosperity. Themain M e is a wide thoroughfare 2 miles long

,and the weekly

fair on Wednesdays is attended by 3000 people. The wants of theneighbouring coffee plantat ions have led to the settlement of severalMusalman traders. A wide belt of trees has been planted , to wardoff the prevail ing east winds. The country round i s composed of thefertile black cotton-soil. Head-quarters of Chikmagaliir ta

’

luk.

Ohiknayakanhalli.—l uk i n T umkiir District, M ysore Nat iveState. Area

, 355 square miles . Populat ion ( 188 1 ) namely, malesand females Hindus number M uham

madams, 528 ; and Chris t ians , 10. L and revenue ( 188 1 exclusiveof water-rates, £7 250, or 33 . 7d. per cultivated acre . Total revenue,

The tciluk i s intersected in the north by a chain of low,bare hills, to the east of which the country is h il ly and jungly, while tothe west and south it is fertile and well cultivated. Principal exporttrade, cocoa-nut and areca-nut. The ta

’

luk contains 2 criminal courts,with 8 police stations (tha

’

nés ) s trength of regular police, 7 1 men,besides 160 village watchmen

Chilméyakanhalli.—Town in T umkiir District, M ysore NativeState, and head-quarters of Chiknayakanhall i ta

’

lzzk 40 miles westnorth-west from Tumkur town. L at. 1 3

°

2 5'

10"

N.

,long. 76

° E .

Population ( 188 1 ) 3553, includ ing 2 25 Muhammadans ; municipalrevenue ( 1874—7 £60 rate of taxation , 3d. per head. Founded byChikka Nayaka

,a chief of the Hagalva house ; plundered in 1 791 by

the Maratha general , Parasu Ram Bhao, while on his way to join L ordCornwallis before Seringapatam

,and said to have yielded a booty of

which the leading men,under torture, were forced to bring

out from the hiding-places where i t had been concealed. Now a

prosperous place,surrounded by groves of cocoa—nut and areca palms.

Coarse cotton cloths,white and coloured

,are manufactured . Many of

the inhab itants are engaged in th e carrying trade. There are 7 well

endowed temples .Chikoti.—Sub-divis ion of Belgaum District, Bombay Pres idency.

Area, 840 square mile s ; con tain s 2 1 2 villages, of which 1 58 areGovernment and 57 al ienated . Population ( 1881 ) persons,

4 1 2 CHJKORI—CHI LAM BARAM

or males and females. Hindus numberMuhammadans

,

‘ others ,’ The Sub-divis ion contain s

1 civil and 4 criminal courts, with 1 2 t/za’

ua’

s or police stat ions ;strength o f regular police, 85 men ; village watchmen

83 2 .

Chikori. — Head -quarters town of th e Chikori Sub-division inBelgaum District

,Bombay Presidency , lying 4 2 miles north - north

eas t of Belgaum,in lat. 1 6

°

2 6'

N .,and long. 74

°

38' E. Population

( 1 88 1 ) 6 184 , according to the District authorities , but not returned inthe lis t of towns above 5000 inhabitants given in the Census Report.

Chikori i s a considerable entrepot of trade between the interior and

the coast,with which i t has ready communication by a road from

Nipani over the Phonda Ghat. O rd inary cotton goods are manufac

tured chiefly for local use . Sub—j udge’s court and post-offi ce .

Chilambaram (C/zea’

ambamm or —l uk or Subdivis ion in the South Arcot District, Madras Pres idency. Area

,

acres (393 square miles) , of which acres are cult i

vated ; populat ion ( 188 1 ) namely, Hindus,Muhammadans (all Sunnis), 546 7 Christ ians (ch iefly Roman Cathol ics) ,and 2 others distributed in 2 towns and 42 8 villages, and occupying

houses . Chief towns, CHIL AM BARAM and PORTO Novo.

L and revenue demand in 1 882—83, In the same year, theSub-division contained 1 civi l and 2 criminal courts, with 1 2 policestations and a police force numbering 1 18 men.

Chilambaram (or, more correctly,‘ the atmosphere of

w isdom —Town and head-quarters of Chilambaram Iii/11k, South Arcot

District, Madras Presidency 7 miles from the coast and 25 miles south

o fCuddalore . L at. 1 1°

24’

9” N .

,long. 79

°

44’

7" E. Houses , 4365 . Popu

lat ion ( 188 1 ) namely,

Hindus,1 1 54 Muhammadans,

and 100 Christians . As the head-quarters o f the ta’

luk, i t contains

subordinate revenue,j udicial

,and police establ ishments ; post-offi ce ,

travellers’bungalow,etc. The weaving of s ilk and cotton cloth occupies

2 7 per cent . o f the total adul t popu lation. In December,a great fair i s

held , attracting from to pilgrims and traders . Municipalrevenue ( 188 1 —8 2 ) £ 13 2 4 ; incidence of taxat ion , about 2 s . per

head o f the rateable population . During the wars of the Karnatic ,Chilambaram was considered a point of cons iderable strategical importance . I n 1 749, the ill-fated expedition under Captain Cope, against

Devikota, made a stand here in i ts retreat ; and here, in the following

year, the armies of Murari Rao and Muz affar Jang first met . In 1 7 53,

the British garrison was compelled to evacuate Chilambaram by the

French , and the muster of the French and Maratha forces for thecampaign of the following year was held at th is town . An attempt bythe Bri tish to take the place in 1 7 59 failed. In 1 760, the French

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4 14 CH I L IAN W'

ALA.

surround it and at each of the four corners stands a sol id gopuram orpyramid 1 2 2 feet in height, faced with gran ite blocks 40 feet in length

and 5 feet th ick, covered wi th copper. The principal court, called‘ the

hall of a thousand pillars (though really containing only presentsa magnificen t appearance. In the centre i s the shrine of Parvati

, a

most beautiful bui lding, contain ing a golden canopy, with superbfringes of bull ion ; and also the sanctuary, a copper-roofed enclosure,remarkable for i ts ugl ines s. Opposite to it stands the M iratha Sabha

,

pronounced by some writers the most perfect gem of art in SouthernIndia. Besides these there are other sab/zas

,or halls ; a Vishnu

t emple ; 3. Pillyar temple, contain ing the larges t belly-god in India ; aremarkable tank, the Sivaganga or Hemapashkarani (golden tank), 50yards square and 40 feet across, surrounded on all s ides w ith spaciousfl ights of steps ; and four excellent wells, one of them built of graniterings placed one on the other, each ring cut from a s ingle block. To

appreciate the labour bestowed upon th is extraordinary temple, it mustbe remembered that the g reater part of i t i s of granite—with manymonoliths 40 feet high , and over 1 000 pillars (all monoliths , and noneless than 2 6 feet in height)—and that the nearest quarry is 40 milesdistant . Bes ides the temple , there is noth ing remarkable in the town ,except the large number of r/zaltm ms , or native rest-houses (about

with which it abounds. The largest is said to be capable of holding

800 or 900 persons .

Chilianwala..—Village in Phalian ta/zsz’

l,Guj rat District

,Punjab

,

lying 5 miles from the eastern bank of the Jehlam (Jhelum) ; distantfrom L ahore 85 miles north-west, in lat. 3 2

°

39'

46 N. , long. 7 3°

38’

5 2” E. Celebrated as th e site of a sanguinary battle in the second Sikh

War. L ord Cough, after march ing several days from the Chenab, camein sight of the enemy near Chilianwala on the afternoon of the 1 3th

January 1849. While his men were engaged in taking ground for anencampment

,a few shots from the S ikh horse artillery fell with in his

l ines. The General thereupon gave the order for an immediateattack and our forces moved rapidly forward through the th ick j ungle

,

i n the face of masked batteries, which again and again opened a flankfi re upon the ir unguarded line . Beaten back t ime after t ime

,they still

advanced upon the unseen enemy, until at last , by some misapprehens ion

,a regiment of cavalry began to retreat in a somewhat disorderly

manner. Although by this t ime o ur troops had taken some 1 5 or 16 ofthe enemy

’

s guns , and our artillery had swept the Sikh line from end toend

,the unfortunate pan ic amongst the cavalry, the loss of almost an

ent ire Brit ish regiment ( the 24th), and the approach of darkness com

bined to prevent our continuing the action . The Sikhs remained inpossess ion of more than one British gun, besides holding some of ourcolours. At the end of the engagement, the Bri tish troops maintained

CHIL E A L AKE . 4 15

their pos ition , and the enemy retreated during the night . Our

temporary loss of prestige was fully retrieved by the decisive battle ofGujrat

,a month later, wh ich placed the whole Punjab in the power

of L ord Gough . An obelisk, erected upon the spot, commemoratesthe Brit ish officers and men who lost the ir l ives upon the field

,which is

known to the people of the neighbourhood as Katalgarh, or the house

of slaughter.’ Chil ianwala is iden tified by General Cunningham wi th thebattle-fi eld of A lexander and Porus after the passage of the river Jehlam

.

Chilké. Lak e—A shallow i nland sea, s ituated in the south-eastcorner of Puri District, Orissa, and in the extreme south extendinginto the Madras District of Ganjam . L at. 19

°

28'

to 19°

56’

15 N .,

long. 85°

9' to 85

°

38'

1 5 E. A long sandy ridge,in places little

more than 200 yards wide, separates i t from the Bay of Bengal. On

the west and south i t is walled in by lofty hills ; while to the northward it loses itself in endless shallows, sedgy banks, and islands j ustpeeping above the surface

,formed year by year from the s ilt which the

rivers bring down . A single narrow mouth , cut through the sandy

ridge,connects it with the sea. The lake spreads out into a pear

shaped expanse of water 44 miles long, of which the northern half hasa mean breadth o f about 2 0 miles , while the southern half tapers intoan irregularly-curved point

,barely averaging 5 miles wide. Smallest

area, 344 square miles in the dry weather, increasing to about 450

during the rainy season . Average depth , from 3 to 5 feet, scarcelyanywhere exceeding 6 feet . The bed of the lake is a very few feetbelow the h igh-water leve l of the sea, although in some parts i t isslightly below low-water mark . The distant inner portion of the lakekeeps about 2 feet higher than the exterior ocean at all s tages of the

tide. The narrow tidal stream,which rushes through the neck con

necting the lake with the sea, suffices to keep the water distinctly saltduring the dry months from December to j une . But once the rainshave set in

,and the rivers come pouring down upon its northern

extremity,the sea-water is gradually driven ou t, and the Chilka passes

through various stages of brackishness until i t becomes a fresh-waterlake. This changeable inland sea forms one of a series of lacustrine

formations down the western shores of the Bay of Bengal , the result of

a perpetual war going on between the rivers and the sea— the former

struggling to find vent for their water and silt, the latter repelling themwith its sand—laden currents . The Chilka may be regarded as a gulfof the original Bay o f Bengal . On the south, a bold, barren spur ofhills runs down to the coast ; on the north , the land-making rivershave pushed out their rounded mouths and flat deltas into the ocean .

Nor has the sea been idle but meet ing and overmastering the languidriver-discharge that enters the Ch ilka

’

, i t has j oined the two promon

tories with a bar of sand,and thus formed a lake. At th is moment the

4 1 6 CHILKA

del icate process of land-making from the river silt at the north-east

end of the lake is slowly but steadily going on while the bar-buildingsea busily plies its trade across its mouth . Old documents show thata century ago the neck of land was only from half a mile to a mile

broad in places where it i s now two miles. On the other hand , theopening in the bar

,which was a mile wide in 1 780 , and had to be

crossed in large boats,was described forty years later as choked up.

Shortly before 1 82 5, an artificial mouth had to be cut ; and althoughthis also rapidly began to s ilt up , i t remained , as late as 183 7 , more thanthree t imes its present breadth . The villagers al lege that i t still growsnarrower year by year and the diffi cu l ty in maintain ing an outlet fromthe Chilka forms one o f the ch ief obstacles to utiliz ing the lake as anescapement for the floods that desolate the del ta. Engineers reportthat although it would be easy and cheap to cut a channel , i t would bevery costly and diffi cu l t to keep it open ; and that each successivemouth would speedily choke up and share the fate of its predecessors.The scenery of the Chilka i s very varied , and in parts exceedingly

picturesque . In the south and west , hil l ranges bound its shores and

in th is part it is dotted with a number of small rocky islands . Proceeding northwards , the lake expands into a majestic sheet of water. Half

wayacross i s Nalbana, l iterally‘ the reed forest

,

’ an island about 5 milesin circumference

,scarcely anywhere ris ing more than a few inches above

water- level . This island is al together uninhab ited,but i s regularly

visited by part ies of thatchers from the mainland,who cut the reeds

and high grasses with which it is completely covered . On the eastern

side o f the lake lie the i slands of Parikud, with new sil t formationsbeh ind

,and now partially joined to the narrow ridge of land which

separates the Chilka from the sea . At some places they emerge almostimperceptibly from the water ; at others, they spread out in to well-raisedrice-fi elds . Their northern extremity slopes gracefully down to the lakelike an English park, dotted with fine trees

,and backed by noble masses

o f fol iage . Water-fowl of all kinds are very abundant in every part ofthe lake . Salt-making is largely carried on in PARIKUD . Beyond the

northern end of Parikud, the lake gradually shallows until i t becomessolid ground. At this point, the Puri rivers empty themselves into thelake

,and the process of land-making is going on steadily . The northern

shores o f the Chilka comprise the par/grands of Sira’t i and Chaubiskud,

and it is these tracts which have to bear the greatest suffering in times

o f general inundation in Pu ri’

. Unti l Ganjam was abandoned , onaccount o f i ts unhealthiness , the Chilka lake was during the ho t monthsa frequent resort of Europeans from the Madras Pres idency. At the

southern extremity of the lake stands the popu lous and important village

of RAMBHA, having an extensive trade in grain w ith Orissa, for which itgives salt in exchange . A steam launch pl ies between Rambha and

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4 18 CHIN]0Z l—CH INNAM ALP UR .

for the purpose,deter the bears from plundering the vines . Chin i was

the favourite hil l residence of L ord Dalhousie .

Chiniot.—Ta/zsz’

l of Jhang District , Punjab lying for the most partin the Rechna Doab, but also extending a l i ttle b eyond the Chenabbetween lat . 3 1

°

30’

30" and 3 1

°

50’

30 N ., and long. 7 2

°

35’ and 73

14’

E ., into the country immediately above its j unction with the Jehlam

(Jhelum ). Area, 2 149 square miles . Population ( 188 1 )namely, males and females Muhammadans number

Hindus,

Sikhs,693 ; and

‘ others,

’6 . Revenue

The administrative staff cons ists of a ta/zsz’

la’

dr andw arm], pres iding over 1 criminal and 2 civil courts . Number of policestations 5 strength of regular police, 100 men village watchmen 1 83 .

Chiniot—Town in j hang District, Punjab, and head-quarters ofChiniot s ituated 2 miles south of the present bed of the Chenab,on the road from j hang to Waz irabad . L at. 3 1

°

43'

3 2 N .

,long . 73

°

0’

59”

E . Population ( 188 1 ) namely, 34 75 Hindus, 7 143

Muhammadans,and 1 1 3 S ikhs ; number of occupied houses

, 1088 .

Founded prior to the Musalman conquest of Upper India. The townsuffered much from the Duran i

’

inroads during the last half of the1 8th century

,and also during the troubles of 1848, being the

scene of constant sanguinary struggles between the leaders of localfactions . Chiniot now bears a prosperous aspect

,and is a thriving

town , most of the houses being of excellent brickwork , lofty and commodious , especially those of the Khoja traders, who have large businessdeal ings with Amritsar

, Calcutta, Bombay, and Karachi . Handsomemosque buil t by Nawab Sadul la Khan Tahim

,governor of the town in

the reign of Shah j ahan also a shrine dedicated to Shah Barhan,a

Muhammadan saint revered by H indus and Muhammadans al ike.Chin iot i s celebrated for i ts wood-carving and masonry , and many of itsmasons are said to have been employed in bu ilding the Taj Mahal atAgra. The arch itect of the golden temple at Amritsar was also a

Chin iot man , and the head mason now attached to the bu ild ing isanother. Manufacture of coarse cloth . Exports of cotton

,wool

, g/zz’

,

bones,horns and hides . Besides the sub—divis ional courts and offi ces,

the town contains a good charitable dispensary, school-house , rest-house ,etc.

,and a beautiful garden

,wel l stocked with fruit-trees. The country

is well wooded , and the surrounding scenery is attractive . Municipal

revenue in 188 1—82, £658, or rs . 2 %d. per head of population.

Chinna Kimedi (or Pratdpg z’

rz ) .—Z amz’

nddri in Ganjam District,

Madras Presidency .-See K IMED I.

Chinnamalpur.

