PDF generated using the open source mwlib toolkit. See http://code.pediapress.com/ for more information.PDF generated at: Mon, 31 Oct 2011 23:23:19 UTC

Healing Our planetSaving the Planet is Our Responsibility

ContentsArticlesThe Importance of Water 1

Water 1

Biodiversity 22

Biodiversity 22

The importance of Forests 42

Deforestation 42

Natural Disasters 61

1924 Cuba hurricane 612006 Nova Scotia tropical storm 65

Renewable and Non-renewable Sources of Energy 68

Biomass 68

We are Eco-friendly 73

Sustainability 73Conservation biology 95

Let´s show we do care! 114

Earth Song 114Wikipedia:Spoken articles 122

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 129Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 133

Article LicensesLicense 135

1

The Importance of Water

Water

Water in three states: liquid, solid (ice), and (invisible) water vapor in the air.Clouds are accumulations of water droplets, condensed from vapor-saturated air.

Water is a chemical substance with thechemical formula H2O. A water moleculecontains one oxygen and two hydrogenatoms connected by covalent bonds. Wateris a liquid at ambient conditions, but it oftenco-exists on Earth with its solid state, ice,and gaseous state (water vapor or steam).Water also exists in a liquid crystal statenear hydrophilic surfaces.[1] [2] Undernomenclature used to name chemicalcompounds, Dihydrogen monoxide is thescientific name for water, though it is almostnever used.[3]

Water covers 70.9% of the Earth's surface,[4] and is vital for all known forms of life.[5] On Earth, 96.5% of theplanet's water is found mostly in oceans; 1.7% in groundwater; 1.7% in glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica andGreenland; a small fraction in other large water bodies, and 0.001% in the air as vapor, clouds (formed of solid andliquid water particles suspended in air), and precipitation.[6] [7] Only 2.5% of the Earth's water is freshwater, and98.8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0.3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and theatmosphere, and an even smaller amount of the Earth's freshwater (0.003%) is contained within biological bodiesand manufactured products.[8]

Water on Earth moves continually through the hydrological cycle of evaporation and transpiration(evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, usually reaching the sea. Evaporation and transpirationcontribute to the precipitation over land.Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other lifeforms. Access to safe drinking water has improved over thelast decades in almost every part of the world, but approximately one billion people still lack access to safe water andover 2.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation.[9] There is a clear correlation between access to safe water andGDP per capita.[10] However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world populationwill be facing water-based vulnerability.[11] A recent report (November 2009) suggests that by 2030, in somedeveloping regions of the world, water demand will exceed supply by 50%.[12] Water plays an important role in theworld economy, as it functions as a solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances and facilitates industrialcooling and transportation. Approximately 70% of the fresh water used by humans goes to agriculture.[13]

Water 2

Chemical and physical properties

Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between moleculesof water

Impact from a water drop causes an upward"rebound" jet surrounded by circular capillary

waves.

Snowflakes by Wilson Bentley, 1902

Water is the chemical substance with chemical formula H2O: onemolecule of water has two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to asingle oxygen atom.

Water appears in nature in all three common states of matter and maytake many different forms on Earth: water vapor and clouds in the sky;seawater and icebergs in the polar oceans; glaciers and rivers in themountains; and the liquid in aquifers in the ground.

At high temperatures and pressures, such as in the interior of giantplanets, it is argued that water exists as ionic water in which themolecules break down into a soup of hydrogen and oxygen ions, and ateven higher pressures as superionic water in which the oxygencrystallises but the hydrogen ions float around freely within the oxygenlattice.[14]

The major chemical and physical properties of water are:• Water is a liquid at standard temperature and pressure. It is tasteless

and odorless. The intrinsic colour of water and ice is a very slightblue hue, although both appear colorless in small quantities. Watervapour is essentially invisible as a gas.[15]

• Water is transparent in the visible electromagnetic spectrum. Thusaquatic plants can live in water because sunlight can reach them.Infrared light is strongly absorbed by the hydrogen-oxygen or OHbonds.

• Since the water molecule is not linear and the oxygen atom has ahigher electronegativity than hydrogen atoms, it carries a slightnegative charge, whereas the hydrogen atoms are slightly positive.As a result, water is a polar molecule with an electrical dipolemoment. Water also can form an unusually large number ofintermolecular hydrogen bonds (four) for a molecule of its size.These factors lead to strong attractive forces between molecules ofwater, giving rise to water's high surface tension[16] and capillaryforces. The capillary action refers to the tendency of water to moveup a narrow tube against the force of gravity. This property is reliedupon by all vascular plants, such as trees.[17]

• Water is a good solvent and is often referred to as the universalsolvent. Substances that dissolve in water, e.g., salts, sugars, acids,alkalis, and some gases – especially oxygen, carbon dioxide(carbonation) are known as hydrophilic (water-loving) substances,while those that do not mix well with water (e.g., fats and oils), areknown as hydrophobic (water-fearing) substances.

• All the major components in cells (proteins, DNA andpolysaccharides) are also dissolved in water.

• Pure water has a low electrical conductivity, but this increases significantly with the dissolution of a small amountof ionic material such as sodium chloride.

Water 3

Dew drops adhering to a spider web

Capillary action of water compared to mercury

• The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is dependent on thebarometric pressure. For example, on the top of Mt. Everest waterboils at 68 °C (154 °F), compared to 100 °C (212 °F) at sea level.Conversely, water deep in the ocean near geothermal vents canreach temperatures of hundreds of degrees and remain liquid.

• At 4181.3 J/(kg·K), water has the second highest specific heatcapacity of any known substance (after ammonia), as well as a highheat of vaporization (40.65 kJ·mol−1), both of which are a result ofthe extensive hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These twounusual properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate bybuffering large fluctuations in temperature.

• The maximum density of water occurs at 3.98 °C (39.16 °F).[18] Ithas the anomalous property of becoming less dense, not more, whenit is cooled down to its solid form, ice. It expands to occupy 9%greater volume in this solid state, which accounts for the fact of icefloating on liquid water as in icebergs.

• Its density is 1,000 kg/m3 liquid (4 °C), weighs 62.4 lb/ft.3

(917 kg/m3, solid). It weighs 8.3454 lb/gal. (US, liquid).[19]

ADR label for transporting goods dangerouslyreactive with water

• Water is miscible with many liquids, such as ethanol, in allproportions, forming a single homogeneous liquid. On the otherhand, water and most oils are immiscible usually forming layersaccording to increasing density from the top. As a gas, water vaporis completely miscible with air.

• Water forms an azeotrope with many other solvents.• Water can be split by electrolysis into hydrogen and oxygen.• As an oxide of hydrogen, water is formed when hydrogen or

hydrogen-containing compounds burn or react with oxygen oroxygen-containing compounds. Water is not a fuel, it is anend-product of the combustion of hydrogen. The energy required tosplit water into hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis or any othermeans is greater than the energy that can be collected when thehydrogen and oxygen recombine.[20]

• Elements which are more electropositive than hydrogen such as lithium, sodium, calcium, potassium and caesiumdisplace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides. Being a flammable gas, the hydrogen given off is dangerousand the reaction of water with the more electropositive of these elements may be violently explosive.

Water 4

Taste and odorWater can dissolve many different substances, giving it varying tastes and odors. Humans and other animals havedeveloped senses that enable them to evaluate the potability of water by avoiding water that is too salty or putrid.The taste of spring water and mineral water, often advertised in marketing of consumer products, derives from theminerals dissolved in it. However, pure H2O is tasteless and odorless. The advertised purity of spring and mineralwater refers to absence of toxins, pollutants and microbes, not the absence of naturally occurring minerals.

Distribution in nature

In the universeMuch of the universe's water is produced as a byproduct of star formation. When stars are born, their birth isaccompanied by a strong outward wind of gas and dust. When this outflow of material eventually impacts thesurrounding gas, the shock waves that are created compress and heat the gas. The water observed is quicklyproduced in this warm dense gas.[21]

On 22 July 2011, a report described the discovery of a gigantic cloud of water vapor, containing "140 trillion timesmore water than all of Earth's oceans combined," around a quasar located 12 billion light years from Earth.According to the researchers, the "discovery shows that water has been prevalent in the universe for nearly its entireexistence."[22] [23]

Water has been detected in interstellar clouds within our galaxy, the Milky Way. Water probably exists in abundancein other galaxies, too, because its components, hydrogen and oxygen, are among the most abundant elements in theuniverse. Interstellar clouds eventually condense into solar nebulae and solar systems such as ours.Water vapor is present in• Atmosphere of Mercury: 3.4%, and large amounts of water in Mercury's exosphere[24]

• Atmosphere of Venus: 0.002%• Earth's atmosphere: ~0.40% over full atmosphere, typically 1–4% at surface• Atmosphere of Mars: 0.03%• Atmosphere of Jupiter: 0.0004%• Atmosphere of Saturn – in ices only• Enceladus (moon of Saturn): 91%• exoplanets known as HD 189733 b[25] and HD 209458 b.[26]

Liquid water is present on• Earth: 71% of surface• Europa: 100km deep subsurface oceanStrong evidence suggests that liquid water is present just under the surface of Saturn's moon Enceladus.Water ice is present on• Earth – mainly as ice sheets• polar ice caps on Mars• Moon• Titan• Europa• Saturn's rings[27]

• Enceladus• Pluto and Charon[27]

• Comets and comet source populations (Kuiper belt and Oort cloud objects).

Water 5

Water ice may be present on Ceres and Tethys. Water and other volatiles probably comprise much of the internalstructures of Uranus and Neptune and the water in the deeper layers may be in the form of ionic water in which themolecules break down into a soup of hydrogen and oxygen ions, and deeper down as superionic water in which theoxygen crystallises but the hydrogen ions float around freely within the oxygen lattice.[14]

Some of the Moon's minerals contain water molecules. For instance, in 2008 a laboratory device which ejects andidentifies particles found small amounts of the compound in the inside of volcanic rock brought from Moon to Earthby the Apollo 15 crew in 1971.[28] NASA reported the detection of water molecules by NASA's Moon MineralogyMapper aboard the Indian Space Research Organization's Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft in September 2009.[29]

Water and habitable zoneThe existence of liquid water, and to a lesser extent its gaseous and solid forms, on Earth are vital to the existence oflife on Earth as we know it. The Earth is located in the habitable zone of the solar system; if it were slightly closer toor farther from the Sun (about 5%, or about 8 million kilometers), the conditions which allow the three forms to bepresent simultaneously would be far less likely to exist.[30] [31]

Earth's gravity allows it to hold an atmosphere. Water vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere provide atemperature buffer (greenhouse effect) which helps maintain a relatively steady surface temperature. If Earth weresmaller, a thinner atmosphere would allow temperature extremes, thus preventing the accumulation of water exceptin polar ice caps (as on Mars).The surface temperature of Earth has been relatively constant through geologic time despite varying levels ofincoming solar radiation (insolation), indicating that a dynamic process governs Earth's temperature via acombination of greenhouse gases and surface or atmospheric albedo. This proposal is known as the Gaia hypothesis.The state of water on a planet depends on ambient pressure, which is determined by the planet's gravity. If a planet issufficiently massive, the water on it may be solid even at high temperatures, because of the high pressure caused bygravity, as it was observed on exoplanets Gliese 436 b[32] and GJ 1214 b.[33]

There are various theories about origin of water on Earth.

On Earth

A graphical distribution of the locations of water on Earth.

Hydrology is the study of themovement, distribution, and quality ofwater throughout the Earth. The studyof the distribution of water ishydrography. The study of thedistribution and movement ofgroundwater is hydrogeology, ofglaciers is glaciology, of inland watersis limnology and distribution of oceansis oceanography. Ecological processeswith hydrology are in focus ofecohydrology.

The collective mass of water found on,under, and over the surface of a planetis called the hydrosphere. Earth'sapproximate water volume (the total

Water 6

Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface; theoceans contain 96.5% of the Earth's water. TheAntarctic ice sheet, which contains 61% of allfresh water on Earth, is visible at the bottom.Condensed atmospheric water can be seen as

clouds, contributing to the Earth's albedo.

water supply of the world) is 1,338,000,000 km3 (321,000,000 mi3).[34]

Liquid water is found in bodies of water, such as an ocean, sea, lake,river, stream, canal, pond, or puddle. The majority of water on Earth issea water. Water is also present in the atmosphere in solid, liquid, andvapor states. It also exists as groundwater in aquifers.

Water is important in many geological processes. Groundwater ispresent in most rocks, and the pressure of this groundwater affectspatterns of faulting. Water in the mantle is responsible for the melt thatproduces volcanoes at subduction zones. On the surface of the Earth,water is important in both chemical and physical weathering processes.Water and, to a lesser but still significant extent, ice, are alsoresponsible for a large amount of sediment transport that occurs on thesurface of the earth. Deposition of transported sediment forms manytypes of sedimentary rocks, which make up the geologic record ofEarth history.

Water cycle

Water cycle

The water cycle (known scientificallyas the hydrologic cycle) refers to thecontinuous exchange of water withinthe hydrosphere, between theatmosphere, soil water, surface water,groundwater, and plants.

Water moves perpetually through eachof these regions in the water cycleconsisting of following transferprocesses:

• evaporation from oceans and otherwater bodies into the air andtranspiration from land plants andanimals into air.

• precipitation, from water vaporcondensing from the air and falling to earth or ocean.

• runoff from the land usually reaching the sea.Most water vapor over the oceans returns to the oceans, but winds carry water vapor over land at the same rate asrunoff into the sea, about 47 Tt per year. Over land, evaporation and transpiration contribute another 72 Tt per year.Precipitation, at a rate of 119 Tt per year over land, has several forms: most commonly rain, snow, and hail, withsome contribution from fog and dew.[35] Condensed water in the air may also refract sunlight to produce rainbows.

Water runoff often collects over watersheds flowing into rivers. A mathematical model used to simulate river or stream flow and calculate water quality parameters is hydrological transport model. Some of water is diverted to irrigation for agriculture. Rivers and seas offer opportunity for travel and commerce. Through erosion, runoff shapes the environment creating river valleys and deltas which provide rich soil and level ground for the establishment of

Water 7

population centers. A flood occurs when an area of land, usually low-lying, is covered with water. It is when a riveroverflows its banks or flood from the sea. A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes adeficiency in its water supply. This occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation.

Fresh water storage

The Bay of Fundy at high tide (left) and low tide (right)Some runoff water is trapped for periods of time, for example in lakes. At high altitude, during winter, and in the farnorth and south, snow collects in ice caps, snow pack and glaciers. Water also infiltrates the ground and goes intoaquifers. This groundwater later flows back to the surface in springs, or more spectacularly in hot springs andgeysers. Groundwater is also extracted artificially in wells. This water storage is important, since clean, fresh wateris essential to human and other land-based life. In many parts of the world, it is in short supply.

Sea waterSea water contains about 3.5% salt on average, plus smaller amounts of other substances. The physical properties ofsea water differ from fresh water in some important respects. It freezes at a lower temperature (about −1.9 °C) and itsdensity increases with decreasing temperature to the freezing point, instead of reaching maximum density at atemperature above freezing. The salinity of water in major seas varies from about 0.7% in the Baltic Sea to 4.0% inthe Red Sea.

TidesTides are the cyclic rising and falling of local sea levels caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun acting onthe oceans. Tides cause changes in the depth of the marine and estuarine water bodies and produce oscillatingcurrents known as tidal streams. The changing tide produced at a given location is the result of the changingpositions of the Moon and Sun relative to the Earth coupled with the effects of Earth rotation and the localbathymetry. The strip of seashore that is submerged at high tide and exposed at low tide, the intertidal zone, is animportant ecological product of ocean tides.

Water 8

Effects on life

An oasis is an isolated water source withvegetation in a desert

Overview of photosynthesis and respiration.Water (at right), together with carbon dioxide

(CO2), form oxygen and organic compounds (atleft), which can be respired to water and (CO2).

From a biological standpoint, water has many distinct properties thatare critical for the proliferation of life that set it apart from othersubstances. It carries out this role by allowing organic compounds toreact in ways that ultimately allow replication. All known forms of lifedepend on water. Water is vital both as a solvent in which many of thebody's solutes dissolve and as an essential part of many metabolicprocesses within the body. Metabolism is the sum total of anabolismand catabolism. In anabolism, water is removed from molecules(through energy requiring enzymatic chemical reactions) in order togrow larger molecules (e.g. starches, triglycerides and proteins forstorage of fuels and information). In catabolism, water is used to breakbonds in order to generate smaller molecules (e.g. glucose, fatty acidsand amino acids to be used for fuels for energy use or other purposes).Without water, these particular metabolic processes could not exist.

Water is fundamental to photosynthesis and respiration. Photosyntheticcells use the sun's energy to split off water's hydrogen from oxygen.Hydrogen is combined with CO2 (absorbed from air or water) to formglucose and release oxygen. All living cells use such fuels and oxidizethe hydrogen and carbon to capture the sun's energy and reform waterand CO2 in the process (cellular respiration).

Water is also central to acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. Anacid, a hydrogen ion (H+, that is, a proton) donor, can be neutralized bya base, a proton acceptor such as hydroxide ion (OH−) to form water.Water is considered to be neutral, with a pH (the negative log of thehydrogen ion concentration) of 7. Acids have pH values less than 7while bases have values greater than 7.

Water 9

Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef

Aquatic life forms

Some marine diatoms – a key phytoplanktongroup

Earth surface waters are filled with life. The earliest life formsappeared in water; nearly all fish live exclusively in water, and thereare many types of marine mammals, such as dolphins and whales.Some kinds of animals, such as amphibians, spend portions of theirlives in water and portions on land. Plants such as kelp and algae growin the water and are the basis for some underwater ecosystems.Plankton is generally the foundation of the ocean food chain.

Aquatic vertebrates must obtain oxygen to survive, and they do so invarious ways. Fish have gills instead of lungs, although some speciesof fish, such as the lungfish, have both. Marine mammals, such as

dolphins, whales, otters, and seals need to surface periodically to breathe air. Some amphibians are able to absorboxygen through their skin. Invertebrates exhibit a wide range of modifications to survive in poorly oxygenatedwaters including breathing tubes (see insect and mollusc siphons) and gills (Carcinus). However as invertebrate lifeevolved in an aquatic habitat most have little or no specialisation for respiration in water.

Effects on human civilization

Water fountain

Civilization has historically flourished around rivers and majorwaterways; Mesopotamia, the so-called cradle of civilization, wassituated between the major rivers Tigris and Euphrates; the ancientsociety of the Egyptians depended entirely upon the Nile. Largemetropolises like Rotterdam, London, Montreal, Paris, New York City,Buenos Aires, Shanghai, Tokyo, Chicago, and Hong Kong owe theirsuccess in part to their easy accessibility via water and the resultantexpansion of trade. Islands with safe water ports, like Singapore, haveflourished for the same reason. In places such as North Africa and the

Water 10

Middle East, where water is more scarce, access to clean drinking water was and is a major factor in humandevelopment.

Health and pollution

Environmental Science Program, Iowa StateUniversity student sampling water.

Water fit for human consumption is called drinking water or potablewater. Water that is not potable may be made potable by filtration ordistillation, or by a range of other methods.

Water that is not fit for drinking but is not harmful for humans whenused for swimming or bathing is called by various names other thanpotable or drinking water, and is sometimes called safe water, or "safefor bathing". Chlorine is a skin and mucous membrane irritant that isused to make water safe for bathing or drinking. Its use is highlytechnical and is usually monitored by government regulations(typically 1 part per million (ppm) for drinking water, and 1–2 ppm ofchlorine not yet reacted with impurities for bathing water). Water for

bathing may be maintained in satisfactory microbiological condition using chemical disinfectants such as chlorine orozone or by the use of ultraviolet light.

In the USA, non-potable forms of wastewater generated by humans may be referred to as greywater, which istreatable and thus easily able to be made potable again, and blackwater, which generally contains sewage and otherforms of waste which require further treatment in order to be made reusable. Greywater composes 50–80% ofresidential wastewater generated by a household's sanitation equipment (sinks, showers and kitchen runoff, but nottoilets, which generate blackwater.) These terms may have different meanings in other countries and cultures.This natural resource is becoming scarcer in certain places, and its availability is a major social and economicconcern. Currently, about a billion people around the world routinely drink unhealthy water. Most countries acceptedthe goal of halving by 2015 the number of people worldwide who do not have access to safe water and sanitationduring the 2003 G8 Evian summit.[36] Even if this difficult goal is met, it will still leave more than an estimated halfa billion people without access to safe drinking water and over a billion without access to adequate sanitation. Poorwater quality and bad sanitation are deadly; some five million deaths a year are caused by polluted drinking water.The World Health Organization estimates that safe water could prevent 1.4 million child deaths from diarrhea eachyear.[37] Water, however, is not a finite resource, but rather re-circulated as potable water in precipitation inquantities many degrees of magnitude higher than human consumption. Therefore, it is the relatively small quantityof water in reserve in the earth (about 1% of our drinking water supply, which is replenished in aquifers aroundevery 1 to 10 years), that is a non-renewable resource, and it is, rather, the distribution of potable and irrigation waterwhich is scarce, rather than the actual amount of it that exists on the earth. Water-poor countries use importation ofgoods as the primary method of importing water (to leave enough for local human consumption), since themanufacturing process uses around 10 to 100 times products' masses in water.In the developing world, 90% of all wastewater still goes untreated into local rivers and streams.[38] Some 50countries, with roughly a third of the world’s population, also suffer from medium or high water stress, and 17 ofthese extract more water annually than is recharged through their natural water cycles.[39] The strain not only affectssurface freshwater bodies like rivers and lakes, but it also degrades groundwater resources.

Water 11

Human usesFurther information: Water supply

Agriculture

Irrigation of field crops

The most important use of water in agriculture is for irrigation, whichis a key component to produce enough food. Irrigation takes up to 90%of water withdrawn in some developing countries[40] and significantproportions in more economically developed countries (United States,30% of freshwater usage is for irrigation).[41] It takes around 3,000litres of water, converted from liquid to vapour, to produce enoughfood to satisfy one person's daily dietary need. This is a considerableamount, when compared to that required for drinking, which isbetween two and five litres. To produce food for the 6.5 billion or sopeople who inhabit the planet today requires the water that would fill acanal ten metres deep, 100 metres wide and 7.1 million kilometres long – that's enough to circle the globe 180 times.

Fifty years ago, the common perception was that water was an infinite resource. At this time, there were fewer thanhalf the current number of people on the planet. People were not as wealthy as today, consumed fewer calories andate less meat, so less water was needed to produce their food. They required a third of the volume of water wepresently take from rivers. Today, the competition for the fixed amount of water resources is much more intense,giving rise to the concept of peak water.[42] This is because there are now nearly seven billion people on the planet,their consumption of water-thirsty meat and vegetables is rising, and there is increasing competition for water fromindustry, urbanisation and biofuel crops. In future, even more water will be needed to produce food because theEarth's population is forecast to rise to 9 billion by 2050.[43] An additional 2.5 or 3 billion people, choosing to eatfewer cereals and more meat and vegetables could add an additional five million kilometres to the virtual canalmentioned above.An assessment of water management in agriculture was conducted in 2007 by the International Water ManagementInstitute in Sri Lanka to see if the world had sufficient water to provide food for its growing population.[44] Itassessed the current availability of water for agriculture on a global scale and mapped out locations suffering fromwater scarcity. It found that a fifth of the world's people, more than 1.2 billion, live in areas of physical waterscarcity, where there is not enough water to meet all demands. A further 1.6 billion people live in areas experiencingeconomic water scarcity, where the lack of investment in water or insufficient human capacity make it impossible forauthorities to satisfy the demand for water. The report found that it would be possible to produce the food required infuture, but that continuation of today's food production and environmental trends would lead to crises in many partsof the world. To avoid a global water crisis, farmers will have to strive to increase productivity to meet growingdemands for food, while industry and cities find ways to use water more efficiently.[45]

As a scientific standard

On 7 April 1795, the gram was defined in France to be equal to "the absolute weight of a volume of pure water equalto a cube of one hundredth of a meter, and to the temperature of the melting ice."[46] For practical purposes though, ametallic reference standard was required, one thousand times more massive, the kilogram. Work was thereforecommissioned to determine precisely the mass of one liter of water. In spite of the fact that the decreed definition ofthe gram specified water at 0 °C — a highly reproducible temperature — the scientists chose to redefine the standardand to perform their measurements at the temperature of highest water density, which was measured at the time as 4°C (39 °F).[47]

The Kelvin temperature scale of the SI system is based on the triple point of water, defined as exactly 273.16 K or 0.01 °C. The scale is an absolute temperature scale with the same increment as the Celsius temperature scale, which

Water 12

was originally defined according the boiling point (set to 100 °C) and melting point (set to 0 °C) of water.Natural water consists mainly of the isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but there is also small quantity of heavierisotopes such as hydrogen-2 (deuterium). The amount of deuterium oxides or heavy water is very small, but it stillaffects the properties of water. Water from rivers and lakes tends to contain less deuterium than seawater. Therefore,standard water is defined in the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification.

For drinking

A young girl drinking bottled water

Water quality: fraction of population usingimproved water sources by country

The human body contains from 55% to 78% water, depending on bodysize.[48] To function properly, the body requires between one andseven liters of water per day to avoid dehydration; the precise amountdepends on the level of activity, temperature, humidity, and otherfactors. Most of this is ingested through foods or beverages other thandrinking straight water. It is not clear how much water intake is neededby healthy people, though most advocates agree that approximately 2liters (6 to 7 glasses) of water daily is the minimum to maintain properhydration.[49] Medical literature favors a lower consumption, typically1 liter of water for an average male, excluding extra requirements dueto fluid loss from exercise or warm weather.[50] For those who havehealthy kidneys, it is rather difficult to drink too much water, but(especially in warm humid weather and while exercising) it isdangerous to drink too little. People can drink far more water thannecessary while exercising, however, putting them at risk of waterintoxication (hyperhydration), which can be fatal.[51] [52] The popularclaim that "a person should consume eight glasses of water per day"seems to have no real basis in science.[53] Similar misconceptionsconcerning the effect of water on weight loss and constipation havealso been dispelled.[54]

Hazard symbol for non-potable water

An original recommendation for water intake in 1945 by the Food andNutrition Board of the United States National Research Council read:"An ordinary standard for diverse persons is 1 milliliter for each calorieof food. Most of this quantity is contained in prepared foods."[55] Thelatest dietary reference intake report by the United States NationalResearch Council in general recommended (including food sources):3.7 liters for men and 2.7 liters of water total for women.[56]

Specifically, pregnant and breastfeeding women need additional fluidsto stay hydrated. The Institute of Medicine (U.S.) recommends that, onaverage, men consume 3.0 liters and women 2.2 liters; pregnantwomen should increase intake to 2.4 liters (10 cups) and breastfeedingwomen should get 3 liters (12 cups), since an especially large amountof fluid is lost during nursing.[57] Also noted is that normally, about20% of water intake comes from food, while the rest comes from drinking water and beverages (caffeinatedincluded). Water is excreted from the body in multiple forms; through urine and feces, through sweating, and byexhalation of water vapor in the breath. With physical exertion and heat exposure, water loss will increase and dailyfluid needs may increase as well.

Humans require water with few impurities. Common impurities include metal salts and oxides, including copper, iron, calcium and lead,[58] and/or harmful bacteria, such as Vibrio. Some solutes are acceptable and even desirable

Water 13

for taste enhancement and to provide needed electrolytes.[59]

The single largest (by volume) freshwater resource suitable for drinking is Lake Baikal in Siberia.[60]

Washing

The propensity of water to form solutions and emulsions is useful in various washing processes. Many industrialprocesses rely on reactions using chemicals dissolved in water, suspension of solids in water slurries or using waterto dissolve and extract substances. Washing is also an important component of several aspects of personal bodyhygiene.

Transportation

The use of water for transportation of materials through rivers and canals as well as the international shipping lanesis an important part of the world economy.

Chemical uses

Water is widely used in chemical reactions as a solvent or reactant and less commonly as a solute or catalyst. Ininorganic reactions, water is a common solvent, dissolving many ionic compounds. In organic reactions, it is notusually used as a reaction solvent, because it does not dissolve the reactants well and is amphoteric (acidic and basic)and nucleophilic. Nevertheless, these properties are sometimes desirable. Also, acceleration of Diels-Alder reactionsby water has been observed. Supercritical water has recently been a topic of research. Oxygen-saturated supercriticalwater combusts organic pollutants efficiently.

Heat exchange

Water and steam are used as heat transfer fluids in diverse heat exchange systems, due to its availability and highheat capacity, both as a coolant and for heating. Cool water may even be naturally available from a lake or the sea.Condensing steam is a particularly efficient heating fluid because of the large heat of vaporization. A disadvantage isthat water and steam are somewhat corrosive. In almost all electric power stations, water is the coolant, whichvaporizes and drives steam turbines to drive generators. In the U.S., cooling power plants is the largest use ofwater.[41]

In the nuclear power industry, water can also be used as a neutron moderator. In most nuclear reactors, water is botha coolant and a moderator. This provides something of a passive safety measure, as removing the water from thereactor also slows the nuclear reaction down – however other methods are favored for stopping a reaction and it ispreferred to keep the nuclear core covered with water so as to ensure adequate cooling.

Fire extinction

Water is used for fighting wildfires.

Water has a high heat of vaporization and is relatively inert, whichmakes it a good fire extinguishing fluid. The evaporation of watercarries heat away from the fire. It is dangerous to use water on firesinvolving oils and organic solvents, because many organic materialsfloat on water and the water tends to spread the burning liquid.

Use of water in fire fighting should also take into account the hazardsof a steam explosion, which may occur when water is used on very hotfires in confined spaces, and of a hydrogen explosion, when substanceswhich react with water, such as certain metals or hot carbon such ascoal, charcoal, coke graphite, decompose the water, producing watergas.

Water 14

The power of such explosions was seen in the Chernobyl disaster, although the water involved did not come fromfire-fighting at that time but the reactor's own water cooling system. A steam explosion occurred when the extremeover-heating of the core caused water to flash into steam. A hydrogen explosion may have occurred as a result ofreaction between steam and hot zirconium.

Recreation

Grand Anse Beach, St. George's, Grenada, WestIndies, often reported as one of the top 10

beaches in the world.

Humans use water for many recreational purposes, as well as forexercising and for sports. Some of these include swimming,waterskiing, boating, surfing and diving. In addition, some sports, likeice hockey and ice skating, are played on ice. Lakesides, beaches andwaterparks are popular places for people to go to relax and enjoyrecreation. Many find the sound and appearance of flowing water to becalming, and fountains and other water features are populardecorations. Some keep fish and other life in aquariums or ponds forshow, fun, and companionship. Humans also use water for snow sportsi.e. skiing, sledding, snowmobiling or snowboarding, which requiresthe water to be frozen.

Water industry

A water-carrier in India, 1882. In many placeswhere running water is not available, water has to

be transported by people.

The water industry provides drinking water and wastewater services(including sewage treatment) to households and industry. Water supplyfacilities include water wells cisterns for rainwater harvesting, watersupply network, water purification facilities, water tanks, water towers,water pipes including old aqueducts. Atmospheric water generators arein development.

Drinking water is often collected at springs, extracted from artificialborings (wells) in the ground, or pumped from lakes and rivers.Building more wells in adequate places is thus a possible way toproduce more water, assuming the aquifers can supply an adequateflow. Other water sources include rainwater collection. Water mayrequire purification for human consumption. This may involve removalof undissolved substances, dissolved substances and harmful microbes.Popular methods are filtering with sand which only removesundissolved material, while chlorination and boiling kill harmfulmicrobes. Distillation does all three functions. More advancedtechniques exist, such as reverse osmosis. Desalination of abundantseawater is a more expensive solution used in coastal arid climates.

The distribution of drinking water is done through municipal water systems, tanker delivery or as bottled water.Governments in many countries have programs to distribute water to the needy at no charge.

Reducing usage by using drinking (potable) water only for human consumption is another option. In some cities suchas Hong Kong, sea water is extensively used for flushing toilets citywide in order to conserve fresh water resources.