— Peak of the Eastern Ghats,in Ganjam District ,

Madras Presidency. L at. 1 8°

40'

N . , long. 84°

6' E. Height

,1 6 15

fee t above sea-levcl. Situated a mile east of the Parla Kimedi and

CHINSURAFI CHINTP URNI . 4 19

Chicacole road . One of the stations of the Great TrigonometricalSurvey of India.

Chinsurah.—Town in H iigli District , Bengal situated on the right

bank of the Hr’

igli river, a short distance south of Hugli town . L at.

2 2°

53’

1 N . ,long. 88

°

2 6'

40 E . Chinsurah is now included within

the Ht’

iglf municipal ity, and the Census returns of 188 1 do not d is

tinguish between the two towns , which contained a j oint population in

that year of See HUG LI town . The Dutch established themselves at Chinsurah in the 1 7 th century, and held the place t ill 182 5 ,when it was ceded by the Netherlands Government to Great Britain.

The town is neatly laid out. I t was formerly used as an inval id dep6t

for troops,and for regiments arriving from or proceeding to England

but within the last few years it has been abandoned as a military station .

It contains a public l ibrary and printing-press .

Chintadrapet.

—A quarter of MADRAS TOWN .

Chintalnar. or estate in Bastar State, attached to

Chanda District, Central Provinces . Area, 480 square miles . Popu

t ion ( 188 1 ) 4374, namely, 2 1 84 males and 2 190 females . Number ofvillages

, 48 ; occupied houses , 75 2 . The forests supply teak, which isexported by the Chintalnala, a small s tream flowing into the Talper

river. The chief resides at j igargunda.

Chintamani— 7 31W in Kolar District,Mysore State .

—See SR IN IVASPUR.

Chintamani-pet.

—Town in Kolar District , Mysore State ; 2 5 miles

north—north-west of Kola’

r. L at. 1 3°

24’

20"

N. ,long . 78

°

5’

45" E.

Population ( 188 1) 5 1 19, namely, Hindus , 4635 ; and Muhammadans,484. Municipal revenue ( 18 74 £ 18 ; rate of taxation , 1d. perhead. Named after its Maratha founder

, Chintamani Rao , and a seat

of the Kumati or banking class . Considerable trade , chiefly in grain ,gold

,silver

,and precious stones . The neighbourhood is famous for

pomegranates. Until 18 73 , the town was the head

- quarters of the

Ambaji-durga ta’

luk.

Chintpurni (or Sola— Mountain range in Hosh iarpur Dis

trict, Punj ab, forming the eastern boundary of the j aswan Dun . Com

mences at a point close to Talwara, on the Beas (Bias) river, and runsin a south-eastward direct ion between the Districts of Hoshiarpur andKangra. Its h ighest point

,at the encamping ground of Bharwain , 2 8

miles from Hosh iarpur on the Dharmsala road , is 3896 feet above thesea. Thence the ridge continues till i t crosses the valley of the Sutlej

(Satlaj), its northern slope sinking gradually into the Beas (Bias) basin ,while its southward escarpment consists in places of an abrupt cliff abou t

300 feet in height. The space between its central l ine and the plain

portion of the j aswan Dun is occupied by a broad table-land, thickly

clothed with fore s t, and intersected by precipitou . ravines, which divide

420 CH IPL UN S UB -D I VI SI ON AND T O lVZV.

the surface into natural blocks . The name Chintpurnf belongs no t

so much to the range o f hills described above, as to the village o f

that name situated on the range,in Hosh iarpur District, where is

a famous shrine dedicated to the goddess Devi,to which thousands

annually resort from considerable distances. Beyond the Sutlej , thechain assumes the name o f the NALAGARH RANGE.

Chiplun—Sub divis ion of Ratnagiri District, Bombay Pres idency.

Area,6 70 square miles ; contains 1 town and 2 1 1 villages . Population

( 188 1 ) namely,

males and females. Hindusnumber Muhammadans

,The Sub-division

stretches from the coast inland to the watershed of the Sahyadri’

range,and is throughout more or less hilly and rugged . The seaboard, withthe exception o f an open sandy roadstead , some five miles long,extending on each side of the vil lage of Guhagar, is broken andirregular. Close to the shore rise a series of high laterite plateaux,which s tretch some ten m iles inland

,where they are succeeded by a

belt of lower undulating land but on meeting the spurs and ravinesthrown out by the great mountain chain of the Sahyadri range, thecountry becomes very rugged and precipitous. The only rivers of

importance are the Véshishti on the north,and the Shastri on the south

of the Sub-division,both o f wh ich are tidal for a distance of about 2 5

miles from their mouths , and are navigable w ith in these l imits bymoderate-siz ed boats . The total area under cu l t ivat ion in 18 7 7

—78 ,

the latest year for which details are available,was acres.

Grain crops occupied acres ; pulses , acres ; o il-seeds,2 000 acres ; fibres

, 5 23 acres ; miscellaneous crops , 1 107 acres. Up

to 1880,the Sub-division had no t been fully surveyed . I t contains

1 civil and 3 criminal courts , with 6 police stat ions strength

of pol ice force, 96 men .

Chiplun— Chief town ofChiplun Sub-divis ion , in Ratnagir i District,

Bombay Presidency. L at. 1 7°

3 1’

2 5"

N . ,long. 7 3

°

33’

50 E . Situated

1 08 miles south-east of Bombay, and about 25 miles from the coast,on the south bank of the river Vashishti

,which is navigable for boats

of nearly 2 tons . Populat ion ( 1 88 1 ) namely,Hindus

,8853 ;

Muhammadans, 3 208 ; j ains, 3 ; and Christian , 1 . Area o f town site,

7 3 acres . A prosperous commercial town,s ituated near the head of

the Kumbharli pass, one o f the easiest routes from the Deccanto the seaboard . The town contains good roads

,an efficient con

servancy establ ishment is maintained, and the streets are l ighted .

The ch ief wan t of the place is a good water-supply,but this is

now being remedied by the construction of a reservoir and aqueducts.

Municipal revenue in £ 1484, of which £ 10 1 2 was derived

from taxat ion , or an average incidence of rs . 8-§d. per head ;expenditure

, £1 264. Sub-j udge’s court,telegraph

,and post-offi ce.

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42 2 CHIRA‘

IVA—CH I TALDR UG .

less than 3 persons per square mile . A tract of 2 2 5 6 0 square miles ,or nearly one-half of the whole has been set apart as forest reserves,and divided into 13 valuable sal forests . The settlement of the cul t ivated fields

,which cover an aggregate of only 1 3 29 acres, is effected

by Government on the Assam system by annual engagements directly

with the cult ivators.Chiréwa..—Town in the Shaikhawati division of j aipur (j eypore)

State, Rajputana. Population ( 188 1 ) 5489, namely, Hindus, 3 1 1 7 ;

Muhammadans,2 1 2 3 ; and unspecified, 19.

Chirgaon.

— Town in Jhans i District, North-Western Provinces,s ituated in lat. 2 5

°

35’

N . ,and long. 7 8

°

5 2'

E .,on the road to Cawnpur ,

1 8 miles north-east o f j hansi , and 14 m iles sou th-west of Moth.

Population ( 188 1 ) 3 748, namely, Hindus, 345 2 ; Muhammadans, 2 5 7 ;and others

,

’

39. A small municipal revenue , in the shape of a housetax

,is raised for police and conservancy purposes under the provisions

of Act xx. of 1 856 . Chirgaon , w i th 2 5 other villages , was formerlythe property of a Bundela Thakur, a descendant of Bir Singh Deo of

Orchha, who held a sanaa’ from the British Government. In 1 84 1 ,

R510 Bakht S ingh , the rul ing chief, was expelled for d isloyalty ; his

fort was raz ed to the ground, and his whole estate confiscated . Hewas afterwards killed at Panwari. His surviving son

,Rao Raghunath

S ingh, was granted a pension of £300 a year, for services rendered

during the Mutiny ; and a pension of£ 1 50 has been continued to his

son,Dalip Singh

,the present ( 1883) chief.

Chirkhéiri.—State and town in Bundelkhand, North-Western Provinces ,— See CHARKHAR I.

Chitaldrlig' — District of the Nagar Division , Mysore

Native State. Including the extreme limits of two long narrow projec

t ions into the Madras District o f Bellary, i t i s s ituated between 1 3°

35'

and 1 5°

2'

N. lat .,and between 7 5

°

43' and 7 7

°

30' E. long. Area,

487 1 square miles . Popu lat ion ( 188 1 ) On the north andnorth-east

, Chitaldrug is bounded by the D istrict of Bellary , in the

Madras Pres idency ; on the south and south - east by T umkiir

District (Mysore) ; on the west by Kadur and Shimoga Districts

(Mysore) and on the north-west i t i s separated by the T ungabhadra

river from the Bombay District of Dharwzir. The administrative

head-quarters are at the town of CHITALDRUG.

P/zysz'

ml Aya h —The District is dis tingu ished in Mysore for its low

rainfall , and the arid , stony character o f the soil. I t consis ts for theo st part of the valley of the Vedavati or Hagari river

,a tributary of

the T ungabhadra, runn ing from south-west to north-east ; and it istraversed crosswise by a belt of intermittent parallel chains of low

hills . T he highest summits o f these hills are from 2 800 to 3800 feetabove sea-level. The rest of the D is trict is an Open plain

,entirely

CHJ TALDRUG . 4 23

destitute of picturesque features,with an average elevat ion of about

2 000 feet. The Vedavati river occupies a wide sandy bed,which i s

almost dry of water during the hot months , except where wells aresunk for irrigation . The T ungabhadra river forms the north-western

boundary for a few miles, and the Northern Pinakini enters the Districton the extreme east for an equally short distance . In no part of

Chitaldrrig are trees numerous ; and the present steri le condition ofthe country is attributed to the reckless destruction of the formerforests . R ich grass for pasturage abounds in certain tracts

,and the

soil is productive wherever i t can be art ificially watered . The wellknown ‘ black cotton-soil,

’ interspersed with sandy patches,prevails in

the north and west ; in the south , the earth is largely impregnated wi th

salt, which is favourable to the product ion of the cocoa-nut ; andtowards the east

,the surface soil is light and sandy

,and abounds in

springs, which form so prominent a feature in the agriculture of the

neighbouring Districts of T rimkur and Bellary. The central range ofhills presents a succession of different formations . In the sou th

,the

hills are mainly composed of a ferruginous clayey slate , topped withmagnet ic ironstone ; about Chitaldrtig is found the prevail ing syeni teof Mysore

,with . felspar and mica while towards the north , the lower

ridges consist of a compound in wh ich chlorite , oxide of iron , andhornblende appear. Among m inerals may be mentioned iron—ore in

various forms,asbestos

,potstone

,slate , actinolite, and carbonate of

soda. The wild animals include the tiger,panther , bear, hyaena, and

wild hog . As elsewhere in Mysore , trees have been planted out i n

avenues along the public roads,and the cult ivators are encouraged

to grow groves of their own but the trees thus planted are kept al ivewi th much difficulty

,and there i s not suffi cien t t imber in the District

to serve for the local demands of housebuilding .

History—The history o f Chitaldrug is chiefly associated with thenames of the paleg drs or petty chieftains , who rose to independenceduring the 1 7 th century .

The most ancient site in the District is thevillage of Nirgunda, which is proved by inscriptions of the 5th centuryA.D. to have been the capital of a Jain principal i ty, tributary to the GangaEmpire. I t i s bel ieved that descendants of the Ganga l ine continuedto govern the country during the predom inance of the Chalukya andBallala dynast ies. When the latter k ingdom was overthrown by theMuhammadans in the 14th century , the Hindu sovereigns of

Vijayanagar became paramount over al l Southern India ; but the re

moteness of their authority allowed numerous feudatories to assertsemi-independence

.Foremost amongst these were the pa/eg cfrr

of Chitaldrug,Nidugal

,and Nayakanhatti. The Chitaldrug fami ly

belong to the Bedar,or Boya, caste , who subsist by hunting and

tending cattle.The Bedar caste corresponds to the Kiratas of Sanskrit

4 24 CHI TALDR UG .

writers. The founder of the family obtained possession of the hill fort

of Chitaldriig in about the year 1 508 ; and, by the help of h is warlike

tribesmen,his descendants g radually extended their power over the

greater part of the present District. During the wars which followedfrom the dispu te s between the Muhammadans of Bijapur, the Mughals ,and the Marathas

,the Chitaldriig palega

’

r served as a valuable auxiliarvon the one s ide or the other ; but, l ike the rest of the local chieftains,he fel l before the conquering armies of Haidar Ali. In 1 7 79, the

fort o f Chitaldriig , which had been besieged by Haidar Ali onmore than one occasion, was surrendered to him by treachery ; hesent the rul ing family prisoners to Seringapatam ,

transported the ihhabitants in a body to people his capital

,and enlisted the young boys

of the Bedar caste in his own battalions. The palega’

r of Nidugal wasconquered by Haidar Ali at about the same time

,though the family

survived to be finally extirpated by Tipri in 1 792 . They are saidto have been descended from a Rajput immigrant

,to whom the

country was gran ted by the Vij ayanagar sovere ign in the 1 6th century .

The hill fort of Nidugal became their residence after they had beendriven from the plain s by the Musalman Nawab of Sira. The Nayakanhatti family were ch iefs o f smaller note, whose territory had beenabsorbed by the Chitaldriig palegdr before the days of Haidar Ali.On the death of Tipri, in 1 799, Chitaldriig was included in thedominions of th e resuscitated Hindu Raja of Mysore. The west andsouth suffered during the disturbances o f 1830 , which led to the intervention o f the Indian Government in 1 83 1 ; and the entire Stateremained under direct Bri tish adminis tration un t il 1 88 1 . In March188 1

, Mysore State was re stored to native rule, bu t the administrationafter the Bri tish fash ion by Divisions and Districts has not been

changed in any important feature.

P opulation—A le/za’

zza or house enumeration of the people, in1 853—54, returned a total of persons . The regular Census of

18 7 1 ascertained the number to be showing an increase of

more than 83 per cent . in the interval of eighteen years, if the earlierest imate can be trusted. The Censu s of 188 1

,however, discloses

a great fall ing off in populat ion . The number returned in 188 1 isor a decrease since 1 87 1 of This decrease is due

to the severe famine which affl icted Southern India in 1 8 76—78. T he

area of Chitaldrug, 487 1 square miles, gives an average of 7 7 personsper square mile

,the lowes t average in Mysore State . The most

densely-populated ta’

lu/c i n the District i s Davangere . Classified

according to sex, the popu lat ion is composed of males and

females ; proportion o f males, 50 per cent . The occupation

tables return male adults as connected with agriculture,and

as composing the manufacturing and artisan classes. The

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4 26 017 1“ s UG .

every crop is precarious . S ince the beginning of the century,a proj ect

has been under consideration for embanking the Vedavati river,where i t breaks through the central range of the D istrict. The cos t isest imated at and acres in the fert ile but unwateredplain of Hiriyur wou ld thus be rendered productive. The followingirrigat ion works have been recently constructed—Dodderi tank feeder

,

at a cos t of £3 1 1 8, completed in 1 88 1 ; and the Yalluk tank feeder,completed in 1 8 78 at a cost of £ 1 70 1 . Out of the total area of

487 1 square miles, 1 2 56 are returned as under cultivat ion , 1 76 1 as

cult ivable , and 1 854 as uncult ivable . The area under rice isacres ; wheat, 7 5 7 3 ; other food-grains, oil-seeds

,

cotton,

vegetables,1 5 79 ; cocoa-nu t palms, 82 70 acres ; areca

nut palms, 4034 ; sugar-cane , 2 058 acres . The returns of agricultural

stock show 584 1 carts and ploughs . But th e chief wealth of

Chitaldriig Dis tr ict consists in i ts flocks and herds . The commoncattle of the villagers are o f a small s iz e ; but on the wide pasturegrounds belonging to the amrz

’

t ma/za’

l,or department for the

improvement of cattle breeds , graz e some of the largest and finestcatt le in Southern India. The best cows and buffaloes are bred inthe neighbourhood of Chitaldriig town . The most valuable breedso f sheep

, on the other hand , are to be found in the north -west of theDistrict. The total number of cows and bullocks i s re turned at

of buffaloes,at of sheep and goats

,at

M anufactures , d am—The staple industries depend upon the local productions o f cotton , wool, and iron . The weaving of coarse cotton clothi s carried on in all parts of the District

,and several villages are known

for the spec ial fineness or pecu l iar pattern of the ir work . Kamblz'

s, orwoollen blankets

,are also made everywhere , both whi te and black, as

well as checked . The siz e is generally 18 feet long by 6 feet wide, andthe price varies from 3 2 5 . to £4 . Some are occasionally produced ofso delicate a texture that i t i s said they can be rolled up into a hollow

bamboo, and £30 is asked for such a fancy article . The weaving ofsilk is confined to a few local ities. Iron-ore is largely smelted in thecentral hill ranges ; the articles produced are agricultural implementsand weapons of steel . The manufacture of glass ornaments

,such as

bangles , forms a speciality o f the village of Mattod , in the Hariharltz

’

luk, and in M alebent

’

ir in the Davangere tti/u/e . Coarse paper is

made from old sacking in the Dodderi ld’Zzzk ; bu t both the glass andpaper industries have fallen much off in recent years .The principal centre of trade is the thriving town of Davangere

,in

the north-west o f the District,where a large through traffic is conducted .