Water 15

A manual water pump in China

Water purification facility

Polluting water may be the biggest single misuse of water; to the extentthat a pollutant limits other uses of the water, it becomes a waste of theresource, regardless of benefits to the polluter. Like other types ofpollution, this does not enter standard accounting of market costs,being conceived as externalities for which the market cannot account.Thus other people pay the price of water pollution, while the privatefirms' profits are not redistributed to the local population victim of thispollution. Pharmaceuticals consumed by humans often end up in thewaterways and can have detrimental effects on aquatic life if theybioaccumulate and if they are not biodegradable.

Wastewater facilities are storm sewers and wastewater treatmentplants. Another way to remove pollution from surface runoff water isbioswale.

Industrial applications

Water is used in power generation. Hydroelectricity is electricityobtained from hydropower. Hydroelectric power comes from waterdriving a water turbine connected to a generator. Hydroelectricity is alow-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. The energy issupplied by the motion of water. Typically a dam is constructed on a

river, creating an artificial lake behind it. Water flowing out of the lake is forced through turbines that turngenerators.

Three Gorges Dam is the largest hydro-electric power station.Pressurized water is used in water blasting and water jet cutters. Also, very high pressure water guns are used forprecise cutting. It works very well, is relatively safe, and is not harmful to the environment. It is also used in thecooling of machinery to prevent over-heating, or prevent saw blades from over-heating.Water is also used in many industrial processes and machines, such as the steam turbine and heat exchanger, inaddition to its use as a chemical solvent. Discharge of untreated water from industrial uses is pollution. Pollutionincludes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and discharged coolant water (thermal pollution). Industry requirespure water for many applications and utilizes a variety of purification techniques both in water supply and discharge.

Water 16

Food processing

Water can be used to cook foods such as noodles.

Water plays many critical roles within the field of food science. It isimportant for a food scientist to understand the roles that water playswithin food processing to ensure the success of their products.

Solutes such as salts and sugars found in water affect the physicalproperties of water. The boiling and freezing points of water areaffected by solutes, as well as air pressure, which is in turn affected byaltitude. Water boils at lower temperatures with the lower air pressurewhich occurs at higher elevations. One mole of sucrose (sugar) perkilogram of water raises the boiling point of water by 0.51 °C, and onemole of salt per kg raises the boiling point by 1.02 °C; similarly,increasing the number of dissolved particles lowers water's freezing

point.[61] Solutes in water also affect water activity which affects many chemical reactions and the growth ofmicrobes in food.[62] Water activity can be described as a ratio of the vapor pressure of water in a solution to thevapor pressure of pure water.[61] Solutes in water lower water activity. This is important to know because mostbacterial growth ceases at low levels of water activity.[62] Not only does microbial growth affect the safety of foodbut also the preservation and shelf life of food.

Water hardness is also a critical factor in food processing. It can dramatically affect the quality of a product as wellas playing a role in sanitation. Water hardness is classified based on the amounts of removable calcium carbonatesalt it contains per gallon. Water hardness is measured in grains; 0.064 g calcium carbonate is equivalent to one grainof hardness.[61] Water is classified as soft if it contains 1 to 4 grains, medium if it contains 5 to 10 grains and hard ifit contains 11 to 20 grains. [61] The hardness of water may be altered or treated by using a chemical ion exchangesystem. The hardness of water also affects its pH balance which plays a critical role in food processing. For example,hard water prevents successful production of clear beverages. Water hardness also affects sanitation; with increasinghardness, there is a loss of effectiveness for its use as a sanitizer.[61]

Boiling, steaming, and simmering are popular cooking methods that often require immersing food in water or itsgaseous state, steam. Water is also used for dishwashing.

Water 17

Water law, water politics and water crisis

An estimate of the share of people in developing countries with access to potablewater 1970–2000

Water politics is politics affected by waterand water resources. For this reason,water is a strategic resource in the globeand an important element in manypolitical conflicts. It causes health impactsand damage to biodiversity.

1.6 billion people have gained access to asafe water source since 1990.[63] Theproportion of people in developingcountries with access to safe water iscalculated to have improved from 30% in1970[64] to 71% in 1990, 79% in 2000 and84% in 2004. This trend is projected tocontinue.[9] To halve, by 2015, theproportion of people without sustainableaccess to safe drinking water is one of theMillennium Development Goals. Thisgoal is projected to be reached.

A 2006 United Nations report stated that "there is enough water for everyone", but that access to it is hampered bymismanagement and corruption.[65] In addition, global initiatives to improve the efficiency of aid delivery, such asthe Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, have not been taken up by water sector donors as effectively as they havein education and health, potentially leaving multiple donors working on overlapping projects and recipientgovernments without empowerment to act.[66]

The UN World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from the World Water Assessment Program indicatesthat, in the next 20 years, the quantity of water available to everyone is predicted to decrease by 30%. 40% of theworld's inhabitants currently have insufficient fresh water for minimal hygiene. More than 2.2 million people died in2000 from waterborne diseases (related to the consumption of contaminated water) or drought. In 2004, the UKcharity WaterAid reported that a child dies every 15 seconds from easily preventable water-related diseases; oftenthis means lack of sewage disposal; see toilet.Organizations concerned with water protection include International Water Association (IWA), WaterAid, Water 1st,American Water Resources Association [67]. The International Water Management Institute undertakes projects withthe aim of using effective water management to reduce poverty. Water related conventions are United NationsConvention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution fromShips, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and Ramsar Convention. World Day for Water takes placeon 22 March and World Ocean Day on 8 June.Water used in the production of a good or service is virtual water.

Water 18

In culture

ReligionWater is considered a purifier in most religions. Major faiths that incorporate ritual washing (ablution) includeChristianity, Islam, Hinduism, Rastafari movement, Shinto, Taoism, Judaism, and Wicca. Immersion (or aspersion oraffusion) of a person in water is a central sacrament of Christianity (where it is called baptism); it is also a part of thepractice of other religions, including Judaism (mikvah) and Sikhism (Amrit Sanskar). In addition, a ritual bath inpure water is performed for the dead in many religions including Judaism and Islam. In Islam, the five daily prayerscan be done in most cases (see Tayammum) after completing washing certain parts of the body using clean water(wudu). In Shinto, water is used in almost all rituals to cleanse a person or an area (e.g., in the ritual of misogi).Water is mentioned numerous times in the Bible, for example: "The earth was formed out of water and by water"(NIV). In the Qur'an it is stated that "Living things are made of water" and it is often used to describe paradise.

PhilosophyThe Ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles held that water is one of the four classical elements along with fire,earth and air, and was regarded as the ylem, or basic substance of the universe. Water was considered cold and moist.In the theory of the four bodily humors, water was associated with phlegm. The classical element of Water was alsoone of the five elements in traditional Chinese philosophy, along with earth, fire, wood, and metal.Water is also taken as a role model in some parts of traditional and popular Asian philosophy. James Legge's 1891translation of the Dao De Jing states "The highest excellence is like (that of) water. The excellence of water appearsin its benefiting all things, and in its occupying, without striving (to the contrary), the low place which all mendislike. Hence (its way) is near to (that of) the Tao" and "There is nothing in the world more soft and weak thanwater, and yet for attacking things that are firm and strong there is nothing that can take precedence of it—for thereis nothing (so effectual) for which it can be changed."[68]

LiteratureWater is used in literature as a symbol of purification. Examples include the critical importance of a river in As I LayDying by William Faulkner and the drowning of Ophelia in Hamlet.Sherlock Holmes held that "From a drop of water, a logician could infer the possibility of an Atlantic or a Niagarawithout having seen or heard of one or the other."[69]

References[1] Henniker, J. C. (1949). "The Depth of the Surface Zone of a Liquid" (http:/ / link. aps. org/ doi/ 10. 1103/ RevModPhys. 21. 322). Reviews of

Modern Physics (Reviews of Modern Physics) 21 (2): 322–341. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.21.322. . Retrieved 2011-02-04.[2] Gerald Pollack. "Water Science" (http:/ / faculty. washington. edu/ ghp/ researcthemes/ water-science). University of Washington, Pollack

Laboratory. . Retrieved 2011-02-05. "Water has three phases – gas, liquid, and solid; but recent findings from our laboratory imply thepresence of a surprisingly extensive fourth phase that occurs at interfaces."

[3] Bramer, Scott. "Chemical Nomenclature" (http:/ / science. widener. edu/ svb/ pset/ nomen_b. html). Widener University, Department ofChemistry. . Retrieved 20 September 2011.

[4] "CIA- The world fact book" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ xx. html#Geo). Central IntelligenceAgency. . Retrieved 2008-12-20.

[5] "United Nations" (http:/ / www. un. org/ waterforlifedecade/ background. html). Un.org. 2005-03-22. . Retrieved 2010-07-25.[6] Gleick, P.H., ed (1993). "Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources". Oxford University Press. p. 13, Table 2.1 "Water

reserves on the earth".[7] Water Vapor in the Climate System (http:/ / www. agu. org/ sci_soc/ mockler. html), Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007).

Vital Water (http:/ / www. unep. org/ dewa/ assessments/ ecosystems/ water/ vitalwater/ ) UNEP.[8] Gleick, P.H., ed (1993). "Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources". Oxford University Press. p. 13, Table 2.1.[9] "MDG Report 2008" (http:/ / mdgs. un. org/ unsd/ mdg/ Resources/ Static/ Products/ Progress2008/ MDG_Report_2008_En. pdf#page=44). .

Retrieved 2010-07-25.

Water 19

[10] "Public Services" (http:/ / www. gapminder. org/ videos/ gapcasts/ gapcast-9-public-services/ ), Gapminder video[11] Kulshreshtha, S.N (1998). "A Global Outlook for Water Resources to the Year 2025". Water Resources Management 12 (3): 167–184.

doi:10.1023/A:1007957229865.[12] "Charting Our Water Future: Economic frameworks to inform decision-making" (http:/ / www. mckinsey. com/ App_Media/ Reports/

Water/ Charting_Our_Water_Future_Full_Report_001. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-07-25.[13] Baroni, L.; Cenci, L.; Tettamanti, M.; Berati, M. (2007). "Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with

different food production systems". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 61 (2): 279–286. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522. PMID 17035955.[14] Weird water lurking inside giant planets (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg20727764.

500-weird-water-lurking-inside-giant-planets. html), New Scientist,01 September 2010, Magazine issue 2776.[15] Braun, Charles L.; Sergei N. Smirnov (1993). "Why is water blue?" (http:/ / www. dartmouth. edu/ ~etrnsfer/ water. htm). J. Chem. Educ. 70

(8): 612. doi:10.1021/ed070p612. .[16] Campbell, Neil A.; Brad Williamson; Robin J. Heyden (2006). Biology: Exploring Life (http:/ / www. phschool. com/ el_marketing. html).

Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-250882-6. .[17] http:/ / science. jrank. org/ pages/ 1182/ Capillary-Action. html[18] Kotz, J. C., Treichel, P., & Weaver, G. C. (2005). Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity. Thomson Brooks/Cole. ISBN 053439597X.[19] Online Conversion - Density (http:/ / www. kidsnewsroom. org/ elmer/ infocentral/ conversions/ density. htm),

Kidsnewsroom.org/elmer/infocentral/conversions[20] Ball, Philip (14 September 2007). "Burning water and other myths" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ news/ 2007/ 070910/ full/ 070910-13. html).

Nature News. . Retrieved 2007-09-14.[21] Gary Melnick, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and David Neufeld, Johns Hopkins University quoted in: "Discover of Water

Vapor Near Orion Nebula Suggests Possible Origin of H20 in Solar System (sic)" (http:/ / www. news. harvard. edu/ gazette/ 1998/ 04. 23/DiscoverofWater. html). The Harvard University Gazette. April 23, 1998. . "Space Cloud Holds Enough Water to Fill Earth's Oceans 1Million Times" (http:/ / www. jhu. edu/ news_info/ news/ home98/ apr98/ clouds. html). Headlines@Hopkins, JHU. April 9, 1998. . "Water,Water Everywhere: Radio telescope finds water is common in universe" (http:/ / news. harvard. edu/ gazette/ 1999/ 02. 25/ telescope. html).The Harvard University Gazette. February 25, 1999. .(linked 4/2007)

[22] Clavin, Whitney; Buis, Alan (22 July 2011). "Astronomers Find Largest, Most Distant Reservoir of Water" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ topics/universe/ features/ universe20110722. html). NASA. . Retrieved 07-25-2011.

[23] Staff (22 July 2011). "Astronomers Find Largest, Oldest Mass of Water in Universe" (http:/ / www. space. com/12400-universe-biggest-oldest-cloud-water. html). Space.com. . Retrieved 07-23-2011.

[24] "MESSENGER Scientists 'Astonished' to Find Water in Mercury's Thin Atmosphere" (http:/ / www. planetary. org/ news/ 2008/0703_MESSENGER_Scientists_Astonished_to. html). Planetary Society. 2008-07-03. . Retrieved 2008-07-05.

[25] Water Found on Distant Planet (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ health/ article/ 0,8599,1642811,00. html) July 12, 2007 By Laura Blue, Time[26] Water Found in Extrasolar Planet's Atmosphere (http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ 070410_water_exoplanet. html) – Space.com[27] Sparrow, Giles (2006). The Solar System. Thunder Bay Press. ISBN 1592235794.[28] Versteckt in Glasperlen: Auf dem Mond gibt es Wasser – Wissenschaft – [[Der Spiegel (http:/ / www. spiegel. de/ wissenschaft/ weltall/

0,1518,564911,00. html)] – Nachrichten][29] Water Molecules Found on the Moon (http:/ / science. nasa. gov/ headlines/ y2009/ 24sep_moonwater. htm), NASA, September 24, 2009[30] Ehlers, E.; Krafft, T, ed (2001). "J. C. I. Dooge. "Integrated Management of Water Resources"". Understanding the Earth System:

compartments, processes, and interactions. Springer. p. 116.[31] "Habitable Zone" (http:/ / www. daviddarling. info/ encyclopedia/ H/ habzone. html). The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy and

Spaceflight. .[32] Shiga, David (6 May 2007). "Strange alien world made of "hot ice"" (http:/ / space. newscientist. com/ article/

dn11864-strange-alien-world-made-of-hot-ice-and-steam. html). New Scientist. . Retrieved 2010-03-28.[33] David A. Aguilar (16 December 2009). "Astronomers Find Super-Earth Using Amateur, Off-the-Shelf Technology" (http:/ / www. cfa.

harvard. edu/ news/ 2009/ pr200924. html). Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. . Retrieved 2010-03-28.[34] Gleick, P.H., ed (1993). "Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources". Oxford University Press. p. 13.[35] Gleick, P.H., ed (1993). "Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources". Oxford University Press. p. 15, Table 2.3.[36] "G8 "Action plan" decided upon at the 2003 Evian summit" (http:/ / www. g8. fr/ evian/ english/ navigation/ 2003_g8_summit/

summit_documents/ water_-_a_g8_action_plan. html). G8.fr. 2003-06-02. . Retrieved 2010-07-25.[37] "World Health Organization. Safe Water and Global Health" (http:/ / www. who. int/ features/ qa/ 70/ en/ ). Who.int. 2008-06-25. .

Retrieved 2010-07-25.[38] UNEP International Environment (2002). Environmentally Sound Technology for Wastewater and Stormwater Management: An

International Source Book. IWA Publishing. ISBN 1843390086. OCLC 49204666.[39] Ravindranath, Nijavalli H.; Jayant A. Sathaye (2002). Climate Change and Developing Countries. Springer. ISBN 1402001045.

OCLC 231965991.[40] "WBCSD Water Facts & Trends" (http:/ / www. wbcsd. org/ includes/ getTarget. asp?type=d& id=MTYyNTA). . Retrieved 2010-07-25.[41] Water Use in the United States (http:/ / nationalatlas. gov/ articles/ water/ a_wateruse. html), National Atlas.gov[42] Gleick, P.H. (2010). "Peak Water" (http:/ / www. pacinst. org/ press_center/ press_releases/ peak_water_pnas. pdf). Proceedings National

Academy of Science (National Academy of Science) 107 (125): 11155-11162. . Retrieved 2011-10-11.

Water 20

[43] United Nations Press Release POP/952, 13 March 2007. World population will increase by 2.5 billion by 2050 (http:/ / www. un. org/ News/Press/ docs/ 2007/ pop952. doc. htm)

[44] Molden, D. (Ed). Water for food, Water for life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. Earthscan/IWMI, 2007.[45] Chartres, C. and Varma, S. Out of water. From Abundance to Scarcity and How to Solve the World’s Water Problems FT Press (USA), 2010[46] Decree relating to the weights and measurements (http:/ / smdsi. quartier-rural. org/ histoire/ 18germ_3. htm)[47] here L'Histoire Du Mètre, La Détermination De L'Unité De Poids (http:/ / histoire. du. metre. free. fr/ fr/ index. htm)[48] Re: What percentage of the human body is composed of water? (http:/ / www. madsci. org/ posts/ archives/ 2000-05/ 958588306. An. r.

html) Jeffrey Utz, M.D., The MadSci Network[49] "Healthy Water Living" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ health/ healthy_living/ nutrition/ drinks_water. shtml). BBC. . Retrieved 2007-02-01.[50] Rhoades RA, Tanner GA (2003). Medical Physiology (2nd ed.). Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0781719364.

OCLC 50554808.[51] Noakes TD, Goodwin N, Rayner BL, et al. (1985). "Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise" (http:/ /

journals. lww. com/ acsm-msse/ Abstract/ 1985/ 06000/ Water_intoxication__a_possible_complication_during. 12. aspx). Med Sci SportsExerc 17 (3): 370–375. PMID 4021781. .

[52] Noakes TD, Goodwin N, Rayner BL, Branken T, Taylor RK (2005). "Water intoxication: a possible complication during enduranceexercise, 1985". Wilderness Environ Med 16 (4): 221–7. PMID 16366205.

[53] "Drink at least eight glasses of water a day." Really? Is there scientific evidence for "8 × 8"? (http:/ / ajpregu. physiology. org/ cgi/ content/full/ 283/ 5/ R993) by Heinz Valdin, Department of Physiology, Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, New Hampshire

[54] Drinking Water – How Much? (http:/ / www. factsmart. org/ h2o/ h2o. htm), Factsmart.org web site and references within[55] Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences. Recommended Dietary Allowances.. National Research Council, Reprint and

Circular Series, No. 122. 1945. pp. 3–18.[56] Dietary Reference Intakes: Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate (http:/ / www. iom. edu/ report. asp?id=18495), Food and

Nutrition Board[57] "Water: How much should you drink every day?" (http:/ / www. mayoclinic. com/ health/ water/ NU00283). Mayoclinic.com. . Retrieved

2010-07-25.[58] "Conquering Chemistry" 4th Ed. Published 2008[59] Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna Quon Warner, David LaHart, Jill D. Wright (1993).

Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1. OCLC 32308337.[60] Unesco (2006). Water: a shared responsibility (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=1cV8tziHZ5sC& pg=PA125). Berghahn Books. p. 125.

ISBN 1845451775. .[61] Vaclavik, Vickie A. and Christian, Elizabeth W (2007). Essentials of Food Science (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=iCCsvwZrguUC&

printsec=frontcover). Springer. ISBN 0387699392. .[62] DeMan, John M (1999). Principles of Food Chemistry (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=kDYJ7a1HbD0C& pg=PA434). Springer.

ISBN 083421234X. .[63] The Millennium Development Goals Report (http:/ / mdgs. un. org/ unsd/ mdg/ Resources/ Static/ Products/ Progress2008/

MDG_Report_2008_En. pdf#page=44), United Nations, 2008[64] Lomborg, Björn (2001). The Skeptical Environmentalist (http:/ / www. lomborg. com/ dyn/ files/ basic_items/ 69-file/ skeptenvironChap1.

pdf). Cambridge University Press. p. 22. ISBN 0521010683. .[65] UNESCO, (2006), Water, a shared responsibility. The United Nations World Water Development Report 2 (http:/ / unesdoc. unesco. org/

images/ 0014/ 001444/ 144409E. pdf).[66] Katharina Welle, Barbara Evans, Josephine Tucker and Alan Nicol (2008) Is water lagging behind on Aid Effectiveness? (http:/ / www. odi.

org. uk/ resources/ download/ 1894. pdf)[67] http:/ / www. awra. org/[68] "Internet Sacred Text Archive Home" (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ tao/ taote. htm). Sacred-texts.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-25.[69] Arthur Conan Doyle, A Study in Scarlet, Chapter 2, "The Science of Deduction"

Further reading• Jones, OA., JN Lester and N Voulvoulis, Pharmaceuticals: a threat to drinking water? TRENDS in Biotechnology

23(4): 163, 2005• Franks, F (Ed), Water, A comprehensive treatise, Plenum Press, New York, 1972–1982• Gleick,PH., (editor), Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources. Oxford University Press,

New York, 1993 Water in Crisis (http:/ / www. oup. com/ us/ catalog/ general/ subject/ EarthSciences/Oceanography/ ?view=usa& ci=9780195076288)

• Gleick,PH., (editor), The World's Water: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources. Island Press,Washington, D.C. (published every two years, beginning in 1998.) The World's Water, Island Press (http:/ / www.worldwater. org)

Water 21

• Postel,S., Last Oasis: Facing Water Scarcity. W.W. Norton and Company, New York. 1992• Reisner,M., Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water. Penguin Books, New York. 1986.• Debenedetti,PG., and HE Stanley, "Supercooled and Glassy Water", Physics Today 56 (6), p. 40–46 (2003).

Downloadable PDF (1.9 MB) (http:/ / polymer. bu. edu/ hes/ articles/ ds03. pdf)• Journal of Contemporary Water Resources and Education (http:/ / ucowr. org/ updates/ index. html)• United Nations World Water Development Report. Produced every three years. UN World Water Development

Report (http:/ / www. unesco. org/ water/ wwap/ wwdr/ )

External links• OECD Water statistics (http:/ / stats. oecd. org/ wbos/ Index. aspx?DataSetCode=ENV_WAT)• The World's Water Data Page (http:/ / www. worldwater. org)• FAO Comprehensive Water Database, AQUASTAT (http:/ / www. fao. org/ nr/ water/ aquastat/ main/ index. stm)• The Water Conflict Chronology: Water Conflict Database (http:/ / worldwater. org/ conflict. html)• US Geological Survey Water for Schools information (http:/ / ga. water. usgs. gov/ edu/ )• Portal to The World Bank's strategy, work and associated publications on water resources (http:/ / water.

worldbank. org/ water/ )

22

Biodiversity

Biodiversity

Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef

Rainforests are an example of biodiversity on theplanet, and typically possess a great deal of

species diversity. This is the Gambia River inSenegal's Niokolo-Koba National Park.

Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a givenecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure of thehealth of ecosystems. Biodiversity is in part a function of climate. Interrestrial habitats, tropical regions are typically rich whereas polarregions support fewer species.

Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions. Oneestimate is that less than 1% of the species that have existed on Earthare extant.[1]

Since life began on Earth, five major mass extinctions and severalminor events have led to large and sudden drops in biodiversity. ThePhanerozoic eon (the last 540 million years) marked a rapid growth inbiodiversity via the Cambrian explosion—a period during which nearlyevery phylum of multicellular organisms first appeared. The next400 million years included repeated, massive biodiversity lossesclassified as mass extinction events. In the Carboniferous, rainforestcollapse led to a great loss of plant and animal life.[2] ThePermian–Triassic extinction event, 251 million years ago, was theworst; vertebrate recovery took 30 million years.[3] The most recent,the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event, occurred 65 million yearsago, and has often attracted more attention than others because itresulted in the extinction of the dinosaurs.[4]

The period since the emergence of humans has displayed an ongoingbiodiversity reduction and an accompanying loss of genetic diversity.Named the Holocene extinction, the reduction is caused primarily byhuman impacts, particularly habitat destruction. Conversely,biodiversity impacts human health in a number of ways, bothpositively and negatively.[5]

The United Nations designated 2011-2020 as the United NationsDecade on Biodiversity.

Etymology

The term biological diversity was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond F. Dasmann in the1968 lay book A Different Kind of Country[6] advocating conservation. The term was widely adopted only after morethan a decade, when in the 1980s it came into common usage in science and environmental policy. Thomas Lovejoy,in the foreword to the book Conservation Biology,[7] introduced the term to the scientific community. Until then theterm "natural diversity" was common, introduced by The Science Division of The Nature Conservancy in an

Biodiversity 23

important 1975 study, "The Preservation of Natural Diversity." By the early 1980s TNC's Science program and itshead, Robert E. Jenkins,[8] Lovejoy and other leading conservation scientists at the time in America advocated theuse of "biological diversity".The term's contracted form biodiversity may have been coined by W.G. Rosen in 1985 while planning the 1986National Forum on Biological Diversity organized by the National Research Council (NRC). It first appeared in apublication in 1988 when entomologist E. O. Wilson used it as the title of the proceedings[9] of that forum.[10]

Since this period the term has achieved widespread use among biologists, environmentalists, political leaders, andconcerned citizens.A similar term in the United States is "natural heritage." It predates the others and is more accepted by the wideraudience interested in conservation. Broader than biodiversity, it includes geology and landforms (geodiversity).

Definitions

A sampling of fungi collected during summer2008 in Northern Saskatchewan mixed woods,

near LaRonge is an example regarding the speciesdiversity of fungi. In this photo, there are also

leaf lichens and mosses.

"Biological diversity" or "biodiversity" can have many interpretations.It is most commonly used to replace the more clearly defined and longestablished terms, species diversity and species richness. Biologistsmost often define biodiversity as the "totality of genes, species, andecosystems of a region".[11] [12] An advantage of this definition is thatit seems to describe most circumstances and presents a unified view ofthe traditional three levels at which biological variety has beenidentified:

• species diversity• ecosystem diversity• genetic diversityIn 2003 Professor Anthony Campbell at Cardiff University, UK andthe Darwin Centre, Pembrokeshire, defined a fourth level: MolecularDiversity.[13]

This multilevel construct is consistent with Dasmann and Lovejoy. Anexplicit definition consistent with this interpretation was first given in apaper by Bruce A. Wilcox commissioned by the International Unionfor the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) for the1982 World National Parks Conference.[14] Wilcox's definition was"Biological diversity is the variety of life forms...at all levels of biological systems (i.e., molecular, organismic,population, species and ecosystem)...". The 1992 United Nations Earth Summit defined "biological diversity" as "thevariability among living organisms from all sources, including, 'inter alia', terrestrial, marine, and other aquaticecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, betweenspecies and of ecosystems".[15] This definition is used in the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity.[15]

One textbook's definition is "variation of life at all levels of biological organization".[16]

Geneticists define it as the diversity of genes and organisms. They study processes such as mutations, gene transfer,and genome dynamics that generate evolution.[14]

Measuring diversity at one level in a group of organisms may not precisely correspond to diversity at other levels.However, tetrapod (terrestrial vertebrates) taxonomic and ecological diversity shows a very close correlation.[17]

Biodiversity 24

Distribution

A conifer forest in the Swiss Alps (NationalPark).

Biodiversity is not evenly distributed, rather it varies greatly across theglobe as well as within regions. Among other factors, the diversity ofall living things (biota) depends on temperature, precipitation, altitude,soils, geography and the presence of other species. The study of thespatial distribution of organisms, species, and ecosystems, is thescience of biogeography.

Diversity consistently measures higher in the tropics and in otherlocalized regions such as Cape Floristic Province and lower in polarregions generally. In 2006 many species were formally classified asrare or endangered or threatened; moreover, scientists have estimatedthat millions more species are at risk which have not been formallyrecognized. About 40 percent of the 40,177 species assessed using the IUCN Red List criteria are now listed asthreatened with extinction—a total of 16,119.[18]

Generally terrestrial biodiversity is up to 25 times greater than ocean biodiversity.[19]

Latitudinal gradientsGenerally, there is an increase in biodiversity from the poles to the tropics. Thus localities at lower latitudes havemore species than localities at higher latitudes. This is often referred to as the latitudinal gradient in species diversity.Several ecological mechanisms may contribute to the gradient, but the ultimate factor behind many of them is thegreater mean temperature at the equator compared to that of the poles.[20] [21]

Even though terrestrial biodiversity declines from the equator to the poles,[22] some studies claim that thischaracteristic is unverified in aquatic ecosystems, especially in marine ecosystems.[23] The latitudinal distribution ofparasites does not follow this rule.[24] Other instances of great diversity in higher latitudes have also been recorded.

HotspotsA biodiversity hotspot is a region with a high level of endemic species. Hotspots were first named in 1988 by Dr.Sabina Virk.[25] [26] Many hotspots have large nearby human populations.[27] While hotspots are spread all over theworld, the majority are forest areas and most are located in the tropics.[28]

Brazil's Atlantic Forest is considered one such hotspot, containing roughly 20,000 plant species, 1,350 vertebrates,and millions of insects, about half of which occur nowhere else. The island of Madagascar, particularly the uniqueMadagascar dry deciduous forests and lowland rainforests, possess a high ratio of endemism. Since the islandseparated from mainland Africa 65 million years ago, many species and ecosystems have evolved independently.Indonesia's 17,000 islands cover unknown operator: u',' square miles (unknown operator: u'strong'unknownoperator: u','km2) contain 10% of the world's flowering plants, 12% of mammals and 17% of reptiles, amphibiansand birds—along with nearly 240 million people.[29] Many regions of high biodiversity and/or endemism arise fromspecialized habitats which require unusual adaptations, for example alpine environments in high mountains, orNorthern European peat bogs.Accurately measuring differences in biodiversity can be difficult. Selection bias amongst researchers may contributeto biased empirical research for modern estimates of biodiversity. In 1768 Rev. Gilbert White succinctly observed ofhis Selborne, Hampshire "all nature is so full, that that district produces the most variety which is the mostexamined."[30]

Biodiversity 25

Evolution

Apparent marine fossil diversity during the Phanerozoic[31]

Biodiversity is the result of 3.5 billion yearsof evolution. The origin of life has not beendefinitely established by science, howeversome evidence suggests that life mayalready have been well-established only afew hundred million years after theformation of the Earth. Until approximately600 million years ago, all life consisted ofarchaea, bacteria, protozoans and similarsingle-celled organisms.

The history of biodiversity during thePhanerozoic (the last 540 million years),starts with rapid growth during theCambrian explosion—a period during which nearly every phylum of multicellular organisms first appeared. Over thenext 400 million years or so, invertebrate diversity showed little overall trend, and vertebrate diversity shows anoverall exponential trend.[17] This dramatic rise in diversity was marked by periodic, massive losses of diversityclassified as mass extinction events.[17] A significant loss occurred when rainforests collapsed in thecarboniferous.[2] The worst was the Permo-Triassic extinction, 251 million years ago. Vertebrates took 30 millionyears to recover from this event.[3]

The fossil record suggests that the last few million years featured the greatest biodiversity in history.[17] However,not all scientists support this view, since there is uncertainty as to how strongly the fossil record is biased by thegreater availability and preservation of recent geologic sections. Some scientists believe that corrected for samplingartifacts, modern biodiversity may not be much different from biodiversity 300 million years ago.,[32] whereas othersconsider the fossil record reasonably reflective of the diversification of life.[17] Estimates of the present globalmacroscopic species diversity vary from 2 million to 100 million, with a best estimate of somewhere near 13–14million, the vast majority arthropods.[33] Diversity appears to increase continually in the absence of naturalselection.[34]

Evolutionary diversificationThe existence of a "global carrying capacity", limiting the amount of life that can live at once, is debated, as is thequestion of whether such a limit would also cap the number of species. While records of life in the sea shows alogistic pattern of growth, life on land (insects, plants and tetrapods)shows an exponential rise in diversity. As oneauthor states, "Tetrapods have not yet invaded 64 per cent of potentially habitable modes, and it could be thatwithout human influence the ecological and taxonomic diversity of tetrapods would continue to increase in anexponential fashion until most or all of the available ecospace is filled."[17]

On the other hand, changes through the Phanerozoic correlate much better with the hyperbolic model (widely used inpopulation biology, demography and macrosociology, as well as fossil biodiversity) than with exponential andlogistic models. The latter models imply that changes in diversity are guided by a first-order positive feedback (moreancestors, more descendants) and/or a negative feedback arising from resource limitation. Hyperbolic model impliesa second-order positive feedback. The hyperbolic pattern of the world population growth arises from a second-orderpositive feedback between the population size and the rate of technological growth.[35] The hyperbolic character ofbiodiversity growth can be similarly accounted for by a feedback between diversity and community structurecomplexity. The similarity between the curves of biodiversity and human population probably comes from the factthat both are derived from the interference of the hyperbolic trend with cyclical and stochastic dynamics.[35] [36]

Biodiversity 26

Most biologists agree however that the period since human emergence is part of a new mass extinction, named theHolocene extinction event, caused primarily by the impact humans are having on the environment.[37] It has beenargued that the present rate of extinction is sufficient to eliminate most species on the planet Earth within 100years.[38]

New species are regularly discovered (on average between 5–10,000 new species each year, most of them insects)and many, though discovered, are not yet classified (estimates are that nearly 90% of all arthropods are not yetclassified).[33] Most of the terrestrial diversity is found in tropical forests.