The areca-nu t and pepper o f the M alnad or h ill country o f WestMysore are here exchanged for the piece-goods

,hardware

,salt

,etc. ,

imported from Madras,and the karzzb/z

'

r manufactured in the ne igh

CHI T ALDR UG . 4 2 7

bourhood. The merchants mostly belong to the L ingayat sect. Themost frequented rel igious fair is held at the sacred village of Nayakanhatti

,in the Dodderi ta

’

luk, where persons assemble annually .

Other rel igious festivals are held at the following places z—Kotegudda,Kalledevarpura, Hiriyur, M aildevarapura, Nagalmadike , Murgi , and

G unisiddapura. Weekly fairs take place at Davangere,Nayakanhatti

,

Harihar,Budihal

,and Huliyar. There are no railroads in the District .

The imperial roads have a total length of 191 miles, maintained at anannual cost of £3403 of District roads

,there are 2 24 miles, wh ich

cost annually£1 6 16. First-class do]: bungalows for the use of travellersare establ ished at Bommankere

, Chitaldriig , Harihar, and Hiriyur.Administration.

- In 1 88 1—8 2, the total revenue of Chitaldriig

District, excluding forests, education , and publ ic works , amounted to

The chief items were—land revenue,

excise ,

£6 1 7 1 ; mo/ztarfa or assessed taxes, £4 1 24. The District is

divided into 8 io’

luks or fi scal d ivisions,with 5 1 nob/1

'

s or m inor fiscalunits. In 1 88 1—82 , the total number of estates on the register was

owned by proprietors or coparceners. During 1 874,

the average daily populat ion o f the District j ai l amounted toand of the ta

’

lnk lock-ups to 1 1 6 8 total, 395 0 (of whom 3 30 were

women) , showing 1 person in j ail to every of the popu lation .

In 1880, the District pol ice force numbered 48 officers and 540

constables total, 588 men of all ranks , maintained at an aggregate cost

of £3392 . These figures show one policeman to every 7 square miles

of area,or to every 639 persons of the population ; the cost being

z id. per head of popu lation . The number o f schools aided and in

spected by Government in 1874 was 296 , attended by 5847 pupils .

In addition,there were 2 2 1 unaided schools , with 2 83 1 pupils . In

188 1 , the Census Report returned 7 134 boys and 167 girl s as underinstruction ; besides males and 1 73 females able to read and

write, but not under instruct ion .

M edical Aspects .—The climate of Chitaldrug is characteriz ed by a

drier heat than the rest of Mysore . The rainfall is considerablyless

,and there are few forests or inequal ities of surface to moderate

the radiation from the bare plain . In the western part, a cool breez efrom the west sometimes blows at night in the ho t season . The meanaverage temperature during the year is about 78? F.

, the hottest monthbeing April. The average rainfall a t Chitaldrtig town , calculated onthe twelve years ending 188 1 , amounts to only 2 53 2 inches . Nearly

one-half of this fall s in the s ingle month of October, at the season o f

the breaking of the north-east monsoon . Certain parts of the.

District,including the Hiriyur and Dodderi lei/abs , rece ive less than 1 0 inches

in

the year ; and if th is supply fails, severe d istress is inevitably occasioned.

The vital stat istics of the District are far from trustworthy but 1t may

4 2 8 Cfll TAL DRUG TAL UA’

AND T OH'

N .

be ment ioned that out o f the total of 6 134 deaths reported in 1 88 1 ,

398 1 were assigned to fevers , 346 to bowel complaints , 4 1 to small-pox ,and 2 8 to snake—bi te and wi ld beasts . As throughout the greater parto f Mysore

,outbreaks of cholera are rare . In 1 880

,the hospital and

dispensary at Chitaldrug town afforded aid to 8362 persons . [Forfurther information regarding Ch italdrug District , see the G o z efl eer ofM ysore and Coorg , by L . R ice

,E sq .

,vol. i i . pp. 450

—504 (Bangalore ,

1 8 76) also the Census Report of Jllysore, 188 1 and theReporfr for 1880 to

Chitaldrfi g .

— T ¢ilze/e in Chitaldriig District , Mysore State . Area,6 19 square miles ; land revenue ( 188 1 exclusive o f water-rates

,

£8 1 2 4 . A range of h ills running north and sou th divides the td/n/e

i nto two almost equal portions . In the southern portion,the hills are

bold and strik ing . The western part of the z‘a’lafe is best suppliedw ith water

,and contains the Bhimasamudra tank , miles long by 2

miles broad . Population ( 1 88 1 ) namely,males

females T he Hindus number Muhammadans,2457

Chris tians,64 . The ta

’

lzz/c contains ( 1883—84 ) 2 criminal courts ;number of police stations 1 1 ; regular police , 1 07 men ;village watchmen

,2 70 7 .

Chitaldrlig (‘ Spotfed eo sf/e

,

’

or‘ Umorella —Chief town of

the District o f Chitaldriig , Mysore State ; 1 2 6 miles north - west of

Bangalore. L at. 14°

14'

N .,long. 7 6

°

26' E. Population ( 188 1 ) 4 2 7 1 .

The modern town stands at the north-east base of a cluster of hills,covered wi th extensive fort ificat ions . Many inscrip t ions have beenfound of the Chalukya, Ballala, and Vij ayanagar dynasties . L ocal

h istory commences with the family of the Chitaldrt’

ig palegdrs , who

trace back to the 1 5th century . Their heredi tary t itle was Na’

yak,and

they claimed descent from the Bedar or Boya caste of hunters andmountaineers . They gradually extended their power on all s ides untilthey came into collis ion wi th Haidar Ali, who captured Chitaldrt

’

ig in1 7 79, sent the last of the Nayaks prisoner to Seringapatam ,

and dis

p ersed the Bedar population . The remains of the mud fort and palaceo f the pa/egra

’

rs are stil l to be seen . Haidar Ali erected a formidables tone fortress

,wi th in which h is son Tipri buil t a palace , now used as

a court-house . In the ci ty were also constructed immense granariesand pits, for storing oil and g /zz

’

. Inside the fortifications are 14 temples,o f which the principal

,dedicated to Huchangi

-amma,has two storeys .

Water is conducted to all the streets from the T immalnayakan tank .

The cantonments have been abandoned as a station for Brit ish troops,on account of their unhealthiness . The weavers o f Chitaldrug were

once celebrated , but only country blankets and coarse cotton cloth arenow made . In the neighbourhood of the town are several marks orH indu monasteries. The largest i s the Murgi mat/z, 3 miles to the

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430 CHI TAR TALA—CHI T OR .

Karwi,which was among its chief patrons

,has become impoverished.

Thirty g /zdts , or bath ing-places, along the banks of the river are heldby Brahman famil ies

,who levy dues upon the pilgrims . Tradit ion sets

down the total number of rel igious bu ildings at 360, a sacred number

of constant occurrence throughou t Upper India.

Chitartalé..— R iver of Cuttack District, Orissa. A branch of theMahanadi

,which leaves the parent stream about 1 0 miles below the

point where it throws o ff the Birupa. After flowing a few miles, the

Chitartalabifurcates into the Chitartalaand the Nun. These streams

re—unite after a course of about 2 0 miles ; and under the name of the

Nt’

m,the uni ted waters fall into the Mahanad i’ estuary a few miles from

the coast,and so into the Bay of Bengal. The Kendrapara Canal runs

along the north bank of the Chitartala to the point where the Nundiverges to the northwards, whence it proceeds along the bank of thelatter river till it drops into tidal waters at Marsaghai

,after a total length

o f miles from Cuttack .

Chit-Firoz pur.

— Town in Ball ia D istrict,North-Western Provinces .

—See BARAGAON .

Chitor.

—~Town in Udaipur (Oodeypore ) Native State , Rajputana .

L at. (according to Thornton) , 24°

5 2'

N. , l ong. 74°

4 1’ E. Population

( 1 88 1 ) 693 1 , namely, Hindus , 5 736 ; and Muhammadans , 1 195. The

town is s ituated on the Nimach and Nasira’bad road, 30 miles from the

former and 1 14 from the latter, and a station of the Holkarand Sindhia

Nimach State Railway . It l ies immediately at the foot of the westerns lope of the h ill

,on which is si tuated the celebrated fort called Chitorgarh.

The town is nearly rectangular in form,and is defended by a wall con

nected with the fort. The Gameri,an affluent of the Berach, flows to

the west,at a distance of 680 yards

,and is spanned by a very sol id old

masonry bridge o f 9 arches , in good order, but wi thout parapets . Thefort

, Chitorgarh, s tands on a long narrow hill, lying almost exactly northand south . I ts area is 693 acres ; extreme length from wall to wall

5 7 35 yards, and greatest w idth 836 yards ; total length of the ramparts1 3 yards . The nature of the hill i tself is sol id rock

, gradually

sloping upwards from the plain,and more or less precipitous throughout

the whole extent at the top ; the strati fi cation is nearly horiz ontal ; butthe dip is from the east and west towards the centre

,and this form has

been taken advantage of in forming tanks, of which there are 5 large

ones in the sou thern half of the fort . At the extreme south end is a

small round hill known as Chitoria, connected wi th the main bill by a

saddle-back ; the distance between the edge o f this h ill and the southern

bastion is 1 50 yards , bu t the fort wall i s 1 50 feet above it . The generallevel of the country is l ittle more than 1 300 feet above the sea . The

height of the extreme northern end of the fort-wall is 1 7 6 1 feet, and of

the extreme southern point 1 8 19 feet. Of the three approaches to the

CHI TOR . 4 3:

three main gates of the fort , the principal, from the city on the west,

ascends the hil l gradually in a northern direction for about 1080 yards,passing under two gateways the road then z ig

—z ags for some 500 yardsmore

,passing under three more gateways , before i t arrives at the main

gate of the fortre ss, known as the Ram Pol . The total length of the

ascent is 1 595 yards , and the slope , which is nearly uniform throughout,is about 1 in 1 5 ; the whole roadway is roughly paved. The second

gate,known as the L akola, is at the extreme northern point of the fort,

and the ascent to it is by a small rugged pathway, l it tle used . On the

eastern face is the th ird entrance , known as the Stiraj Pol the ascen t

to it i s about 750 yards in length , the latter half being paved . There

is an abundant supply of water inside the fort from tanks, 32 in

number ; and there is also a perennial spring from the lower part of theprecipice over the city

,which appears to be excellent drinking water .

Though the soil inside the walls i s very rocky, a great portion of the

northern half produces annual crops of j oa’

r. In the centre area few wheat - fi elds irrigated from the tanks

,but to the south i t is

quite uncultivated. L i tt le of pasturage is to be found inside thewalls. As a fortress the place possesses great advantages ; the h i llitself, averaging about 450 feet above the surrounding country, precipitous at the top, and the whole covered wi th dense dhao j ungle

,

forms in itself no sl ight obstacle ; and there is no commanding positionwithin the range of even modern arti llery . This ancien t fortress wasthe capital of the country from A.D. 7 28, when Bapa Rawal, accordingto tradit ion

,wrested i t from the then re igning chief, t ill 1 568, when it

was finally deserted on its storm and capture by the Emperor Akbar.The oldest monument now standing is the Khowasin Sthamba, a

remarkable square pillar 7 feet in he ight , 30 feet in diameter at th e

base,and 1 5 feet at the top, and covered with Jain figures. Tod

mentions a fragment of an inscription at i ts base bearing date A .D . 896 ;

and it may be accepted as the work of the ro th century. There arealso many Jain inscriptions st i ll extant ; but the oldest noted by Todwas dated 7 55 . The ent ire top of the h ill is covered with the ruins o f

temples,palaces

,and reservoirs

,all fully described by Tod. The chief

object of interest is the Khirat Khiimb, the pillar erected in 1450 by

Rana Khumbhu, to commemorate h is defeat of the combined armies

of Malwa and Guj arat in 1439. This column is 1 2 2 feet in height ;the breadth of each face at the base is 3 5 feet, and at the summit,immediately under the cupola, 1 7% feet . I t stands on a terrace, 4 2

feet square,and has 9 distinct storeys, with openings at every face of

each storey. I t i s buil t ch iefly of compact limestone and the quartz

rock on which i t stands,and the whole is covered with architectural

ornaments and sculpture represent ing an immense variety of mytho

logical subj ects.

43 2 CHI TRA—CH I T TA G ON G .

Chitré. The Vorz'

egafed,’or G lonez

'

ng—River in j e ssor

District,Bengal. In Rennel’s B engalA i/o s, of the last century, this r iver

appears as an offshoot of the Nabaganga, at a point 3 miles from wherethe latter r iver left the Matabhanga. At the present day, however, thehead of the Chitra i s completely closed , partly by the si lt ing up of theNabaganga

,and partly by an artificial d isconnection with it

,by means

of an embankment which an indigo planter threw across the head ofthe Chitra about forty-fi ve years ago . The river flows through Jessorn a south-south-easterly direction , past Kaliganj , Khajura, Ghorakhali,Naral

,and Gobra

,till it loses i tself in the low marshy country in the

interior o f the District. Navigable in a portion of its course by boats

of about 2 tons burthen from the commencement of the rains up toDecember, but before the end of February closed to all but the smallestcraft.

Chih al—The capital of a State of the same name in the Kunar orKashkar valley

,Kashmir. L at. 35

°

55'

N . , long. 7 1°

56'

E . ; elevation,5 200 feet 48 miles south-west from Mastuj , on the Kashkar river. Thesoil of the valley is fertile, producing much grain and quant ities of many

European fru its, as well as excellent grapes . According to tradi t ion,

Chitral was the wine cellar of Afrasiab. The valley resemblesKafaristan in physical features and coldness of cl imate . The menof the valley are tall and well - made

,and the women remarkable

for their beauty , bearing a strong resemblance in their physiognomy

and colour to the hil l people of Chamba and Kangra. Slavery iscommon

,and the slave trade forms one of the principal items of

revenue of the Chitral rulers . Trade is carried on chiefly by barter.Caravans of petty merchants pass through Ch itral annually betweenPeshawar, Panjkora, Swa

’

t, and Jalalabad on the south, and BadakshanKrinduz , Balkh, Turkistan , Kolab, and Yarkand on the north . Veryfew but Afghans trade between Yarkand and Peshawar. The ChitralState owns the supremacy of Kashmir.

Chitrévati.—River in Cuddapah (Kadapa) District, Madras Presidency. I t ri ses at Nandidriig i n Mysore, and, flowing across BellaryD istrict

,j o ins the Peunar in the Jamalamadugu td

’

lzelz .

ChitréWéO.—Petty State of G ohelwar District

,Kathiawar

,Bombay

Presidency. Cons ist s of 1 village, with 1 independent tribute-payer.Est imated revenue in 188 1

, £ 1 60. Pays tribu te of £49 to theGaekwar of Baroda

,and 3, 1 6s . to Junagarh .

Chittag ong—Division or Commissionersh ip of Bengal

,lying be

tween 2 0°

45’ and 24

°

1 6'

N . lat. , and between 90°

3 2'

and 92°

44'

E.

long. comprising the Districts of CHITTAGONG , NOAKHAL I , T I PPERAH,and the CHITTAG ONG H ILL T RAcrs . Bounded on the north by the HillT ipperah State ; on the eas t by the hilly tract inhabited by L ushais andother half-savage tribes ; on the south by Akyab District in British

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CHI T TAG ON G .

cargo boats.The principal tributary of the Karnaphuli is the Halda .

The Sangu, which takes its rise in the south-eastern corner of the

Arakan Hill Tracts, also follows a very circui tous course , and finallyenters the Bay o f Bengal 1 0 miles south o f the Karnaphuli. It isnavigable by large cargo boats for a distance of 30 miles throughout

the year,and its chief tributary, the Dolu , for 7 miles all the year

round,and 14 miles in the rainy season . Smaller s treams and

watercourses, navigable throughou t the rainy season by small nativeboats

,intersect the District in all directions. A considerable portion

o f the low-lying tract o f Chittagong is protected by embankmentsfrom the sea. The principal of these embankments are those inthe island of Kutabdia, and the Gandamara dykes built to protect thevillage of Gandamara . Most of the embankments

,including those

just named,were for some t ime abandoned by Government , and

destroyed by the sea . T hev have been recently reconstructed . Thereare five principal h ill ranges in the Dis trict—namely ( 1 ) the Sitakund ;( 2 ) the G oliasi ; (3 ) the Satkania ; (4) the M askhal ; and (5) theTeknaf range. Of these , the most interest ing is the fi rst-named, whichcontains the sacred peak of Chandranath or S itakund

,1 1 55 feet in

height,the highest hill in the District. There are no lakes in Chitta

gong District . The canals or art ificial watercourses consist of a l ineo f re-opened creeks in the coast tract , solely used for navigat ion . One

o f these canals or creeks commences on the coast 1 2 miles north ofthe mouth of the Karnaphuli, and falls into that river j ust belowChit tagong town ; the others form a line of communication betweenthe Karnaphuli r iver and the sea at Jalkadar opposite Kutabdia island.

They are leased out annually under the Canal Tolls Ac t to farmerswho levy a fixed rate of toll. These creeks are very important

,and

the l ine formed by them is one of the great h ighways of the District .Numerous ferries are established across the principal rivers and

streams, the tolls of which , w i th one or two exceptions , are leased outannually in the same manner as the canals . Most o f the villagespossess water communicat ion ; and nearly every inhabitant of theDistrict may be said to live more or less by river traffic. Grain

,cotton

,

pottery, firewood, dried fish,and bamboos form the chief articles of

local river trade. The sea and river fisheries are very valuable,and

form a means of l ivel ihood to a large sect ion of the population. The

chief localit ies for inland fisheries are the rivers Karnaphuli, Sangu,Halda, and Chandkhali but the sea-coast fishery at Sonadia andKa

’

li Daha i s the most extensive. The dried fi sh are principally sent

to Chittagong town ; bu t wi th the exception o f sharks’ fins,which are

exported to Rangoon , there is no exportation o f fish from the District.The j ungle products consist of reeds

,canes

,and bamboos

,mostly

brought from the valleys in the h ill ranges, where the hill slopes

CH I T TA G ON G . 435

afford abundant pasturage for cattle . No coal or minerals are knownto exist in Chittagong. A hot spring on the sacred hil l of S ITAKUNDis a great place of pilgrimage, and is vis ited by pious Hindus fromall parts of India. There is also a salt-spring

,known by the name of

Labanakhya, s ituated about 3 miles north of the Sitakund,which is

also reputed to be of great sancti ty, and is vis ited by large numbersof pilgrims. The wild animals of the District consist of the t iger

,

elephant,rhinoceros, leopard, wi ld boar, and deer. There is a con

siderable export trade in king-fi sher skins to Burma and China.

lfi'

story.—Chittagong originally formed part of the extensive Hindu

kingdom of Tipperah ; but, prior to its conquest by the M uham

dans, i t had frequently changed masters. L y ing on the frontierbetween Bengal and Burma, i t formed a source of chronic feud betweenthe Hindu King of Tipperah and the Buddhist King of Arakan . TheDistrict was probably first conquered by the Muhammadans during the

period of Afghan supremacy in Bengal,between the 1 3th and 1 6th

centuries. The Portuguese h istorian,Faria de Souz a

,states that, in

1538, the Viceroy of Goa despatched an envoy to the Afghan Kingof Bengal

,who landed at Chittagong, and proceeded thence to

the capital at Gaur. The king,however

,being suspicious of the

intentions of the Portuguese , seiz ed thirteen members of the embassyat Gaur

,together with their ship’s company. In revenge for this

outrage,the Portuguese

,some months afterwards , burned Chittagong.

During the struggle between the Mughals and Afghans for thesupremacy in Bengal

,towards the close o f the 1 6th century, Chitta

gong seems to have been reconquered by the Raja of Arakan , andannexed to his kingdom as a tributary Province this reconquest, how.

ever,was ignored by the Mughals

,after the final expulsion of the

Afghans from Bengal . T odar Mall , Akbar’

s finance minister, continued

to treat the District as an integral part of the Muhammadan dominionsand

,in 1 582 , fixed its assessment on the rent-roll of the Empire

‘ byestimation ’ at As a matter of fact, Chittagong was then aProvince of Arakan , and remained so until 1666, when i t was reannexedto the Mughal Empire . In 1638, Matak Rai, a Magh chief, held

Chittagong on behalf of the Arakan Ra’

ija but, having displeased hisprince

,and fearing punishment

,he sought the protection of the

Mughals,acknowledged himself a vassal of the Delhi Empire , and

nominally made over the sovere ignty o f his territory to the Governor of

Bengal . Soon after th is,the depredations of the Arakanese became

intolerable. For many years they had been making piratical incursionsinto the Muhammadan territory

,penetrat ing far up the rivers of Bengal,

and carrying into slavery the inhabitants of all the river-side villages .

The Maghs were aided by numbers of half-caste Portuguese adventurers,retained in the employ of the Raj a of Arakan . T o such an extent

436 CH I T TAG ON G .

were these depredations carried , that in a map o f Bengal by Major J .

Rennel, Surveyor-General, published in 1 794, a note is entered across

the portion of the Sundarbans , immediately south of Bakarganj town ,that ‘ this part o f the country has been deserted on account of theravages of the Muggs .’ I t is , however , probable that only a portion o f

the deserted tract was laid waste by the Maghs, and that the true cause

of the desolation is the change which has taken place in the river

system of the delta .

In 1 664—65 , Shaista Khan , then Governor o f Bengal, resolved to put

an end to these pirat ical incursions , and for that purpose undertook anexpedit ion against the Arakan Raj a on such a scale as would securethe permanent conquest of Chittagong. He accordingly assembled apowerful fleet o f boats , and an army strong. Of this force,

3000 were despatched in the fleet,under the command of an officer

named Husain Beg, with orders to clear the rivers and islands of thepirates . The remaining force was placed under the command of hisson Buz urg Umed Khan, with instructions to proceed by land andc o -operate with the fleet. The expedi t ion was a complete success.The ports at the mouth of the Meghna

,and Sandwip island were

captured by the fleet . The Portuguese auxil iaries to the Raja ofArakan having been invited to assist the Mughals—under a threatfrom the general that if they failed he would

,on the capture of Chitta

gong,put them to the sword—deserted the Raja’s service

,and sailed

for Sandwip,where they were rece ived by the Imperial general , and a

res idence assigned to them 1 2 m iles below Dacca. The army under

Umed Khan advanced by land , and after defeat ing the Arakanese invarious encounters

,finally carried the town of Chittagong by storm,

which was thereupon re-annexed to Bengal , and i ts name changed toIslamabad

,the Res idence of the Fai thful.

Twen ty years after the occurrence of these events the firstconnection of the English with Ch ittagong took place . In that year,the East India Company

,in consequence of dispu tes with the Nawab

o f Bengal, sent out an exped it ion under Admiral Nicholson,w ith

i nstructions to seiz e Chittagong and fortify it on behalf of the English .

Owing to circumstances which occurred at H iigli (see HUGL I D ISTR ICT),the Admiral never proceeded to Chittagong, and the District did not

pass into our possession unti l 1 760, when it was ceded to the EastIndia Company, along with Bardwan and Midnapur, by Mir Kasim.

The admini stration of Chittagong was at once placed in the hands of

an Engli sh Chief ’wi th a Council, and the District soon settled downinto a well-regulated Engl ish Province . Immediately after the annexa

t ion of Arakan by the King of Burma,a large immigration of Maghs

took place into Chittagong, caused by the oppressions and exactions towhich they were subj ected by the Burmese Government . To this

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438 CHI T TAG ON G .

The excess of the female over the male population of Chittagong isattributed to the fact

,that the District supplies lay/ears or native sailors

for vessels trading in Indian waters, and also sends a number oflabourers to Arakan in the cold season , during which the Census was

taken. Classified according to rel igion , there were—Muhammadans,

or 708 2 per cent. o f the population ; Hindus, or

per cent . ; Buddhi sts , or per cent . ; Christ ians,1055 Sikhs

, 5 ; and Brahmos, 8 . The aboriginal tribes numbered

1 356 in 1 88 1 , most of whom are Nats or demon-worshippers, but theyare returned in the above figures as Hindus by religion . Among the

high Hindu castes Brahmans numbered and Raj puts 1 040 .

Among the other castes the most numerous are the following :—Baniya ,8030 ; Barui, 4 766 ; Dhobi, Jaliya , j ugi,Kaibartta, 4542 Kayasth

,the most numerous caste in the District ,

Kumbhar, 5095 ; Napir, Si

’

idra, and Tanti

5 248. The Muhammadan community is divided according to sectinto Sunnis

,Shias

, 3569 ; and unspecified, 965 . Of the

Christ ian population , 2 1 1 are Europeans ; the great maj ority of theremainder being Firinghis, the descendants of the early Portugueseadventurers who played such an important part in the h istory o f Chitta~

gong two centuries ago. At one t ime they were extens ive shipownersand wealthy men

,but they are now fast decreasing in importance. In

the interior,a few of them follow agricultural pursuits but for the most

part they reside in Chittagong town . Even as late as the beginning ofthe present century

,the Firinghis possessed large numbers of slaves ,

often exceeding 50 in one family. The process of miscegenation which

has been long going on has completely deprived the present descen

dants of the Portuguese of any resemblance to their ancestors ; andexcept by their dress

,they are hardly dist inguishable in appearance

from the natives . By neglect of education,the Firinghis have allowed

the nat ives to outstrip them,and many appointments

, of which theyhad formerly the monopoly

,are now held by Hindus and M uham

madams .T own andRuralP opulation—The population is altogether rural ; and,

with the exception of the municipal ity of Chittagong, there is no towncontain ing more than 5000 inhabitants . The population of CH1TTA

G ONG TOWN i s Cox’s BAZAR (popu lation 4363) is the only

other town of any importance in the District , and in it more thanthree—fourths of the population are Maghs . Of the 1 376 villages andtowns in the District, 356 contain less than two hundred inhabitants ;

408 from two hundred to five hundred ; 2 73 from five hundred to athousand ; 20 1 from one thousand to two thousand ; 7 8 from two

thousand to three thousand 38 from three thousand to five thousand2 1 village unions (monza

’

r) from fi ve thousand to ten thousand ; and

CHI T TA G ON G'

. 439

1 town (Chittagong) upwards of twenty thousand inhabitants. Theprincipal villages are Phatikchari, Kumiria

, Hathaz ari, Raojan , Patia,Satkania, Chandranath (on Sitakund Hill , a much frequented place of

pilgrimage) , M askhal ( in the island of the same name) , Chakaria, andRamu. Near Rajakul, a village to the south of Ramu, are the remainsof an old fort which , i t i s supposed, belonged to a Magh chieftain ; butthere are singularly few relics in the D istrict sugges t ive of its historica

'

importance.Occupations—The Census Report of 1881 divides the male popula

t ion as regards occupation into the following s ix main classes ( 1 )Professional class, including all civil and military officials, and thelearned professions, (2 ) domestic servants, inn and lodginghouse keepers, etc., 75 2 2 ; (3) Commercial class, including bankers ,merchants, traders, carriers, etc . , (4) agricultural and pastoralclass

,including gardeners , 5 ) manufacturing and industrial

class,including artisans, (6) indefinite and non-productive

,

including male ch ildren,general labourers

,and persons of unspecified

occupation,

Agriculture—R ice is the staple crop of Chittagong. There are

three harvests in the year—boro, or spring rice ; dus, the autumncrop ; and dman, or winter rice. These are further sub-divided into

33 principal variet ies. Other crops are Indian corn , wheat, barley,peas

, jute, flax,mustard

,sugar-cane , pdn, cotton , tobacco , and tea.

Of these the most important are the three last-named . An accountof the cult ivation of cotton and tobacco in the Hill Tracts will be

found in the Statistical Amount of B engal, vol. vi. pp. 199—207 . The

introduction of tea into the Distric t dates from 1840, in which year

some tea-seed was received from Assam and three China plants from

Calcutta. Three years later,the firs t tea was manufactured in the

District. According to the lates t returns , the total cultivated area

in Chittagong amounts to acres, and the area cultivable butnot cultivated to acres . A lmost the whole acresof the cultivated area is devoted to food—crops. The average produce per acre of rice is about 1 5 mounds or 1 1 cwts. ; wheat, 1 1

cwts. inferior grains,1 2 cwts. o il-seeds, 5§ cwts . tobacco, 7 cwts.

The average rent for good land i s abou t 1 , 2 5 . 6d. an acre ; and

for poor soil,about 1 2 5 . R ich alluvial land along the banks o f

rivers,suited to the cul tivation o f tobacco, pain, and other special

crops,is ren ted at much higher rates , the average being £2

,2 5 .

an acre. Wages have increased very cons iderably of late years . In

1850—51 ,

day-labourers and ploughmen received 15d. a day ; in

1860—6 1 , they earned from 352d. to 5-}d. by 1870

—7 1 , the wage for the

same class of labour had risen as high as 6d. and and in 1882 ,

9d. and rs . In the same way, smiths, bricklayers, and carpenters, who,

440 CHI T TA G ON G .

in 1 850—5 1 , were paid 21d. a day

,earned in 1 860—6 1 , 4éd. to 62d ,

and in 18 70—7 1 , 75d. The average price of the best cleaned rice in

1 870—7 1 was 65 . l ed. a cwt.

,and of coarse rice , 5s . The average

price per cwt. o f other produce was returned in the same year asfollows —Wheat

,65 . 2d. ; l inseed, j ute

,8 5 . 2d. ; cotton ,£ 1

, 45 . 6d. ;

sugar, £ 1,1 5 s. 6d. ; salt , 1 55 . Manure is u sed to some extent in

Chittagong, and irrigation is effected by means o f the numerous watercourses . P a

’

n gardens are allowed to lie fallow for two years after threesuccess ive crops have been obtained . Sugar-cane is not grown twosuccess ive years on the same land . Chittagong is essentially a D istrictof small e states . The peasantry

,as a rule

,are in good circumstances,

s eldom in debt,and very independent ; many of them add to their

income derived from agricu lture, by working as labourers, boatmen ,petty traders

,etc. They are

,however

, o f an exceedingly lit igious and

quarrelsome dispos it ion,having recourse to the District Courts on the

most frivolous pretext .Natural Calamitier—Blight s occur from time to time , but not to

such an extent as to affect the general food-supply o f the District.

The lands along the coast are often flooded by the sea,and much inj ury

is done, for the existing embankmen ts do no t afford adequate protectionagainst the encroachments of the water. Chittagong is also exposed tostorms

,but serious inj ury is rare . A severe cyclone passed over the

southern portion of the District in October 1 8 7 2 , causing considerableloss of l ife and destruction of property . The cyclone and storm-waveo f the 3 1 5 t October 18 76 swept the seaboard wi th st ill more disastrousresults . This last inundation extended inland for a dis tance of fromthree to six m iles

,except where the mou th s of rivers and creeks

afforded the storm-wave an easy entrance,and there the flood passed

much farther up and spread over the country for miles . It is estimatedthat persons were drowned in Chittagong alone, and aresaid to have perished in the cholera epidemic which succeeded theinundation . Famine is unknown in the District, and could only resultfrom a combination of extensive loss of local crops

,with great scarcity

in the Ganget ic Delta and in Burma. Drought is almost unknown in theDistrict, and no demand exists for any irrigation works. The maximumprice of rice in 1 866

,the year of the great Orissa famine

,was 1 35 . 8d. a

cwt. , and of unhusked paddy, 5s. 5d. a cwt.

Com/nerd,eta—The chief imports into Chittagong are piece-goods,

salt, and earth-oil, and the principal exports tea and j ute , the latter

being largely shipped from th is port in preference to Calcutta. The

District trade is virtually that o f Chittagong town and port, and the

stat istics are given fully in the article on Chittagong town (post, p.

Besides the town and port of Chittagong,the chief seats o f trade in

the District are Cox’

s Baz ar, Mahaj an—hat, Naz ir-hat, and Rodja-hat

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442 CH I T TA G ON G .

1 760 , i t contained an area of 2987 square miles , and yielded ( inclusiveo f grants for the maintenance of a mili tary force ) a revenue of

S z'

élta’

Rs . The earl ier tables of revenue and expenditure

contain 50 many items which are mere matters of account,transfer,

and deposit,that they are useless for comparat ive purposes . In

1 88 1—82, the ne t revenue o f the District was The land

tax forms the most important item of revenue . In 1 790 there were

only 33 7 6 es tates , and 5384 proprietors , paying a total land revenueo f or £ 15 , 45 . 6%d. per estate. By 1 850

—5 1 , the number

of estates had risen to and of proprietors to landrevenue

,average per estate

, £ 1 , 18s . 55d. The number of

estates paying ren t to Government in 1 8 70—7 1 was and the

number of proprietors or coparceners, the average land revenuepaid by each estate being 2

,1 1 5 . 1 —d. ,

and the average paid by each

proprietor,

1, 85 . 105

'

Ed. The term ‘ estate,

’ however, is not always

u sed in the same sense,and is somet imes made to include under

tenures . In 1 88 1—8 2 , there were about estates paying revenueto Government

,and 5 lelmmet/idly

,or estate s in wh ich the Government

is absolute proprietor,and collects the rent d irect from the tenants .