Human benefits

Summer field in Belgium (Hamois).The blue flowers are Centaureacyanus and the red are Papaver

rhoeas.

Biodiversity supports ecosystem services including air quality,[39] climate (e.g.,CO2 sequestration), water purification, pollination, and prevention of erosion.[39]

Since the stone age, species loss has accelerated above the prior rate, driven byhuman activity. Estimates of species loss are at a rate 100-10,000 times as fast asis typical in the fossil record.[40]

Non-material benefits include spiritual and aesthetic values, knowledge systemsand the value of education.[40]

Agriculture

Amazon Rainforest in Brazil

Crop diversity aids recovery when the dominant cultivar is attacked bya disease or predator:

• The Irish potato blight of 1846 was a major factor in the deaths ofone million people and the emigration of another million. It was theresult of planting only two potato varieties, both vulnerable to theblight.

• When rice grassy stunt virus struck rice fields from Indonesia toIndia in the 1970s, 6,273 varieties were tested for resistance.[41] Only one was resistant, an Indian variety, andknown to science only since 1966.[41] This variety formed a hybrid with other varieties and is now widelygrown.[41]

• Coffee rust attacked coffee plantations in Sri Lanka, Brazil, and Central America in 1970. A resistant variety wasfound in Ethiopia.[42] Although the diseases are themselves a form of biodiversity.

Monoculture was a contributing factor to several agricultural disasters, including the European wine industrycollapse in the late 19th century, and the US Southern Corn Leaf Blight epidemic of 1970.[43]

Although about 80 percent of humans' food supply comes from just 20 kinds of plants, humans use at least 40,000 species. Many people depend on these species for food, shelter, and clothing. Earth's surviving biodiversity provides

Biodiversity 27

resources for increasing the range of food and other products suitable for human use, although the present extinctionrate shrinks that potential.[38]

Human health

The diverse forest canopy on BarroColorado Island, Panama, yielded

this display of different fruit

Biodiversity's relevance to human health is becoming an international politicalissue, as scientific evidence builds on the global health implications ofbiodiversity loss.[44] [45] [46] This issue is closely linked with the issue of climatechange,[47] as many of the anticipated health risks of climate change areassociated with changes in biodiversity (e.g. changes in populations anddistribution of disease vectors, scarcity of fresh water, impacts on agriculturalbiodiversity and food resources etc.) This is because the species most likely todisappear are those that buffer against infectious disease transmission, whilesurviving species tend to be the ones that increase disease transmission, such asthat of West Nile Virus, Lyme disease and Hantavirus, according to a study doneco-authored by Felicia Keesing, and ecologist at Bard College, and DrewHarvell, associate director for Environment of the Atkinson Center for aSustainable Future (ACSF) at Cornell University.[48]

Some of the health issues influenced by biodiversity include dietary health andnutrition security, infectious disease, medical science and medicinal resources,social and psychological health.[49] Biodiversity is also known to have animportant role in reducing disaster risk, and in post-disaster relief and recovery efforts.[50] [51]

Biodiversity provides critical support for drug discovery and the availability of medicinal resources.[52] A significantproportion of drugs are derived, directly or indirectly, from biological sources: at least 50% of the pharmaceuticalcompounds on the US market are derived from plants, animals, and micro-organisms, while about 80% of the worldpopulation depends on medicines from nature (used in either modern or traditional medical practice) for primaryhealthcare.[45] Only a tiny fraction of wild species has been investigated for medical potential. Biodiversity has beencritical to advances throughout the field of bionics. Evidence from market analysis and biodiversity science indicatesthat the decline in output from the pharmaceutical sector since the mid-1980s can be attributed to a move away fromnatural product exploration ("bioprospecting") in favor of genomics and synthetic chemistry; meanwhile, naturalproducts have a long history of supporting significant economic and health innovation.[53] [54] Marine ecosystems areparticularly important,[55] although inappropriate bioprospecting can increase biodiversity loss, as well as violatingthe laws of the communities and states from which the resources are taken.[56] [57] [58]

Business and industry

Agriculture production, pictured is a tractor and achaser bin

Many industrial materials derive directly from biological sources.These include building materials, fibers, dyes, rubber and oil.Biodiversity is also important to the security of resources such aswater, timber, paper, fiber, and food.[59] [60] [61] As a result,biodiversity loss is a significant risk factor in business developmentand a threat to long term economic sustainability.[62]

Biodiversity 28

Leisure, cultural and aesthetic valueBiodiversity enriches leisure activities such as hiking, birdwatching or natural history study. Biodiversity inspiresmusicians, painters, sculptors, writers and other artists. Many cultures view themselves as an integral part of thenatural world which requires them to respect other living organisms.Popular activities such as gardening, fishkeeping and specimen collecting strongly depend on biodiversity. Thenumber of species involved in such pursuits is in the tens of thousands, though the majority do not enter commerce.The relationships between the original natural areas of these often exotic animals and plants and commercialcollectors, suppliers, breeders, propagators and those who promote their understanding and enjoyment are complexand poorly understood. The general public responds well to exposure to rare and unusual organisms, reflecting theirinherent value.Philosophically it could be argued that biodiversity has intrinsic aesthetic and spiritual value to mankind in and ofitself. This idea can be used as a counterweight to the notion that tropical forests and other ecological realms are onlyworthy of conservation because of the services they provide.

Ecological services

Eagle Creek, Oregon hiking

Biodiversity supports many ecosystem services that are often not readily visible.It plays a part in regulating the chemistry of our atmosphere and water supply.Biodiversity is directly involved in water purification, recycling nutrients andproviding fertile soils. Experiments with controlled environments have shownthat humans cannot easily build ecosystems to support human needs; for exampleinsect pollination cannot be mimicked, and that activity alone represents tens ofbillions of dollars in ecosystem services per year to humankind.

Daisyworld simulations, supported by evidence from scientific studies, hasproven the positive co-relation of biodiversity with ecosystem stability,protecting against disruption by extreme weather or human exploitation.[63]

Biodiversity 29

Number of species

Undiscovered and discovered species

According to the Global Taxonomy Initiative[64] and the European Distributed Institute of Taxonomy, the totalnumber of species for some phyla may be much higher than what was known in 2010:• 10–30 million insects;[65] (of some 0.9 million we know today)[66]

• 5–10 million bacteria;[67]

• 1.5 million fungi;(of some 0.075 million we know today)[68]

• 1 million mites[69]

• The number of microbial species is not reliably known, but the Global Ocean Sampling Expedition dramaticallyincreased the estimates of genetic diversity by identifying an enormous number of new genes from near-surfaceplankton samples at various marine locations, initially over the 2004-2006 period.[70] The findings may eventuallycause a significant change in the way science defines species and other taxonomic categories.[71] [72]

Since the rate of extinction has increased, many extant species may become extinct before they are described.[73]

Biodiversity 30

Species loss rates"No longer do we have to justify the existence of humid tropical forests on the feeble grounds that they might carry plants with withdrugs that cure human disease. Gaia theory forces us to see that they offer much more than this. Through their capacity toevapotranspirate vast volumes of water vapor, they serve to keep the planet cool by wearing a sunshade of white reflecting cloud.Their replacement by cropland could precipitate a disaster that is global in scale"

James Lovelock, in Biodiversity (E. O. Wilson (Ed)).[74]

During the last century, decreases in biodiversity have been increasingly observed. In 2007, German FederalEnvironment Minister Sigmar Gabriel cited estimates that up to 30% of all species will be extinct by 2050.[75] Ofthese, about one eighth of known plant species are threatened with extinction.[76] Estimates reach as high as 140,000species per year (based on Species-area theory).[77] This figure indicates unsustainable ecological practices, becausefew species emerge each year. Almost all scientists acknowledge that the rate of species loss is greater now than atany time in human history, with extinctions occurring at rates hundreds of times higher than background extinctionrates.[76]

ThreatsJared Diamond describes an "Evil Quartet" of habitat destruction, overkill, introduced species, and secondaryextinctions.[78] Edward O. Wilson prefers the acronym HIPPO, standing for habitat destruction, invasive species,pollution, human over population, and over-harvesting.[79] [80] The most authoritative classification in use today isIUCN’s Classification of Direct Threats[81] which has been adopted by major international conservationorganizations such as the US Nature Conservancy, the World Wildlife Fund, Conservation International, and BirdlifeInternational.

Habitat destruction

Deforestation and increased road-building in theAmazon Rainforest are a significant concern

because of increased human encroachment uponwild areas, increased resource extraction and

further threats to biodiversity.

Habitat destruction has played a key role in extinctions, especiallyrelated to tropical forest destruction.[82] Factors contributing to habitatloss are: overpopulation, deforestation,[83] pollution (air pollution,water pollution, soil contamination) and global warming or climatechange.

Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related.Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or inforests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area.[84]

Conversion to "trivial" standardized ecosystems (e.g., monoculturefollowing deforestation) effectively destroys habitat for the morediverse species that preceded the conversion. In some countries lack ofproperty rights or lax law/regulatory enforcement necessarily leads tobiodiversity loss (degradation costs having to be supported by thecommunity).

A 2007 study conducted by the National Science Foundation found that biodiversity and genetic diversity arecodependent—that diversity among species requires diversity within a species, and vice versa. "If any one type isremoved from the system, the cycle can break down, and the community becomes dominated by a single species."[85]

At present, the most threatened ecosystems are found in fresh water, according to the Millennium EcosystemAssessment 2005, which was confirmed by the "Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment", organised by thebiodiversity platform, and the French Institut de recherche pour le développement (MNHNP).[86]

Biodiversity 31

Co-extinctions are a form of habitat destruction. Co-extinction occurs when the extinction or decline in oneaccompanies the other, such as in plants and beetles.[87]

Introduced and invasive species

Male Lophura nycthemera (Silver Pheasant), anative of East Asia that has been introduced into

parts of Europe for ornamental reasons

Barriers such as large rivers, seas, oceans, mountains and desertsencourage diversity by enabling independent evolution on either sideof the barrier. Invasive species occur when those barriers are blurred.Without barriers such species occupy new niches, substantiallyreducing diversity. Repeatedly humans have helped these speciescircumvent these barriers, introducing them for food and otherpurposes. This has occurred on a time scale much shorter than the eonsthat historically have been required for a species to extend its range.

Not all introduced species are invasive, nor all invasive speciesdeliberately introduced. In cases such as the zebra mussel, invasion ofUS waterways was unintentional. In other cases, such as mongooses inHawaii, the introduction is deliberate but ineffective (nocturnal ratswere not vulnerable to the diurnal mongoose). In other cases, such as oil palms in Indonesia and Malaysia, theintroduction produces substantial economic benefits, but the benefits are accompanied by costly unintendedconsequences.

Finally, an introduced species may unintentionally injure a species that depends on the species it replaces. InBelgium, Prunus spinosa from Eastern Europe leafs much sooner than its West European counterparts, disrupting thefeeding habits of the Thecla betulae butterfly (which feeds on the leaves). Introducing new species often leavesendemic and other local species unable to compete with the exotic species and unable to survive. The exoticorganisms may be predators, parasites, or may simply outcompete indigenous species for nutrients, water and light.At present, several countries have already imported so many exotic species, particularly agricultural and ornamentalplants, that their own indigenous fauna/flora may be outnumbered.

Genetic pollution

Endemic species can be threatened with extinction[88] through the process of genetic pollution, i.e. uncontrolledhybridization, introgression and genetic swamping. Genetic pollution leads to homogenization or replacement oflocal genomes as a result of either a numerical and/or fitness advantage of an introduced species.[89] Hybridizationand introgression are side-effects of introduction and invasion. These phenomena can be especially detrimental torare species that come into contact with more abundant ones. The abundant species can interbreed with the rarespecies, swamping its gene pool. This problem is not always apparent from morphological (outward appearance)observations alone. Some degree of gene flow is normal adaptation, and not all gene and genotype constellations canbe preserved. However, hybridization with or without introgression may, nevertheless, threaten a rare species'existence.[90] [91]

Biodiversity 32

OverexploitationOverexploitation occurs when a resource is consumed at an unsustainable rate. This occurs on land in the form ofoverhunting, excessive logging, poor soil conservation in agriculture and the illegal wildlife trade. Joe Walston,director of the Wildlife Conservation Society’s Asian programs, called the latter the "single largest threat" tobiodiversity in Asia.[92] The international trade of endangered species is second in size only to drug trafficking.[93]

About 25% of world fisheries are now overfished to the point where their current biomass is less than the level thatmaximizes their sustainable yield.[94]

The overkill hypothesis explains why earlier megafaunal extinctions occurred within a relatively short period oftime. This can be connected with human migration.[95]

Hybridization, genetic pollution/erosion and food security

The Yecoro wheat (right) cultivar is sensitive tosalinity, plants resulting from a hybrid cross withcultivar W4910 (left) show greater tolerance to

high salinity

In agriculture and animal husbandry, the Green Revolution popularizedthe use of conventional hybridization to increase yield. Oftenhybridized breeds originated in developed countries and were furtherhybridized with local varieties in the developing world to create highyield strains resistant to local climate and diseases. Local governmentsand industry have been pushing hybridization. Formerly huge genepools of various wild and indigenous breeds have collapsed causingwidespread genetic erosion and genetic pollution. This has resulted inloss of genetic diversity and biodiversity as a whole.[96]

(GM organisms) have genetic material altered by genetic engineeringprocedures such as recombinant DNA technology. GM crops havebecome a common source for genetic pollution, not only of wildvarieties but also of domesticated varieties derived from classicalhybridization.[97] [98] [99] [100] [101]

Genetic erosion coupled with genetic pollution may be destroying unique genotypes, thereby creating a hidden crisiswhich could result in a severe threat to our food security. Diverse genetic material could cease to exist which wouldimpact our ability to further hybridize food crops and livestock against more resistant diseases and climaticchanges.[96]

Climate Change

Polar bears on the sea ice of the Arctic Ocean,near the North Pole. Climate change has started

affecting bear populations.

Global warming is also considered to be a major threat to globalbiodiversity. For example coral reefs -which are biodiversity hotspots-will be lost in 20 to 40 years if global warming continues at the currenttrend.[102]

In 2004, an international collaborative study on four continentsestimated that 10 percent of species would become extinct by 2050because of global warming. "We need to limit climate change or wewind up with a lot of species in trouble, possibly extinct," said Dr. LeeHannah, a co-author of the paper and chief climate change biologist atthe Center for Applied Biodiversity Science at ConservationInternational.[103]

Biodiversity 33

OverpopulationFrom 1950 to 2005, world population increased from 2.5 billion to 6.5 billion and is forecast to reach a plateau ofmore than 9 billion during the 21st century.[104] Sir David King, former chief scientific adviser to the UKgovernment, told a parliamentary inquiry: "It is self-evident that the massive growth in the human populationthrough the 20th century has had more impact on biodiversity than any other single factor."[105] [106]

The Holocene extinctionRates of decline in biodiversity in this sixth mass extinction match or exceed rates of loss in the five previous massextinction events in the fossil record.[107] [108] [109] [110] [111] Loss of biodiversity results in the loss of natural capitalthat supplies ecosystem goods and services. The economic value of 17 ecosystem services for Earth's biosphere(calculated in 1997) has an estimated value of US$ 33 trillion (3.3x1013) per year.[112]

Conservation

A schematic image illustrating the relationshipbetween biodiversity, ecosystem services, human

well-being, and poverty.[113] The illustrationshows where conservation action, strategies and

plans can influence the drivers of the currentbiodiversity crisis at local, regional, to global

scales.

The retreat of Aletsch Glacier in the Swiss Alps (situation in 1979, 1991 and2002), due to global warming.

Conservation biology matured in themid-20th century as ecologists, naturalists,and other scientists began to research andaddress issues pertaining to globalbiodiversity declines.[114] [115] [116]

The conservation ethic advocatesmanagement of natural resources for thepurpose of sustaining biodiversity inspecies, ecosystems, the evolutionaryprocess, and human culture and society.[107]

[114] [116] [117] [118]

Conservation biology is reforming aroundstrategic plans to protect biodiversity.[114]

[119] [120] Preserving global biodiversity is apriority in strategic conservation plans thatare designed to engage public policy andconcerns affecting local, regional and globalscales of communities, ecosystems, andcultures.[121] Action plans identify ways ofsustaining human well-being, employingnatural capital, market capital, andecosystem services.[122] [123]

Protection and restorationtechniques

Exotic species removal allows lesscompetitive species to recover theirecological niches. Exotic species that havebecome a pest can be identifiedtaxonomically (e.g. with Digital Automated Identification SYstem (DAISY), using the barcode of life.[124] [125]

Removal is practical only given large groups of individuals due to the econimic cost.

Biodiversity 34

Once the preservation of the remaining native species in an area is assured. "missing" species can be identified andreintroduced using databases such as the Encyclopedia of Life and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility.• Biodiversity banking places a monetary value on biodiversity. One example is the Australian Native Vegetation

Management Framework.• Gene banks are collections of specimens and genetic material. Some banks intend to reintroduce banked species

to the ecosystem (e.g. via tree nurseries).[126]

• Reducing and better targeting of pesticides allows more species to survive in agricultural and urbanized areas.• Location-specific approaches are less useful for protecting migratory species. One approach is to create wildlife

corridors that correspond to the animals' movements. National and other boundaries can complicate corridorcreation.

Resource allocationFocusing on limited areas of higher potential biodiversity promises greater immediate return on investment thanspreading resources evenly or focusing on areas of little diversity but greater interest in biodiversity.A second strategy focuses on areas that retain most of their original diversity, which typically require little or norestoration. These are typically non-urbanized, non-agricultural areas. Tropical areas often fit both criteria, giventheir natively high diversity and relative lack of development.[127]

Legal status

A great deal of work is occurring to preserve thenatural characteristics of Hopetoun Falls,

Australia while continuing to allow visitor access.

Biodiversity is taken into account in some political and judicialdecisions:• The relationship between law and ecosystems is very ancient and

has consequences for biodiversity. It is related to private and publicproperty rights. It can define protection for threatened ecosystems,but also some rights and duties (for example, fishing and huntingrights).

• Law regarding species is more recent. It defines species that must beprotected because they may be threatened by extinction. The U.S.Endangered Species Act is an example of an attempt to address the"law and species" issue.

• Laws regarding gene pools are only about a century old. Domestication and plant breeding methods are not new,but advances in genetic engineering has led to tighter laws covering distribution of genetically modifiedorganisms, gene patents and process patents.[128] Governments struggle to decide whether to focus on forexample, genes, genomes, or organisms and species.

Global agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity), give "sovereign national rights over biologicalresources" (not property). The agreements commit countries to "conserve biodiversity", "develop resources forsustainability" and "share the benefits" resulting from their use. Biodiverse countries that allow bioprospecting orcollection of natural products, expect a share of the benefits rather than allowing the individual or institution thatdiscovers/exploits the resource to capture them privately. Bioprospecting can become a type of biopiracy when suchprinciples are not respected.Sovereignty principles can rely upon what is better known as Access and Benefit Sharing Agreements (ABAs). TheConvention on Biodiversity implies informed consent between the source country and the collector, to establishwhich resource will be used and for what, and to settle on a fair agreement on benefit sharing.Uniform approval for use of biodiversity as a legal standard has not been achieved, however. Bosselman argues that biodiversity should not be used as a legal standard, claiming that the remaining areas of scientific uncertainty cause

Biodiversity 35

unacceptable administrative waste and increase litigation without promoting preservation goals.[129]

Analytical limits

Taxonomic and size relationshipsLess than 1% of all species that have been described have been studied beyond simply noting their existence.[130]

The vast majority of Earth's species are microbial. Contemporary biodiversity physics is "firmly fixated on thevisible [macroscopic] world".[131] For example, microbial life is metabolically and environmentally more diversethan multicellular life (see e.g., extremophile). "On the tree of life, based on analyses of small-subunit ribosomalRNA, visible life consists of barely noticeable twigs. The inverse relationship of size and population recurs higher onthe evolutionary ladder—"to a first approximation, all multicellular species on Earth are insects".[132] Insectextinction rates are high—supporting the Holocene extinction hypothesis.[133] [134]

References[1] Raup, D. M. (1994). "The role of extinction in evolution". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91 (15): 6758–6763.

Bibcode 1994PNAS...91.6758R. doi:10.1073/pnas.91.15.6758. PMC 44280. PMID 8041694.[2] Sahney, S., Benton, M.J. & Falcon-Lang, H.J. (2010). "Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica"

(http:/ / geology. geoscienceworld. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 38/ 12/ 1079) (PDF). Geology 38 (12): 1079–1082. doi:10.1130/G31182.1. .[3] Sahney, S. and Benton, M.J. (2008). "Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time" (http:/ / journals. royalsociety. org/

content/ qq5un1810k7605h5/ fulltext. pdf) (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society: Biological 275 (1636): 759–65.doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370. PMC 2596898. PMID 18198148. .

[4] Bambach, R.K.; Knoll, A.H.; Wang, S.C. (December 2004). "Origination, extinction, and mass depletions of marine diversity" (http:/ /findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_qa4067/ is_200410/ ai_n9458414/ ). Paleobiology 30 (4): 522–42.doi:10.1666/0094-8373(2004)030<0522:OEAMDO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0094-8373. . Retrieved 2008-01-24.

[5] Sala, Osvaldo E.; Meyerson, Laura A.; Parmesan, Camille (26 January 2009). Biodiversity change and human health: from ecosystemservices to spread of disease (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=x6WBmO8Muc4C& pg=PA2). Island Press. pp. 3–5.ISBN 9781597264976. . Retrieved 28 June 2011.

[6] Dasmann, R. F. 1968. A Different Kind of Country. MacMillan Company, New York. ISBN 0-02-072810-7.[7] M. E. Soulé and B. A. Wilcox. 1980. Conservation Biology: An Evolutionary-Ecological Perspective. Sinauer Associates. Sunderland,

Massachusetts.[8] "Robert E. Jenkins" (http:/ / www. nature. org/ aboutus/ index. htm). Nature.org. 2011-08-18. . Retrieved 2011-09-24.[9] Edward O.Wilson, editor, Frances M.Peter, associate editor, Biodiversity, National Academy Press, March 1988 ISBN 0-309-03783-2 ; ISBN

0-309-03739-5 (pbk.), online edition (http:/ / darwin. nap. edu/ books/ 0309037395/ html/ R2. html)[10] Global Biodiversity Assessment. UNEP, 1995, Annex 6, Glossary. ISBN 0-521-56481-6, used as source by "Biodiversity", Glossary of

terms related to the CBD (http:/ / www. biodiv. be/ glossary_keywords/ B), Belgian Clearing-House Mechanism. Retrieved 2006-04-26.[11] Tor-Björn Larsson (2001). Biodiversity evaluation tools for European forests (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zeTU8QauENcC&

pg=PA178). Wiley-Blackwell. p. 178. ISBN 9788716164346. . Retrieved 28 June 2011.[12] Davis. Intro To Env Engg (Sie), 4E (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=n0FvYeoHtAIC& pg=SA4-PA40). McGraw-Hill Education

(India) Pvt Ltd. pp. 4–. ISBN 9780070671171. . Retrieved 28 June 2011.[13] Campbell, AK (2003). "Save those molecules: molecular biodiversity and life". Journal of Applied Ecology 40 (2): 193–203.

doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2003.00803.x.[14] Wilcox, Bruce A. 1984. In situ conservation of genetic resources: determinants of minimum area requirements. In National Parks,

Conservation and Development, Proceedings of the World Congress on National Parks,, J.A. McNeely and K.R. Miller, SmithsonianInstitution Press, pp. 18-30.

[15] D. L. Hawksworth (1996). Biodiversity: measurement and estimation (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=E0F7zhnx1cgC& pg=PA6).Springer. p. 6. ISBN 9780412752209. . Retrieved 28 June 2011.

[16] Kevin J. Gaston & John I. Spicer. 2004. "Biodiversity: an introduction", Blackwell Publishing. 2nd Ed., ISBN 1-4051-1857-1(pbk.)[17] Sahney, S.; Benton, M.J.; Ferry, Paul (2010). "Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of

vertebrates on land" (http:/ / rsbl. royalsocietypublishing. org/ content/ early/ 2010/ 01/ 22/ rsbl. 2009. 1024. abstract). Biology Letters (TheRoyal Society) 6 (4): 544–7. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024. PMC 2936204. PMID 20106856. .

[18] "Endangered Species List Expands to 16,000" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2006/ 05/ 0502_060502_endangered. html). .Retrieved 2007-11-13.

[19] Benton M. J. (2001). "Biodiversity on land and in the sea". Geological Journal 36 (3–4): 211–230. doi:10.1002/gj.877.[20] Currie, D. J., G. G. Mittelbach, H. V. Cornell, D. M. Kaufman, J. T. Kerr, T. Oberdorff, J.-F. Gu‚gan. 2004. A critical review of

species-energy theory. Ecology Letters 7:1121-1134.

Biodiversity 36

[21] Allen A. P., Gillooly J. F., Savage V. M., Brown J. H. (2006). "Kinetic effects of temperature on rates of genetic divergence and speciation".PNAS 103 (24): 9130–9135. Bibcode 2006PNAS..103.9130A. doi:10.1073/pnas.0603587103. PMC 1474011. PMID 16754845.

[22] Hillebrand H (2004). "On the generality of the latitudinal diversity gradient". The American Naturalist 163 (2): 192–211.doi:10.1086/381004. PMID 14970922.

[23] "Moustakas, A. & I. Karakassis. How diverse is aquatic biodiversity research?, Aquatic Ecology, 39, 367-375" (http:/ / www. springerlink.com/ content/ p2q719335u606034/ fulltext. pdf) (PDF). .

[24] Serge Morand; Boris R. Krasnov (1 September 2010). The Biogeography of Host-Parasite Interactions (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=08keK5vc888C& pg=PA93). Oxford University Press. pp. 93–94. ISBN 9780199561353. . Retrieved 28 June 2011.

[25] Myers N (1988). "Threatened biotas: 'hot spots' in tropical forests". Environmentalist 8 (3): 187–208. doi:10.1007/BF02240252.PMID 12322582.

[26] Myers N (1990). "The biodiversity challenge: expanded hot-spots analysis". Environmentalist 10 (4): 243–256. doi:10.1007/BF02239720.PMID 12322583.

[27] Jeffrey K. McKee (December 2004). Sparing Nature: The Conflict Between Human Population Growth and Earth's Biodiversity (http:/ /books. google. com/ books?id=omgIyInG8qEC& pg=PA108). Rutgers University Press. p. 108. ISBN 9780813535586. . Retrieved 28 June2011.

[28] John Francis (1 August 2008). Philosophy Of Mathematics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6UGGgTXUJCEC& pg=PA129). GlobalVision Publishing Ho. pp. 129–. ISBN 9788182202672. . Retrieved 28 June 2011.

[29] Normile, Dennis (10 September 2010:). "Saving Forests to Save Biodiversity" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ content/ 329/ 5997/ 1278.summary?sid=3d8a15d7-279e-4177-a5f0-46743a80212a). Science 329 (5997): 1278–1280. Bibcode 2010Sci...329.1278N.doi:10.1126/science.329.5997.1278. PMID 20829464. . Retrieved December, 2010.

[30] White, The Natural History of Selborne, letter xx 8 October 1768.[31] Rosing, M.; Bird, D.; Sleep, N.; Bjerrum, C. (2010). "No climate paradox under the faint early Sun". Nature 464 (7289): 744–747.

Bibcode 2010Natur.464..744R. doi:10.1038/nature08955. PMID 20360739.[32] Alroy, J; Marshall, CR; Bambach, RK; Bezusko, K; Foote, M; Fursich, FT; Hansen, TA; Holland, SM et al. (2001). "Effects of sampling

standardization on estimates of Phanerozoic marine diversification". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States ofAmerica 98 (11): 6261–6. Bibcode 2001PNAS...98.6261A. doi:10.1073/pnas.111144698. PMC 33456. PMID 11353852.

[33] "Mapping the web of life" (http:/ / www. unep. org/ ourplanet/ imgversn/ 85/ heywood. html). Unep.org. . Retrieved 2009-06-21.[34] Okasha, S. (2010). "Does diversity always grow?". Nature 466 (7304): 318. Bibcode 2010Natur.466..318O. doi:10.1038/466318a.[35] Markov, AV; Korotaev, AV (2008). "Hyperbolic growth of marine and continental biodiversity through the phanerozoic and community

evolution" (http:/ / elementy. ru/ genbio/ abstracts?artid=177). Journal of General Biology 69 (3): 175–94. PMID 18677962. .[36] Markov, A; Korotayev, A (2007). "Phanerozoic marine biodiversity follows a hyperbolic trend". Palaeoworld 16 (4): 311–318.

doi:10.1016/j.palwor.2007.01.002.[37] National Survey Reveals Biodiversity Crisis (http:/ / www. amnh. org/ museum/ press/ feature/ biofact. html) American Museum of Natural

History[38] Edward O. Wilson (2002). The Future of Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0679450785.[39] Costanza, Robert; D'arge, Ralph; De Groot, Rudolf; Farber, Stephen; Grasso, Monica; Hannon, Bruce; Limburg, Karin; Naeem, Shahid et al.

(1997). "The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital". Nature 387 (6630): 253–260. Bibcode 1997Natur.387..253C.doi:10.1038/387253a0.

[40] Hassan, Rashid M.; Robert Scholes, Neville Ash (2006). Ecosystems and human well-being: current state and trends : findings of theCondition and Trends Working Group of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=UFVmiSAr-okC&pg=PA105& dq=biodiversity+ species+ extinction+ rates+ estimated#v=onepage& q=biodiversity species extinction rates estimated&f=false). Island Press. p. 105. ISBN 1559632283, 9781559632287. .

[41] "Rice Grassy Stunt Virus" (http:/ / www. lumrix. net/ health/ Rice_grassy_stunt_virus. html). Lumrix.net. . Retrieved 2009-06-21.[42] Wahl, GM; Robert de Saint Vincent B; Derose, ML (1984). "Effect of chromosomal position on amplification of transfected genes in animal

cells". Nature 307 (5951): 516–20. Bibcode 1984Natur.307..516W. doi:10.1038/307516a0. PMID 6694743.[43] "Southern Corn Leaf Blight" (http:/ / cropdisease. cropsci. illinois. edu/ corn/ southerncornleafblight. html). . Retrieved 2007-11-13.[44] Reports of the 1st and 2nd International Conferences on Health and Biodiversity. (http:/ / www. cohabnet. org/ en_resources_reports. htm)

See also: Website of the UN COHAB Initiative (http:/ / www. cohabnet. org/ )[45] Chivian E. & Bernstein A. (eds), 2008. Sustaining Life: How Human Health Depends on Biodiversity[46] Corvalan C. et al., 2005 Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Health Synthesis. A report of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment[47] (2009) "Climate Change and Biological Diversity" Convention on Biological Diversity Retrieved November 5, 2009, From http:/ / www.

cbd. int/ climate/[48] Ramanujan, Krishna (2 December 2010). "Study: Loss of species is bad for your health" (http:/ / www. news. cornell. edu/ stories/ Dec10/

BiodiversityHealth. html). Cornell Chronicle. . Retrieved 20 July 2011.[49] Gaston, Kevin J.; Warren, Philip H.; Devine-Wright, Patrick; Irvine, Katherine N.; Fuller, Richard A. (2007). "Psychological benefits of

greenspace increase with biodiversity". Biology Letters 3 (4): 390–394. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0149. PMC 2390667. PMID 17504734.[50] "COHAB Initiative: Biodiversity and Human Health - the issues" (http:/ / www. cohabnet. org/ en_issues. htm). Cohabnet.org. . Retrieved

2009-06-21.