There were also nearly rent-free properties . The revenue from

the five Government estates in 1 88 1—82 aggregated and fromthe private es tates

,total

,The rent-free

properties pay only towards local rates, such as the Road Cess and the

Postal Cess. A large special establishment i s maintained for thepurpose of inqu iring into and reg istering all t itles to land . The numbero f magisterial courts in 1880—8 1 was 10

,and of civi l and revenue

courts , 1 3 . For police purposes,the District i s d ivided into 1 3

The regular police force cons isted in 1 880—8 1 of 385 men of all ranks,maintained at a total cost of£7 2 2 7 . There was also a mun icipal forceo f 6 1 men

,cost ing £633, and a village police cons isting o f 2 03 7 men ,

rece iving £92 2 1 in money and lands . The total machinery,therefore,

for the protection o f person and property in the D istr ict consisted of

483 officers and men, maintained at a total cost of giving

one man to every 1 square mile,and for every 456 of the popu lat ion .

The District possesses a central j ai l at Chittagong, and a lock-up at

Cox’s Baz ar. The average daily number of prisoners in 1 88 1 was 1 35 .

An English school was first established by Government in Chittagong in1 836 , and in 1 869 a h igh school (subsequently developed into a college)was opened in connection with i t. The college department contained

1 7 pupils in 188 2, and the collegiate school, 455 pupils . Since the

introduction of the scheme for the encouragement of primary education ,the number of Government and aided schools establ i shed up to March1 88 2 was 786 , attended by pupils . Apart from Government aid

or inspection, Chittagong District stands exceptionally high in the general

CH I T TAG ON G SUB -D I VI S]01V. 443

diffus ion of indigenous elementary education . For the special requirements of the M uhammadan community

,a Madrasa has been establ ished

at Chittagong, maintained out of the proceeds of the Mohs in Endowmentfund, a bequest made by a benevolen t Muhammadan. The pupilsnumbered 3 14 in March 1882 , of whom 28 were boarders. For administrative purposes, Chittagong is divided into two Sub-divisions . The fi scalsub-divis ion into pargands has not been introduced into this District .M edical A spects . Chittagong is very unhealthy. Every form of

malarious disease i s met with,intermittent fever be ing the most common.

This fever seldom proves directly fatal ; but its constant recurrencecauses enlargement of the spleen and l iver

,anaemia, dropsy, and

ultimately death from deb i l i ty. The Distri ct is hardly ever entirely freefrom cholera. Amongst other cau ses to which the unhealthiness ofChittagong has been attributed

,are the numerous t idal creeks and lz/zdls

(which have been described as s imply a series of open sewers, withoutthe advantage of ever be ing well flushed and the extraordinarily largenumber of tanks scattered over the lowlands, which are never cleaned,and are almost invariably choked w i th weeds and decaying vegetation.

Chittagong town being open to the sea-breez e, which usually prevail sduring the day

,is cool but the atmosphere is often ladenwith moisture,

and heavy night dews and occas ional fogs are the result. Averageannual temperature

, 7 7 6° F. The average temperature in 188 1 was

the highest maximum recorded be ing in March , and thelowest minimum in January. Average annual rainfall for twentyfi ve years ending 1 88 1 was inches . The rainfall in 188 1 was

inches,or 7 8 2 inches below the average. [For further infor

mat ion regarding Chittagong, see the Statistical Amount of B eng al,

vol. vi. pp. 1 06—2 23 (L ondon : T rubner 81 Co. ,Also Revenue

History of Clzzttagong , by H . J . S. Cotton, Esq . (Calcutta, 1880)Census Report of B engal for 1 88 1 ; and the Annual Administration

Reportsfor B engal from 1880 to

Chittag ong .—Head-quarters Sub-div is ion of the District of same

name , Bengal lying between 2 1°

50’ and 2 2

°

59’ N . lat. , and between

91°

30' and 92

°

14’

45”

E. long. Area, 1 630 square miles, with 1 101

villages and towns,and occupied houses. Population

namely,Muhammadans

,Hindus

,Buddhists,

Christians, 1 04 1 and ‘ others,

’13 total

,being males

and females . Average density of populat ion, 596 persons per

square mile ; houses per square mile, 1 1 5 ; persons per village ,3

88 2

persons per house, 5 3 . The Sub-division cons ists of the 9pol ice

.

Circles

(tndnds) of Chittagong, Kumiria, M irkasarai, Hathaz ari, Phatikchari,Raoj an, Pat ia, Saitkania, and Banskhal i. In 1883 , it contained 13

civil and 6 criminal courts ; st rength of regular pol ice, 335 men ;village watchmen 1802 .

444 CHI T TAG ON G TOWZV.

Chittag ong— Chief town and administrat ive head -quarters of

Chi t tagong District, and the second port in Bengal . L at. 2 2°2 1

'

3 N . ,

long. 91“

52'

44”

E . ; area, 9 square miles ; population ( 188 1 )namely

,Muhammadans , 5660 Hindus , and 83 1

‘ others . ’ Of

the total population,

are males and only 8 789 females, the

excess of males being due to the fact that many men come into thetown from other parts in search of employment, leaving their families athome. Chit tagong is situated on the right bank of the Karnaphuli

river,about 1 2 miles from its mou th . The town is merely an agglomera

tion of small villages grouped together for municipal purposes . Thehouses occupied by the European residents are scattered over a considerable area, each house on a separate h ill . These hills , thoughsmall

,are very steep

,and

,with one or two except ions , i t is impossible

to drive to the top. The principal streets are Diwa’

n-baz ar and its continuation Chandanpura-baz ar, which run through the town from northto south . Besides the houses of the European and the principal nativeres idents

,the ch ief brick buildings are the Government offices, circuit

house,and o

’a’

lz bungalow,churches (Roman Catholic and Protestant) ,

several large mosques,a home for European sailors , hotel, schools , and

dispensary. The municipal income for the year 1 88 1—8 2 was 2 593,

derived mainly from the house—tax ; rate of taxation , 2 5 . per head.

The notorious unhealth iness o f Chittagong is partly attributable to theexistence of a large number of s tagnant pools and tanks, from which

malarious exhalations arise . Malaria is also carried by the prevalentw ind (from the south or sou th-west) from the extens ive ( bars, ormarshy is lands

,which have been thrown up in the river Oppos ite the

town . Efforts are being made to improve the sanitary condition of theplace .

Chittagong has long been an important place of trade, and the early

Portuguese merchants gave i t the name o fPorto Grando . The establishment of the European set tlements on the H iti caused it to sink for at ime into comparative insignifi cance . But of late it has gradually beenresuming its place as a great centre of commerce and the port, whichis one of the best in India

,is frequented by vessels from foreign

countries as well as from the Indian Presidencies . Unfortunately it iscomparatively inaccessible to nat ive craft coming from Tipperah ,Noakhali, Dacca, and Ba

'

karganj,which must

,before entering the river,

round a point where rough weather is often encountered. This risk

they wi ll not run,except during a short period from December to

March , which covers most of the rice season , but does not allow of atraffic in o il-seed, jute, e tc. As a remedy for th is

,a proposal is now

( 1 883) before the Government of India for a l ine of railwav fromChittagong to Datidkandi, in Tipperah District, w ith a ferry service toNarainganj, which wil l go far to make Chittagong the port for the trade

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446 cm T TA G ON G HILL TRACTS .

with them three Government elephants, some ammunition, and treasureto the value of about of which about £5000 was subsequentlyrecovered . N0 one but the native constable was killed and the émeate

was no t o f any serious consequence .

Chittag ong Hill Tracts—District in the Chittagong Division of

the L ieutenant-Governorship of Bengal, lying between 2 1°

1 3’ and 23

°

4 7’ N. lat. , and between 91

°

46' and 92

°

49'

E. long. Area, 54 19 squaremiles . Population ( 1 881 ) souls. Bounded on the north byHill Tipperah State, on the west by Chittagong District, and on thesouth by the Burmese District of Akyab. The eastern boundary isformed by a line runn ing from the south-east corner of H ill Tipperah

,

along the course of the Tuilenpui or Seijjuk river, to its j unction wi ththe Karnaphuli thence along the course of the Tuichang , across the

Uipum range to the west, and along the T hegaKhal to its headwatersthence westward along the watershed of the Weybong

-tang,until it

meets the southern hil l station o f Keokradong on the Arakan frontier.The administrative head-quarters are at RANGAMATI

,but the most

populous place in the District i s BANDARBAN .

P /zysicalAspects.—The District i s divided into four valleys

,cons t i tuted

by its four principal rivers—the PHENI, the KARNAPHUL r, the SANGU,the M AT AM UR I, and their tributaries—and marked by chains of hillsrunning from the south in a north-westerly direction. The Sangu and

M atamuri’

r ivers, until they enter the plains, run parallel to the ranges,forming two regular valleys the Karnaphuli and Pheni flow transverselyacross the main line of the hills, and the valleys here are formed by larget ributaries of the Karnaphuli entering the river at right angles to i ts course.The general aspect of the District has been described as ‘a tangled massof hill

,ravine, and cliff, covered with dense tree, bush , and creeper j ungle.

The intervals between the smaller hill ranges are fi lled up with a mass

of j ungle , low h ills, small watercourses , and swamps of all s iz es anddescrip t ions

,so errat ic in their configuration as to render any description

imposs ible. From the summits of the main ranges,the view of

the apparently boundless sea of forest i s grand in the extreme. Viewedfrom these points, the lower j ungle almost assumes the appearance of

a level green plain, while in reali ty it is one of the most diflicultcountries to pass through that can be imagined.

’Along the valleys

and courses of the ch ief rivers, the scenery is of a different character,be ing for the most part dull and uninterest ing. The banks of ther ivers are generally covered with tal l elephan t grass or dense jungle

,

which effectually prevents any view being obtained of the surroundingcountry. There are, however, some striking exceptions to this accountof the river scenery ; and Captain T. H . L ewin (to whose Hill Tractsof Chittag ong and the Dwellers t/zerez

'

n, thi s article i s greatly indebted)

has described in very eloquent language the scenes which are occasionally

CHI T TAG ON G H I L L TRACTS . 447

to be me t with . Near Rangamati, on the Karnaphuli river,for

example,‘ the character of the scenery ’ writes Captain L ewin

‘ changes from its usual dull monotony of reaches of sti ll water andwalls of dark-green verdure , to a scene of marvellous beauty

,resem

bl ing somewhat the view on the Rhine near the Lurleiberg .Dark cliffs

of brown vitreous rock , patched and mottled with l ichens and mossesof various colours, tower up on e ither hand ; while, occasionally, onthe right or left , shoots back a dark gorge of impenetrable j ungle.

’

The same wri ter describes exquisite bits of scenery along some ofthe affluents of the M atamun

’

river. The chief rivers of the Districthave already been named, and will be found fully described under theirrespective names. The most important of them

,the Karnaphuli, called

by the h illmen Kyusa Khyoung , rises in a lofty range of hills to thenorth-east, and, after flowing by a most tortuous course through the HillTracts, enters Chittagong District at the village of Chandraguna. TheSangu, which rises in the hill range dividing the District from Arakan,after a course, generally northerly, of abou t 1 2 5 miles, reaches Bandarban, below which point it is affected by the tide. The Pheni forms thenorthern boundary of the D istrict. Although all these rivers are ofgreat depth during the rains , the rapidi ty and violence of thei r currents,their sharp turns and whirling eddies, render them, pract ically speaking,unavailable for large craft wi th in the limits of the District

,and presen t

considerable dangers to small boats . In addit ion to these rivers,the

District is intersected by a network of hill streams, navigable for somedistance by canoes, but which cannot be classed as navigable rivers.A mountain lake of great beauty, situated on the east side of theRamakri Tang hill, was discovered in 1 875 by L ieutenant Gordon, theofficer in charge of the Sangu Sub-division . It i s about a mile long bya quarter of a mile broad, and well stocked with fish. The mountainsof the District are steep, and can only be ascended slowly and painfullyby men

,along known z ig

—z ag paths, or by cutting similar tracks throughthe j ungle with which they are covered. The highest h ills are—Rangrang-dang (2 789 feet) and L urain Tang ( 2 355 feet), both peaks in theTyambang range ; and Basitang ( 2 1 8 1 feet) , the principal peak of arange of the same name. Valuable forest trees are found throughout

almost the ent ire area of the Chi ttagong Hill Tracts . Nearly thewhole area (5419 square miles) was, in 1 87 1 , declared to be Governmentforest ; and the collect ion of all the revenue tolls in the District, which

had previously been leased to the hill ch iefs, was transferred to the

Forest Department. The amount realiz ed by G overnment in 1870—7 1 ,

by leasing out the right to levy tolls on forest produce, was £10 1 3 ;

the amount real iz ed by the Forest Department at its 19 toll stat ions in

1880—8 1 was £7306, the expenditure in curred during that year beingonly 1 242 . Both lignite and coal have been found in the Chittagong

448 CH J T TA G ON G HI L L TRACTS.

Hill Tracts,and specimens have been analyz ed but the proport ion of

ash proved too large to hold out any prospect of working the mineralat a profit . L imestone is also found, but of an inferior quality, and itsmanufacture has proved unprofitable . Sandstone exists in abundance .

Salt-l icks are found at many places , and are util iz ed by the Kukis assources o f the local salt-supply by boiling down the water in conicalearthen pots. E lephants are found in great numbers

,and a consider

able port ion of the Government supply is derived from the forests ofth is District . During the years 1 866—68

, the officers of the E lephantDepartment captured and took away no fewer than 2 00 of

these animals. The rhinoceros is common , and tigers are numerous .Among o ther animals met with are the leopard

,the Malay black bear

,

the j ungle cat, the wi ld buffalo, the barking deer, the sa’

nzonar deerthe lemur

,and several kinds of monkeys. Snakes are eaten by the

hill people , and are eagerly sought after ; numerous varieties are found .

The boa-constrictor is common , and often grows to an enormous siz e .

Amongst the birds of the D istrict may be ment ioned the Polyplectronand the ncatzcra

’

or Arakan pheasant, button quails , j ungle fowl , woodpigeons

,and a few partridges

,wild duck

,and sn ipe.

H istory—The his tory of the Chittagong Hill Tracts is a record of

constantly-recurring raids on the part of the bordering hill tribes,against

whom it has more than once been necessary to send punit ive militaryexpedit ions . The earl iest record of our dealings w i th the people of

these hills is a letter from the Chief of Chittagong to Warren Hastings,

the Governor-General,dated ro th April 1 7 7 7 , complaining of the

violence and aggress ions of a mountaineer named Ramu Kha’

n,the

l eader of a band of Kukis or L ushais . Again,in the end of the same

year, m il i tary help was required‘ for the protect ion of the inhabitants

against the Kukis . ’ In 1 860,the same tribe made a murderous raid

into Tipperah District,kill ing 1 86 Brit ish subj ects

,and taking 1 00

prisoners . In j anuary of the following year,a m il itary force was

assembled at Barkal to punish the offenders. The village of the

ch ief,1 8 miles north-east o f Barkal

,was found deserted and in flames ;

and the negotiations wh ich followed for the pacifi cation of the countryended in the submission of Rattan Puiya in October 1 86 1 . In 1864,

1 865 , and 1866, the Shendus made several raids ; and between 1866

and 1 8 7 1 , the Hanlong clan of L ushais gave constant trouble. In1 870

—7 1 , this tribe perpetrated in Cachar a series of raids of an un

usually aggravated character,in the course of which the lives of several

Europeans were sacrificed,and the daughter of a planter

,together with

many native Brit ish subj ects , was carried away captive by the raiders.These outrages determined the Government to undertake effectivereprisals . T wo military columns entered the L ushai country simultaneously, one from Cachar under General Bouchier

,the other from

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450 CHI T TAG ON G HILL TIEACTS.

at one place. The T oung tha tr ibes , or‘ Children of the Hills,

’ con

s is t of the T ipperahs , M rung s , Kumi’

s , M ros, and Khyengs , al ltributary and entirely under Brit ish control the Bangis and Pankhos ,who

,although paying no revenu e

,are subj ect to our influence ; and

the L ushais or Kukis , and the Shendus , who are entirely independent .These tribe s are in every respect w ilder than the Kyoungthzi, and lessamenable to civilisation . Their villages are generally situated on loftyh ills

,and are d iffi cult of access. Their clothing is extremely scanty,

and their women do not hold so high a posit ion as those of theKyoung thatribes. They worship the natural elements

,and have vague

and undefined ideas of some divine power which overshadows all.’

Detailed accounts of the manners and customs of each of the tribesof th e District will be found in Captain L ewin’s valuable work alreadyreferred to.

There are no towns of any importance in the District. The largestv i llage is BANDARBAN, the residence of the Bohmong , which has apopulation of about 2000. The village of Rangamat i, the head-quartersof the District

,had

,in 188 1

,a population of only 792 . Apart from

the military police force, the Government servants , and a few Bengalishopkeepers

, the whole populat ion is agricul tural.Ag riculture

—Rice is the staple crop of the District. I t is sown inApril or May, and reaped in August, September, or October, accordingto the kind of crop. There are fourteen principal varieties

,with

numerous sub-divisions, differing more or les s in colour and siz e of thegrain and husk. The method o f cu lt ivat ion is that known as j zim,

which has been well described by Cap tain L ewin, from whose book,already referred to, the following account is conden sed. In April, aconvenient piece of forest land is fixed upon

,generally on a hill-s ide.

This i s cleared by cutt ing away the undergrowth and denuding thelarger trees of their lower branche s. The fallen j ungle is then allowedto dry in the sun , and in May it is fired . I f i t has thoroughly dried

,

and no rain has fallen s ince the j am was cut, th is firing reduces allbut the large forest trees to ashes , and burns the soil to the depthof an inch or two . The charred trees and logs previously cut downremain lying about the ground, and have to be dragged off the j zc

’

m.

They are p iled up all round, and form , wi th the addit ion of brushwood, a sort of fence to keep o ut wild an imals. Nothing now remainsto be done, until the gathering o f heavy clouds and the grumbl ing ofthunder herald the approach o f the rains . Then all is activity ; andthe j zinz is planted with the mixed seeds o f cotton

,rice

,melons

,

pumpkins, yams , and a litt le Indian corn. If,shortly afterwards

,or

better st ill,during the process of sowing, rain falls, a good harvest may

be expected . T he fi lms , which are always in clusters , are carefullywatched to protect them from wild hog and deer

,which would other

CHI T TAG OIVG HILL TRACTS. 45 1

wise play havoc among the young rice ; and the crops must be keptclear of weeds by hand labour. The firs t to ripen is Indian corn

,

about the end of J uly next melons, of two or three sorts ; afterwards

vegetables of all k inds ; and in September, the rice and other grain .

In October, the cotton crop is gathered, and this ends the harvest.The rice, having been cut, i s beaten from the ear in the j am , i t i safterwards rolled up in rough

,straw—covered bales

,and carried to the

village granary. The crops grown for export are cotton,tobacco , tea,

and potatoes . During the last few years , attempts have been made to

introduce plough cult ivation , but with little success. In order to puta stop to the extortion of money-lenders

,who charged exorbitant rates

of usury for advances to the hil lmen,the Government sanctioned

advances wi thout interest,the amount not to exceed the money to be

expended on local works during the following season. The advancesare repaid by labour and under th is system the price of the labour ofthe h illmen during November

,December, and j anuary may be est i

mated at 75d. a day . During the cult ivat ing season , local labour isnot obtainable even at the rate of 2 s . a day, and coolies from Chittagong District have to be engaged , whose average daily wage is 6%d.

each . The price of rice in 1870 was 65 . 3d. per cwt. for the best,and 4s. 15d. per cwt. for the common description . Paddy sold inthat year at rs . 9d. per cwt. for the best, and rs . 4d. per cwt. for thecoarser qual i ty

.Prices vary much in different parts of the District .

In order that th e j am mode of cul t ivat ion may be successful, thecultivator must move every year to a fresh piece o f j ungle land, so

that tenures,properly so called

,only exist where the indigenous system

of cult ivation has been abandoned. L and tenures are, indeed, foundwithin the boundaries o f the Chittagong Hill Tracts ; but wi th theexception of forest and grass land settlements , they are merelyextensions of those in the Regu lat ion District of Chittagong, andonly differ from them in that they now lie beyond the Collector

’

s

j urisdiction .

Pigs,deer

,monkeys

,and birds are very destructive to the

crops,which require to be watched day and night . Armies of

rats occas ionally overrun the District , and commit great havoc ;they eat both standing corn and the grain in the houses of thehill people

,and disappear from the H ill Tracts as suddenly as they

come . In 1 88 1- 82 , an irruption of these pests devastated the country

both beyond the frontier,and with in the Brit ish territories of the H ill

Tracts,to such an extent as to cause famine , and to necessitate

Government rel ief in the shape of advances of money and grain .

L oss of crops from flood is scarcely possible in th is h illy country, butcotton is sometimes inj ured by a too heavy rainfall, especially when

this occurs at the beginning of the rainy season.

452 CHI TTAG ON G HILL TRACTS.

Commerce and T rade, eta—The chief imports of the ChittagongHill Tracts are rice and salt ; and the more valuable exports , rawcotton and India rubber. The imports in 1 880—81 were- paddy, or

unhusked rice,1642 tons ; rice, 596 tons ; and salt, 255 tons ; exports

—raw cotton , 3993 tons and india rubber, 9 tons. The chief markets

are at Kasalang, Rangamati, Chandraguna, and Demagiri, on the

Karnaphuli river ; M alchari, on the Chengri ; Bandarban , on theSangu and Tipperah Baz ar and G rish Chandra Bazar, on the Pheniriver. The roads in the H ill Tracts are mere footpath s ; and evenwhere they have been made of considerable width

,there i s so l ittle

traffic that the j ungle has again sprung up and left only enough clearspace to enable persons to walk in s ingle fi le.

Administration—In 1 846—47 , the whole revenue of the Hill Tractsconsisted of the capitation tax, amounting to £1 180 and i t was no tuntil 1866—6 7 that any attempt was made to improve the revenue. In

that year it amounted to £3394, while the total expendi tu re was

£8440. In 1870—7 1 , the revenue amounted to £4206 , and the

expenditure to By 1874—75 , the total revenue had increased

(owing mainly to the collect ion o f river-toll s having been made over

to the Forest Department) to while the expenditure wasof which was on account of the military police

maintained for the protection of the front ier, leaving only £4600 forall other expenses of administration . In 1 881- 82 , the total revenueamounted to or£36 less than in 1874

—75 . But in 1 874

-75,

represented the revenue from river-tolls and forest produce,

leaving only £2 555 for the remain ing i tems, such as capitation andland tax

,and other miscellaneous sources of income. In 188 1—82 ,

the revenue from river toll s and forest produce was £7 7 20, the decreasebe ing caused by reduct ions in the rates of tolls while the other sources

of revenue , mentioned above , amounted to £5043, or nearly doublewhat it was in 1 874

—75 . On the other hand, the expenditure has

risen from in 1874—7 5 to in 188 1- 82

, the increasebeing mainly due to the enhanced cost of maintenance of the frontierforce

,which amounted to in 1 88 1—82 . The machinery for

the protection of person and property in the Chittagong Hill Tracts,

although called by the name of police, is for the most part a militaryforce

,trained and expens ively armed so as to serve as a protection to

the District against raids from the tribes farther east.The police

employed purely on civi l dutie s numbered in 188 1- 82,

1 09 men of

all ranks ; while the frontier or semi-military police numbers 539 of allranks. Both forces are embodied under Act v. of 186 1

,but the latter

are subj ect to the provis ions of a special Regulation ( i i i of11 inch provides penal ties for offences of a military character

.There IS

no jail in the Hill'

I racts ; convicts be ing sent to Chittagong town.

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CHI T T I VALASA CHI T TUR .

L at. 1 7°

56'

20 N .

, long. 83°

29'

30" E. Houses

, 38 1 . Population

( 1 88 1 ) 1 8 19. Situated on the road from Bimlipatam to Viz ianagaramand Chicacole, the Chitt ivalasa and G ostha

’

ni rivers being here bridged .

L arge jute factory and travellers’ bungalow.

Chittivaléisa. (or B imlipatam) .—River in Viz agapatam District ,Madras Presidency

,ris ing in lat. 18

°

1 6’

N .

,long. 83

°

6’

E . ,at the foot

of the Golconda H ill,and

,after a south-easterly course of 58 miles

(during which it passes G opalapalli, Jami, and other towns) , flowinginto the sea at Bimlipatam . At the town of Chittivalasa, a few milesfrom its month

,it is bridged for the Trunk road.

Chittlir.

—Ta’lzck or Sub-division of North Arcot District, MadrasPresidency area

, 6 7 1 square miles, containing 1 town and 460 villages.

Houses,

Population ( 1 88 1 ) namely,

males

and females . Ch ittur i s the most central tcilalz in NorthArcot . I t consists of a plain

,broken by a large number of naked

rocky hills ri s ing abruptly from the surrounding country, and coveredwith enormous granite boulders . Watered by four streams , the Chittiir,Venkatagiri

, Aragunda, and A itala , all tributaries of the Poin i river,which only contain water in the rainy season . The soil i s good ,being generally a red clay mixed w ith sand and fert i liz ed by vegetablematter and detritus brought down from the h ills. The peasantry

mostly belong to Telugu castes,and are painstaking, industrial cu lt i

vators . The ordinary ‘wet

’ crops are rice and sugar-cane the ‘ dry ’

crops being rag i, kambu , and clzolanz, with horse gram on the poorersoils . Iron was formerly largely smelted in several villages , but this

industry has greatly declined of late years . The other mineralscomprise l ime and building stone

, and a soft soapstone . L and revenuedemand in 1 882—83, The ta

’

lten contain s 1 civil and 3criminal courts

,with 8 police stations strength of police

force , 8 1 men .

Chittlir (‘ L ittle Town —Town in North Arcot District, M adras

Presidency, and head—quarters of North Arcot District and of Chitt1ir

ta’

lzc/c. L at. 1 3°

1 3’

2 0"

N .,long. 79

°

8'

10 E. Houses, 891 . Popu

l ation ( 1 88 1 ) 5809, namely, 4 7 20 Hindus , 10 2 6 Muhammadans , and 63Christ ians. Situated in the valley of the Poin i river

,1 8 miles north of

the Vellore railway stat ion,and 100 miles by road from Madras. Being

the head-quarters of the District admin istration,i t contains the courts

of the J udge and Collector, with their subordinate establ i shments,District jai l, police station, school, dispensary, etc . Besides the public

offices, the town possesses an English church wi th a native mission chapelattached to it, and a Roman Cathol ic chapel . Chitttir was a military

stat ion unti l 18 74, but is now, except as the official centre , of noimportance . Formerly a private estate of the Arcot family, and in 1 781

occupied by the Briti sh troops under Sir Eyre Coote . Civil disturbances

CHI T TUR CHOL A . 455

necess i tated in 1804 the real iz at ion of the revenue by means of a mil itaryforce.

Chitttir.—Town in the State of Cochin, Madras Presidency. L at.

10°

42'

30 N. ,long. 7 6

°

44' E. Population ( 1875) chiefly

Nairs, Vallalas , and weavers. No later statist ics of population areavailable . Being the head-quarters of the ta

’

lzck, i t contains one ofthe Raja’s palaces and the native official establ ishments. The Brahmansinhabit a quarter by themselves.Chitwail —T own in Palampet ta'luk

, Cuddapah District,Madras Presidency. L at. 14

°

10’

30”N.,long. 79

°

24’

29” E. Houses,

540. Population ( 1 88 1 ) 2 7 74, namely, 247 1 Hindus and 303 M uham

madans . Formerly the capi tal o f a petty kingdom, the Palegar of

Chitwal being one of the ch ief Hindu lieutenants of the Vij ayanagark ings on the western side of the Ghats and til l 1802 , when the Palegarwas dispossessed and pensioned by the Brit ish

,the head-quarters of an

estate (pol/tern) of the same name.

Chobéri.—Pe tty S tate i n North Kathiawar, Bombay Pres idency ;cons ist ing of 3 villages , with 2 independent tribute-payers. Estimatedrevenue in 1 88 1 , £52 1 tribute i s payable of £15, 85 . to the Brit ish

Government,and £4, 1 05 . to Junagarh .

Chok .—Petty State in Undsarviya, Kath iawar, Bombay Pres idency

consisting of 2 villages , wi th 2 independent tribute-payers. Est imatedrevenue i n 1 88 1 , £680 tr ibute is payable of£39, 85. to the Gaekwar

of Baroda, and 2 , os. to Junagarh.

Chokahatu Place of —Village in the Tamarpargana’

,

in the south-east of L ohardaga District, Bengal. It takes its name from

a large burial-g round, covering an area of 7 acres, and contain ing more

than 7000 tombs, which is still used by the Mundas of Chokahatu, and

9 surrounding villages.

Chokampati.—Estate in Tinnevell i D istrict, Madras Pres idency,

lying between 8°

58' and 9

°

10' N. lat. , and between 7 7

°

2 3’ and 7 7

°

3 2' E

.long

.Formerly of considerable importance, but now spl it up

into 18 sub-holdings . The ch ief town , Chokampati, situated in lat .

90°

8'

N. , long. 7 7°

24'

2 0 E.,contains 132 7 houses, with ( 1881 ) 5945

inhabitant s,almost all Hindus.

Chola (C/zoda in Asoka’s inscriptions, C/zora ; the Clzorai of

Ptolemy; Clzolz

'

ya of Hwen T hsang and Sora of Pliny) .—An ancientdivis ion of Dravida

,conterminous

,roughly, with the Tamil country

north of the Kaveri (Cauvery) river, and having its capital near the

.siteof the modern Trich inopoli. In the r1th century, the Chola kingsconquered th e neighbouring kingdom of the Pandiyans , and overran

the whole country down to Cape Comorin , becoming the paramountpower of the south , and giving princes to T elinga

na. They also conquered the Kongu country (or Eastern Chora, as i t seems to have then

456 CHOPDA CHOPRA.

been) . The tradition as to the common origin of the three k ingdom s

of Chola, Chera, and Pandya (see CHERA) is borne out by the fac t thatthe language of the Cholas never differed from that of the Pandyas , andbut l ittle from that of Chera, as appears from the Indo—Syrian andJewish inscript ions of the 8th century. By whatever local or dynast icnames they called themselves—whether Cholas , Cheras, or Pandyasthey continued to be called Dravidas

,and the language they spoke was

everywhere known as Dravida or Tamil. The modern term Coromandeli s by some writers bel ieved to be a corruption of Cholamandalam ,

‘ the realm of the Cholas. ’ The Chola kingdom rose to i ts greatestheight of prosperi ty under the g reat king, Kulottunga I . (A .D.

1064—1 I t was finally destroyed by the Muhammadan inroad of

1 3 10 .

—See CHERA .

Chopda. Sub-division and town,Khandesh District, Bombay

Pres idency—See CHOPRA .

Chope.

~—Sn1all coal-fi eld s ituated in the valley of the Mohani river,

Haz aribagh District,Bengal about 8 miles in a direct l ine a l ittle north

of west from Haz aribagh town . E levation,about 2000 feet above the

sea. This coal-fi eld,which takes its name from the principal village in

the vicinity,is the smallest known in India

,covering an area of only

three-quarters of a square mile. T he coal i s consequently very l imitedin quantity, and , as it is also of poor quality , the field is of l i ttle value .

It i s approached from Haz aribagh by a road which , for the most part ,passes over alluvium

,but in i ts vicin ity there are occasional outcrops

of metamorph ic rocks,some of which are accompanied by extremely

rich deposits of iron—See HAZAR IBAGH D ISTR ICT .

Chopra.- Sub-division ofKhandesh District , Bombay Presi

deney . Area, 368 square miles contains 1 town and 91 villages . Popu

lat ion ( 1 88 1 ) namely,males and females H indus

number Muhammadans, 53 78 others

,

’2 797 . The Sub

divis ion consists of two valleys formed by a spur of the Satpura ranges ,that run across it obl iquely from east to west . The southern valleyis a part of the rich north Tap ti plain , and follows the course of thatriver. The northern o r inner valley

,known as the Dhaul i Zara/z

,is a

broken and hilly country , unsurveyed , covered with dense forest , lnhabited by a w ild tribe of Bhils

,and infested by wild beasts. The

southern or T apti valley is fairly well supplied with well water,but

none of the streams are suited for irrigat ion . The chief r ivers are theTapti, which forms the southern boundary of the Sub-divis ion for 33m iles , and i ts tributaries, the Aner and the Gul i . The prevailing soili s a rich , black, alluvial clay, resting on a yellowish subsoil . The totalarea surveyed is 295 square miles , or acres . Of th is, in 18 78

—79,

acres were under t i llage,namely

,acres under cereals

,

3605 acre s under pulses, 75 2 1 acres under o il-seeds,

acres

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458 CH OTA NAG P UR—CH UADA-VG A.

acres ; pulses , 2 8 1 0 acres ; oil-seeds , 463 acres ; fibres, 5 14 1 acres ;

fallow or grass, 58 1 1 ; and miscellaneous crops

,1 245 acres. In

1 865—66

,the year o f Settlement, 5880 separate holdings were returned

of an average area of a l i t tle over acres each,and paying an average

annual rental of£4, 1 1 5 . 0d. Divided among the agricu ltural populat ion

,these holdings would represen t an average o f 2% acres for each

person,paying an average rental of £ 1

,1 6s . 3d. Distributed among

the total populat ion,the average area wou ld be 1 5 acres

,and the

average incidence of land-tax, 1 3s . 10;—d. per head . Total land revenuerealiz able in 1 883 , The Sub-division

,which includes Surat ,

the head—quarters of the D istr ict,contain ed in the same year

, 4 civil

and 1 0 criminal courts,wi th 2 police stations (tlzcincis ) strength o f

regu lar pol ice,2 1 3 men ; village watchmen 2 2 1 .