Biodiversity 37

[51] "World Wildlife Fund (WWF): "Arguments for Protection" website" (http:/ / wwf. panda. org/ what_we_do/ how_we_work/protected_areas/ arguments_for_protection/ publications/ ). Wwf.panda.org. . Retrieved 2011-09-24.

[52] (2006) "Molecular Pharming" GMO Compass Retrieved November 5, 2009, GMOcompass.org (http:/ / www. gmo-compass. org/ eng/home/ )

[53] Harvey L., 2008. Natural products in drug discovery. Drug Discovery Today[54] Hawkins E.S., Reich; Reich, MR (1992). "Japanese-originated pharmaceutical products in the United States from 1960 to 1989: an

assessment of innovation". Clin Pharmacol Ther 51 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1038/clpt.1992.1. PMID 1732073.[55] Roopesh, J. et al. (10 February 2008). "Marine organisms: Potential Source for Drug Discovery" (http:/ / www. ias. ac. in/ currsci/

feb102008/ 292. pdf) (PDF). Current Science 94 (3): 292. .[56] Dhillion, SS; Svarstad, H; Amundsen, C; Bugge, HC (2002). "Bioprospecting: Effects on environment and development". Ambio 31 (6):

491–3. JSTOR 4315292. PMID 12436849.[57] Cole, A. (2005-07-16). "Looking for new compounds in sea is endangering ecosystem". BMJ 330 (7504): 1350.

doi:10.1136/bmj.330.7504.1350-d.[58] "COHAB Initiative - on Natural Products and Medicinal Resources" (http:/ / www. cohabnet. org/ en_issue4. htm). Cohabnet.org. .

Retrieved 2009-06-21.[59] IUCN, WRI, World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Earthwatch Inst. 2007 Business and Ecosystems: Ecosystem Challenges

and Business Implications[60] Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005 Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Opportunities and Challenges for Business and Industry[61] "Business and Biodiversity webpage of the U.N. Convention on Biological Diversity" (http:/ / www. cbd. int/ business). Cbd.int. . Retrieved

2009-06-21.[62] WRI Corporate Ecosystem Services Review. (http:/ / www. wri. org/ publication/ corporate-ecosystem-services-review) See also: Examples

of Ecosystem-Service Based Risks, Opportunities and Strategies (http:/ / www. wri. org/ project/ ecosystem-services-review)[63] James Lovelock (28 September 2000). The ages of Gaia: a biography of our living Earth (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=xW_T4jV9mFAC& pg=PA215). Oxford University Press. pp. 213–216. ISBN 9780192862174. . Retrieved 27 June 2011.[64] "Global taxonomy initiative stating that only 50 of arthropods and 5% of protozoa are already described" (http:/ / www. cbd. int/ gti/

problem. shtml). Cbd.int. . Retrieved 2011-09-24.[65] "Encyclopedia Smithsonian: Numbers of Insects" (http:/ / www. si. edu/ Encyclopedia_SI/ nmnh/ buginfo/ bugnos. htm). Si.edu. . Retrieved

2009-06-21.[66] Le Monde newspaper article (http:/ / www. lemonde. fr/ planete/ article/ 2006/ 06/ 27/

protection-de-la-biodiversite-un-inventaire-difficile_788741_3244. html) (in French)[67] Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Census of Marine Life (CoML) News.BBC.co.uk (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/

science/ nature/ 5232928. stm)[68] Hawksworth, D (2001). "The magnitude of fungal diversity: The 1.5 million species estimate revisited". Mycological Research 105 (12):

1422–1432. doi:10.1017/S0953756201004725.[69] "Acari at University of Michigan Museum of Zoology Web Page" (http:/ / insects. ummz. lsa. umich. edu/ ACARI/ index. html).

Insects.ummz.lsa.umich.edu. 2003-11-10. . Retrieved 2009-06-21.[70] "Fact Sheet - Expedition Overview" (http:/ / www. jcvi. org/ cms/ fileadmin/ site/ research/ projects/ gos/ Expedition_Overview. pdf) (PDF).

J. Craig Venter Institute. . Retrieved August, 2010.[71] Mirsky, Steve (March 21, 2007). "Naturally Speaking: Finding Nature's Treasure Trove with the Global Ocean Sampling Expedition" (http:/

/ www. scientificamerican. com/ podcast/ episode. cfm?id=74F46951-E7F2-99DF-37873C5B678DC19D). Scientific American. . Retrieved 4May 2011.

[72] "Article collections published by the Public Library of Science" (http:/ / www. ploscollections. org/ article/ browseIssue.action?issue=info:doi/ 10. 1371/ issue. pcol. v06. i02). PLoS Collections. . Retrieved 2011-09-24.

[73] McKie, Robin (2005-09-25). "Discovery of new species and extermination at high rate" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ science/ 2005/ sep/25/ taxonomy. conservationandendangeredspecies). The Guardian (London). .

[74] Richard E. Leakey; Roger Lewin (4 November 1996). The sixth extinction: biodiversity and its survival (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=reogHQAACAAJ). Phoenix. pp. 137–142. ISBN 9781857994735. . Retrieved 27 June 2011.

[75] Gabriel, Sigmar (2007-03-09). "30% of all species lost by 2050" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 6432217. stm). BBC News..

[76] "Reid Reversing loss of Biodiversity" (http:/ / ag. arizona. edu/ OALS/ ALN/ aln37/ reid. html). Ag.arizona.edu. . Retrieved 2009-06-21.[77] Pimm, S. L.; Russell, G. J.; Gittleman, J. L.; Brooks, T. M. (1995). "The Future of Biodiversity" (http:/ / cmbc. ucsd. edu/ content/ 1/ docs/

Pimm_et_al_1995. pdf) (PDF). Science 269 (5222): 347–350. Bibcode 1995Sci...269..347P. doi:10.1126/science.269.5222.347.PMID 17841251. .

[78] Sanderson, James; Moulton, Michael (August 18, 1998). Wildlife Issues in a Changing World, Second Edition [Paperback]. CRC Press.ISBN 978-1566703512.

[79] Jim Chen (2003). "Across the Apocalypse on Horseback: Imperfect Legal Responses to Biodiversity Loss". The Jurisdynamics ofEnvironmental Protection: Change and the Pragmatic. Environmental Law Institute. p. 197. ISBN 1585760714.

[80] "Hippo dilemma". Windows on the Wild: Science and Sustainabiliy. New Africa Books. 2005. ISBN 1869283805.

Biodiversity 38

[81] "IUCN's Classification of Direct Threats" (http:/ / www. conservationmeasures. org/ initiatives/ threats-actions-taxonomies/threats-taxonomy). Conservationmeasures.org. . Retrieved 2011-09-24.

[82] Paul Ehrlich and Anne Ehrlich, Extinction, Random House, New York (1981) ISBN 0-394-51312-6[83] C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Deforestation (http:/ / www. eoearth. org/ article/ Deforestation) Encyclopedia of Earth. ed. C.Cleveland. NCSE.

Washington DC[84] Drakare, Stina; Lennon, Jack J.; Hillebrand, Helmut (2006). "The imprint of the geographical, evolutionary and ecological context on

species-area relationships". Ecology Letters 9 (2): 215–227. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00848.x. PMID 16958886.[85] "Study: Loss Of Genetic Diversity Threatens Species Diversity" (http:/ / www. enn. com/ wildlife/ article/ 23391). Enn.com. 2007-09-26. .

Retrieved 2009-06-21.[86] Science Connection 22 (http:/ / www. scienceconnection. be/ ) (July 2008)[87] Koh L. P., Dunn R. R., Sodhi N. S., Colwell R. K., Proctor H. C., Smith V. S. (2004). "Species Coextinctions and the Biodiversity Crisis"

(http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20090326052836/ http:/ / www4. ncsu. edu/ ~rrdunn/ KohDunnetal. pdf) (PDF). Science 305 (5690): 1632–4.Bibcode 2004Sci...305.1632K. doi:10.1126/science.1101101. PMID 15361627. Archived from the original (http:/ / www4. ncsu. edu/~rrdunn/ KohDunnetal. pdf) on 2009-03-26. .

[88] Mooney, H. A.; Cleland, EE (2001). "The evolutionary impact of invasive species". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98(10): 5446–5451. Bibcode 2001PNAS...98.5446M. doi:10.1073/pnas.091093398. PMC 33232. PMID 11344292.

[89] "Glossary: definitions from the following publication: Aubry, C., R. Shoal and V. Erickson. 2005. Grass cultivars: their origins,development, and use on national forests and grasslands in the Pacific Northwest. USDA Forest Service. 44 pages, plus appendices.; NativeSeed Network (NSN), Institute for Applied Ecology, 563 SW Jefferson Ave, Corvallis, OR 97333, USA" (http:/ / www. nativeseednetwork.org/ article_view?id=13). Nativeseednetwork.org. . Retrieved 2009-06-21.

[90] Rhymer, Judith M.; Simberloff, Daniel (1996). "Extinction by Hybridization and Introgression". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics27: 83–109. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.27.1.83. JSTOR 2097230.

[91] RIRDC.gov.au (http:/ / www. rirdc. gov. au/ reports/ AFT/ 01-114. pdf), Genetic Pollution from Farm Forestry using!! eucalypt species andhybrids; A report for the RIRDC/L&WA/FWPRDC; Joint Venture Agroforestry Program; by Brad M. Potts, Robert C. Barbour, Andrew B.Hingston; September 2001; RIRDC Publication No 01/114; RIRDC Project No CPF - 3A; ISBN 0-642-58336-6; ISSN 1440-6845; AustralianGovernment, Rural Industrial Research and Development Corporation

[92] " Restaurants Selling Exotic Meats (http:/ / green. blogs. nytimes. com/ 2010/ 09/ 03/ vietnam-raids-restaurants-selling-illegal-exotic-meats/VietnamRaids)" The New York Times. September 3, 2010

[93] " Will traditional Chinese medicine mean the end of the wild tiger? (http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2007/ 11/ 11/TR10T8RBN. DTL)". San Francisco Chronicle. November 11, 2007.

[94] Grafton, R. Q.; Kompas, T.; Hilborn, R. W. (2007). "Economics of Overexploitation Revisited". Science 318 (5856): 1601–1601.Bibcode 2007Sci...318.1601G. doi:10.1126/science.1146017.

[95] Burney, D. A.; Flannery, T. F. (July 2005). "Fifty millennia of catastrophic extinctions after human contact" (http:/ / www. anthropology.hawaii. edu/ Fieldschools/ Kauai/ Publications/ Publication 4. pdf). Trends in Ecology & Evolution (Elsevier) 20 (7): 395–401.doi:10.1016/j.tree.2005.04.022. PMID 16701402. . Retrieved 2009-06-12.

[96] "Genetic Pollution: The Great Genetic Scandal"; (http:/ / www. farmedia. org/ bulletins/ bulletin28. html)[97] Pollan, Michael (2001-12-09). "The year in ideas: A TO Z.; Genetic Pollution; By Michael Pollan, The New York Times, December 9,

2001" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9C01E6DE143CF93AA35751C1A9679C8B63). New York Times. . Retrieved2009-06-21.

[98] Ellstrand, Norman C. (2003). Dangerous Liaisons? When Cultivated Plants Mate with Their Wild Relatives (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nbt/journal/ v22/ n1/ full/ nbt0104-29. html). The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-7405-X. . Reviewed in Strauss, Steven H;DiFazio, Stephen P (2004-01-01). "Hybrids abounding". Nature Biotechnology (Nature.com) 22 (1): 29–30. doi:10.1038/nbt0104-29.

[99] Zaid, A. (1999). Genetic pollution: Uncontrolled spread of genetic information (frequently referring to transgenes) into the genomes oforganisms in which such genes are not present in nature. (http:/ / www. fao. org/ DOCREP/ 003/ X3910E/ X3910E00. htm). Fao.org.ISBN 92-5-104369-8. . Retrieved 2009-06-21.

[100] "Genetic pollution: Uncontrolled escape of genetic information (frequently referring to products of genetic engineering) into the genomesof organisms in the environment where those genes never existed before." Searchable Biotechnology Dictionary (http:/ / plpa. cfans. umn. edu/~neviny/ agri1501/ definitions. html), University of Minnesota, Boku.ac.at (http:/ / iufro-archive. boku. ac. at/ silvavoc/ glossary/ 6_0en. html)

[101] <Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.>. "The many facets of pollution" (http:/ / www. scienzagiovane. unibo. it/ English/pollution/ 2-facets. html). Scienzagiovane.unibo.it (Bologna University). . Retrieved 2009-06-21.

[102] "Coral reefs to be destroyed in 20-40 years" (http:/ / www. mnn. com/ earth-matters/ wilderness-resources/ stories/15-of-coral-reefs-already-lost-much-more-feared). Mnn.com. 2008-12-10. . Retrieved 2009-06-21.

[103] Brown, Paul (2004-01-08). "An unnatural disaster" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ science/ 2004/ jan/ 08/ biodiversity. sciencenews). TheGuardian (London). . Retrieved 2009-06-21.

[104] " World Population Growth, 1950–2050 (http:/ / www. prb. org/ educators/ teachersguides/ humanpopulation/ populationgrowth. aspx)".Population Reference Bureau.

[105] " Citizens arrest (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ society/ 2007/ jul/ 11/ comment. climatechange)". The Guardian. July 11, 2007.[106] " Population Bomb Author's Fix For Next Extinction: Educate Women (http:/ / www. scientificamerican. com/ article.

cfm?id=sixth-extinction)". Scientific American. August 12, 2008.

Biodiversity 39

[107] Wake D. B., Vredenburg V. T. (2008). "Are we in the midst of the sixth mass extinction? A view from the world of amphibians" (http:/ /www. pnas. org/ content/ 105/ suppl. 1/ 11466. full. pdf+ html). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States ofAmerica 105: 11466–11473. Bibcode 2008PNAS..10511466W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0801921105. PMC 2556420. PMID 18695221. .

[108] Koh, LP; Dunn, RR; Sodhi, NS; Colwell, RK; Proctor, HC; Smith, VS (2004). "Species coextinctions and the biodiversity crisis" (http:/ /www4. ncsu. edu/ ~rrdunn/ KohDunnetal. pdfNCSU. edu). Science 305 (5690): 1632–4. Bibcode 2004Sci...305.1632K.doi:10.1126/science.1101101. PMID 15361627. .

[109] McCallum M. L. (2007). "Amphibian Decline or Extinction? Current Declines Dwarf Background Extinction Rate" (https:/ / www.herpconbio. org/ ~herpconb/ McCallum/ amphibian extinctions. pdf) (PDF). Journal of Herpetology 41 (3): 483–491.doi:10.1670/0022-1511(2007)41[483:ADOECD]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0022-1511. .

[110] Jackson, J. B. C. (2008). "Colloquium Paper: Ecological extinction and evolution in the brave new ocean". Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences 105: 11458–11465. Bibcode 2008PNAS..10511458J. doi:10.1073/pnas.0802812105. PMC 2556419. PMID 18695220.

[111] Dunn R. R. (2005). "Modern Insect Extinctions, the Neglected Majority" (http:/ / www4. ncsu. edu/ ~rrdunn/ InsectExtinctionPDF. pdf)(PDF). Conservation Biology 19 (4): 1030–1036. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00078.x. .

[112] Costanza, R.; d'Arge, R.; de Groot, R.; Farberk, S.; Grasso, M.; Hannon, B.; et al., Karin; Naeem, Shahid et al. (1997). "The value of theworld's ecosystem services and natural capital" (http:/ / www. uvm. edu/ giee/ publications/ Nature_Paper. pdf). Nature 387 (6630): 253–260.Bibcode 1997Natur.387..253C. doi:10.1038/387253a0. .

[113] Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis. World Resources Institute,Washington, DC. (http:/ / www. millenniumassessment. org/ documents/ document. 354. aspx. pdfMilleniumassessment. org)

[114] Soule M. E.; Soule, Michael E. (1986). "What is conservation biology?"". BioScience 35 (11): 727–734. doi:10.2307/1310054.JSTOR 1310054.

[115] P. Davis (1996). Museums and the Natural Environment. Leicester University Press.[116] F. van Dyke (2008). Conservation Biology: Foundations, Concepts, Applications, 2nd ed. Springer Verlag. pp. 478. ISBN

978-1-4020-6890-4 (hc).[117] Hunter, M. L. (1996). Fundamentals of Conservation Biology. Blackwell Science Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts. ISBN 0-86542-371-7.[118] B. W. Bowen (1999). "Preserving genes, species, or ecosystems? Healing the fractured foundations of conservation policy". Molecular

Ecology, 8:S5-S10.[119] M. E. Soule (ed.) (1986). Conservation Biology: The science of scarcity and diversity. Sinauer Associates Inc.[120] Margules C. R., Pressey R. L. (2000). "Systematic conservation planning" (http:/ / www. geography. ryerson. ca/ jmaurer/

411SystConservPlan. pdf) (PDF). Nature 405 (6783): 243–253. doi:10.1038/35012251. PMID 10821285. .[121] Example: Gascon, C., Collins, J. P., Moore, R. D., Church, D. R., McKay, J. E. and Mendelson, J. R. III (eds) (2007). Amphibian

Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Amphibian Specialist Group. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 64pp. Amphibians.org (http:/ /www. amphibians. org/ newsletter/ ACAP. pdf), see also Milleniumassesment.org (http:/ / www. millenniumassessment. org/ documents/document. 354. aspx. pdf), Europa.eu (http:/ / europa. eu/ scadplus/ leg/ en/ lvb/ l28176. htm)

[122] Luck, Gary W.; Daily, Gretchen C.; Ehrlich, Paul R. (2003). "Population diversity and ecosystem services" (http:/ / www. ese. u-psud. fr/epc/ conservation/ PDFs/ luck. pdf) (PDF). Trends in Ecology & Evolution 18 (7): 331–336. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00100-9. .

[123] Millenniumassessment.org (http:/ / www. millenniumassessment. org/ en/ index. aspx)[124] "Barcode of Life" (http:/ / www. barcoding. si. edu/ ). Barcoding.si.edu. 2010-05-26. . Retrieved 2011-09-24.[125] Eradication of exotic animals (camels) in Australia (http:/ / www. earthtimes. org/ articles/ show/

303405,camel-cull-would-help-curb-global-warming. html)[126] "Belgium creating 45 "seed gardens"; gene banks with intent to reintroduction" (http:/ / www. hbvl. be/ Archief/ guid/

vlaanderen-heeft-45-zaadtuinen-voor-autochtone-bomen-en-struiken. aspx?artikel=0935212d-8b19-45a4-9cda-167ff68d347c). Hbvl.be.2011-09-08. . Retrieved 2011-09-24.

[127] "Economics of biodiversity" (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B7GJ6-4WSWYJV-1& _user=10&_coverDate=12/ 31/ 2009& _rdoc=1& _fmt=high& _orig=gateway& _origin=gateway& _sort=d& _docanchor=& view=c&_acct=C000050221& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=10& md5=cbb65f7275ea31c73b8e6e7f50e19e49& searchtype=a).Sciencedirect.com. . Retrieved 2011-09-24.

[128] "Gene Patenting" (http:/ / www. ornl. gov/ sci/ techresources/ Human_Genome/ elsi/ patents. shtml). Ornl.gov. . Retrieved 2009-06-21.[129] "Fred Bosselman, A Dozen Biodiversity Puzzles, 12 N.Y.U. Environmental Law Journal 364 (2004)" (http:/ / www1. law. nyu. edu/

journals/ envtllaw/ issues/ vol12/ bosselman-for web. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2011-09-24.[130] Wilson Edward O (2000). "On the Future of Conservation Biology". Conservation Biology 14 (1): 1–3.

doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.00000-e1.x.[131] Nee S (2004). "More than meets the eye". Nature 429 (6994): 804–805. Bibcode 2004Natur.429..804N. doi:10.1038/429804a.

PMID 15215837.[132] Stork, Nigel E. (2007). "Biodiversity: World of insects". Nature 448 (7154): 657–658. Bibcode 2007Natur.448..657S.

doi:10.1038/448657a. PMID 17687315.[133] Thomas J. A., Telfer M. G., Roy D. B., Preston C. D., Greenwood J. J. D., Asher J., Fox R., Clarke R. T. et al. (2004). "Comparative

Losses of British Butterflies, Birds, and Plants and the Global Extinction Crisis" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ content/ 303/ 5665/ 1879.abstract). Science 303 (5665): 1879–1881. Bibcode 2004Sci...303.1879T. doi:10.1126/science.1095046. PMID 15031508. .

Biodiversity 40

[134] Dunn, Robert R. (2005). "Modern Insect Extinctions, the Neglected Majority". Conservation Biology 19 (4): 1030–1036.doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00078.x.

Further reading• Leveque, C. & J. Mounolou (2003) Biodiversity. New York: John Wiley. ISBN 0-470-84957-6• Margulis, L., Dolan, Delisle, K., Lyons, C. Diversity of Life: The Illustrated Guide to the Five Kingdoms.

Sudbury: Jones & Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 0-7637-0862-3• Alexander V. Markov, and Andrey V. Korotayev (2007) "Phanerozoic marine biodiversity follows a hyperbolic

trend" Palaeoworld 16(4): pp. 311–318 (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B83WC-4N0HJMK-2& _user=1300184& _coverDate=12/ 31/ 2007& _rdoc=6& _fmt=summary&_orig=browse& _srch=doc-info(#toc#33783#2007#999839995#671853#FLA#display#Volume)& _cdi=33783&_sort=d& _docanchor=& _ct=9& _acct=C000052237& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=1300184&md5=d9c2663e7fbd6a77385d61334953d75d).

• Moustakas, A. & I. Karakassis (in press). A geographic analysis of the published aquatic biodiversity research inrelation to the ecological footprint of the country where the work was done. Stochastic Environmental Researchand Risk Assessment, Doi: 10.1007/s00477-008-0254-2 (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/k7127108n3468442/ fulltext. pdf?page=1/ ).

• Novacek, M. J. (ed.) (2001) The Biodiversity Crisis: Losing What Counts. New York: American Museum ofNatural History Books. ISBN 1-56584-570-6

• D+C-Interview with Achim Steiner, UNEP: "Our generation's responsibility (http:/ / www. inwent. org/ ez/articles/ 178462/ index. en. shtml)

External links• A collection of articles from the David Suzuki Foundation on Protecting Biodiversity (http:/ / www. davidsuzuki.

org/ issues/ wildlife-habitat/ science/ endangered-species-legislation/ protecting-biodiversity/ index. php)• How many species on Earth? (http:/ / knol. google. com/ k/ how-many-species-on-earth#)• ECNC-European Centre for Nature Conservation (http:/ / www. ecnc. org/ )• The WILD Foundation and CEMEX Collaborate on International Wilderness and Biodiversity Conservation in

Mexico (http:/ / www. wild. org/ wild-and-cemex)• COHAB Initiative: The importance of biodiversity to human health and well-being (http:/ / www. cohabnet. org/ )• NatureServe: This site serves as a portal for accessing several types of publicly available biodiversity data (http:/ /

natureserve. org/ getData/ index. jsp)• Internet sources about biodiversity (presented for the International Year of Biodiversity 2010 by vifabio) (http:/ /

www. vifabio. de/ iyb2010/ ?lang=en)• The Canine Diversity Project (http:/ / www. canine-genetics. com/ Default. htm)• Biodiversity research in agriculture, Swiss Agricultural Research Station Agroscope (http:/ / www. agroscope.

admin. ch/ biodiversitaet/ index. html?lang=en)• LiveDiverse project (http:/ / www. livediverse. eu/ )• About Biodiversity, Human Well-being & Botanic Gardens (http:/ / www. bgci. org/ ourwork/ introduction/ )

Botanic Gardens Conservation International]• Study: Loss of species is bad for your health (http:/ / www. news. cornell. edu/ stories/ Dec10/

BiodiversityHealth. html)

Biodiversity 41

Documents• Biodiversity Synthesis Report (http:/ / www. millenniumassessment. org/ documents/ document. 354. aspx. pdf)

(PDF) by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA, 2005)• Convention on Biological Diversity (http:/ / www. cbd. int/ convention/ text/ ) Text of the Convention• Conservation International hotspot map (http:/ / www. biodiversityhotspots. org/ xp/ hotspots/ Documents/

cihotspotmap. pdf)• Waylen, K. 2006. Botanic Gardens: Using biodiversity to improve human well-being (http:/ / www. bgci. org/

files/ Worldwide/ Wellbeing/ Presspack/ wellbeing. pdf) Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI)

Tools• GLOBIO (http:/ / www. globio. info/ ), an ongoing programme to map the past, current and future impacts of

human activities on biodiversity• World Map of Biodiversity (http:/ / stort. unep-wcmc. org/ imaps/ gb2002/ book/ viewer. htm) an interactive map

from the United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre

Training material• Scheldeman, X. & van Zonneveld, M. (2010). Training Manual on Spatial Analysis of Plant Diversity and

Distribution (http:/ / www. bioversityinternational. org/ training/ training_materials/ gis_manual. html).Bioversity International.

Resources• Automatic acoustic Monitoring and Inventorying of BIOdiversity (http:/ / www. amibio-project. eu/ )• Biodiversity Heritage Library (http:/ / www. biodiversitylibrary. org/ ) - Open access digital library of taxonomic

literature.• Biodiversity of Altai-Sayan Ecoregion (http:/ / www. bioaltai-sayan. ru/ ).• Biodiversity (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Science/ Environment/ Biodiversity/ ) at the Open Directory Project• Encyclopedia of Life (http:/ / www. eol. org/ ) - Documenting all species of life on earth.• Tree of Life (http:/ / tolweb. org/ ) - Relationships & characteristics of all life on earth.• National Biodiversity Network (http:/ / www. searchnbn. net/ ) - NBN Gateway.• Microdocs (http:/ / www. stanford. edu/ group/ microdocs/ ), Diversity. (http:/ / www. stanford. edu/ group/

microdocs/ diversity. html)• Economics of Species protection & Management (http:/ / www. economics. noaa. gov/ ?goal=ecosystems&

file=users/ business/ species/ ) NOAA Economics

42

The importance of Forests

Deforestation

Jungle burned for agriculture in southern Mexico.

Deforestation in the Gran Chaco, Paraguay

Deforestation is the removal of a forest orstand of trees where the land is thereafterconverted to a nonforest use.[1] Examples ofdeforestation include conversion offorestland to farms, ranches, or urban use.

The term deforestation is often misused todescribe any activity where all trees in anarea are removed. However in temperateclimates, the removal of all trees in anarea—in conformance with sustainableforestry practices—is correctly described asregeneration harvest.[2] In temperate mesicclimates, natural regeneration of foreststands often will not occur in the absence ofdisturbance, whether natural oranthropogenic.[3] Furthermore, biodiversityafter regeneration harvest often mimics thatfound after natural disturbance, includingbiodiversity loss after naturally occurringrainforest destruction.[4] [5]

Deforestation occurs for many reasons: treesor derived charcoal are used as, or sold, forfuel or as timber, while cleared land is usedas pasture for livestock, plantations ofcommodities, and settlements. The removalof trees without sufficient reforestation hasresulted in damage to habitat, biodiversityloss and aridity. It has adverse impacts onbiosequestration of atmospheric carbondioxide. Deforestation has also been used inwar to deprive an enemy of cover for itsforces and also vital resources. A modernexample of this, for example, was the use of Agent orange in Vietnam. Deforested regions typically incur significantadverse soil erosion and frequently degrade into wasteland.

Deforestation 43

Deforestation and increased road-building in the Amazon Rainforest are asignificant concern because of increased human encroachment upon wild areas,

increased resource extraction and further threats to biodiversity.

Disregard or ignorance of intrinsic value,lack of ascribed value, lax forestmanagement and deficient environmentallaws are some of the factors that allowdeforestation to occur on a large scale. Inmany countries, deforestation, both naturallyoccurring and human induced, is an ongoingissue. Deforestation causes extinction,changes to climatic conditions,desertification, and displacement ofpopulations as observed by currentconditions and in the past through the fossilrecord.[4]

Among countries with a per capita GDP ofat least US$4,600, net deforestation rateshave ceased to increase.[6] [7]

Causes

There are many causes of contemporary deforestation, including corruption of government institutions,[8] [9] theinequitable distribution of wealth and power,[10] population growth[11] and overpopulation,[12] [13] andurbanization.[14] Globalization is often viewed as another root cause of deforestation,[15] [16] though there are casesin which the impacts of globalization (new flows of labor, capital, commodities, and ideas) have promoted localizedforest recovery.[17]

In 2000 the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) found that "the role of population dynamics ina local setting may vary from decisive to negligible," and that deforestation can result from "a combination ofpopulation pressure and stagnating economic, social and technological conditions."[11]

According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) secretariat, theoverwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture. Subsistence farming is responsible for 48% ofdeforestation; commercial agriculture is responsible for 32% of deforestation; logging is responsible for 14% ofdeforestation and fuel wood removals make up 5% of deforestation.[18]

The degradation of forest ecosystems has also been traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion appearmore profitable than forest conservation.[19] Many important forest functions have no markets, and hence, noeconomic value that is readily apparent to the forests' owners or the communities that rely on forests for theirwell-being.[19] From the perspective of the developing world, the benefits of forest as carbon sinks or biodiversityreserves go primarily to richer developed nations and there is insufficient compensation for these services.Developing countries feel that some countries in the developed world, such as the United States of America, cutdown their forests centuries ago and benefited greatly from this deforestation, and that it is hypocritical to denydeveloping countries the same opportunities: that the poor shouldn't have to bear the cost of preservation when therich created the problem.[20]

Experts do not agree on whether industrial logging is an important contributor to global deforestation.[21] [22] Someargue that poor people are more likely to clear forest because they have no alternatives, others that the poor lack theability to pay for the materials and labour needed to clear forest.[21] One study found that population increases due tohigh fertility rates were a primary driver of tropical deforestation in only 8% of cases.[23]

Some commentators have noted a shift in the drivers of deforestation over the past 30 years.[24] Whereas deforestation was primarily driven by subsistence activities and government-sponsored development projects like

Deforestation 44

transmigration in countries like Indonesia and colonization in Latin America, India, Java, and so on, during late 19thcentury and the earlier half of the 20th century. By the 1990s the majority of deforestation was caused by industrialfactors, including extractive industries, large-scale cattle ranching, and extensive agriculture.[25]

Environmental problems

AtmosphericDeforestation is ongoing and is shaping climate and geography.[26] [27] [28] [29]

Deforestation is a contributor to global warming,[30] [31] and is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhancedgreenhouse effect. Tropical deforestation is responsible for approximately 20% of world greenhouse gasemissions.[32] According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change deforestation, mainly in tropical areas,could account for up to one-third of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions.[33] But recent calculations suggestthat carbon dioxide emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (excluding peatland emissions) contributeabout 12% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions with a range from 6 to 17%.[34] Trees and other plantsremove carbon (in the form of carbon dioxide) from the atmosphere during the process of photosynthesis and releaseoxygen back into the atmosphere during normal respiration. Only when actively growing can a tree or forest removecarbon over an annual or longer timeframe. Both the decay and burning of wood releases much of this stored carbonback to the atmosphere. In order for forests to take up carbon, the wood must be harvested and turned into long-livedproducts and trees must be re-planted.[35] Deforestation may cause carbon stores held in soil to be released. Forestsare stores of carbon and can be either sinks or sources depending upon environmental circumstances. Mature forestsalternate between being net sinks and net sources of carbon dioxide (see carbon dioxide sink and carbon cycle). Indeforested areas, the land heats up faster and reaches a higher temperature, leading to localized upward motions thatenhance the formation of clouds and ultimately produce more rainfall.[36]

Reducing emissions from the tropical deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) in developing countries hasemerged as new potential to complement ongoing climate policies. The idea consists in providing financialcompensations for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from deforestation and forest degradation".[37]

Rainforests are widely believed by laymen to contribute a significant amount of world's oxygen,[38] although it isnow accepted by scientists that rainforests contribute little net oxygen to the atmosphere and deforestation will haveno effect on atmospheric oxygen levels.[39] [40] However, the incineration and burning of forest plants to clear landreleases large amounts of CO2, which contributes to global warming.[31] Scientists also state that, Tropicaldeforestation releases 1.5 billion tones of carbon each year into the atmosphere.[41]

Forests are also able to extract carbon dioxide and pollutants from the air, thus contributing to biosphere stability.