Choté.Nég pur.—

.See CHUTIA NAGPUR forChota Bhag irathi, ChotaUdepur, etc .

, see CHHOTA BHAG IRAT H I , CHHOTA UDA IPUR , etc .

Choti.— Town in Dera’

. Ghaz i ta/zs z’l,Dera Ghaz i Khan District ,

Punj ab. L at. 29°

50’

30 N . ,long. 70

°

3 2’ E. Collection of scattered

hamlets , wi th l ittle pretens ions to rank as a town .

Chotila..—Petty State o f North Kathiawar,Bombay Presidency ;

consisting of 35 villages , with 9 independent tribute-payers . Est imatedrevenue in 1876 , £2 187 , of which £65 i s payable as tribute to theBri t ish Government

,and£ 2 2 to Junagarh .

Chowghat.—T own in Malaba’r District, Madras Pres idency — See

CHAUCHA'

I‘

.

Chuédéng é..—Sub-division of Nadiya District

,Bengal

,lying between

2

3°

2 2’

1 5 and 2 3°

50'

1 5 N . lat. , and between 88°

4 1' and 89

°

4'

E. long. Area, 43 7 square miles , wi th 45 2 towns or villages

,and

occupied houses . Populat ion Muhammadan s,

Hindus,

and Christ ians, 6 24 : to tal,

namely,

males and females . Average density of population,

58 2 persons per square m ile ; houses per square mile , 91 4 ; personsper village

, 562 ; persons per house, 6 6 . The Sub-divis ion comprises

the 5 police circles of Alamdanga, Chuadanga, Damurhuda,

Kalupol,and Jibannagar. In 1 882

,i t contained one revenue and

magisterial court,a small cause court

,and a mnnsifi , wi th a regular

pol ice force 49 strong, besides 503 or village watchmen .

The chief crops grown in the Sub-division are rice,wheat

,sugar-cane ,

indigo,o il-seeds

,pulses

,and chill ies. Principal manufactures

,sugar,

made from both the cane and date,and indigo .

Chuadanga..— Town in Nadiya District

,Bengal , and head

quarters of Chuadanga Sub-division ; situated on the left bank of the

Matabhanga river,locally known as th e Haulia

,on the road from

Jhanidah to M ihrpur. L at. 2 3°

38'

45”

N.

,long . 88

°

53'

55” E . A

stat ion on the Eastern Bengal Railway , 835 miles north from Calcutta.

CH UN 4R—CH UN1AN . 459

Besides the usual sub~divis ional courts,the village contains a small cause

and a nzunstf s court, and also a h igh—class English school .Chunér.

—Talzsz’l, town and fort in Mirz apur District, North-WesternProvinces—See CHANAR .

Chunchang iri.—Hill in Hassan District, Mysore State . L at. 13‘

1'

N .

,long. 76

°

49’

E. At its foot i s held a j a’

tra or rel igious gathering,called G angadhareswara, at which persons assemble

,and which

lasts fi fteen days .Chunchankatta.

—Dam across the Kaveri (Cauvery) river in MysoreDistrict, Mysore State . L at. 1 2

°

3 1'

N . , long. 76°

2 0’

E . Constructedadvantageously a short d istance from the head of a narrow gorge, anda few hundred yards above the cascade or rapids of Chunchan,

whichhave a fal l of 70 feet. The Ramasamudaram channel

,leading from

this dam , has a course of 26 miles,and irrigates 1 689 acres revenue

,

£ 1 2 1 1 . Both dam and channel were constructed by Chikka DevaWodeyar, Raja ofMysore ( 16 7 2 An annual festival

,lasting for

about a month, i s held near the falls in January, and is attended by2 000 people .

Chundernag ore.—French settlement in Hugl i District

,Bengal .

See CHANDARNAGAR.

Chunién.

—Talzs z’l of L ahore District,Punj ab

,lying between 30

°

37'

and 3 1°

2 2' N. lat.

,and between 73

°

40' and 74

°

2 8' E. long. ,

occupyingthe western half o f that portion of the District which l ies within the

Bari Doab. Area,

1 2 2 7 square miles. Population ( 188 1 )namely , males and females average densi ty per squaremile, 1 65 . Hindus numbered Sikhs

,Muhammadans ,

and others,

’2 68. The administrat ive s taff of the Sub-div ision

cons ists of 1 talzsilclcir and 1 nzuns z’

f, who preside over 1 criminal and

2 civil courts ; number of police stations 5 ; strength ofregular pol ice

, 91 men village watchmen 2 66 .

Chunién.—Town in L ahore District

,Punjab

,and head-quarters of

Chunian ta/zsz'

l,situated upon the high bank of the old bed o f

the Beas (Bias) , on the road from Firoz pur to Mu ltan , 38 milesfrom L ahore. L at. 30

°

58'N . ,

long. 74°

1’

30” E. Populat ion

( 1 88 1 ) 8 1 2 2 , namely, 3835 Hindus, 4085 Muhammadans, and 20 2

Sikhs. Formerly divided into three fortified hamlets , one of which is

now in ruin s, while the other two have completely coalesced . Ta/zsz’

li,

police station,school

,d ispensary

,and rest—house . Centre of trade in

country produce,but only of importance as the head-quarters of the

tcilzsil. It is connected with the Changa Manga Station of the Multanbranch of the Sind

,Punj ab

,and Delhi Railway, by a metalled road,

8 miles in length. Municipal revenue in 1880—8 1 ,£470 expenditure,

£53 1 average incidence of taxation,rs. ri

gid . per head of population

(8566) within mun icipal l imits .

460 CH URA—CH URAM A IV.

Chlira..—Petty State in Kath iawar, Province of Gujarat (Guz erat) ,Bombay Pres idency

,lying between 2 2

°

2 3’

and 2 2°

30'

N . lat . , and

between 7 1°

3 7'

and 7 1°

5 1’ E . long . Populat ion ( 188 1 )

distributed over 14 villages . Estimated gross revenue, £91 7 2 .

Transi t dues through the State are not levied. The appearance of thecountry is flat

,rel ieved at intervals by ranges o f low rocky hills. T he

cl imate,though hot and dry

,is healthy, the only prevailing disease

be ing fever. The soil is generally l ight , producing besides the ordinarygrains cons iderable quant ities of cotton , which finds its way to the port

of Dholera. Chura ranks as a ‘ third—class ’ State among the manypetty States in Kathiawar. The ruler first entered into engagemen ts

w ith the Brit ish Government in 1 807 . The present chief, Bechar

Singhji, a Jhala Raj put , bears the t itle of Thakur. He main tains amil i tary force o f 1 50 men , and pays a tribut e of £63 2 , 85 . to theBri t ish Government

, £6 7 , 1 2 5 . to the Nawab of Junagarh , and

£ 14 , 65 . as sukri on account o f Ahmadabad . There is no sanaa’

authoriz ing adoption . The success ion follows the rule of primogeniture .

There are 7 schools in the State, wi th 330 pupils .

Chib a—Chief town o f the State of Chura in Kath iawar, Provinceo f Gujarat (Guz erat) , Bombay Presidency. L at. 2 2

"

29’

N long. 7 1°

44'

E

Churaman,

—Village in Dinajpur District, Bengal ; s ituated on the

east or left bank of the M ahananda river. L at. 2 5°

26'

N . , long.

80°

9'

30 E. Of some importance as a seat of trade , the principal

expor t being rice .

Churaman.

—Port on the G ammai river, a branch of the Kansbans ,Balasor District, O rissa. L at. 2 1

°

7'

50 N .,long. 86

°

49'

16"

E.

The mou th of the river has now silted up,and i s so completely

concealed by a dense fringe of j ungle, that i t is almost imposs iblefor a stranger sailing down the coast to discover it . At present

,no

vessel exceeding 45 tons burthen can enter the river, even at high water.The rice sloops, which nominally receive their cargo at Churaman ,and i ts sister port

,L aichanpur on the Kansbans

, 5 miles to thenorth , in real ity load from small boats while at anchor several miles

out at sea,6 miles be ing no uncommon distance in the case of

sloops of 1 50 tons . L ocal tradit ion asserts that wi thin recent t imes

Churaman was the principal port of Ori ssa, and this i s corroborated

by reference to the old records. In 1809, the Balasor Collector of

Customs wrote that ‘ Churaman is cons idered the most safe and convenient port on the coast of Orissa, and carries on a sea—going tradeexceeding that o f Balasor and again

,in 18 1 2

,he reported that ‘ last

year, no less a quan t i ty than mo unds of rice were exportedfrom the port o f Churaman and rivers con t iguous thereto.

’ In 1 873

1874, the value of the imports of Chura’

man and Isaichanpur, taken

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462 CH I/TIA IVA G P UR TRIB UTAR Y S TATE S.

the Upper Mahanadi, and extending from lat . 2 1”

35’ to 24

°

6’

30"

N ., and from long . 8 1

°

3 7’to 84

°

3 1’

55 E. Bounded on thenorth by Rewa State and by Mirz apur District in the North-WesternProvinces ; on the east by L ohardaga and Singhbhtim Districts ; on thesouth by the Tributary States of Orissa and by Sambalpur Districtin the Central Provinces ; and on the west by Bilaspur District in the

Central Provinces and by Rewa State. These States are nine in number

,v iz . ( 1 ) BONA I , ( 2 ) CHANG BHAKAR, (3 ) GANGPUR , (4) JASHPUR , (5)

KHARSAWAN, (6) KOREA , (7 ) SARA I ALAK , (8) SARG UJA,

and (9) UDA IPUR ,— all o f which see separately in their alphabetical arrangement . The

physical contour of the Tributary States i s a confused mass of hills ,ravines , and plateaux, which have been scu lptured into their presentshape by the combined action of rivers

, wind , and rain. I t is probable , indeed , that at a remote geological period, the entire countryformed a uniform table- land about 3600 feet above the sea. Traces ofsuch a state of things are to be found in the pecu l iar flat-topped h ills

,

locally known as pats . These pa’

ts are capped with a horiz on tal stratumOf trap rock

,and stand up l ike p illars of earth left in making ex

cavations,as if to mark the progress of the work o f denudat ion . A

dist inct watershed can be traced right across the States from east towest

,with a slight inclination towards the south . From the northern

slope Of th is watershed , the Kanhar and Rehr pass o ff to j oin theriver system of Behar ; while on the south , the Brahmani, Ih, andMana flow direct towards the Bay of Bengal .

P opulation—Ir is now a matter Of conj ecture who were the original

settlers in these States . I t may be roughly stated that Gonds were thedominant race in the western

,and Kols in the eastern States. On

the disrupt ion of the Gond k ingdoms in Central India , that people

drove the Kols backward almo s t to the frontier of Chutia Nagpu r

p roper . Indeed , the l imits o f the ascendancy of the Dravidian andKolarian races can be ascertainedwith tolerable accuracy in a large portion

of the Chu tia Nagpur Province, by observing to what tribe the principalmilitary fi ef-holders belong. Thus, in the States ofChang Bhakar, Korea ,Sarg tija

’

,and Udaipur , the chief feudal sub-proprie tors are Gonds in

Jashpur,Korwas in Gangpu r and Bonai

,Bhuiyas ; and in M anbhtim and

Singhbhum Districts , Bhumij s . The people, however, who ult imately predominated

,were nOt invariably the original settlers and the evidence

afforded by the military tenures should be confirmed by Observing who

are the pecul iar priests o f the aboriginal gods. Everywhere the beli ef is

current that these local d ivinit ies are most readily propit iated by thetribe which has had the longest acquaintance wi th them—that is

, who

first coloni z ed the country. From scattered passages in ColonelDalton ’s E thnology of B eng al, i t seems that in Gangpur and Bona i, thepriests of the sylvan deit ies are Bhuiyas ; in Jashpur and Sarg iija,

CH UTIA NA G P UR TRIB UTAR Y S TATE S. 463

Korwas and in Korea and Chand Bhakar, Ktirs or M uasis . It would

thus appear that in all but the two southern States of Gangpur andBonai , which were firs t colon iz ed by the Dravid ian tribe of Bhuiyas ,the earl ies t settlers were of Kolarian descent . In Chang Bhakar,

Korea, Udaipur, and the western port ion of Sarg tija, they were subj ugated by the Gonds , who are now the principal sub-proprietors . But

up to 1 858, the Korwas were in possess ion of military tenures in easternSarg iija; and in Jashpur , the head of the Korwa fi ef-holders not onlyclaims to be the heredi tary a

’

iwdn, or minis ter of the State, but isadmitted by the Raja to be a descendant of the original rulers Of thecountry.

Assuming that Kolarian races were the fi rst settlers in the country,and that they were afterwards subdued by the Dravidian Gonds

,there

remains a further and more difficult problem . In the wildest j ungles of

these States are found the remains of temples planned by skilledarch itects

,crumbling embankments of fine tanks, and mango groves

that are obviously not o f natural growth. All these works the presen tinhabitants are incapable of constructing, nor have they any tradit ionthat throws l ight on their existence . I t has been supposed that theymark the settlements Of early Aryan colonists who failed to civilise

the aborigines, and, after a time, were either absorbed or drivenout. But it i s far more probable that they belong to the period o f

Gond ascendency in Central India, when the western States may well

have been an outlying Province of Garha Mandla or Deogarh . TheGond monarchs were celebrated for the number and magnificence of theirtemples

,tanks

,plantations

,and other public works ; and in the Introduc

t ion to the Central P rovinces G az etteer i t is noticed as a pecul iar featureof the social development of the Gonds , that the ir princes were

‘ only

able to advance by leaving the body of the people behind .

’

On thisview

,the l imits of the Gond kingdom extended j ust so far as the

remains of temples and tanks are met wi th . When the Marathaconquest swept over the country, the leaders of civilisation who builtthe temples and dug the tanks, disappeared , while the mass of thepopulation was reduced to a state of barbarism. This hypothesis is not

to be considered as a conclusive solut ion of a notoriously obscurequestion but there seems to be a presumption in favour of attributingthese vestiges of civilisation to a powerful neighbouring kingdom, which

was finally broken up so late as 1 78 1 , rather than to the semi-historical

era of the Aryan advance into H industan .

The population of the Chutia Nagpur Tributary States, as returnedby the Census o f 1 88 1 , was spread over an area of

square miles,and occupying houses . This shows an increase

of or 35 98 per cent . , over the populat ion returned in the Census

Report for 187 2 .But this large percentage of increase is probably due

464 CH UTIA NAG P UR TRIB UTAR Y S TATE S.

to some extent to incorrectness in the returns for 187 2 . The totalmale population amoun ted in 1 88 1 to and the female to

proportion ofmales , 509 2 per cent. Average density of thepopulation

,persons per square mile ; villages per square mile,

'

23 ; hou ses per square m il e, 7 0 1 persons per occupied house, 60 3 .

Class ified according to rel igion , there were in 1 88 1—Hindus,

Muhammadans, 4504 ; Chris t ians, 1 05 and ‘ others,

’ or aboriginal hil lpeople stil l profess ing their prim itive faith s

,2 2 6 7 . This by no means

represents the ethnical classification , as in the rel igious return nearlythe whole of the aboriginal population are returned as Hindus, andthe process of converting aborigines into H induism goes on steadily.

According to the ethnical classification, the aborigines number

or 524 per cent. of the population , classified as follows —Bhuiya’

,

Bhumij,

Gond, Kharwar, Koch,

1 16 ; KO1, Santal, and ‘ Others,’ The

population of Hindu origin number the princ ipal castesbeing Brahman

, 845 2 ; Raj put, 5 2 58 ; Bagdi, Baniya,

Gwala,

L ohar, Kurmi, and Rajwar,The following table illustrates the area, population, etc.

,

of each State,according to the Census of 188 1

CENSUS OF THE CHUTIA NAGPUR T RIBUTARv STATES

POPULAT ION.STATES.

Total . Male s . Females .