HydrologicalThe water cycle is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract groundwater through their roots and release it into theatmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer evaporate away this water, resulting in a muchdrier climate. Deforestation reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmosphericmoisture. The dry soil leads to lower water intake for the trees to extract.[42] Deforestation reduces soil cohesion, sothat erosion, flooding and landslides ensue.[43] [44]

Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape's capacity to intercept, retain and transpire precipitation. Instead of trapping precipitation, which then percolates to groundwater systems, deforested areas become sources of surface water runoff, which moves much faster than subsurface flows. That quicker transport of surface water can translate into flash flooding and more localized floods than would occur with the forest cover. Deforestation also contributes to decreased evapotranspiration, which lessens atmospheric moisture which in some cases affects precipitation levels downwind from the deforested area, as water is not recycled to downwind forests, but is lost in runoff and returns directly to the oceans. According to one study, in deforested north and northwest China, the average annual

Deforestation 45

precipitation decreased by one third between the 1950s and the 1980s.Trees, and plants in general, affect the water cycle significantly:• their canopies intercept a proportion of precipitation, which is then evaporated back to the atmosphere (canopy

interception);• their litter, stems and trunks slow down surface runoff;• their roots create macropores – large conduits – in the soil that increase infiltration of water;• they contribute to terrestrial evaporation and reduce soil moisture via transpiration;• their litter and other organic residue change soil properties that affect the capacity of soil to store water.• their leaves control the humidity of the atmosphere by transpiring. 99% of the water absorbed by the roots moves

up to the leaves and is transpired.[45]

As a result, the presence or absence of trees can change the quantity of water on the surface, in the soil orgroundwater, or in the atmosphere. This in turn changes erosion rates and the availability of water for eitherecosystem functions or human services.The forest may have little impact on flooding in the case of large rainfall events, which overwhelm the storagecapacity of forest soil if the soils are at or close to saturation.Tropical rainforests produce about 30% of our planet's fresh water.[38]

Soil

Deforestation for the use of clay in the Brazilian city of Rio de Janeiro. The hill depictedis Morro da Covanca, in Jacarepaguá

Undisturbed forests have a very lowrate of soil loss, approximately 2metric tons per square kilometer (6short tons per square mile).Deforestation generally increases ratesof soil erosion, by increasing theamount of runoff and reducing theprotection of the soil from tree litter.This can be an advantage inexcessively leached tropical rain forestsoils. Forestry operations themselvesalso increase erosion through thedevelopment of roads and the use ofmechanized equipment.

China's Loess Plateau was cleared offorest millennia ago. Since then it hasbeen eroding, creating dramatic incised valleys, and providing the sediment that gives the Yellow River its yellowcolor and that causes the flooding of the river in the lower reaches (hence the river's nickname 'China's sorrow').

Removal of trees does not always increase erosion rates. In certain regions of southwest US, shrubs and trees havebeen encroaching on grassland. The trees themselves enhance the loss of grass between tree canopies. The bareintercanopy areas become highly erodible. The US Forest Service, in Bandelier National Monument for example, isstudying how to restore the former ecosystem, and reduce erosion, by removing the trees.Tree roots bind soil together, and if the soil is sufficiently shallow they act to keep the soil in place by also bindingwith underlying bedrock. Tree removal on steep slopes with shallow soil thus increases the risk of landslides, whichcan threaten people living nearby. However most deforestation only affects the trunks of trees, allowing for the rootsto stay rooted, negating the landslide.

Deforestation 46

BiodiversityDeforestation on a human scale results in declines in biodiversity.[46] and on a natural global scale is known to causethe extinction of many species.[4] The removal or destruction of areas of forest cover has resulted in a degradedenvironment with reduced biodiversity.[47] Forests support biodiversity, providing habitat for wildlife;[48] moreover,forests foster medicinal conservation.[49] With forest biotopes being irreplaceable source of new drugs (such astaxol), deforestation can destroy genetic variations (such as crop resistance) irretrievably.[50]

Since the tropical rainforests are the most diverse ecosystems on Earth[51] [52] and about 80% of the world's knownbiodiversity could be found in tropical rainforests,[53] [54] removal or destruction of significant areas of forest coverhas resulted in a degraded[55] environment with reduced biodiversity.[4] [56]

It has been estimated that we are losing 137 plant, animal and insect species every single day due to rainforestdeforestation, which equates to 50,000 species a year.[57] Others state that tropical rainforest deforestation iscontributing to the ongoing Holocene mass extinction.[58] [59] The known extinction rates from deforestation ratesare very low, approximately 1 species per year from mammals and birds which extrapolates to approximately 23,000species per year for all species. Predictions have been made that more than 40% of the animal and plant species inSoutheast Asia could be wiped out in the 21st century.[60] Such predictions were called into question by 1995 datathat show that within regions of Southeast Asia much of the original forest has been converted to monospecificplantations, but that potentially endangered species are few and tree flora remains widespread and stable.[61]

Scientific understanding of the process of extinction is insufficient to accurately make predictions about the impactof deforestation on biodiversity.[62] Most predictions of forestry related biodiversity loss are based on species-areamodels, with an underlying assumption that as the forest declines species diversity will decline similarly.[63]

However, many such models have been proven to be wrong and loss of habitat does not necessarily lead to largescale loss of species.[63] Species-area models are known to overpredict the number of species known to be threatenedin areas where actual deforestation is ongoing, and greatly overpredict the number of threatened species that arewidespread.[61]

Economic impactDamage to forests and other aspects of nature could halve living standards for the world's poor and reduce globalGDP by about 7% by 2050, a report concluded at the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) meeting inBonn.[64] Historically, utilization of forest products, including timber and fuel wood, has played a key role in humansocieties, comparable to the roles of water and cultivable land. Today, developed countries continue to utilize timberfor building houses, and wood pulp for paper. In developing countries almost three billion people rely on wood forheating and cooking.[65]

The forest products industry is a large part of the economy in both developed and developing countries. Short-termeconomic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or over-exploitation of wood products, typically leads toloss of long-term income and long-term biological productivity. West Africa, Madagascar, Southeast Asia and manyother regions have experienced lower revenue because of declining timber harvests. Illegal logging causes billions ofdollars of losses to national economies annually.[66]

The new procedures to get amounts of wood are causing more harm to the economy and overpower the amount ofmoney spent by people employed in logging.[67] According to a study, "in most areas studied, the various venturesthat prompted deforestation rarely generated more than US$5 for every ton of carbon they released and frequentlyreturned far less than US$1". The price on the European market for an offset tied to a one-ton reduction in carbon is23 euro (about US$35).[68]

Rapidly growing economies also have an effect on deforestation. Most pressure will come from the world's developing countries, which have the fastest-growing populations and most rapid economic (industrial) growth.[69]

In 1995, economic growth in developing countries reached nearly 6%, compared with the 2% growth rate for

Deforestation 47

developed countries.”[69] As our population grows, new homes, communities, and expansions of cities will occur.Connecting all of the new expansions will be roads, a very important part in our daily life. Rural roads promoteeconomic development but also facilitate deforestation.[69] About 90% of the deforestation has occurred within 100km of roads in most parts of the Amazon.[70]

Forest transition theory

The forest transition and historical baselines.[71]

The forest area change may follow a pattern suggested by the foresttransition (FT) theory, whereby at early stages in its development acountry is characterized by high forest cover and low deforestationrates (HFLD countries).[25]

Then deforestation rates accelerate (HFHD, high forest cover – highdeforestation rate), and forest cover is reduced (LFHD. low forestcover – high deforestation rate), before the deforestation rate slows(LFLD, low forest cover – low deforestation rate), after which forestcover stabilizes and eventually starts recovering. FT is not a “law ofnature,” and the pattern is influenced by national context (for example,human population density, stage of development, structure of the economy), global economic forces, andgovernment policies. A country may reach very low levels of forest cover before it stabilizes, or it might throughgood policies be able to “bridge” the forest transition.

FT depicts a broad trend, and an extrapolation of historical rates therefore tends to underestimate future BAUdeforestation for counties at the early stages in the transition (HFLD), while it tends to overestimate BAUdeforestation for countries at the later stages (LFHD and LFLD).Countries with high forest cover can be expected to be at early stages of the FT. GDP per capita captures the stage ina country’s economic development, which is linked to the pattern of natural resource use, including forests. Thechoice of forest cover and GDP per capita also fits well with the two key scenarios in the FT:(i) a forest scarcity path, where forest scarcity triggers forces (for example, higher prices of forest products) that leadto forest cover stabilization; and(ii) an economic development path, where new and better off-farm employment opportunities associated witheconomic growth (= increasing GDP per capita) reduce profitability of frontier agriculture and slowsdeforestation.[25]

Historical causesFurther information: Timeline of environmental events

PrehistoryThe Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse,[4] was an event that occurred 300 million years ago. Climate changedevastated tropical rainforests causing the extinction of many plant and animal species. The change was abrupt,specifically, at this time climate became cooler and drier, conditions that are not favourable to the growth ofrainforests and much of the biodiversity within them. Rainforests were fragmented forming shrinking 'islands' furtherand further apart. This sudden collapse affected several large groups, effects on amphibians were particularlydevastating, while reptiles fared better, being ecologically adapted to the drier conditions that followed.

Deforestation 48

An array of Neolithic artifacts, includingbracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools.

Rainforests once covered 14% of the earth's land surface; now theycover a mere 6% and experts estimate that the last remainingrainforests could be consumed in less than 40 years.[72] Small scaledeforestation was practiced by some societies for tens of thousands ofyears before the beginnings of civilization.[73] The first evidence ofdeforestation appears in the Mesolithic period.[74] It was probably usedto convert closed forests into more open ecosystems favourable togame animals.[73] With the advent of agriculture, larger areas began tobe deforested, and fire became the prime tool to clear land for crops. InEurope there is little solid evidence before 7000 BC. Mesolithicforagers used fire to create openings for red deer and wild boar. InGreat Britain, shade-tolerant species such as oak and ash are replaced in the pollen record by hazels, brambles,grasses and nettles. Removal of the forests led to decreased transpiration, resulting in the formation of upland peatbogs. Widespread decrease in elm pollen across Europe between 8400–8300 BC and 7200–7000 BC, starting insouthern Europe and gradually moving north to Great Britain, may represent land clearing by fire at the onset ofNeolithic agriculture.

The Neolithic period saw extensive deforestation for farming land.[75] [76] Stone axes were being made from about3000 BC not just from flint, but from a wide variety of hard rocks from across Britain and North America as well.They include the noted Langdale axe industry in the English Lake District, quarries developed at Penmaenmawr inNorth Wales and numerous other locations. Rough-outs were made locally near the quarries, and some were polishedlocally to give a fine finish. This step not only increased the mechanical strength of the axe, but also madepenetration of wood easier. Flint was still used from sources such as Grimes Graves but from many other minesacross Europe.Evidence of deforestation has been found in Minoan Crete; for example the environs of the Palace of Knossos wereseverely deforested in the Bronze Age.[77]

Pre-industrial historyThroughout most of history, humans were hunter gatherers who hunted within forests. In most areas, such as theAmazon, the tropics, Central America, and the Caribbean,[78] only after shortages of wood and other forest productsoccur are policies implemented to ensure forest resources are used in a sustainable manner.In ancient Greece, Tjeered van Andel and co-writers[79] summarized three regional studies of historic erosion andalluviation and found that, wherever adequate evidence exists, a major phase of erosion follows, by about 500-1,000years the introduction of farming in the various regions of Greece, ranging from the later Neolithic to the EarlyBronze Age. The thousand years following the mid-first millennium BCE saw serious, intermittent pulses of soilerosion in numerous places. The historic silting of ports along the southern coasts of Asia Minor (e.g. Clarus, and theexamples of Ephesus, Priene and Miletus, where harbors had to be abandoned because of the silt deposited by theMeander) and in coastal Syria during the last centuries BC.Easter Island has suffered from heavy soil erosion in recent centuries, aggravated by agriculture anddeforestation.[80] Jared Diamond gives an extensive look into the collapse of the ancient Easter Islanders in his bookCollapse. The disappearance of the island's trees seems to coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17thand 18th century. He attributed the collapse to deforestation and over-exploitation of all resources.[81] [82]

The famous silting up of the harbor for Bruges, which moved port commerce to Antwerp, also followed a period of increased settlement growth (and apparently of deforestation) in the upper river basins. In early medieval Riez in upper Provence, alluvial silt from two small rivers raised the riverbeds and widened the floodplain, which slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium and gradually moved new construction to higher ground; concurrently the

Deforestation 49

headwater valleys above Riez were being opened to pasturage.A typical progress trap was that cities were often built in a forested area, which would provide wood for someindustry (for example, construction, shipbuilding, pottery). When deforestation occurs without proper replanting,however; local wood supplies become difficult to obtain near enough to remain competitive, leading to the city'sabandonment, as happened repeatedly in Ancient Asia Minor. Because of fuel needs, mining and metallurgy oftenled to deforestation and city abandonment.With most of the population remaining active in (or indirectly dependent on) the agricultural sector, the mainpressure in most areas remained land clearing for crop and cattle farming. Enough wild green was usually leftstanding (and partially used, for example, to collect firewood, timber and fruits, or to graze pigs) for wildlife toremain viable. The elite's (nobility and higher clergy) protection of their own hunting privileges and game oftenprotected significant woodlands.Major parts in the spread (and thus more durable growth) of the population were played by monastical 'pioneering'(especially by the Benedictine and Commercial orders) and some feudal lords' recruiting farmers to settle (andbecome tax payers) by offering relatively good legal and fiscal conditions. Even when speculators sought toencourage towns, settlers needed an agricultural belt around or sometimes within defensive walls. When populationswere quickly decreased by causes such as the Black Death or devastating warfare (for example, Genghis Khan'sMongol hordes in eastern and central Europe, Thirty Years' War in Germany), this could lead to settlements beingabandoned. The land was reclaimed by nature, but the secondary forests usually lacked the original biodiversity.From 1100 to 1500 AD, significant deforestation took place in Western Europe as a result of the expanding humanpopulation. The large-scale building of wooden sailing ships by European (coastal) naval owners since the 15thcentury for exploration, colonisation, slave trade–and other trade on the high seas consumed many forest resources.Piracy also contributed to the over harvesting of forests, as in Spain. This led to a weakening of the domesticeconomy after Columbus' discovery of America, as the economy became dependent on colonial activities(plundering, mining, cattle, plantations, trade, etc.)In Changes in the Land (1983), William Cronon analyzed and documented 17th-century English colonists' reports ofincreased seasonal flooding in New England during the period when new settlers initially cleared the forests foragriculture. They believed flooding was linked to widespread forest clearing upstream.The massive use of charcoal on an industrial scale in Early Modern Europe was a new type of consumption ofwestern forests; even in Stuart England, the relatively primitive production of charcoal has already reached animpressive level. Stuart England was so widely deforested that it depended on the Baltic trade for ship timbers, andlooked to the untapped forests of New England to supply the need. Each of Nelson's Royal Navy war ships atTrafalgar (1805) required 6,000 mature oaks for its construction. In France, Colbert planted oak forests to supply theFrench navy in the future. When the oak plantations matured in the mid-19th century, the masts were no longerrequired because shipping had changed.Norman F. Cantor's summary of the effects of late medieval deforestation applies equally well to Early ModernEurope:[83]

Europeans had lived in the midst of vast forests throughout the earlier medieval centuries. After 1250 theybecame so skilled at deforestation that by 1500 they were running short of wood for heating and cooking. Theywere faced with a nutritional decline because of the elimination of the generous supply of wild game that hadinhabited the now-disappearing forests, which throughout medieval times had provided the staple of theircarnivorous high-protein diet. By 1500 Europe was on the edge of a fuel and nutritional disaster [from] whichit was saved in the sixteenth century only by the burning of soft coal and the cultivation of potatoes and maize.

Deforestation 50

Industrial eraIn the 19th century, introduction of steamboats in the United States was the cause of deforestation of banks of majorrivers, such as the Mississippi River, with increased and more severe flooding one of the environmental results. Thesteamboat crews cut wood every day from the riverbanks to fuel the steam engines. Between St. Louis and theconfluence with the Ohio River to the south, the Mississippi became more wide and shallow, and changed itschannel laterally. Attempts to improve navigation by the use of snagpullers often resulted in crews' clearing largetrees 100 to 200 feet (61 m) back from the banks. Several French colonial towns of the Illinois Country, such asKaskaskia, Cahokia and St. Philippe, Illinois were flooded and abandoned in the late 19th century, with a loss to thecultural record of their archeology.[84]

The wholescale clearance of woodland to create agricultural land can be seen in many parts of the world, such as theCentral forest-grasslands transition and other areas of the Great Plains of the United States. Specific parallels areseen in the 20th-century deforestation occurring in many developing nations.

Rates

Orbital photograph of human deforestation inprogress in the Tierras Bajas project in eastern

Bolivia

Global deforestation sharply accelerated around 1852.[85] [86] It hasbeen estimated that about half of the Earth's mature tropicalforests—between 7.5 million and 8 million km2 (2.9 million to 3million sq mi) of the original 15 million to 16 million km2 (5.8 millionto 6.2 million sq mi) that until 1947 covered the planet[87] —have nowbeen destroyed.[88] [89] Some scientists have predicted that unlesssignificant measures (such as seeking out and protecting old growthforests that have not been disturbed)[87] are taken on a worldwidebasis, by 2030 there will only be 10% remaining,[85] [88] with another10% in a degraded condition.[85] 80% will have been lost, and withthem hundreds of thousands of irreplaceable species.[85]

Estimates vary widely as to the extent of tropical deforestation.[90] [91] Scientists estimate that one fifth of the world'stropical rainforest was destroyed between 1960 and 1990. They claim that that rainforests 50 years ago covered 14%of the world's land surface, now only cover 5–7%, and that all tropical forests will be gone by the middle of the 21stcentury.[92]

A 2002 analysis of satellite imagery suggested that the rate of deforestation in the humid tropics (approximately 5.8million hectares per year) was roughly 23% lower than the most commonly quoted rates.[93] Conversely, a neweranalysis of satellite images reveals that deforestation of the Amazon rainforest is twice as fast as scientists previouslyestimated.[94] [95]

Some have argued that deforestation trends may follow a Kuznets curve,[96] which if true would nonetheless fail toeliminate the risk of irreversible loss of non-economic forest values (for example, the extinction of species).[97] [98]

A 2005 report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that although the Earth'stotal forest area continues to decrease at about 13 million hectares per year, the global rate of deforestation hasrecently been slowing.[99] [100] Still others claim that rainforests are being destroyed at an ever-quickening pace.[101]

The London-based Rainforest Foundation notes that "the UN figure is based on a definition of forest as being an areawith as little as 10% actual tree cover, which would therefore include areas that are actually savannah-likeecosystems and badly damaged forests."[102] Other critics of the FAO data point out that they do not distinguishbetween forest types,[103] and that they are based largely on reporting from forestry departments of individualcountries,[104] which do not take into account unofficial activities like illegal logging.[105]

Despite these uncertainties, there is agreement that destruction of rainforests remains a significant environmental problem. Up to 90% of West Africa's coastal rainforests have disappeared since 1900.[106] In South Asia, about 88%

Deforestation 51

of the rainforests have been lost.[107] Much of what remains of the world's rainforests is in the Amazon basin, wherethe Amazon Rainforest covers approximately 4 million square kilometres.[108] The regions with the highest tropicaldeforestation rate between 2000 and 2005 were Central America—which lost 1.3% of its forests each year—andtropical Asia.[102] In Central America, two-thirds of lowland tropical forests have been turned into pasture since1950 and 40% of all the rainforests have been lost in the last 40 years.[109] Brazil has lost 90–95% of its MataAtlântica forest.,[110] Paraguay was losing its natural semi humid forests in the country’s western regions at a rate of15.000 hectares at a randomly studied 2 month period in 2010,[111] Paraguay’s parlament refused in 2009 to pass alaw that would have stopped cutting of natural forests altogether.[112]

Madagascar has lost 90% of its eastern rainforests.[113] [114] As of 2007, less than 1% of Haiti's forests remained.[115]

Mexico, India, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, China, Sri Lanka, Laos,Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Guinea, Ghana and the Côte d'Ivoire, have lost large areasof their rainforest.[116] [117] Several countries, notably Brazil, have declared their deforestation a nationalemergency.[118] [119] The World Wildlife Fund's ecoregion project catalogues habitat types throughout the world,including habitat loss such as deforestation, showing for example that even in the rich forests of parts of Canada suchas the Mid-Continental Canadian forests of the prairie provinces half of the forest cover has been lost or altered.

Regions

Rates of deforestation vary around the world.In 2011 Conservation International listed the top 10 most endangered forests, characterized by having all lost 90% ormore of their original habitat, and each harboring at least 1500 endemic plant species (species found nowhere else inthe world).[120]

Top 10 Most Endangered Forests 2011

Endangered forest Region Remaininghabitat

Predominate vegetationtype

Notes

Indo-Burma Asia-Pacific 5% Tropical and subtropicalmoist broadleaf forests

Rivers, floodplain wetlands, mangrove forests. Myanmar(Burma), Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, India.[121]

New Caledonia Asia-Pacific 5% Tropical and subtropicalmoist broadleaf forests

See note for region covered.[122]

Sundaland Asia-Pacific 7% Tropical and subtropicalmoist broadleaf forests

Western half of the Indo-Malayan archipelago includingsouthern Borneo and Sumatra.[123]

Philippines Asia-Pacific 7% Tropical and subtropicalmoist broadleaf forests

Forests over the entire country including 7,100islands.[124]

Atlantic Forest SouthAmerica

8% Tropical and subtropicalmoist broadleaf forests

Forests along Brazil's Atlantic coast, extends to parts ofParaguay, Argentina and Uruguay.[125]

Mountains ofSouthwest China

Asia-Pacific 8% Temperate coniferous forest See note for region covered.[126]

California FloristicProvince

NorthAmerica

10% Tropical and subtropical drybroadleaf forests

See note for region covered.[127]

Coastal Forests ofEastern Africa

Africa 10% Tropical and subtropicalmoist broadleaf forests

Mozambique, Tanzania, Kenya, Somalia.[128]

Madagascar & IndianOcean Islands

Africa 10% Tropical and subtropicalmoist broadleaf forests

Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, Seychelles,Comoros.[129]

Deforestation 52

Eastern Afromontane Africa 11% Tropical and subtropicalmoist broadleaf forestsMontane grasslands andshrublands

Forests scattered along the eastern edge of Africa, fromSaudi Arabia in the north to Zimbabwe in the south.[130]

Table source:[120]

Control

Reducing emissionsMajor international organizations, including the United Nations and the World Bank, have begun to developprograms aimed at curbing deforestation. The blanket term Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and ForestDegradation (REDD) describes these sorts of programs, which use direct monetary or other incentives to encouragedeveloping countries to limit and/or roll back deforestation. Funding has been an issue, but at the UN FrameworkConvention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Conference of the Parties-15 (COP-15) in Copenhagen in December2009, an accord was reached with a collective commitment by developed countries for new and additional resources,including forestry and investments through international institutions, that will approach USD 30 billion for theperiod 2010–2012.[131] Significant work is underway on tools for use in monitoring developing country adherence totheir agreed REDD targets. These tools, which rely on remote forest monitoring using satellite imagery and otherdata sources, include the Center for Global Development's FORMA (Forest Monitoring for Action) initiative [132]

and the Group on Earth Observations' Forest Carbon Tracking Portal.[133] Methodological guidance for forestmonitoring was also emphasized at COP-15 [134] The environmental organization Avoided Deforestation Partnersleads the campaign for development of REDD through funding from the U.S. government.[135]

FarmingNew methods are being developed to farm more intensively, such as high-yield hybrid crops, greenhouse,autonomous building gardens, and hydroponics. These methods are often dependent on chemical inputs to maintainnecessary yields. In cyclic agriculture, cattle are grazed on farm land that is resting and rejuvenating. Cyclicagriculture actually increases the fertility of the soil. Intensive farming can also decrease soil nutrients by consumingat an accelerated rate the trace minerals needed for crop growth.The most promising approach, however, is theconcept of food forests in permaculture, which consists of agroforestal systems carefully designed to mimic naturalforests, with an emphasis on plant and animal species of interest for food, timber and other uses. These systems havelow dependence on fossil fuels and agro-chemicals, are highly self-maintaining, highly productive, and with strongpositive impact on soil and water quality, and biodiversity.

Monitoring DeforestationReducing and monitoring deforestation is a new chapter of this dense keywords lifetime. There are multiple methods that are appropriate and reliable for monitoring deforestation. One method is the “visual interpretation of aerial photos or satellite imagery that is labor-intensive but does not require high-level training in computer image processing or extensive computational resources”.[136] Another method includes hot-spot analysis (that is, locations of rapid change) using expert opinion or coarse resolution satellite data to identify locations for detailed digital analysis with high resolution satellite images.[136] Deforestation is typically assessed by quantifying the amount of area deforested, measured at the present time. From an environmental point of view, quantifying the damage and its possible consequences is a more important task, while conservation efforts are more focused on forested land protection and development of land-use alternatives to avoid continued deforestation.[136] Deforestation rate and total area deforested, have been widely used for monitoring deforestation in many regions, including the Brazilian Amazon deforestation monitoring by INPE.[41] Monitoring deforestation is a very complicated process, which

Deforestation 53

becomes even more complicated with the increasing needs for resources.

Forest managementEfforts to stop or slow deforestation have been attempted for many centuries because it has long been known thatdeforestation can cause environmental damage sufficient in some cases to cause societies to collapse. In Tonga,paramount rulers developed policies designed to prevent conflicts between short-term gains from converting forest tofarmland and long-term problems forest loss would cause,[137] while during the 17th and 18th centuries inTokugawa, Japan,[138] the shoguns developed a highly sophisticated system of long-term planning to stop and evenreverse deforestation of the preceding centuries through substituting timber by other products and more efficient useof land that had been farmed for many centuries. In 16th century Germany landowners also developed silviculture todeal with the problem of deforestation. However, these policies tend to be limited to environments with goodrainfall, no dry season and very young soils (through volcanism or glaciation). This is because on older and lessfertile soils trees grow too slowly for silviculture to be economic, whilst in areas with a strong dry season there isalways a risk of forest fires destroying a tree crop before it matures.In the areas where "slash-and-burn" is practiced, switching to "slash-and-char" would prevent the rapid deforestationand subsequent degradation of soils. The biochar thus created, given back to the soil, is not only a durable carbonsequestration method, but it also is an extremely beneficial amendment to the soil. Mixed with biomass it brings thecreation of terra preta, one of the richest soils on the planet and the only one known to regenerate itself.

Sustainable practices

Certification, as provided by global certification systems such as Programme for the Endorsement of ForestCertification and Forest Stewardship Council, contributes to tackling deforestation by creating market demand fortimber from sustainably managed forests. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO), "A major condition for the adoption of sustainable forest management is a demand for products that areproduced sustainably and consumer willingness to pay for the higher costs entailed. Certification represents a shiftfrom regulatory approaches to market incentives to promote sustainable forest management. By promoting thepositive attributes of forest products from sustainably managed forests, certification focuses on the demand side ofenvironmental conservation."[139] Some nations have taken steps to help increase the amount of trees on Earth. In1981, China created National Tree Planting Day Forest and forest coverage had now reached 16.55% of China's landmass, as against only 12% two decades ago [140]

ReforestationIn many parts of the world, especially in East Asian countries, reforestation and afforestation are increasing the areaof forested lands.[141] The amount of woodland has increased in 22 of the world's 50 most forested nations. Asia as awhole gained 1 million hectares of forest between 2000 and 2005. Tropical forest in El Salvador expanded more than20% between 1992 and 2001. Based on these trends, one study projects that global forest will increase by 10%—anarea the size of India—by 2050.[142]

In the People's Republic of China, where large scale destruction of forests has occurred, the government has in thepast required that every able-bodied citizen between the ages of 11 and 60 plant three to five trees per year or do theequivalent amount of work in other forest services. The government claims that at least 1 billion trees have beenplanted in China every year since 1982. This is no longer required today, but March 12 of every year in China is thePlanting Holiday. Also, it has introduced the Green Wall of China project, which aims to halt the expansion of theGobi desert through the planting of trees. However, due to the large percentage of trees dying off after planting (upto 75%), the project is not very successful. There has been a 47-million-hectare increase in forest area in China sincethe 1970s.[142] The total number of trees amounted to be about 35 billion and 4.55% of China's land mass increasedin forest coverage. The forest coverage was 12% two decades ago and now is 16.55%.[143]

Deforestation 54

An ambitious proposal for China is the Aerially Delivered Re-forestation and Erosion Control System and theproposed Sahara Forest Project coupled with the Seawater Greenhouse.In Western countries, increasing consumer demand for wood products that have been produced and harvested in asustainable manner is causing forest landowners and forest industries to become increasingly accountable for theirforest management and timber harvesting practices.The Arbor Day Foundation's Rain Forest Rescue program is a charity that helps to prevent deforestation. The charityuses donated money to buy up and preserve rainforest land before the lumber companies can buy it. The Arbor DayFoundation then protects the land from deforestation. This also locks in the way of life of the primitive tribes livingon the forest land. Organizations such as Community Forestry International, Cool Earth, The Nature Conservancy,World Wide Fund for Nature, Conservation International, African Conservation Foundation and Greenpeace alsofocus on preserving forest habitats. Greenpeace in particular has also mapped out the forests that are still intact [144]

and published this information on the internet.[145] World Resources Institute in turn has made a simpler thematicmap[146] showing the amount of forests present just before the age of man (8000 years ago) and the current (reduced)levels of forest.[147] These maps mark the amount of afforestation required to repair the damage caused by people.

Forest plantationsTo meet the world's demand for wood, it has been suggested by forestry writers Botkins and Sedjo that high-yieldingforest plantations are suitable. It has been calculated that plantations yielding 10 cubic meters per hectare annuallycould supply all the timber required for international trade on 5% of the world's existing forestland. By contrast,natural forests produce about 1–2 cubic meters per hectare; therefore, 5–10 times more forestland would be requiredto meet demand. Forester Chad Oliver has suggested a forest mosaic with high-yield forest lands interpersed withconservation land.[148]

In the country of Senegal, on the western coast of Africa, a movement headed by youths has helped to plant over 6million mangrove trees. The trees will protect local villages from storm damages and will provide a habitat for localwildlife. The project started in 2008, and already the Senegalese government has been asked to establish rules andregulations that would protect the new mangrove forests.[149]

One analysis of FAO data suggests that afforestation and reforestation projects "could reverse the global decline inwoodlands within 30 years."[150]

Reforestation through tree planting could take advantage of changing precipitation patterns due to climate change.This would be done by studying where precipitation is projected to increase and setting up reforestation projects inthese locations. Areas such as Niger, Sierra Leone and Liberia are especially important candidates because they alsosuffer from an expanding desert (the Sahara) and decreasing biodiversity (while being important biodiversityhotspots).

Military context

American Sherman tanks knocked out byJapanese artillery on Okinawa.

While the preponderance of deforestation is due to demands foragricultural and urban use for the human population, there are someexamples of military causes. One example of deliberate deforestation isthat which took place in the U.S. zone of occupation in Germany afterWorld War II. Before the onset of the Cold War defeated Germany wasstill considered a potential future threat rather than potential future ally.To address this threat, attempts were made to lower German industrialpotential, of which forests were deemed an element. Sources in the

Deforestation 55

U.S. government admitted that the purpose of this was that the "ultimate destruction of the war potential of Germanforests." As a consequence of the practice of clear-felling, deforestation resulted which could "be replaced only bylong forestry development over perhaps a century."[151]

War can also be a cause of deforestation, either deliberately such as through the use of Agent Orange[152] during theVietnam War where, together with bombs and bulldozers, it contributed to the destruction of 44% of the forestcover,[153] or inadvertently such as in the 1945 Battle of Okinawa where bombardment and other combat operationsreduced the lush tropical landscape into "a vast field of mud, lead, decay and maggots".[154]

ReferencesNotes[1] SAFnet Dictionary|Definition For [deforestation] (http:/ / dictionaryofforestry. org/ dict/ term/ deforestation). Dictionaryofforestry.org

(2008-07-29). Retrieved on 2011-05-15.[2] SAFnet Dictionary|Definition For [regeneration_cut(ting)] (http:/ / dictionaryofforestry. org/ dict/ term/ regeneration_cut(ting)).