3633

Administrative H istory —These States , now under the politicalsuperintendence o f the Commissioner of Chutia Nagpur

,belong

h istor ically to two separate clu sters, known as the Sambalpur and

Sarg iijagroups. The southern or Sambalpur group,comprising Bonai

and Gangpur, toge ther with eight other States now under the CentralProvinces

,was ceded to the Bri tish Government in 1803 under the

treaty of Deogaon by Raghuji Bhonsla the Maratha Raja of

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466 CHUT I YA .

sentence offive years’ imprisonment appears inadequate, the Chiefs, in the

capacity of magistrates, remit the cases to the Commissioner, who triesthe accused

,and passes sentence . Sentences of death must be sub

mitted to the L ieutenant-Governor for confirmation . The total tributepaid by the Chiefs amounts to £468, and most of them are also boundto supply a contingent for mil itary service, if required . Their est imated

revenue is approximately returned at The police system

Of the States i s purely indigenous, and consists for the most part of

the rural mil it ia,who hold their lands on condit ion of rendering

personal service to their Chiefs . On the whole , there is very l ittleheinous crime . Murders occur occasionally, as m ight be expectedamong half-civilised races ; but Serious offences agains t property arerare

,and petty crime is sufficiently dealt with by the Chiefs under the

supervision of the Commissioner. A characteristic feature of the crime

returns i s the number of charges o f defamation of character brought by

women who have been denounced as witches . The bel ief in witchcraftst ill survives in full strength ; and in 1 873 , two reputed witches were

murdered,and others maltreated

,i n Gangpur. [For further informa

tion regarding the Chutia Nagpur Tributary States, see the separatearticles in their alphabetical arrangement. Also the StatisticalAccount

of B engal, vol . xvii. pp . 149 to 250 (L ondon : T rubner 81 Co .,187 7 )

and the B engal Census Report for

Chutiya..—A semi-Hinduiz ed tribe probably of Shan descent, at one

time dominant in Upper Assam . Their territories extended over the

present Districts of Sibsagar and Southern L akhimpur. When theAhams first arrived in Assam

,a Chutiya king reigned at G arhgaon,

and the two kindred tribes l ived for long on neighbourly terms with

each other. They are said to have been first brought into hostilerelations by the treacherous murder of the Aham chief by the Chutiyaking who had invited him to a friendly boat race. The strugglewhich followed between the two kindred tribes lasted for a century anda quarter

,and ended only on the final defeat and death of the Chutiya

king,and the annexation of hi s territory by the Aham s . The follow

ing account of th is tribe, which is still numerous in Upper Assam,

is

condensed from the Assam Census Report for 188 1 . The Chutiyasof the present day are divided into four classes

,known as H indu

,Aham

,

Borabi, and Deori. The first two of these are completely Hinduiz ed.

They are pract ically equals and eat together,although the Hindu

Chutiyas assert a nominal superiority on the ground of the ir earlier

conversion to Hinduism . The Borabi Chutiyas rank much lower, andthe two higher classes (Hindus and Ahams) will no t associate or eat

with them . They were the first of the Chutiya tribes subdued by theAhams, who employed them as cooks

,keepers of fowls, and in other

menial Offices, which probably accounts for the low estimat ion in which

CIRCARS, THE NORTHERN. 467

they are st i ll held. They are few in number,and although nominally

H indus , still adhere in part to their ancient religious customs .The Deori or priestly Chutiyas form the bes t representative class of

the original race. A few of their villages are found on the Dikrang in

North L akhimpur, on the banks of the Brahmaputra between NorthL akhimpur and Majuli island, and again on the T engapanf in theextreme east of the valley. They are worshippers of Durga under thenames of G okhani, T amasurai Mai , and Khesakhati. The firs t nameSlgnifi es the wife of Mahadeo in h is form as a religious mendicant the

second refers to a copper-roofed temple on the Dhola east of Sadiyathe third, l iterally eaters of raw flesh

,

’ recalls the human and uncooked

meat sacrifices which th is priestly tribe were wont to offer. Durgahas taken the place of a number of evil spiri ts which the Chutiyasused to appease by sacrifices . This copper temple on the Dhola

,now

abandoned, was endowed by the Aham kings with money and lands,

and supplied with an annual human victim. It seems to have been acentre of worship for all the wild tribes of the frontier

,until the arrival

of the Burmese and the later raids of the Mishm is compelled largenumbers of Chutiyas to emigrate farther south to their presen t abodes .The Deori Chutiyas have never employed the services of Brahmans ,but offer their propit iatory sacrifices through their own priests norhave they adopted the Hindu ritual . A Deori village is made up o f

about 30 houses , built on bamboo platforms raised five feet from theground . Each house consists of one large undivided room ,

often containing a family of 40 persons, and a verandah in front for vis itors .The men are tall and well-nourished

,with a strong resemblance to the

Kacharis . Any connection with the Kacharis is, however, indignantlyrepudiated by them. But their language has a close affin ity to the

Kachari’

, and they are regarded by some as a branch of the great Bodorace . They drink spirits

,and eat al l kinds of flesh , except beef. L ike

the Kachari’

s , they will not drink milk, although they keep buffaloesand trade in dairy produce. Child-marriage and polygamy are unknown ,and marriages are generally negot iated by the parents of the bride on a

bus iness basis,in which the price of the bride sometimes rises to as

high as £10. L ove matches,in defiance of parental arrangements ,

are, however, not uncommon. The Chutiyas burn their dead. The

Chutiyas in the Assam Valley in 1 88 1 were returned at ofwhom were in Sibsagar and in L akhimpur District.

Circars, the Northern (Sarka’

r,

‘ a government —The historicalname for a large tract of country lying between 1 5

°

40' and 20

°

1 7' N.

lat. , and between 79°

1 2’ and 85

°

2 0' E. long , along the coast of the

Bay of Bengal, within the Madras Presidency. I t extended over aboutsquare miles

,and corresponded in general outline with the

Bri tish D istricts of Ganjam,Viz agapatam

,Godavari, Kistna, and par t

468 CIRCARS , THE NOR THERIVZ

of Nellore and Karmil (Kurnool) , stretching from the Chilka L ake , it snorthern l imit

,to the G andlakamma river , i ts southern boundary .

Previous to the Muhammadan period, i t was known by the Hindu namesof Kalinga

, T elingana, and Andhra. On the east it was bounded by the

sea,and on the west by the h ills running from the Godavari to Gumsar

(G oomsur), which separated it throughou t from the Niz am’s Dominions .

In breadth,the Northern Circars ranged from 1 8 to 100 miles .

From the 5th to the r1 th cen turies,the north of this tract was subj ect

to the Kesari or L ion-kings of O rissa . In the 1 2th century appearedthe G ajapati dynasty (the E lephant-kings) , whose rule extended southwards to the Godavari

,the Narapatis (L ords of men) reign ing contem

poraneously over the southern portion (see CONJEVARAM ). In the 1 5th

century,a disputed success ion in Ganjam led to Muhammadan inter

ference . M umammad Shah , the last but one of the Bahman i dynasty ofthe Deccan

,being appealed to by one of the claimants, invested him

with the t i tle in dispute,and extended h is dominion as a tributary over

the countries of Kondapall i (Condapilly) , Rajamahendri (Rajahmundry),and Ellore

,as far south as the present British District of Nellore . In

the roth century,the Bahman i dynasty succumbed

,and their tributary

protectorate in the Circars passed , not without a struggle with the Chiefsof the northern divisions

,under the power of the Kutab Shahi princes .

In the 1 7 th century, the Kutab Shahi dominions fell to Aurangz eb but

for thirty years no serious attempt was made to impose the Delhi ruleupon the Circars. Early in the 1 8th century , however, the office of

Subahdar o f the Deccan was created ; and Niz am-ul-mulk, the firstincumbent

,appointed two l ieu tenants to the governments of the coast

Provinces—Anwar-ud-din, afterwards Nawab of the Karnatic , being

placed over Chicacole and the north , and Rustam Khan over Rajama

hendri and the south. The Northern Circars at th is t ime comprisedthe 5 divisions of Chicacole , Kondapall i , Rajamahendri , Ellore, andG anttir (G unto or). Chicacole, or Kalinga, comprising the presentViz agapatam and Ganjam Districts

,with a portion Of the adj oin ing

country, was sub-divided into Ichhapur, Kasimko ta, and Chicacole, thePtindi river forming its northern boundary. For a time th is divis ionwas known to the Muhammadans as G ulchanabad. Rajamahendriextended to Coconada, while south of i t to the Kistna was Kondapalli.

Between Kondapalli and the southern branch of the Godavari, layEllore ; and still farther south , to Ongole, stretched Cantur (G untoor).Besides these was the coast strip known as Masul ipatam lzazn

’

lz'

,held

as a personal estate by the re igning power,in which lay M asfi lipatam,

the chief town and fortress of the Northern Circars. To all these theM uhammadans gave new names but i t i s noteworthy that none havesurvived. In 1 750, Muz affar Jang succeeded to the Subahdarship ofthe Deccan, and ceded Masul ipatam ,

wi th the country adj acent,to the

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470 CI S-S UTL E] STATE S.

CiS-Sutlej States —Tract of country in the Punj ab , includingthe British Districts of Ambala (Umballa) , L udhiana, Firo z pur

(Feroz epore) , and Hissar, and the Native States of Patiala, J ind, andNabha. The term was first applied to the Sikh principal ities whicharose to the south of the Sutlej (Satlaj) during the last years of theDelhi Empire. After the suicidal contest s of the Marathas and theDurani princes

,the Sikhs began to cross over from the Punj ab proper

(see AMR ITSAR D ISTR ICT) into the territory beyond the great boundaryriver

,and soon acquired for themselves the whole stretch o f country

between the Sutlej and the Jumna valley . When the Maratha powerin Upper India fell before the British conquerors in 1803 , the whole of

this in tervening tract was already parcelled out among numerous ch ieftains

,from the powerful Raja

'

of the Patiala principal ity to the pettysardars who held a few villages under a precarious sway. After theestablishment of the Bri tish power to the east

,the various Native rulers

continued to wage perpetual war upon one another, until the consolidat ion of the L ahore Government

,under Ranj it Singh , forced them to

unite in res istance to the common enemy. The great Maharaja at lastappeared on the south of the Sutlej , and demanded tribute . Thereupon the Cis-Su tlej princes, fearing the fate which had befallen theirbrethren in the Punjab proper

,united in 1808 in an applicat ion for aid

to the British Government . Our authorit ies, who were then engaged in

negotiations wi th Ranj it Singh , accepted the proffered protectorate .

The treaty of 1809 secured them from encroachment on the north ;while a proclamation

,issued in 1 8 1 1 , put an end to those internal wars

which had previously wasted the energies of the various States . Withthis exception

,however

,the Chiefs still retained sovereign rights within

their several principaliti es,having absolute civil

,criminal, and fiscal j uris

diction , subj ect only to the supreme authority of the British Government .NO tribute was demanded

,and no contingent fixed ; the only claim

which the British advanced, in return for their protection, was the rightto escheats, and to assistance in case of war. But after the outbreak ofthe first S ikh war, and during the Sutlej campaign of 1845, the chieftains failed to supply the stipulated military aid . At the conclusion

of the war, the Brit ish Government accordingly resolved to place thej urisdiction of the Cis-Sutlej principal it ies upon an entirely new basis.

The Chieftains had in many cases exhibited an incapacity for j ust rule,so that it had become desirable in the interests of their subj ects to

check their fiscal exactions,and place the admin istration of j ustice in

stronger hands . By a resolution,dated November 1 7 , 1846, the

Governor-General abolished the criminal j urisdiction of the chieftains,removed the internal transit or customs duties

,and laid down a scale

of tribute in commutation of the military service which the chiefs had

neglected to perform. Patiala, J ind, Nabha, Faridkot , Maler Kotla

CL OSEPE T TAL UK AND TOWN. 47 1

Chitrauli, Rajkot, Buriya, and M andot obtained exemption from th isarrangement ; but all the other principalit ies were incorporated into a

Brit ish Commiss ionersh ip of the Cis-Sutlej States, with its head-quartersat Ambala. It soon became apparent

,however, that the petty Ch iefs,

deprived of the ir pol ice jurisdiction , could not efficiently collect the irrevenue, and steps were taken for a regular assessment of the land underBrit ish officials which measure, though temporarily postponed by theoutbreak of the second Sikh war, was fully carried out after the completion of that campaign and the resulting annexation of the Punjab. In

June 1849, accordingly, the British Government finally abolished the

sovere ign powers of the petty ch ieftains,and assumed the complete

criminal, civil, and fi scal authority throughout al l the States,except the

eight above enumerated. The whole administration devolved upon ournewly-formed Government at L ahore ; and though the revenues sti llbelonged to the various ch ieftains, the task of assessment and collectionfel l upon the Brit ish officials. Since that date, various other Stateshave lapsed from t ime to t ime, by death or forfe iture, to the Brit ishGovernment, and have been incorporated with one or other of thedifferent Districts . For further details and statistics, wide the Districtsof AMBALA, L UDHIANA, F IROZPUR (FEROZEPORE), and HISSAR, andthe Native States of PATIALA

,J IND

,and NABHA .

Closepet—Tailuk in Bangalore D istrict, Mysore State. Area, 47 6

s quare miles. Populat ion ( 188 1 ) namely,males and

females 4 r,933. Hindus numbered Muhammadans, 7393 ;

and Christians, 235. A fert ile and well-cult ivated téluk, watered bythe rivers Arkavati, Kanva, and Vrishabhavati. Considerab le cultivation of rice, cocoa-nuts, betel-leaf, plantains, and sugar-cane. Muchraw silk was formerly produced at the towns of Closepet and Channapatna, but the outbreak of disease among the silkworms has almostdestroyed the industry. Manufacture of coarse cotton cloth. Revenue,1 883—84, The ta

’

luk contains 2 criminal courts with 8police circles strength of regular police, 80 men ; village

watchmen 30.

Closepet—Town in Bangalore District, Mysore State, and headquarters of Closepet félule, si tuated on the right bank of the Arkavatiriver

, 30 miles by road south-west of Bangalore. L at. 1 2°

40'

N. ,

long. 7 7°

1 2' E. Population ( 188 1 ) 483 2 , namely, 32 79 Hindus, 1482

Muhammadans, and 7 1 Christians. Founded in 1800 by the Diwan

Purnaiya, and named after the British Resident, Sir Barry Close.

There are several rel ig ious build ings of the Hindu sects. The sz’

llz’

dér

horse-breeding establ ishment has been removed to KUN IG AL . TheMuhammadans were formerly much engaged in sericulture but s ince theoutbreak ofdisease among the s ilkworms, many of them have emigrated

to the coffee Districts. Head-quarters of the tdlule of the same name.

47 2 COCANADA.

Cocanada.—Sub-division of Godavari District, M adras Presidency ;

comprising the ldluks of Peddapuram, Pithapur, and Trini . Also a

estate of the District area, 190 square miles, contain ing 6 1towns and villages and houses, with ( 188 1 ) inh abitants

,

namely,

Hindus, 2894 Muhammadans, 88 1 Christians, and 23

others .’

Cocanada (Kaki-mia’a,

‘ Crow country —Town and seaport inGodavari District , Madras Pres idency. Situated on the coast 545miles south of Calcutta, and 3 1 5 north of Madras, and connected bynavigable canals with Samulkotta and the Godavari river at Dowlaish

waram . L at. 16°

57’

N. , long. 8 2°

1 3' E. Houses

, 4024 . Population

( 188 1 ) (with Jaganadhapur) namely, Hindus,

1 383Muhammadans

, 77 2 Christians, and 2 1‘others.’ Area of town site

,

3 2 7 1 acres. Municipal revenue ( 1 88 1 incidence of

taxation , 2 8 . 1d. per head. Being the head-quarters of the D istrictadministration , i t contains the courts of the Magistrate and hissubordinates, jail, post and telegraph offices, schools, dispensary, etc.and as the second seaport of the Presidency after Madras

,i t possesses

the usual marine establ ishment s, custom house, master attendants’offi ce

,

etc. The European mercanti le community numbers 185 persons . Themunicipal ity includes the older town of Jaganadhapur (formerly aDutch settlement , made over to the Bri tish in 182 which is con

nected with Cocanada proper by an iron bridge across the t idal creek.

The returns for 188 1—82 show that sh ipping of tons burthenentered during the year ; value of exports

, £2 1 7 ,33 r—of imports,

533. Principal export to Europe, cotton—grown in Godavariand Ki stna Districts, pressed at G antur (G untoor) , and brought toCocanada by canals oil-seeds, sugar, and rice are al so exported. Thetrade i s carried on by English , French, and nat ive coasting vessels .The cotton traffi c rece ived a great impetus during the American war

,

th is port being more convenient for large shipments than M asulipatam .

The chief imports are iron, copper, sacks, and l iquor. The roadstead

i s one of the safest on this dangerous coast,but the anchorage is

gradually shifting owing to the si lt ing up of the bay. A new'

l ighthouse was erected on the mainland, 44 miles from Coconada, In 1879,

the old one, erected In 1865 , having become almost useless, owing tothe shifting of the shoals—See COR INGA.

END OF VOLUME I ll.

M ORR ISON AND GmB, EDIN BURG H,

mum-mas T O m m M AJESTY’S srarronanv orn ez .