Dictionaryofforestry.org (2008-08-14). Retrieved on 2011-05-15.[3] Oliver, C.D. Forest Development in North America following major disturbances. For. Ecol. Mgmt. 3(1980):153–168[4] Sahney, S., Benton, M.J. & Falcon-Lang, H.J. (2010). "Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica"

(http:/ / geology. geoscienceworld. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 38/ 12/ 1079) (PDF). Geology 38 (12): 1079–1082. doi:10.1130/G31182.1. .[5] Patel-Weynand, Toral. 2002. Biodiversity and sustainable forestry: State of the science review. The National Commission on Science for

Sustainable Forestry, Washington DC[6] Kauppi, P. E.; Ausubel, J. H.; Fang, J.; Mather, A. S.; Sedjo, R. A.; Waggoner, P. E. (2006). "Returning forests analyzed with the forest

identity". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103 (46): 17574. doi:10.1073/pnas.0608343103. PMC 1635979. PMID 17101996.[7] "Use Energy, Get Rich and Save the Planet" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 04/ 21/ science/ earth/ 21tier. html?_r=2), The New York

Times, April 20, 2009[8] Burgonio, T.J. (January 3, 2008). "Corruption blamed for deforestation" (http:/ / newsinfo. inquirer. net/ breakingnews/ nation/ view_article.

php?article_id=110193). Philippine Daily Inquirer. .[9] "WRM Bulletin Number 74" (http:/ / www. wrm. org. uy/ bulletin/ 74/ Uganda. html). World Rainforest Movement. September 2003. .[10] "Global Deforestation" (http:/ / www. globalchange. umich. edu/ globalchange2/ current/ lectures/ deforest/ deforest. html). Global Change

Curriculum. University of Michigan Global Change Program. January 4, 2006. .[11] Alain Marcoux (August 2000). "Population and deforestation" (http:/ / www. fao. org/ sd/ WPdirect/ WPan0050. htm). SD Dimensions.

Sustainable Development Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). .[12] Butler, Rhett A. "Impact of Population and Poverty on Rainforests" (http:/ / rainforests. mongabay. com/ 0816. htm). Mongabay.com / A

Place Out of Time: Tropical Rainforests and the Perils They Face. . Retrieved May 13, 2009.[13] Jocelyn Stock, Andy Rochen. "The Choice: Doomsday or Arbor Day" (http:/ / www. umich. edu/ ~gs265/ society/ deforestation. htm). .

Retrieved May 13, 2009.[14] Karen. "Demographics, Democracy, Development, Disparity and Deforestation: A Crossnational Assessment of the Social Causes of

Deforestation" (http:/ / www. allacademic. com/ meta/ p_mla_apa_research_citation/ 1/ 0/ 7/ 4/ 8/ p107488_index. html). Paper presented atthe annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Atlanta Hilton Hotel, Atlanta, GA, Aug 16, 2003. . Retrieved May 13, 2009.

[15] "The Double Edge of Globalization" (http:/ / yaleglobal. yale. edu/ display. article?id=9366). YaleGlobal Online. Yale University Press.June 2007. .

[16] Butler, Rhett A. "Human Threats to Rainforests—Economic Restructuring" (http:/ / rainforests. mongabay. com/ 0805. htm). Mongabay.com/ A Place Out of Time: Tropical Rainforests and the Perils They Face. . Retrieved May 13, 2009.

[17] Susanna B. Hecht, Susan Kandel, Ileana Gomes, Nelson Cuellar and Herman Rosa (2006). "Globalization, Forest Resurgence, andEnvironmental Politics in El Salvador" (http:/ / www. spa. ucla. edu/ cgpr/ docs/ sdarticle1. pdf). World Development Vol. 34, No. 2. pp.308–323. .

[18] UNFCCC (2007). "Investment and financial flows to address climate change" (http:/ / unfccc. int/ files/ essential_background/background_publications_htmlpdf/ application/ pdf/ pub_07_financial_flows. pdf). unfccc.int. UNFCCC. p. 81. .

[19] Pearce, David W (December 2001). "The Economic Value of Forest Ecosystems" (http:/ / www. cbd. int/ doc/ external/ academic/forest-es-2003-en. pdf). Ecosystem Health, Vol. 7, no. 4. pp. 284–296. .

[20] Erwin H Bulte; Mark Joenje; Hans G P Jansen (2000). "Is there too much or too little natural forest in the Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica?"(http:/ / article. pubs. nrc-cnrc. gc. ca/ RPAS/ rpv?hm=HInit& afpf=x99-225. pdf& journal=cjfr& volume=30). Canadian Journal of ForestResearch; 30:3. pp. 495–506. .

[21] Arild Angelsen, David Kaimowitz (February 1999). "Rethinking the causes of deforestation: Lessons from economic models" (http:/ / ideas.repec. org/ a/ oup/ wbrobs/ v14y1999i1p73-98. html). The World Bank Research Observer, 14:1. Oxford University Press. pp. 73–98. .

[22] Laurance, William F. (December 1999). "Reflections on the tropical deforestation crisis" (http:/ / studentresearch. wcp. muohio. edu/BiogeogDiversityDisturbance/ ReflectionsDeforestCrisis. pdf). Biological Conservation, Volume 91, Issues 2–3. pp. 109–117. .

Deforestation 56

[23] Helmut J. Geist And Eric F. Lambin (February 2002). "Proximate Causes and Underlying Driving Forces of Tropical Deforestation" (http:/ /www. freenetwork. org/ resources/ documents/ 2-5Deforestationtropical. pdf). BioScience, Vol. 52, No. 2. pp. 143–150. .

[24] Butler, Rhett A. and Laurance, William F. (August 2008). "New strategies for conserving tropical forests" (http:/ / news. mongabay. com/Butler_and_Laurance-TREE. pdf). Trends in Ecology & Evolution, Vol. 23, No. 9. pp. 469–472. .

[25] Rudel, T.K. 2005 "Tropical Forests: Regional Paths of Destruction and Regeneration in the Late 20th Century" (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=j4AvOb_R9h8C& printsec=frontcover) Columbia University Press ISBN 023113195X

[26] "NASA – Top Story – NASA DATA SHOWS DEFORESTATION AFFECTS CLIMATE" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ centers/ goddard/news/ topstory/ 2004/ 0603amazondry. html). .

[27] "Massive deforestation threatens food security" (http:/ / www. newsfromafrica. org/ newsfromafrica/ articles/ art_9607. html). .[28] Deforestation (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ articles/ d/ deforestation. htm), ScienceDaily[29] Confirmed: Deforestation Plays Critical Climate Change Role (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2007/ 05/ 070511100918. htm),

ScienceDaily, May 11, 2007[30] Deforestation causes global warming (http:/ / www. fao. org/ newsroom/ en/ news/ 2006/ 1000385/ index. html), FAO[31] Philip M. Fearnside1 and William F. Laurance, TROPICAL DEFORESTATION AND GREENHOUSE-GAS EMISSIONS, Ecological

Applications, Volume 14, Issue 4 (August 2004) pp. 982–986[32] "Fondation Chirac » Deforestation and desertification" (http:/ / www. fondationchirac. eu/ en/ deforestation/ ). .[33] IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I Report "The Physical Science Basis", Section 7.3.3.1.5 (http:/ / www. ipcc. ch/ pdf/

assessment-report/ ar4/ wg1/ ar4-wg1-chapter7. pdf) (p. 527)[34] G.R.van der Werf, D.C.Morton, R.S.DeFries, J.G.J.Olivier, P.S.Kasibhatla, R.B.Jackson, G.J.Collatz and J.T.Randerson (2009). "CO2

emissions from forest loss". Nature Geoscience 2 (11): 737–738. doi:10.1038/ngeo671.[35] I.C. Prentice. "The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide" IPCC, http:/ / www. grida. no/ CLIMATE/ IPCC_TAR/ wg1/ pdf/

TAR-03. PDF[36] "NASA Data Shows Deforestation Affects Climate In The Amazon."[37] S. Wertz-Kanounnikoff, L. Ximena Rubio Alvarado, Bringing 'REDD' into a new deal for the global climate (http:/ / www. iddri. org/

Publications/ Collections/ Analyses/ Why-are-we-seeing-REDD), Analyses, n° 2, 2007, Institute for Sustainable Development andInternational Relations.

[38] "How can you save the rain forest. October 8, 2006. Frank Field" (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ news/ article664544. ece). TheTimes (London). October 8, 2006. . Retrieved April 1, 2010.

[39] Broeker, Wallace S. (2006). "Breathing easy: Et tu, O2." (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ cu/ 21stC/ issue-2. 1/ broecker. htm) ColumbiaUniversity

[40] Moran, Emilio F. (1993). "Deforestation and land use in the Brazilian Amazon". Human Ecology 21: 1. doi:10.1007/BF00890069.[41] Ruth Defries. "Earth observations for estimating greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation in developing countries." Environmental

Science and Policy. 06/02/07.[42] "Underlying Causes of Deforestation: UN Report" (http:/ / www. wrm. org. uy/ deforestation/ UNreport. html). .[43] "Deforestation and Landslides in Southwestern Washington" (http:/ / www. uwec. edu/ jolhm/ EH2/ Rogge/ index. htm). .[44] China's floods: Is deforestation to blame? (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ asia-pacific/ 413717. stm), BBC News[45] "Soil, Water and Plant Characteristics Important to Irrigation". (http:/ / www. ag. ndsu. edu/ pubs/ ageng/ irrigate/ eb66w. htm) North

Dakota State University.[46] Sten Nilsson, Do We Have Enough Forests? (http:/ / www. actionbioscience. org/ environment/ nilsson. html), American Institute of

Biological Sciences, March 2001[47] "Deforestation" (http:/ / www. umich. edu/ ~gs265/ society/ deforestation. htm). .[48] Rainforest Biodiversity Shows Differing Patterns (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2007/ 08/ 070808132022. htm), ScienceDaily,

August 14, 2007[49] "BMBF: Medicine from the rainforest" (http:/ / www. bmbf. de/ en/ 12484. php). .[50] Single-largest biodiversity survey says primary rainforest is irreplaceable (http:/ / www. bio-medicine. org/ biology-news-1/

Single-largest-biodiversity-survey-says-primary-rainforest-is-irreplaceable-1218-1/ ), Bio-Medicine, November 14, 2007[51] Tropical rainforests – The tropical rainforest (http:/ / replay. web. archive. org/ 20090302154517/ http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ schools/

gcsebitesize/ geography/ ecosystems/ ecosystemsrainforestrev1. shtml), BBC[52] "Tropical Rainforest" (http:/ / library. thinkquest. org/ 11353/ trforest. htm). .[53] U.N. calls on Asian nations to end deforestation (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ 2008/ 06/ 20/

us-philippines-biodiversity-idUSMAN18800220080620), Reuters, 20 June 2008[54] "Rainforest Facts" (http:/ / www. rain-tree. com/ facts. htm). .[55] Tropical rainforests – Rainforest water and nutrient cycles (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ schools/ gcsebitesize/ geography/ ecosystems/

ecosystemsrainforestrev4. shtml), BBC[56] Rhett A. Butler, Primary rainforest richer in species than plantations, secondary forests (http:/ / news. mongabay. com/ 2007/ 0702-gardner.

html), mongabay.com, 2 July 2007[57] Rainforest Facts (http:/ / www. rain-tree. com/ facts. htm). Rain-tree.com (2010-03-20). Retrieved on 2010-08-29.[58] Leakey, Richard and Roger Lewin, 1996, The Sixth Extinction : Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind, Anchor, ISBN

0-385-46809-1

Deforestation 57

[59] The great rainforest tragedy (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ environment/ the-great-rainforest-tragedy-542135. html), The Independent,28 June 2003

[60] Biodiversity wipeout facing South East Asia (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ channel/ life/ endangered-species/ dn3973), New Scientist, 23July 2003

[61] Pimm, S. L.; Russell, G. J.; Gittleman, J. L.; Brooks, T. M. (1995). "The Future of Biodiversity". Science 269 (5222): 347–350.doi:10.1126/science.269.5222.347. PMID 17841251.

[62] Pimm Stuart L, Russell Gareth J, Gittleman John L, Brooks Thomas M (1995). "The future of biodiversity". Science 269 (5222): 347–341.doi:10.1126/science.269.5222.347. PMID 17841251.

[63] Timothy Charles and Whitmore, Jeffrey Sayer, 1992 "Tropical Deforestation and Species Extinction" International Union for Conservationof Nature and Natural Resources Commission on Ecology.

[64] Nature loss 'to hurt global poor' (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 7424535. stm), BBC News, May 29, 2008[65] Forest Products (http:/ / atlas. aaas. org/ pdf/ 63-66. pdf)[66] "Destruction of Renewable Resources" (http:/ / rainforests. mongabay. com/ 0905. htm). .[67] Deforestation Across the World's Tropical Forests Emits Large Amounts of Greenhouse Gases with Little Economic Benefits, According to

a New Study at CGIAR.org (http:/ / www. cgiar. org/ Newsroom/ releases/ news. asp?idnews=663), December 4, 2007[68] "New ASB Report finds deforestation offers very little money compared to potential financial benefits at ASB.CGIAR.org" (http:/ / www.

asb. cgiar. org/ News/ default. asp?a={580BF3A6-9A50-4162-B059-80CF00046F24}). .[69] Kenneth Chomitz. "Roads, lands, markets, and deforestation : a spatial model of land use in Belize." 04/30/95.[70] Silvio Ferrez. "Using indicators of deforestation and land-use dynamics to support conservation strategies: A case study of central Rondônia,

Brazil" Forest Ecology and Management 03/22/09.[71] "Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD): An Options Assessment Report" (http:/ / www. redd-oar. org/

links/ REDD-OAR_en. pdf). The Government of Norway. 28 March 2010. p. 16. .[72] Leslie Taylor. "The Healing Power of Rainforests."[73] Flannery, T (1994). The future eaters. Melbourne: Reed Books. ISBN 0730104222.[74] Brown, Tony (1997). "Clearances and Clearings: Deforestation in Mesolithic/Neolithic Britain" (http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/

journal/ 119153736/ abstract?CRETRY=1& SRETRY=0). Oxford Journal of Archaeology 16 (2): 133. doi:10.1111/1468-0092.00030. .[75] "hand tool :: Neolithic tools – Britannica Online Encyclopedia" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 254115/ hand-tool/

39205/ Neolithic-tools). .[76] "Neolithic Age from 4,000 BC to 2,200 BC or New Stone Age" (http:/ / www. archaeolink. co. uk/ Neolithic-Age. html). .[77] C. Michael Hogan. 2007. "Knossos fieldnotes" (http:/ / www. themodernantiquarian. com/ site/ 10854/ knossos. html#fieldnotes), The

Modern Antiquarian[78] Encyclopćdia Britannica Online School Edition (http:/ / www. school. eb. com/ comptons/ article-9310969?query=deforestation& ct=).

School.eb.com. Retrieved on 2010-08-29.[79] Tjeerd H. van Andel, Eberhard Zangger, Anne Demitrack, "Land Use and Soil Erosion in Prehistoric and Historical Greece' Journal of Field

Archaeology 17.4 (Winter 1990), pp. 379–396[80] "The Mystery of Easter Island" (http:/ / www. smithsonianmag. com/ people-places/ The_Mystery_of_Easter_Island. html), Smithsonian

Magazine, April 01, 2007[81] "Historical Consequences of Deforestation: Easter Island" (http:/ / www. mongabay. com/ 09easter_island. htm). .[82] "Jared Diamond, Easter Island's End" (http:/ / www. hartford-hwp. com/ archives/ 24/ 042. html). .[83] In closing The Civilization of the Middle Ages: The Life and Death of a Civilization (1993) pp 564f.[84] F. Terry Norris, "Where Did the Villages Go? Steamboats, Deforestation, and Archaeological Loss in the Mississippi Valley", in Common

Fields: an environmental history of St. Louis, Andrew Hurley, ed., St. Louis, MO: Missouri Historical Society Press, 1997, pp. 73–89[85] E. O. Wilson, 2002, The Future of Life, Vintage ISBN 0-679-76811-4[86] Map reveals extent of deforestation in tropical countries (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ environment/ 2008/ jul/ 01/ forests. conservation),

guardian.co.uk, July 1, 2008[87] Maycock, Paul F. Deforestation (http:/ / www. worldbookonline. com/ wb/ article?id=ar704660). WorldBookOnline.[88] Ron Nielsen, The Little Green Handbook: Seven Trends Shaping the Future of Our Planet, Picador, New York (2006) ISBN

978-0-312-42581-4[89] Rainforests – Facts and information about the Rainforest (http:/ / www. nature. org/ rainforests/ explore/ facts. html).[90] Teja Tscharntke, Christoph Leuschner, Edzo Veldkamp, Heiko Faust, Edi Guhardja, ed (2010). Tropical Rainforests and Agroforests Under

Global Change (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=f-LfXBOL_7sC& pg=PA270). Springer. pp. 270–271. ISBN 9783642004926. .[91] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2000). Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry. (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=9b91zn_txQgC& printsec=frontcover& cad=0#PPP1,M1) Cambridge University Press.[92] John F. Mongillo; Linda Zierdt-Warshaw (2000). Linda Zierdt-Warshaw. ed. Encyclopedia of environmental science (http:/ / books. google.

com/ books?id=ozAN5vLbssgC& pg=PA104). University of Rochester Press. p. 104. ISBN 9781573561471. .[93] Achard Frederic, Eva Hugh D, Hans- , Stibig Jurgen, Mayaux Philippe (2002). "Determination of deforestation rates of the world's humid

tropical forests". Science 297 (5583): 999–1003. doi:10.1126/science.1070656. PMID 12169731.[94] Jha, Alok. "Amazon rainforest vanishing at twice rate of previous estimates" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ environment/ 2005/ oct/ 21/

brazil. conservationandendangeredspecies). The Guardian. 21 October 2005.

Deforestation 58

[95] Satellite images reveal Amazon forest shrinking faster (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ 2005/ 1021/ p04s01-sten. html), csmonitor.com, 21October 2005

[96] Deforestation and the environmental Kuznets curve: An institutional perspective (http:/ / www. aseanenvironment. info/ Abstract/ 41014849.pdf)

[97] Environmental Economics: A deforestation Kuznets curve? (http:/ / www. env-econ. net/ 2006/ 11/ a_deforestation. html), November 22,2006

[98] "Is there an environmental Kuznets curve for deforestation?" (http:/ / ideas. repec. org/ a/ eee/ deveco/ v58y1999i1p231-244. html). .[99] "Pan-tropical Survey of Forest Cover Changes 1980–2000" (http:/ / www. fao. org/ docrep/ 004/ y1997e/ y1997e1f. htm). Forest Resources

Assessment. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). .[100] Committee On Forestry (http:/ / www. fao. org/ DOCREP/ MEETING/ 003/ X9591E. HTM). FAO (2001-03-16). Retrieved on

2010-08-29.[101] Worldwatch: Wood Production and Deforestation Increase & Recent Content (http:/ / www. worldwatch. org/ node/ 4521), Worldwatch

Institute[102] "World deforestation rates and forest cover statistics, 2000–2005" (http:/ / news. mongabay. com/ 2005/ 1115-forests. html). .[103] The fear is that highly diverse habitats, such as tropical rainforest, are vanishing at a faster rate that is partly masked by the slower

deforestation of less biodiverse, dry, open forests. Because of this omission, the most harmful impacts of deforestation (such as habitat loss)could be increasing despite a possible decline in the global rate of deforestation.

[104] "Remote sensing versus self-reporting" (http:/ / news. mongabay. com/ 2008/ 0629-deforestation. html). .[105] The World Bank estimates that 80% of logging operations are illegal in Bolivia and 42% in Colombia, while in Peru, illegal logging

accounts for 80% of all logging activities. (World Bank (2004). Forest Law Enforcement.) (The Peruvian Environmental Law Society (2003).Case Study on the Development and Implementation of Guidelines for the Control of Illegal Logging with a View to Sustainable ForestManagement in Peru.)

[106] "National Geographic: Eye in the Sky—Deforestation" (http:/ / www. nationalgeographic. com/ eye/ deforestation/ effect. html). .[107] "Rainforests & Agriculture" (http:/ / www. csupomona. edu/ ~admckettrick/ projects/ ag101_project/ html/ size. html). .[108] The Amazon Rainforest (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ dna/ h2g2/ A925913), BBC, 14 February 2003[109] "The Causes of Tropical Deforestation" (http:/ / www. ru. org/ ecology-and-environment/ the-causes-of-tropical-deforestation. html). .[110] "What is Deforestation?" (http:/ / kids. mongabay. com/ lesson_plans/ lisa_algee/ deforestation. html). .[111] "Paraguay es principal deforestador del Chaco" (http:/ / www. abc. com. py/ nota/ 103480-Paraguay-es-principal-deforestador-del-Chaco).

ABC Color newspaper, Paraguay. . Retrieved August 13, 2011.[112] "Paraguay farmland" (http:/ / www. ventacamposparaguay. com/ farmland. html). . Retrieved August 13, 2011.[113] IUCN – Three new sites inscribed on World Heritage List (http:/ / www. iucn. org/ where/ global/ index. cfm?uNewsID=87), 27 June 2007[114] "Madagascar's rainforest" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ data/ images/ archive/ 1717/ 17173001. jpg). .[115] "International Conference on Reforestation and Environmental Regeneration of Haiti" (http:/ / www. satglobal. com/ cfpap2. htm). .[116] "Chart – Tropical Deforestation by Country & Region" (http:/ / www. mongabay. com/ deforestation_rate_tables. htm). .[117] "Rainforest Destruction" (http:/ / www. rainforestweb. org/ Rainforest_Destruction/ ). .[118] Amazon deforestation rises sharply in 2007 (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ news/ world/ environment/ 2008-01-24-brazil-amazon_N. htm),

USATODAY.com, January 24, 2008[119] Vidal, John (31 May 2005). "Rainforest loss shocks Brazil" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ brazil/ story/ 0,,1488468,00. html). The

Guardian (London). . Retrieved April 1, 2010.[120] The World's 10 Most Threatened Forest Hotspots (http:/ / www. conservation. org/ newsroom/ pressreleases/ Pages/

The-Worlds-10-Most-Threatened-Forest-Hotspots. aspx), Conservation International, February 2, 2011.[121] Indo-Burma (http:/ / www. biodiversityhotspots. org/ xp/ hotspots/ indo_burma/ Pages/ default. aspx), Conservation International.[122] New Caledonia (http:/ / www. biodiversityhotspots. org/ xp/ hotspots/ new_caledonia/ Pages/ default. aspx), Conservation International.[123] Sundaland (http:/ / www. biodiversityhotspots. org/ xp/ hotspots/ sundaland/ Pages/ default. aspx), Conservation International.[124] Philippines (http:/ / www. biodiversityhotspots. org/ xp/ hotspots/ philippines/ Pages/ default. aspx), Conservation International.[125] Atlantic Forest (http:/ / www. biodiversityhotspots. org/ xp/ hotspots/ atlantic_forest/ Pages/ default. aspx), Conservation International.[126] Mountains of Southwest China (http:/ / www. biodiversityhotspots. org/ xp/ hotspots/ china/ Pages/ default. aspx), Conservation

International.[127] California Floristic Province (http:/ / www. biodiversityhotspots. org/ xp/ hotspots/ california_floristic/ Pages/ default. aspx), Conservation

International.[128] Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa (http:/ / www. biodiversityhotspots. org/ xp/ hotspots/ coastal_forests/ Pages/ default. aspx), Conservation

International.[129] Madagascar & Indian Ocean Islands (http:/ / www. biodiversityhotspots. org/ xp/ hotspots/ madagascar/ Pages/ default. aspx), Conservation

International.[130] Eastern Afromontane (http:/ / www. biodiversityhotspots. org/ xp/ hotspots/ afromontane/ Pages/ default. aspx), Conservation International.[131] "Copenhagen Accord of 18 December 2009" (http:/ / unfccc. int/ files/ meetings/ cop_15/ application/ pdf/ cop15_cph_auv. pdf). UNFCC.

2009. . Retrieved 2009-12-28.[132] Forest Monitoring for Action (FORMA) : Center for Global Development : Initiatives: Active (http:/ / www. cgdev. org/ section/

initiatives/ _active/ forestmonitoringforactionforma). Cgdev.org (2009-11-23). Retrieved on 2010-08-29.

Deforestation 59

[133] Browser – GEO FCT Portal (http:/ / portal. geo-fct. org/ national-demonstrators/ browser). Portal.geo-fct.org. Retrieved on 2010-08-29.[134] "Methodological Guidance" (http:/ / unfccc. int/ files/ na/ application/ pdf/ cop15_ddc_auv. pdf). UNFCC. 2009. . Retrieved 2009-12-28.[135] Agriculture Secretary Vilsack: $1 billion for REDD+ « Climate Progress (http:/ / climateprogress. org/ 2009/ 12/ 16/

sec-vilsack-1-billion-for-redd/ ). Climateprogress.org (2009-12-16). Retrieved on 2010-08-29.[136] Silvio Ferraz. "Using indicators of deforestation and land-use dynamics to support conservation strategies: A case study of central

Rondônia, Brazil." Forest Ecology and Management. 03/22/09.[137] Diamond, Jared Collapse: How Societies Choose To Fail or Succeed; Viking Press 2004, pages 301–302[138] Diamond, pages 320–331[139] "State of the World's Forests 2009" (http:/ / www. fao. org/ docrep/ 011/ i0350e/ i0350e00. HTM). United Nations Food and Agriculture

Organization.[140] John Gittings. "Battling China's Deforestation." Guardian.Co.uk. 03/20/01.[141] Foley Jonathan A, DeFries Ruth, Asner Gregory P, Barford Carol et al. (2005). "Global Consequences of Land Use". Science 309 (5734):

570–574. doi:10.1126/science.1111772. PMID 16040698.[142] James Owen, "World's Forests Rebounding, Study Suggests" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2006/ 11/ 061113-forests.

html) National Geographic News, 13 November 2006[143] John Gittings, "Battling China's deforestation" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2001/ mar/ 20/ worlddispatch. china), World News,

20 March 2001[144] (http:/ / www. intactforests. org/ publications/ intactforests_poster_preview. pdf)[145] "World Intact Forests campaign by Greenpeace" (http:/ / www. intactforests. org). .[146] The World's Forests from a Restoration Perspective (http:/ / replay. web. archive. org/ 20100724183523/ http:/ / www. wri. org/ map/

worlds-forests-restoration-perspective), WRI[147] "Alternative thematic map by Howstuffworks; in pdf" (http:/ / static. howstuffworks. com/ gif/ maps/ pdf/ WOR_THEM_Forests. pdf)

(PDF). .[148] No Man's Garden Daniel B. Botkin p 246-247[149] Stenstrup, Allen (2010). Forests. Greensboro, North Carolina: Morgan Reynolds Publishing. pp. 89. ISBN 9781599351162.[150] Sample, Ian. "Forests are poised to make a comeback, study shows" (http:/ / environment. guardian. co. uk/ conservation/ story/

0,,1947182,00. html). The Guardian. November 14, 2006.[151] Nicholas Balabkins, "Germany Under Direct Controls; Economic Aspects Of Industrial Disarmament 1945–1948, Rutgers University

Press, 1964. p. 119. The two quotes used by Balabkins are referenced to, respectively: U.S. office of Military Government, A Year ofPotsdam: The German Economy Since the Surrender (1946), p.70; and U.S. Office of Military Government, The German Forest ResourcesSurvey (1948), p. II. For similar observations see G.W. Harmssen, Reparationen, Sozialproduct, Lebensstandard (Bremen: F. Trujen Verlag,1948), I, 48

[152] "Encyclopedia of World Environmental History". Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0-415-93733-7[153] Patricia Marchak, " Logging the Globe (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Oi-xLllDK8oC& pg=PA157& dq=deforestation+ "agent+

orange"& sig=CiHOq-9TslQ688z1sWvKYDCcUmc)" p. 157[154] Takejiro Higa, Military Intelligence Service, Battle of Okinawa (http:/ / nisei. hawaii. edu/ object/ 11_takejiro. html), The Hawaii Nisei

Project

General references• BBC 2005 TV series on the history of geological factors shaping human history (name?)• A Natural History of Europe – 2005 co-production including BBC and ZDF• Whitney, Gordon G. (1996). From Coastal Wilderness to Fruited Plain : A History of Environmental Change in

Temperate North America from 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57658-X• Williams, Michael. (2003). Deforesting the Earth. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. ISBN 0-226-89926-8• Wunder, Sven. (2000). The Economics of Deforestation: The Example of Ecuador. Macmillan Press, London.

ISBN 0-333-73146-8• FAO&CIFOR report: Forests and Floods: Drowning in Fiction or Thriving on Facts? (http:/ / www. fao. org/

docrep/ 008/ ae929e/ ae929e00. htm)• Fenical, William (September 1983). "Marine Plants: A Unique and Unexplored Resource" (http:/ / books. google.

com/ ?id=g6RfkqCUQyQC& pg=PA147& dq=oxygen+ percent+ algae+ plants). Plants: the potentials forextracting protein, medicines, and other useful chemicals (workshop proceedings). DIANE Publishing. p. 147.ISBN 1428923977.

Ethiopia deforestation references• Parry, J. (2003). Tree choppers become tree planters. Appropriate Technology, 30(4), 38–39. Retrieved

November 22, 2006, from ABI/INFORM Global database. (Document ID: 538367341).

Deforestation 60

• Hillstrom, K & Hillstrom, C. (2003). Africa and the Middle east. A continental Overview of EnvironmentalIssues. Santabarbara, CA: ABC CLIO.

• Williams, M. (2006). Deforesting the earth: From prehistory to global crisis: An Abridgment. Chicago: Theuniversity of Chicago Press.

• Mccann. J.C. (1990). A Great Agrarian cycle? Productivity in Highland Ethiopia, 1900 To 1987. Journal ofInterdisciplinary History, xx: 3,389–416. Retrieved November 18, 2006, from JSTOR database.

External links• Our disappearing forests – Greenpeace China (http:/ / www. greenpeace. org/ china/ en/ campaigns/ forests/

our-disappearing-forests/ )• EIA forest reports (http:/ / www. eia-international. org/ campaigns/ forests/ ): Investigations into illegal logging.• EIA in the USA (http:/ / www. eia-global. org/ forests_for_the_world/ ) Reports and info.• Cocaine destroys 4 m2 of rainforest per gram (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2008/ nov/ 19/

cocaine-rainforests-columbia-santos-calderon) The Guardian• "Avoided Deforestation" Plan Gains Support – Worldwatch Institute (http:/ / www. worldwatch. org/ node/ 6034)• OneWorld Tropical Forests Guide (http:/ / uk. oneworld. net/ guides/ forests)• Some Background Info to Deforestation and REDD+ (http:/ / www. forestindustries. eu/ redd)In the media• March 14, 2007, Independent Online: Destruction of forests in developing world 'out of control' (http:/ / news.

independent. co. uk/ environment/ article2355962. ece)Films online• Watch the National Film Board of Canada documentaries Battle for the Trees (http:/ / www. nfb. ca/ film/

battle_for_the_trees/ ) & Forest in Crisis (http:/ / www. nfb. ca/ film/ forest_in_crisis/ )• Video on Illegal Deforestation In Paraguay (http:/ / indigenouspeoplesissues. com/ index.

php?option=com_content& view=article&id=4668:video-on-deforestation-in-paraguay-as-a-result-of-agricultural-development-impact-to-indigenous-people-and-wildlife&catid=68:videos-and-movies& Itemid=96)

61

Natural Disasters

1924 Cuba hurricane

Hurricane Ten

Category 5 hurricane (SSHS)

Track map of the storm

Formed October 14, 1924

Dissipated October 23, 1924

Highest winds 1-minute sustained:165 mph (270 km/h)

Lowest pressure 910 mbar (hPa; 26.87 inHg)

Fatalities Around 90 total

Areas affected Cuba, Florida, The Bahamas

The 1924 Cuba hurricane is the earliest officially classified Category 5 Atlantic hurricane on the Saffir–Simpsonscale. It formed on October 14 in the western Caribbean Sea, slowly organizing as it tracked northwestward. ByOctober 16, it attained hurricane status to the east of the Yucatán Peninsula, and subsequently executed a smallcounterclockwise loop. On October 18, the hurricane began undergoing rapid deepening, and the next day it reachedan estimated peak intensity of 165 miles per hour (270 kilometres per hour). Shortly thereafter, it struck extremewestern Cuba at peak intensity, becoming the strongest hurricane on record to hit the country. Later the hurricaneweakened greatly, striking southwestern Florida with winds of 90 mph (150 km/h) in a sparsely populated region.While crossing the state it weakened to tropical storm status, and after accelerating east-northeastward, it wasabsorbed by a cold front on October 23 south of Bermuda.Across the western Caribbean Sea, the developing storm produced heavy rainfall and increased winds. Strong windsin western Cuba caused severe damage, with two small towns nearly destroyed. About 90 people were killed in thecountry, all in Pinar Del Rio Province. Later, the hurricane brought heavy rainfall to southern Florida, which causedflooding and crop damage. Damage was light in the state, and there were no casualties.

1924 Cuba hurricane 62

Meteorological historyOn October 14, a tropical depression was first observed over the western Caribbean Sea, just off the easternHonduras coast. It was a large and weak tropical cyclone, moving slowly northwestward and gradually intensifying.On October 15, it is estimated the depression attained tropical storm status, and its strengthening became moresteady. The next day, the storm reached hurricane status about 130 mi (215 km) southeast of Cozumel, QuintanaRoo. Around that time, it began to execute a small counterclockwise loop off the east coast of the Yucatán Peninsula.By October 18 the hurricane completed the loop, during which its winds increased to 115 mph (185 km/h); this is theequivalence of a major hurricane, or a Category 3 on the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale. The estimation of itsstrength at this point was based on subsequent analysis of peripheral recordings of atmospheric pressure andmaximum sustained winds by ships and land stations.[1]

Beginning late on October 18 as it tracked north-northeastward toward Cuba, the hurricane underwent rapiddeepening, evidenced by a ship wind report of 120 mph (193 km/h). This wind report was initially thought to be thepeak intensity of the cyclone; however, subsequent research confirmed further deepening, based on very lowpressures recorded across the region. A ship in the radius of maximum winds reported a reading of 922 mbar; thebarometer on the ship was found to be 5 mbar too high, resulting in a pressure of 917 mbar.[1] Additionally, a stationon land reported a pressure of 932 mbar (27.52 inHg).[2] Based on the readings, the Hurricane Research Divisionestimated the hurricane attained a minimum central pressure of 910 mbar very near the western coast of Cuba; thissuggested peak winds of 165 mph (270 km/h). Late on October 19, the hurricane made landfall in extreme westernCuba in Pinar del Río Province.[1] Dr. Jose C. Millas, director of the National Observatory at Havana, believed that"this hurricane [was] one of the most severe ever experienced in our latitudes."[2]

After exiting Cuba into the Gulf of Mexico, the hurricane weakened greatly. On October 20 it passed a short distancewest of Key West, Florida, and very early on October 21 the hurricane moved over Marco Island with winds of90 mph (150 km/h). The cyclone weakened further as it turned eastward through the state, deteriorating to tropicalstorm status as it passed near or over Miami. It accelerated east-northeastward, moving over the Abaco Islands inThe Bahamas. Gradually weakening, the storm interacted with an approaching cold front; late on October 23 ittransitioned into an extratropical cyclone, and shortly thereafter it was absorbed by the front.[1]

Impact and records

Most intense Atlantic hurricanes

Rank Hurricane Season Pressure

hPa inHg

1 Wilma 2005 882 26.0

2 Gilbert 1988 888 26.2

3 "Labor Day" 1935 892 26.3

4 Rita 2005 895 26.4

5 Allen 1980 899 26.5

6 Katrina 2005 902 26.6

7 Camille 1969 905 26.7

Mitch 1998 905 26.7

Dean 2007 905 26.7

10 "Cuba" 1924 910 26.9

Ivan 2004 910 26.9

1924 Cuba hurricane 63

Source: HURDAT[3]

As a developing tropical cyclone, the storm produced increased winds and lower pressures in the Swan Islands, offthe coast of Honduras.[1] Heavy rainfall occurred throughout Jamaica, causing street flooding and several mudslides,but little damage. No disruptions were reported to communications or railway travel.[4] The storm brushed easternBelize while located off the coast, producing 3.62 inches (21.9 mm) of rainfall and light winds.[5]

In extreme western Cuba, damage was very severe from the strong winds, likened to the impact of a tornado. Severedamage was reported in Los Arroyos and Arroyos de Mantua. In the latter location, around a dozen people werekilled, 50 were injured, and nearly every building in the town was severely damaged; heavy losses also occurred tothe tobacco crop.[2] Across western Pinar del Rio Province, the hurricane destroyed all communication links.[6]

Further from the center, the capital city of Havana recorded southerly winds of 72 mph (116 km/h), as well as aminimum pressure of about 999 mbar (29.50 inHg).[2] Around the country, the hurricane capsized several ships,primarily fishing vessels. The death toll in the country was estimated at around 90.[6] In the days after the storm,Cuban President Zayas authorized about $30,000 in relief aid to send to hurricane victims in Pinar del Rio.[7]

Several days prior to striking Florida, the outer circulation began producing rainfall across the state. Storm warningswere issued along the east and west coastlines northward to Cedar Key and Titusville.[8] Later, hurricane warningswere issued for much of the same area,[9] and schools in the Tampa area were closed as the storm was expected tomove ashore.[10] The hurricane first affected Florida when it passed west of Key West, where sustained winds of66 mph (107 km/h), along with gusts to 74 mph (120 km/h), were reported. Little damage occurred in the region,limited to downed trees; this was due to advanced warning by the U.S. Weather Bureau, which advised ships toremain at port and for residents to secure property.[2] Later, the hurricane moved ashore in a sparsely populatedregion of southwestern Florida.[2] Damage was reported in Fort Myers and Punta Gorda and communications weretemporarily cut, although no deaths were reported.[11] Heavy rainfall was reported along its path, and one locationaccumulated 23.22 inches (590 mm) in a 24 hour period; this established a new one-day rainfall record in the state. Astation in Miami recorded 12.18 inches (309 mm), and wind gusts in the area approached hurricane force. Thecombination of winds and rain damaged 5% of the local citrus and avocado crop.[1] The rainfall flooded streets,homes, and commercial buildings in the Miami area, and hundreds of people were left without telephone access.[12]

No impact was reported in the Bahamas.[1]

After a reanalysis of hurricanes between 1921 and 1925, the Hurricane Research Division determined this hurricaneattained winds of 165 mph (270 km/h), making it a Category 5 on the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale. Thehurricane is the earliest known to have attained the intensity, besting the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane, which waspreviously thought to be the earliest storm of this intensity. It is also the only on record to make landfall on Cuba atCategory 5 status.[1] A hurricane in 1846 that hit the country was also thought to have struck at Category 5 status,although the storm existed prior to the start of the Atlantic hurricane database.[13] When the steamship "Toledo"recorded an atmospheric pressure of 922 mbar (27.22 inHg) in the storm, it was the lowest pressure recorded in anAtlantic hurricane, breaking the previous record of 924 mbar (27.28 inHg) in the Atlantic hurricane of 1853. Therecord during this storm lasted until the 1932 Cuba hurricane, when a pressure of 915 mbar (27.02 inHg) wasreported.[14] The reading of 932 mbar (27.52 inHg) at Los Arroyos in Mantua, Pinar del Rio remains the lowestpressure recorded on land in Cuba.[15]

1924 Cuba hurricane 64

References[1] Steve Feuer, Ramon Perez Suarez, Ricardo Prieto, and Jorge Sanchez-Sesma (March 2009). "Documentation of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones

Changes in HURDAT: Hurricane #10 in 1924" (http:/ / www. aoml. noaa. gov/ hrd/ hurdat/ metadata_mar09. html#1924_10). HurricaneResearch Division. . Retrieved 2009-03-21.

[2] Charles L. Mitchell (October 1924). "Notes on the West Indian Hurricane of October 14–23, 1924" (http:/ / www. aoml. noaa. gov/ hrd/hurdat/ mwr_pdf/ 1924. pdf) (PDF). U.S. Weather Bureau. . Retrieved 2009-03-21.

[3] Hurricane Research Division (August 2011). "Atlantic hurricane best track (Hurdat)" (http:/ / www. aoml. noaa. gov/ hrd/ hurdat/tracks1851to2010_atl_reanal. html). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. . Retrieved 2011-09-19.

[4] Staff Writer (1924-10-17). "Storm Danger Passed; Heavy Rains in Island: Conditions in the City" (http:/ / www. thehurricanearchive. com/Viewer. aspx?img=14885493_clean& firstvisit=true& src=search& currentResult=8& currentPage=0). The Daily Gleaner. . Retrieved2009-03-24.

[5] Hurricane Research Division (March 2009). "Raw Observations for Hurricane #10, 1924" (http:/ / www. aoml. noaa. gov/ hrd/ hurdat/excelfiles_centerfix/ 192410. xls) (XLS). . Retrieved 2009-03-24.

[6] Alejandro Bezanilla (January 2000). "Minimum chronology of big nature disasters occurred on Cuba in the XX century" (http:/ / www. met.inf. cu/ sometcuba/ boletin/ v06_n01/ english/ history_3. htm). SOMETCUBA Bulletin. Cuban Meteorological Society. . Retrieved2009-03-24.

[7] Staff Writer (1924-10-24). "Cuba Sends $30,000 in Hurricane Aid" (http:/ / www. thehurricanearchive. com/ Viewer.aspx?img=68102630_clean& firstvisit=true& src=search& currentResult=5& currentPage=0). San Antonio Light. . Retrieved 2009-03-24.

[8] Staff Writer (1924-10-19). "Tropical Storm Now a Hurricane; Shifts to North" (http:/ / www. thehurricanearchive. com/ Viewer.aspx?img=68210913_clean& firstvisit=true& src=search& currentResult=6& currentPage=0). Associated Press. . Retrieved 2009-03-24.

[9] Staff Writer (1924-10-20). "Warnings Issued for the Benefit of Marine Circles" (http:/ / www. thehurricanearchive. com/ Viewer.aspx?img=45181796_clean& firstvisit=true& src=search& currentResult=0& currentPage=0). Associated Press. . Retrieved 2009-03-24.

[10] Staff Writer (1924-10-20). "Tampa Prepares for Hurricane; Schools Closed" (http:/ / www. thehurricanearchive. com/ Viewer.aspx?img=56898897_clean& firstvisit=true& src=search& currentResult=1& currentPage=0). International News Service. . Retrieved2009-03-24.

[11] Staff Writer (1924-10-24). "Gulf Hurricane Strikes Florida" (http:/ / www. thehurricanearchive. com/ Viewer. aspx?img=21011776_clean&firstvisit=true& src=search& currentResult=1& currentPage=0). United Press. . Retrieved 2009-03-24.

[12] Staff Writer (1924-10-19). "Miami Hit By Flood Waters and Loss Big" (http:/ / www. thehurricanearchive. com/ Viewer.aspx?img=36604029_clean& firstvisit=true& src=search& currentResult=4& currentPage=0). The Lincoln Sunday Star. . Retrieved2009-03-24.

[13] Alejandro Bezanilla (August 2001). "Meteorological Records in Cuba" (http:/ / www. met. inf. cu/ sometcuba/ boletin/ v07_n02/ english/records_eng. htm). SOMETCUBA Bulletin. Cuban Meteorological Society. . Retrieved 2009-03-24.

[14] José Fernández Partagás (1993). "Impact on Hurricane History of a Revised Lowest Pressure at Havana (Cuba) During the October 11, 1846Hurricane" (http:/ / www. aoml. noaa. gov/ hrd/ Landsea/ Partagas/ impacthurrhist. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2009-03-23.

[15] Alejandro Bezanilla (January 2000). "Meteorological Records in Cuba (2)" (http:/ / www. met. inf. cu/ sometcuba/ boletin/ v06_n01/english/ records_eng. htm). SOMETCUBA Bulletin. Cuban Meteorological Society. . Retrieved 2009-03-24.

2006 Nova Scotia tropical storm 65

2006 Nova Scotia tropical storm

Unnamed Tropical Storm

Tropical storm (SSHS)

Storm near peak intensity

Formed July 17, 2006

Dissipated July 18, 2006

Highest winds 1-minute sustained:50 mph (85 km/h)

Lowest pressure 998 mbar (hPa; 29.47 inHg)

Fatalities None reported

Areas affected Newfoundland

The 2006 Nova Scotia tropical storm was a short-lived tropical cyclone that was unnamed operationally during theseason but was recognized during post-season analysis and designated AL022006. The second tropical storm of the2006 Atlantic hurricane season, the system developed as an extratropical cyclone to the southeast of Nantucket,Massachusetts, on July 16 from a dissipating cold front. It tracked northeastward over warm water temperatures, andon July 17 transitioned into a tropical storm after an area of convection developed over the center. The storm quicklyreached peak winds of 50 mph (85 km/h) before encountering cooler waters and weakening. On July 18, itdegenerated into a non-convective remnant low, and after crossing Newfoundland it dissipated on July 19. Impact inCanada was minimal, and no deaths were reported.

2006 Nova Scotia tropical storm 66

Meteorological history

Storm path

A cold front moved off the East Coast of the United States late on July13 and subsequently stalled over the western Atlantic Ocean.[1] Thefront decayed and dissipated, leaving behind two areas of low pressure.The southern area was centered about 200 miles (320 km) south ofCape Hatteras, North Carolina[2] and ultimately became TropicalStorm Beryl,[3] while the northern area was centered about 290 miles(470 km) south-southeast of Cape Cod, Massachusetts.[2] The northernarea developed into an extratropical low on July 16 after an upper-leveltrough approached it from the west. Moving northeastward over warm

water temperatures of 80–82° F (27–28° C), the trough weakened, and late on July 16 the system separated itselffrom the dissipating cold front. Shortly thereafter, a large burst of convection developed near the center, and it isestimated the system transitioned into a tropical depression early on July 17 while located about 240 miles (390 km)southeast of Nantucket, Massachusetts.[1]

Accelerating northeastward, the depression encountered favorable conditions for development, and intensified into atropical storm six hours after becoming a tropical cyclone. A large curved band of convection formed in the northernportion of the storm, with other banding features becoming more prominent. It continued to strengthen, and late onJuly 17 the storm attained peak winds of 50 mph (85 km/h) while located about 245 miles (395 km) south of Halifax,Nova Scotia. Shortly thereafter, the storm encountered much cooler water temperatures after leaving the GulfStream. The storm quickly weakened as the convection rapidly diminished, and on July 18 it degenerated into anon-convective remnant low. The remnants crossed Newfoundland before turning to the east-northeast, and on July19 the system dissipated.[1]

Operationally, the storm was classified as a non-tropical gale. However, a post-season analysis of the storm providedenough evidence of tropical characteristics to warrant classifying it as an unnamed tropical storm. Observationsanalyzed the storm as having a symmetric warm-core, whereas in real time it was considered subtropical.Additionally, the storm was first assessed as a frontal low in real-time, though subsequent analysis indicated nofrontal features and no cold air entrainment around the time of its peak intensity.[1]

Impact and naming

Storm prior to hitting Newfoundland

Upon entering the area of responsibility of the CanadianHurricane Centre, a Canadian buoy recorded maximumsustained winds of 36 mph (56 km/h) with gusts to 44 mph(70 km/h).[4] The same buoy recorded a pressure of1001.2 mbar (29.57 inHg).[1] The storm greatly weakenedprior to moving across Newfoundland, and as a result impactwas minimal.[4] No official forecasts were issued for thesystem;[1] however the Atlantic Storm Prediction Centreissued marine gale warnings for the storm.[4]

As part of its routine post-season review, the NationalHurricane Center occasionally identifies a previouslyundesignated tropical or subtropical cyclone based on newdata or meteorological interpretation. The reanalysis of 2006resulted in its re-classification as an unnamed tropical stormon December 15, 2006; had it been classified operationally, it would have been named Tropical Storm Beryl.[1]

2006 Nova Scotia tropical storm 67

References[1] Eric S. Blake and John L. Beven (2006). "Unnamed Tropical Storm Tropical Cyclone Report" (http:/ / www. nhc. noaa. gov/ pdf/

TCR-AL502006_Unnamed. pdf). National Hurricane Center. . Retrieved 2007-06-20.[2] Mainelli & Beven (2006). "July 16, 2006 Tropical Weather Outlook (2)" (ftp:/ / ftp. met. fsu. edu/ pub/ weather/ tropical/ Outlook-A/

2006071621. ABNT20). National Hurricane Center. . Retrieved 2007-06-20.[3] Richard Pasch (2006). "Tropical Storm Beryl Tropical Cyclone Report" (http:/ / www. nhc. noaa. gov/ pdf/ TCR-AL022006_Beryl. pdf).

National Hurricane Center. . Retrieved 2007-06-20.[4] Canadian Hurricane Centre (2007). "2006 Atlantic Hurricane Season Review" (http:/ / www. atl. ec. gc. ca/ weather/ hurricane/ storm06.

html). . Retrieved 2007-06-20.

External links• NHC Tropical Cyclone Report (http:/ / www. nhc. noaa. gov/ pdf/ TCR-AL502006_Unnamed. pdf)

68

Renewable and Non-renewable Sources ofEnergy

BiomassBiomass, as a renewable energy source, is biological material from living, or recently living organisms.[1] As anenergy source, biomass can either be used directly, or converted into other energy products such as biofuel.In the first sense, biomass is plant matter used to generate electricity with steam turbines & gasifiers or produce heat,usually by direct combustion. Examples include forest residues (such as dead trees, branches and tree stumps), yardclippings, wood chips and even municipal solid waste. In the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matterthat can be converted into fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Industrial biomass can be grownfrom numerous types of plants, including miscanthus, switchgrass, hemp, corn, poplar, willow, sorghum,sugarcane,[2] and a variety of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm (palm oil).

Biomass sources

Wood is a typical source of biomass

Biomass is carbon, hydrogen and oxygen based. Biomass energy isderived from five distinct energy sources: garbage, wood, waste,landfill gases, and alcohol fuels. Wood energy is derived both fromdirect use of harvested wood as a fuel and from wood waste streams.The largest source of energy from wood is pulping liquor or “blackliquor,” a waste product from processes of the pulp, paper andpaperboard industry. Waste energy is the second-largest source ofbiomass energy. The main contributors of waste energy are municipalsolid waste (MSW), manufacturing waste, and landfill gas. Biomassalcohol fuel, or ethanol, is derived primarily from sugarcane and corn.It can be used directly as a fuel or as an additive to gasoline.[3]

Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy like methane gas or transportation fuels like ethanol andbiodiesel. Rotting garbage, and agricultural and human waste, release methane gas - also called "landfill gas" or"biogas." Crops like corn and sugar cane can be fermented to produce the transportation fuel, ethanol. Biodiesel,another transportation fuel, can be produced from left-over food products like vegetable oils and animal fats.[4] Also,Biomass to liquids (BTLs) and cellulosic ethanol are still under research.[5] [6]

The biomass used for electricity production ranges by region.[7] Forest by products, such as wood residues, arepopular in the United States.[7] Agricultural waste is common in Mauritius (sugar cane residue) and Southeast Asia(rice husks).[7] Animal husbandry residues, such as poultry litter, is popular in the UK.[7]

Biomass 69

Biomass conversion process to useful energyThere are a number of technological options available to make use of a wide variety of biomass types as a renewableenergy source. Conversion technologies may release the energy directly, in the form of heat or electricity, or mayconvert it to another form, such as liquid biofuel or combustible biogas. While for some classes of biomass resourcethere may be a number of usage options, for others there may be only one appropriate technology.

Thermal conversionThese are processes in which heat is the dominant mechanism to convert the biomass into another chemical form.The basic alternatives of combustion, torrefaction, pyrolysis, and gasification are separated principally by the extentto which the chemical reactions involved are allowed to proceed (mainly controlled by the availability of oxygen andconversion temperature).There are a number of other less common, more experimental or proprietary thermal processes that may offerbenefits such as hydrothermal upgrading (HTU) and hydroprocessing. Some have been developed for use on highmoisture content biomass, including aqueous slurries, and allow them to be converted into more convenient forms.Some of the applications of thermal conversion are combined heat and power (CHP) and co-firing. In a typicalbiomass power plant, efficiencies range from 20–27%.[8]

Chemical conversionA range of chemical processes may be used to convert biomass into other forms, such as to produce a fuel that ismore conveniently used, transported or stored, or to exploit some property of the process itself.

Biochemical conversion

A microbial electrolysis cell can be used to directly make hydrogen gas from plant matter

As biomass is a natural material, many highly efficient biochemical processes have developed in nature to breakdown the molecules of which biomass is composed, and many of these biochemical conversion processes can beharnessed.Biochemical conversion makes use of the enzymes of bacteria and other micro-organisms to break down biomass. In most cases micro-organisms are used to perform the conversion process: anaerobic digestion, fermentation and composting. Other chemical processes such as converting straight and waste vegetable oils into biodiesel is

Biomass 70

transesterification.[9] Another way of breaking down biomass is by breaking down the carbohydrates and simplesugars to make alcohol. However, this process has not been perfected yet. Scientists are still researching the effectsof converting biomass.

Environmental impactThe existing biomass power generating industry in the United States, which consists of approximately 11,000 MWof summer operating capacity actively supplying power to the grid, produces about 1.4 percent of the U.S. electricitysupply.[10]

Currently, the New Hope Power Partnership is the largest biomass power plant in North America. The 140 MWfacility uses sugar cane fiber (bagasse) and recycled urban wood as fuel to generate enough power for its largemilling and refining operations as well as to supply renewable electricity for nearly 60,000 homes. The facilityreduces dependence on oil by more than one million barrels per year, and by recycling sugar cane and wood waste,preserves landfill space in urban communities in Florida.[11] [12]

Using biomass as a fuel produces air pollution in the form of carbon monoxide, NOx (nitrogen oxides), VOCs(volatile organic compounds), particulates and other pollutants, in some cases at levels above those from traditionalfuel sources such as coal or natural gas.[13] [14] [15] Black carbon - a pollutant created by incomplete combustion offossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass - is possibly the second largest contributor to global warming.[16] In 2009 aSwedish study of the giant brown haze that periodically covers large areas in South Asia determined that it had beenprincipally produced by biomass burning, and to a lesser extent by fossil-fuel burning.[17] Researchers measured asignificant concentration of 14C, which is associated with recent plant life rather than with fossil fuels.[18]

Biomass power plant size is often driven by biomass availability in close proximity as transport costs of the (bulky)fuel play a key factor in the plant's economics. It has to be noted, however, that rail and especially shipping onwaterways can reduce transport costs significantly, which has led to a global biomass market.[19] To make smallplants of 1 MWel economically profitable those power plants have need to be equipped with technology that is ableto convert biomass to useful electricity with high efficiency such as ORC technology, a cycle similar to the watersteam power process just with an organic working medium. Such small power plants can be found in Europe.[20] [21]

[22] [23]

On combustion, the carbon from biomass is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO2). The amount ofcarbon stored in dry wood is approximately 50% by weight.[24] When from agricultural sources, plant matter used asa fuel can be replaced by planting for new growth. When the biomass is from forests, the time to recapture thecarbon stored is generally longer, and the carbon storage capacity of the forest may be reduced overall if destructiveforestry techniques are employed.[25] [26] [27] [28]

Despite harvesting, biomass crops may sequester carbon. So for example soil organic carbon has been observed to begreater in switchgrass stands than in cultivated cropland soil, especially at depths below 12 inches.[29] The grasssequesters the carbon in its increased root biomass. Typically, perennial crops sequester much more carbon thanannual crops due to much greater non-harvested living biomass, both living and dead, built up over years, and muchless soil disruption in cultivation.The biomass-is-carbon-neutral proposal put forward in the early 1990s has been superseded by more recent sciencethat recognizes that mature, intact forests sequester carbon more effectively than cut-over areas. When a tree’s carbonis released into the atmosphere in a single pulse, it contributes to climate change much more than woodland timberrotting slowly over decades. Current studies indicate that "even after 50 years the forest has not recovered to itsinitial carbon storage" and "the optimal strategy is likely to be protection of the standing forest".[30] [31] [32]

Biomass 71

References[1] Biomass Energy Center (http:/ / www. biomassenergycentre. org. uk/ portal/ page?_pageid=76,15049& _dad=portal& _schema=PORTAL)[2] T.A. Volk, L.P. Abrahamson, E.H. White, E. Neuhauser, E. Gray, C. Demeter, C. Lindsey, J. Jarnefeld, D.J. Aneshansley, R. Pellerin and S.

Edick (October 15–19, 2000). "Developing a Willow Biomass Crop Enterprise for Bioenergy and Bioproducts in the United States".Proceedings of Bioenergy 2000. Adam's Mark Hotel, Buffalo, New York, USA: North East Regional Biomass Program. OCLC 45275154.

[3] Energy Information Administration (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ cneaf/ solar. renewables/ page/ biomass/ biomass. html)[4] Energy Kids (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ kids/ energyfacts/ sources/ renewable/ biomass. html)[5] "Fuel Ethanol Production: GSP Systems Biology Research" (http:/ / genomicscience. energy. gov/ biofuels/ ethanolproduction. shtml). U.S.

Department of Energy Office of Science. April 19, 2010. . Retrieved 2010-08-02.[6] "Breaking the Biological Barriers to Cellulosic Ethanol: A Joint Research Agenda" (http:/ / genomicscience. energy. gov/ biofuels/

2005workshop/ 2005low_lignocellulosic. pdf). June 2006. . Retrieved 2010-08-02.[7] Frauke Urban and Tom Mitchell 2011. Climate change, disasters and electricity generation (http:/ / www. odi. org. uk/ resources/ details.

asp?id=5792& title=climate-change-disasters-electricity-generation). London: Overseas Development Institute and Institute for DevelopmentStudies

[8] Owning and Operating Costs of Waste and Biomass Power Plants (http:/ / www. claverton-energy. com/owning-and-operating-costs-of-waste-and-biomass-power-plants. html)

[9] http:/ / www. biomassenergycentre. org. uk/ portal/ page?_pageid=75,15179& _dad=portal& _schema=PORTAL[10] "U.S. Electric Net Summer Capacity" (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ cneaf/ alternate/ page/ renew_energy_consump/ table4. html). U.S.

Energy Information Administration. July 2009. . Retrieved 2010-01-25.[11] Agreement for Generating Balancing Service (http:/ / www. ferc. gov/ EventCalendar/ Files/ 20070820160118-ER07-1070-000. pdf)[12] Biomass: Can Renewable Power Grow on Trees? (http:/ / www. scientificamerican. com/ article. cfm?id=biomass-renewable-power-wood)[13] Eartha Jane Melzer (January 26, 2010). "Proposed biomass plant: Better than coal?" (http:/ / michiganmessenger. com/ 33868/

proposed-biomass-plant-better-than-coal). The Michigan Messenger. .[14] Zhang, J.; Smith, K. R. (2007). "Household Air Pollution from Coal and Biomass Fuels in China: Measurements, Health Impacts, and

Interventions". Environmental Health Perspectives 115 (6): 848–855. doi:10.1289/ehp.9479. PMC 1892127. PMID 17589590.[15] http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ index/ M36715RK56PTL772. pdf[16] 2009 State Of The World, Into a Warming World, Worldwatch Institute, 56-57, ISBN 978-0-393-33418-0[17] Science, 2009, 323, 495[18] Biomass burning leads to Asian brown cloud, Chemical & Engineering News, 87, 4, 31[19] Production and trading of biomass for energy – An overview of the global status (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/

science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6V22-4WJ2CD8-1& _user=10& _coverDate=09/ 30/ 2009& _alid=1269765080& _rdoc=1& _fmt=high&_orig=search& _cdi=5690& _sort=r& _docanchor=& view=c& _ct=8239& _acct=C000050221& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=10&md5=2c2732705d80a05ebe7c547ef7f26680)

[20] Use of biomass by help of the ORC process (http:/ / www. gmk. info/ ORC_biomass. 548. html?)[21] How False Solutions to Climate Change Will Worsen Global Warming (http:/ / www. globaljusticeecology. org/ globalwarming. php)[22] Biofuel crops may worsen global warming: study (http:/ / www. ctv. ca/ servlet/ ArticleNews/ story/ CTVNews/ 20080209/

biofuel_crops_080209/ 20080209)[23] Biodiesel Will Not Drive Down Global Warming (http:/ / www. energy-daily. com/ reports/

Biodiesel_Will_Not_Drive_Down_Global_Warming_999. html)[24] Forest volume-to-biomass models and estimates of mass for live and standing dead trees of U.S. forests (http:/ / www. uvm. edu/ ~jcjenkin/

smith et al. 2003. pdf)[25] Prasad, Ram. "SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT FOR DRY FORESTS OF SOUTH ASIA" (http:/ / www. fao. org/ DOCREP/

003/ X6895E/ x6895e04. htm). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. . Retrieved 11 August 2010.[26] "Treetrouble: Testimonies on the Negative Impact of Large-scale Tree Plantations prepared for the sixth Conference of the Parties of the

Framework Convention on Climate Change" (http:/ / www. foei. org/ en/ resources/ forests/ treetrouble. html). Friends of the EarthInternational. . Retrieved 11 August 2010.

[27] Laiho, Raija; Sanchez, Felipe; Tiarks, Allan; Dougherty, Phillip M.; Trettin, Carl C.. "Impacts of intensive forestry on early rotation trendsin site carbon pools in the southeastern US" (http:/ / www. srs. fs. usda. gov/ pubs/ 5295). United States Department of Agriculture. . Retrieved11 August 2010.

[28] "THE FINANCIAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FEASIBILITY OF SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT" (http:/ / www. fao. org/DOCREP/ 003/ X4107E/ X4107E04. htm#P866_112288). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. . Retrieved 11 August2010.

[29] Soil Carbon under Switchgrass Stands and Cultivated Cropland (Interpretive Summary and Technical Abstract) (http:/ / www. ars. usda.gov/ research/ publications/ Publications. htm?seq_no_115=164741,). USDA Agricultural Research Service, April 1, 2005

[30] Jobs and Energy (http:/ / www. jobsandenergy. com)[31] Edmunds, Joe; Richard Richets; Marshall Wise, "Future Fossil Fuel Carbon Emissions without Policy Intervention: A Review". In T. M. L.

Wigley, David Steven Schimel, The carbon cycle. Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp.171-189

Biomass 72

[32] Luyssaert, Sebastiaan; -Detlef Schulze, E.; Börner, Annett; Knohl, Alexander; Hessenmöller, Dominik; Law, Beverly E.; Ciais, Philippe;Grace, John (11 September 2008). "Old-growth forests as global carbon sinks". Nature 455 (7210): 213–215. doi:10.1038/nature07276.PMID 18784722.

External links• Biomass Incineration (http:/ / www. energyjustice. net/ biomass/ )• INBIOX Biomass News (http:/ / biomassnews. com/ )• Biomass as an Energy Source - Växjö University (http:/ / www. vxu. se/ td/ english/ bioenergy/ blog/

biomass_as_an_energy_sour/ index. xml/ )• Biomass Thermal Energy Council (http:/ / www. biomassthermal. org/ )• Everything Biomass (http:/ / www. everythingbiomass. org/ )

73

We are Eco-friendly

Sustainability

Achieving sustainability will enable the Earth to continue supporting human life aswe know it. "Blue Marble" NASA composite images: 2001 (left), 2002 (right).

Sustainability is the capacity to endure. Forhumans, sustainability is the long-termmaintenance of well being, which hasenvironmental, economic, and socialdimensions, and encompasses the concept ofstewardship, the responsible management ofresource use. In ecology, sustainabilitydescribes how biological systems remaindiverse and productive over time, anecessary precondition for humanwell-being. Long-lived and healthy wetlandsand forests are examples of sustainablebiological systems.

Healthy ecosystems and environments provide vital goods and services to humans and other organisms. There aretwo major ways of managing human impact on ecosystem services. One approach is environmental management;this approach is based largely on information gained from earth science, environmental science, and conservationbiology. Another approach is management of consumption of resources, which is based largely on informationgained from economics.

Human sustainability interfaces with economics through the social and ecological consequences of economicactivity. Moving towards sustainability is also a social challenge that entails, among other factors, international andnational law, urban planning and transport, local and individual lifestyles and ethical consumerism. Ways of livingmore sustainably can take many forms from reorganising living conditions (e.g., ecovillages, eco-municipalities andsustainable cities), to reappraising work practices (e.g., using permaculture, green building, sustainable agriculture),or developing new technologies that reduce the consumption of resources.

Sustainability 74

Definition

A diagram indicating the relationship between the three pillars of sustainabilitysuggesting that both economy and society are constrained by environmental

limits[1]

Scheme of sustainable development: any biological biome, at the confluence ofthree constituent parts.<ref name=Adams2006>Adams, W.M. (2006). "The Futureof Sustainability: Re-thinking Environment and Development in the Twenty-firstCentury." [2] Report of the IUCN Renowned Thinkers Meeting, 29–31 January

2006. Retrieved on: 2009-02-16.</ref>

The word sustainability is derived from theLatin sustinere (tenere, to hold; sus "help""support", up). Dictionaries provide morethan ten meanings for sustain, the main onesbeing to “maintain", "support", or"endure”.[3] [4] However, since the 1980ssustainability has been used more in thesense of human sustainability on planetEarth and this has resulted in the mostwidely quoted definition of sustainabilityand sustainable development, that of theBrundtland Commission of the UnitedNations on March 20, 1987: “sustainabledevelopment is development that meets theneeds of the present without compromisingthe ability of future generations to meet theirown needs.”[5] [6]

At the 2005 World Summit it was noted thatthis requires the reconciliation ofenvironmental, social and economicdemands - the "three pillars" ofsustainability.[7] This view has beenexpressed as an illustration using threeoverlapping ellipses indicating that the threepillars of sustainability are not mutuallyexclusive and can be mutually reinforcing.[8]

The three pillars - or the 'triple bottom line' -have served as a common ground fornumerous sustainability standards andcertification systems in recent years, inparticular in the food industry.[9] Standardswhich today explicitly refer to the triplebottom line include Rainforest Alliance,Fairtrade, Utz Certified, and The CommonCode for the Coffee Community.[10] [11] Thetriple bottom line is also recognized by theISEAL Alliance - the global association forsocial and environmental standards.

The triple bottom line as defined by the UN is not universally accepted and has undergone various interpretations.[12]

[13] [14] What sustainability is, what its goals should be, and how these goals are to be achieved are all open tointerpretation.[15] For many environmentalists the idea of sustainable development is an oxymoron as developmentseems to entail environmental degradation.[16] Ecological economist Herman Daly has asked, "what use is a sawmill

without a forest?"[17] From this perspective, the economy is a subsystem of human society, which is itself a subsystem of the biosphere, and a gain in one sector is a loss from another.[18] This can be illustrated as three

Sustainability 75

concentric circles.A universally accepted definition of sustainability remains elusive because it is expected to achieve many things. Onthe one hand it needs to be factual and scientific, a clear statement of a specific “destination”. The simple definition"sustainability is improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supportingeco-systems",[19] though vague, conveys the idea of sustainability having quantifiable limits. But sustainability isalso a call to action, a task in progress or “journey” and therefore a political process, so some definitions set outcommon goals and values.[20] The Earth Charter[21] speaks of “a sustainable global society founded on respect fornature, universal human rights, economic justice, and a culture of peace.”To add complication the word sustainability is applied not only to human sustainability on Earth, but to manysituations and contexts over many scales of space and time, from small local ones to the global balance of productionand consumption. It can also refer to a future intention: "sustainable agriculture" is not necessarily a current situationbut a goal for the future, a prediction.[22] For all these reasons sustainability is perceived, at one extreme, as nothingmore than a feel-good buzzword with little meaning or substance[23] [24] but, at the other, as an important butunfocused concept like "liberty" or "justice".[25] It has also been described as a "dialogue of values that defiesconsensual definition".[26]

Some researchers and institutions have pointed out that these three dimensions are not enough to reflect thecomplexity of contemporary society and suggest that culture could be included in this development model.[27]

HistoryThe history of sustainability traces human-dominated ecological systems from the earliest civilizations to the present.This history is characterized by the increased regional success of a particular society, followed by crises that wereeither resolved, producing sustainability, or not, leading to decline.[28] [29]

In early human history, the use of fire and desire for specific foods may have altered the natural composition of plantand animal communities.[30] Between 8,000 and 10,000 years ago, Agrarian communities emerged which dependedlargely on their environment and the creation of a "structure of permanence."[31]

The Western industrial revolution of the 17th to 19th centuries tapped into the vast growth potential of the energy infossil fuels. Coal was used to power ever more efficient engines and later to generate electricity. Modern sanitationsystems and advances in medicine protected large populations from disease.[32] In the mid-20th century, a gatheringenvironmental movement pointed out that there were environmental costs associated with the many material benefitsthat were now being enjoyed. In the late 20th century, environmental problems became global in scale.[33] [34] [35]

[36] The 1973 and 1979 energy crises demonstrated the extent to which the global community had become dependenton non-renewable energy resources.In the 21st century, there is increasing global awareness of the threat posed by the human-induced enhancedgreenhouse effect, produced largely by forest clearing and the burning of fossil fuels.[37] [38]

Sustainability 76

Principles and conceptsThe philosophical and analytic framework of sustainability draws on and connects with many different disciplinesand fields; in recent years an area that has come to be called sustainability science has emerged.[39] Sustainabilityscience is not yet an autonomous field or discipline of its own, and has tended to be problem-driven and orientedtowards guiding decision-making.[40]

Scale and contextSustainability is studied and managed over many scales (levels or frames of reference) of time and space and inmany contexts of environmental, social and economic organization. The focus ranges from the total carryingcapacity (sustainability) of planet Earth to the sustainability of economic sectors, ecosystems, countries,municipalities, neighbourhoods, home gardens, individual lives, individual goods and services, occupations,lifestyles, behaviour patterns and so on. In short, it can entail the full compass of biological and human activity orany part of it.[41] As Daniel Botkin, author and environmentalist, has stated: "We see a landscape that is always influx, changing over many scales of time and space."[42]

Consumption — population, technology, resourcesA major driver of human impact on Earth systems is the destruction of biophysical resources, and especially, theEarth's ecosystems. The total environmental impact of a community or of humankind as a whole depends both onpopulation and impact per person, which in turn depends in complex ways on what resources are being used,whether or not those resources are renewable, and the scale of the human activity relative to the carrying capacity ofthe ecosystems involved. Careful resource management can be applied at many scales, from economic sectors likeagriculture, manufacturing and industry, to work organizations, the consumption patterns of households andindividuals and to the resource demands of individual goods and services.[43] [44]

One of the initial attempts to express human impact mathematically was developed in the 1970s and is called the IPAT formula. This formulation attempts to explain human consumption in terms of three components: populationnumbers, levels of consumption (which it terms "affluence", although the usage is different), and impact per unit ofresource use (which is termed "technology", because this impact depends on the technology used). The equation isexpressed:

I = P × A × TWhere: I = Environmental impact, P = Population, A = Affluence, T = Technology[45]

MeasurementSustainability measurement is a term that denotes the measurements used as the quantitative basis for the informedmanagement of sustainability.[46] The metrics used for the measurement of sustainability (involving thesustainability of environmental, social and economic domains, both individually and in various combinations) areevolving: they include indicators, benchmarks, audits, sustainability standards and certification systems likeFairtrade and Organic, indexes and accounting, as well as assessment, appraisal[47] and other reporting systems.They are applied over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales.[48] [49]

Some of the best known and most widely used sustainability measures include corporate sustainability reporting,Triple Bottom Line accounting, World Sustainability Society and estimates of the quality of sustainabilitygovernance for individual countries using the Environmental Sustainability Index and Environmental PerformanceIndex.

Sustainability 77

Population

Graph showing human population growth from 10,000 BC – AD 2000, illustratingcurrent exponential growth

According to the 2008 Revision of theofficial United Nations population estimatesand projections, the world population isprojected to reach 7 billion early in 2012, upfrom the current 6.9 billion (May 2009), toexceed 9 billion people by 2050. Most of theincrease will be in developing countrieswhose population is projected to rise from5.6 billion in 2009 to 7.9 billion in 2050.This increase will be distributed among thepopulation aged 15–59 (1.2 billion) and 60or over (1.1 billion) because the number ofchildren under age 15 in developingcountries is predicted to decrease. In contrast, the population of the more developed regions is expected to undergoonly slight increase from 1.23 billion to 1.28 billion, and this would have declined to 1.15 billion but for a projectednet migration from developing to developed countries, which is expected to average 2.4 million persons annuallyfrom 2009 to 2050.[50] Long-term estimates of global population suggest a peak at around 2070 of nine to ten billionpeople, and then a slow decrease to 8.4 billion by 2100.[51]

Emerging economies like those of China and India aspire to the living standards of the Western world as does thenon-industrialized world in general.[52] It is the combination of population increase in the developing world andunsustainable consumption levels in the developed world that poses a stark challenge to sustainability.[53]

Carrying capacityFurther information: Carrying capacity

Ecological footprint for different nations compared to their Human DevelopmentIndex (HDI)

At the global scale scientific data nowindicates that humans are living beyond thecarrying capacity of planet Earth and thatthis cannot continue indefinitely. Thisscientific evidence comes from manysources but is presented in detail in theMillennium Ecosystem Assessment and theplanetary boundaries framework.[54] Anearly detailed examination of global limitswas published in the 1972 book Limits toGrowth, which has prompted follow-upcommentary and analysis.[55] TheEcological footprint measures humanconsumption in terms of the biologicallyproductive land needed to provide theresources, and absorb the wastes of the average global citizen. In 2008 it required 2.7 global hectares per person,30% more than the natural biological capacity of 2.1 global hectares (assuming no provision for other organisms).[34]

The resulting ecological deficit must be met from unsustainable extra sources and these are obtained in three ways:embedded in the goods and services of world trade; taken from the past (e.g. fossil fuels); or borrowed from thefuture as unsustainable resource usage (e.g. by over exploiting forests and fisheries).

Sustainability 78

The figure (right) examines sustainability at the scale of individual countries by contrasting their EcologicalFootprint with their UN Human Development Index (a measure of standard of living). The graph shows what isnecessary for countries to maintain an acceptable standard of living for their citizens while, at the same time,maintaining sustainable resource use. The general trend is for higher standards of living to become less sustainable.As always, population growth has a marked influence on levels of consumption and the efficiency of resource use.[][56] The sustainability goal is to raise the global standard of living without increasing the use of resources beyondglobally sustainable levels; that is, to not exceed "one planet" consumption. Information generated by reports at thenational, regional and city scales confirm the global trend towards societies that are becoming less sustainable overtime.[57] [58]

Global human impact on biodiversityFurther information: Millennium Ecosystem AssessmentAt a fundamental level energy flow and biogeochemical cycling set an upper limit on the number and mass oforganisms in any ecosystem.[59] Human impacts on the Earth are demonstrated in a general way through detrimentalchanges in the global biogeochemical cycles of chemicals that are critical to life, most notably those of water,oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus.[60]

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment is an international synthesis by over 1000 of the world's leading biologicalscientists that analyses the state of the Earth’s ecosystems and provides summaries and guidelines fordecision-makers. It concludes that human activity is having a significant and escalating impact on the biodiversity ofworld ecosystems, reducing both their resilience and biocapacity. The report refers to natural systems as humanity's"life-support system", providing essential "ecosystem services". The assessment measures 24 ecosystem servicesconcluding that only four have shown improvement over the last 50 years, 15 are in serious decline, and five are in aprecarious condition.[61]

Environmental dimensionHealthy ecosystems provide vital goods and services to humans and other organisms. There are two major ways ofreducing negative human impact and enhancing ecosystem services and the first of these is environmentalmanagement. This direct approach is based largely on information gained from earth science, environmental scienceand conservation biology. However, this is management at the end of a long series of indirect causal factors that areinitiated by human consumption, so a second approach is through demand management of human resource use.Management of human consumption of resources is an indirect approach based largely on information gained fromeconomics. Herman Daly has suggested three broad criteria for ecological sustainability: renewable resources shouldprovide a sustainable yield (the rate of harvest should not exceed the rate of regeneration); for non-renewableresources there should be equivalent development of renewable substitutes; waste generation should not exceed theassimilative capacity of the environment.[62]

Environmental managementAt the global scale and in the broadest sense environmental management involves the oceans, freshwater systems,land and atmosphere, but following the sustainability principle of scale it can be equally applied to any ecosystemfrom a tropical rainforest to a home garden.[63] [64]

Atmosphere

In March 2009 at a meeting of the Copenhagen Climate Council, 2,500 climate experts from 80 countries issued a keynote statement that there is now "no excuse" for failing to act on global warming and that without strong carbon reduction "abrupt or irreversible" shifts in climate may occur that "will be very difficult for contemporary societies to cope with".[65] [66] Management of the global atmosphere now involves assessment of all aspects of the carbon cycle

Sustainability 79

to identify opportunities to address human-induced climate change and this has become a major focus of scientificresearch because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities (see Energy below).Other human impacts on the atmosphere include the air pollution in cities, the pollutants including toxic chemicalslike nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, volatile organic compounds and particulate matter that produce photochemicalsmog and acid rain, and the chlorofluorocarbons that degrade the ozone layer. Anthropogenic particulates such assulfate aerosols in the atmosphere reduce the direct irradiance and reflectance (albedo) of the Earth's surface. Knownas global dimming, the decrease is estimated to have been about 4% between 1960 and 1990 although the trend hassubsequently reversed. Global dimming may have disturbed the global water cycle by reducing evaporation andrainfall in some areas. It also creates a cooling effect and this may have partially masked the effect of greenhousegases on global warming.[67]

Freshwater and Oceans

Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. Of this, 97.5% is the salty water of the oceans and only 2.5% freshwater,most of which is locked up in the Antarctic ice sheet. The remaining freshwater is found in glaciers, lakes, rivers,wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. Due to the water cycle, fresh water supply is continually replenished byprecipitation, however there is still a limited amount necessitating management of this resource. Awareness of theglobal importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as, during the 20th century,more than half the world’s wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Increasingurbanization pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe water.[68]

Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green (soil wateravailable for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management.[69]

Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and, in turn, the food supply of bothhumans and other organisms. Scientists have warned of the possibility, under the influence of climate change, of asudden alteration in circulation patterns of ocean currents that could drastically alter the climate in some regions ofthe globe.[70] Ten per cent of the world's population – about 600 million people – live in low-lying areas vulnerableto sea level rise.

Land use

A rice paddy. Rice, wheat, corn and potatoesmake up more than half the world's food supply.

Loss of biodiversity stems largely from the habitat loss andfragmentation produced by the human appropriation of land fordevelopment, forestry and agriculture as natural capital is progressivelyconverted to man-made capital. Land use change is fundamental to theoperations of the biosphere because alterations in the relativeproportions of land dedicated to urbanisation, agriculture, forest,woodland, grassland and pasture have a marked effect on the globalwater, carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles and this can impactnegatively on both natural and human systems.[71] At the local humanscale, major sustainability benefits accrue from sustainable parks andgardens and green cities.[72] [73]

Since the Neolithic Revolution about 47% of the world’s forests havebeen lost to human use. Present-day forests occupy about a quarter ofthe world’s ice-free land with about half of these occurring in the tropics.[74] In temperate and boreal regions forestarea is gradually increasing (with the exception of Siberia), but deforestation in the tropics is of major concern.[75]

Food is essential to life. Feeding more than six billion human bodies takes a heavy toll on the Earth’s resources. This begins with the appropriation of about 38% of the Earth’s land surface[76] and about 20% of its net primary productivity.[77] Added to this are the resource-hungry activities of industrial agribusiness – everything from the

Sustainability 80

crop need for irrigation water, synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to the resource costs of food packaging, transport(now a major part of global trade) and retail. Environmental problems associated with industrial agriculture andagribusiness are now being addressed through such movements as sustainable agriculture, organic farming and moresustainable business practices.[78]

Management of human consumptionFurther information: Consumption (economics)

Helix of sustainability – the carbon cycle ofmanufacturing

The underlying driver of direct human impacts on the environment ishuman consumption.[79] This impact is reduced by not only consumingless but by also making the full cycle of production, use and disposalmore sustainable. Consumption of goods and services can be analysedand managed at all scales through the chain of consumption, startingwith the effects of individual lifestyle choices and spending patterns,through to the resource demands of specific goods and services, theimpacts of economic sectors, through national economies to the globaleconomy.[80] Analysis of consumption patterns relates resource use tothe environmental, social and economic impacts at the scale or contextunder investigation. The ideas of embodied resource use (the totalresources needed to produce a product or service), resource intensity,and resource productivity are important tools for understanding the impacts of consumption. Key resource categoriesrelating to human needs are food, energy, materials and water.

In 2010, the International Resource Panel, hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),published the first global scientific assessment on the impacts of consumption and production[81] and identifiedpriority actions for developed and developing countries. The study found that the most critical impacts are related toecosystem health, human health and resource depletion. From a production perspective, it found that fossil-fuelcombusting processes, agriculture and fisheries have the most important impacts. Meanwhile, from a finalconsumption perspective, it found that household consumption related to mobility, shelter, food and energy-usingproducts cause the majority of life-cycle impacts of consumption.

Energy

Flow of CO2 in an ecosystem

The Sun's energy, stored by plants (primary producers) duringphotosynthesis, passes through the food chain to other organisms toultimately power all living processes. Since the industrial revolutionthe concentrated energy of the Sun stored in fossilized plants as fossilfuels has been a major driver of technology which, in turn, has been thesource of both economic and political power. In 2007 climate scientistsof the IPCC concluded that there was at least a 90% probability thatatmospheric increase in CO2 was human-induced, mostly as a result offossil fuel emissions but, to a lesser extent from changes in land use.Stabilizing the world’s climate will require high-income countries toreduce their emissions by 60–90% over 2006 levels by 2050 whichshould hold CO2 levels at 450–650 ppm from current levels of about 380 ppm. Above this level, temperatures couldrise by more than 2°C to produce “catastrophic” climate change.[82] [83] Reduction of current CO2 levels must beachieved against a background of global population increase and developing countries aspiring to energy-intensivehigh consumption Western lifestyles.[84]

Sustainability 81

Reducing greenhouse emissions, is being tackled at all scales, ranging from tracking the passage of carbon throughthe carbon cycle[85] to the commercialization of renewable energy, developing less carbon-hungry technology andtransport systems and attempts by individuals to lead carbon neutral lifestyles by monitoring the fossil fuel useembodied in all the goods and services they use.[86]

Water

Further information: Water resourcesWater security and food security are inextricably linked. In the decade 1951–60 human water withdrawals were fourtimes greater than the previous decade. This rapid increase resulted from scientific and technological developmentsimpacting through the economy – especially the increase in irrigated land, growth in industrial and power sectors,and intensive dam construction on all continents. This altered the water cycle of rivers and lakes, affected their waterquality and had a significant impact on the global water cycle.[87] Currently towards 35% of human water use isunsustainable, drawing on diminishing aquifers and reducing the flows of major rivers: this percentage is likely toincrease if climate change impacts become more severe, populations increase, aquifers become progressivelydepleted and supplies become polluted and unsanitary.[88] From 1961 to 2001 water demand doubled - agriculturaluse increased by 75%, industrial use by more than 200%, and domestic use more than 400%.[89] In the 1990s it wasestimated that humans were using 40–50% of the globally available freshwater in the approximate proportion of70% for agriculture, 22% for industry, and 8% for domestic purposes with total use progressively increasing.[87]

Water efficiency is being improved on a global scale by increased demand management, improved infrastructure,improved water productivity of agriculture, minimising the water intensity (embodied water) of goods and services,addressing shortages in the non-industrialised world, concentrating food production in areas of high productivity,and planning for climate change. At the local level, people are becoming more self-sufficient by harvesting rainwaterand reducing use of mains water.[69] [90]

Food

Feijoada - A typical black bean food dish fromBrazil

Further information: Food and Food securityThe American Public Health Association (APHA) defines a"sustainable food system"[91] [92] as "one that provides healthy food tomeet current food needs while maintaining healthy ecosystems that canalso provide food for generations to come with minimal negativeimpact to the environment. A sustainable food system also encourageslocal production and distribution infrastructures and makes nutritiousfood available, accessible, and affordable to all. Further, it is humaneand just, protecting farmers and other workers, consumers, andcommunities."[93] Concerns about the environmental impacts ofagribusiness and the stark contrast between the obesity problems of theWestern world and the poverty and food insecurity of the developingworld have generated a strong movement towards healthy, sustainable eating as a major component of overall ethicalconsumerism.[94] The environmental effects of different dietary patterns depend on many factors, including theproportion of animal and plant foods consumed and the method of food production.[95] [96] [97] [98] The World HealthOrganization has published a Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health report which was endorsed bythe May 2004 World Health Assembly. It recommends the Mediterranean diet which is associated with health andlongevity and is low in meat, rich in fruits and vegetables, low in added sugar and limited salt, and low in saturatedfatty acids; the traditional source of fat in the Mediterranean is olive oil, rich in monounsaturated fat. The healthy

rice-based Japanese diet is also high in carbohydrates and low in fat. Both diets are low in meat and saturated fats and high in legumes and other vegetables; they are associated with a low incidence of ailments and low

Sustainability 82

environmental impact.[99]

At the global level the environmental impact of agribusiness is being addressed through sustainable agriculture andorganic farming. At the local level there are various movements working towards local food production, moreproductive use of urban wastelands and domestic gardens including permaculture, urban horticulture, local food,slow food, sustainable gardening, and organic gardening.[100] [101]

Sustainable seafood is seafood from either fished or farmed sources that can maintain or increase production in thefuture without jeopardizing the ecosystems from which it was acquired. The sustainable seafood movement hasgained momentum as more people become aware about both overfishing and environmentally-destructive fishingmethods.

Materials, toxic substances, waste

An electric wire reel reused as a center table in a Rio de Janeiro decorationfair. The reuse of materials is a sustainable practice that is rapidly growing

among designers in Brazil.

As global population and affluence hasincreased, so has the use of various materialsincreased in volume, diversity and distancetransported. Included here are raw materials,minerals, synthetic chemicals (includinghazardous substances), manufactured products,food, living organisms and waste.[102]

Sustainable use of materials has targeted the ideaof dematerialization, converting the linear pathof materials (extraction, use, disposal in landfill)to a circular material flow that reuses materialsas much as possible, much like the cycling andreuse of waste in nature.[103] This approach issupported by product stewardship and theincreasing use of material flow analysis at all

levels, especially individual countries and the global economy.[104]

The waste hierarchy

Synthetic chemical production has escalated following the stimulus itreceived during the second World War. Chemical production includeseverything from herbicides, pesticides and fertilizers to domesticchemicals and hazardous substances.[105] Apart from the build-up ofgreenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere, chemicals of particularconcern include: heavy metals, nuclear waste, chlorofluorocarbons,persistent organic pollutants and all harmful chemicals capable ofbioaccumulation. Although most synthetic chemicals are harmlessthere needs to be rigorous testing of new chemicals, in all countries, foradverse environmental and health effects. International legislation has been established to deal with the globaldistribution and management of dangerous goods.[106] [107]

Every economic activity produces material that can be classified as waste. To reduce waste industry, business andgovernment are now mimicking nature by turning the waste produced by industrial metabolism into resource.Dematerialization is being encouraged through the ideas of industrial ecology, ecodesign[108] and ecolabelling. Inaddition to the well-established “reduce, reuse and recycle,” shoppers are using their purchasing power for ethicalconsumerism.[44]

Sustainability 83

Economic dimensionFurther information: Ecological economics, Environmental economics, and Green economy

The Great Fish Market, painted by Jan Brueghelthe Elder

On one account, sustainability "concerns the specification of a set ofactions to be taken by present persons that will not diminish theprospects of future persons to enjoy levels of consumption, wealth,utility, or welfare comparable to those enjoyed by presentpersons."[109] Sustainability interfaces with economics through thesocial and ecological consequences of economic activity.[17]

Sustainability economics represents: "... a broad interpretation ofecological economics where environmental and ecological variablesand issues are basic but part of a multidimensional perspective. Social,cultural, health-related and monetary/financial aspects have to beintegrated into the analysis."[110] However, the concept ofsustainability is much broader than the concepts of sustained yield of welfare, resources, or profit margins.[111] Atpresent, the average per capita consumption of people in the developing world is sustainable but population numbersare increasing and individuals are aspiring to high-consumption Western lifestyles. The developed world populationis only increasing slightly but consumption levels are unsustainable. The challenge for sustainability is to curb andmanage Western consumption while raising the standard of living of the developing world without increasing itsresource use and environmental impact. This must be done by using strategies and technology that break the linkbetween, on the one hand, economic growth and on the other, environmental damage and resource depletion.[112]

A recent UNEP report proposes a green economy defined as one that “improves human well-being and social equity,while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities”: it "does not favour one politicalperspective over another but works to minimise excessive depletion of natural capital". The report makes three keyfindings: “that greening not only generates increases in wealth, in particular a gain in ecological commons or naturalcapital, but also (over a period of six years) produces a higher rate of GDP growth”; that there is “an inextricable linkbetween poverty eradication and better maintenance and conservation of the ecological commons, arising from thebenefit flows from natural capital that are received directly by the poor”; "in the transition to a green economy, newjobs are created, which in time exceed the losses in “brown economy” jobs. However, there is a period of job lossesin transition, which requires investment in re-skilling and re-educating the workforce”.[113]

Several key areas have been targeted for economic analysis and reform: the environmental effects of unconstrainedeconomic growth; the consequences of nature being treated as an economic externality; and the possibility of aneconomics that takes greater account of the social and environmental consequences of market behaviour.[114]

Decoupling environmental degradation and economic growthFurther information: Ecological economicsHistorically there has been a close correlation between economic growth and environmental degradation: ascommunities grow, so the environment declines. This trend is clearly demonstrated on graphs of human populationnumbers, economic growth, and environmental indicators.[115] Unsustainable economic growth has been starklycompared to the malignant growth of a cancer[116] because it eats away at the Earth's ecosystem services which areits life-support system. There is concern that, unless resource use is checked, modern global civilization will followthe path of ancient civilizations that collapsed through overexploitation of their resource base.[117] [118] Whileconventional economics is concerned largely with economic growth and the efficient allocation of resources,ecological economics has the explicit goal of sustainable scale (rather than continual growth), fair distribution andefficient allocation, in that order.[119] [120] The World Business Council for Sustainable Development states that"business cannot succeed in societies that fail".[121]

Sustainability 84

In economic and environmental fields, the term decoupling is becoming increasingly used in the context of economicproduction and environmental quality. When used in this way, it refers to the ability of an economy to grow withoutincurring corresponding increases in environmental pressure. Ecological economics includes the study of societalmetabolism, the throughput of resources that enter and exit the economic system in relation to environmentalquality.[122] [123] An economy that is able to sustain GDP growth without having a negative impact on theenvironment is said to be decoupled. Exactly how, if, or to what extent this can be achieved is a subject of muchdebate. In 2011 the International Resource Panel, hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),warned that by 2050 the human race could be devouring 140 billion tons of minerals, ores, fossil fuels and biomassper year – three times its current rate of consumption – unless nations can make serious attempts at decoupling.[124]

The report noted that citizens of developed countries consume an average of 16 tons of those four key resources percapita per annum (ranging up to 40 or more tons per person in some developed countries). By comparison, theaverage person in India today consumes four tons per year. Sustainability studies analyse ways to reduce resourceintensity (the amount of resource (e.g. water, energy, or materials) needed for the production, consumption anddisposal of a unit of good or service) whether this be achieved from improved economic management, productdesign, or new technology.[125]

Nature as an economic externality

Deforestation of native rain forest in Rio de Janeiro City for extraction of clay forcivil engineering (2009 picture)

Further information: Ecosystem servicesThe economic importance of nature isindicated by the use of the expressionecosystem services to highlight the marketrelevance of an increasingly scarce naturalworld that can no longer be regarded as bothunlimited and free.[126] In general, as acommodity or service becomes more scarcethe price increases and this acts as a restraintthat encourages frugality, technicalinnovation and alternative products.However, this only applies when the productor service falls within the marketsystem.[127] As ecosystem services aregenerally treated as economic externalitiesthey are unpriced and therefore overused and degraded, a situation sometimes referred to as the Tragedy of theCommons.[126]

One approach to this dilemma has been the attempt to "internalise" these "externalities" by using market strategieslike ecotaxes and incentives, tradeable permits for carbon, and the encouragement of payment for ecosystemservices. Community currencies associated with Local Exchange Trading Systems (LETS), a gift economy and TimeBanking have also been promoted as a way of supporting local economies and the environment.[128] [129] Greeneconomics is another market-based attempt to address issues of equity and the environment.[130] The globalrecession and a range of associated government policies are likely to bring the biggest annual fall in the world'scarbon dioxide emissions in 40 years.[131]

Sustainability 85

Economic opportunityTreating the environment as an externality may generate short-term profit at the expense of sustainability.[132]

Sustainable business practices, on the other hand, integrate ecological concerns with social and economic ones (i.e.,the triple bottom line).[133] [134] Growth that depletes ecosystem services is sometimes termed "uneconomic growth"as it leads to a decline in quality of life.[135] [136] Minimising such growth can provide opportunities for localbusinesses. For example, industrial waste can be treated as an "economic resource in the wrong place". The benefitsof waste reduction include savings from disposal costs, fewer environmental penalties, and reduced liabilityinsurance. This may lead to increased market share due to an improved public image.[137] [138] Energy efficiency canalso increase profits by reducing costs.The idea of sustainability as a business opportunity has led to the formation of organizations such as theSustainability Consortium of the Society for Organizational Learning, the Sustainable Business Institute, and theWorld Council for Sustainable Development.[139] Research focusing on progressive corporate leaders who haveembedded sustainability into commercial strategy has yielded a leadership competency model for sustainability.[140]

[141] The expansion of sustainable business opportunities can contribute to job creation through the introduction ofgreen-collar workers.[142]

Social dimensionFurther information: Social sustainabilitySustainability issues are generally expressed in scientific and environmental terms, as well as in ethical terms ofstewardship, but implementing change is a social challenge that entails, among other things, international andnational law, urban planning and transport, local and individual lifestyles and ethical consumerism.[143] "Therelationship between human rights and human development, corporate power and environmental justice, globalpoverty and citizen action, suggest that responsible global citizenship is an inescapable element of what may at firstglance seem to be simply matters of personal consumer and moral choice."[144]

Peace, security, social justiceFurther information: Peace and Social justiceSocial disruptions like war, crime and corruption divert resources from areas of greatest human need, damage thecapacity of societies to plan for the future, and generally threaten human well-being and the environment.[144]

Broad-based strategies for more sustainable social systems include: improved education and the politicalempowerment of women, especially in developing countries; greater regard for social justice, notably equity betweenrich and poor both within and between countries; and intergenerational equity.[53] Depletion of natural resourcesincluding fresh water[145] increases the likelihood of “resource wars”.[146] This aspect of sustainability has beenreferred to as environmental security and creates a clear need for global environmental agreements to manageresources such as aquifers and rivers which span political boundaries, and to protect shared global systems includingoceans and the atmosphere.[147]

Sustainability and PovertyFurther information: PovertyA major hurdle to achieve sustainability is the alleviation of poverty. It has been widely acknowledged that poverty is one source of environmental degradation. Such acknowledgment has been made by the Brundtland Commission report Our Common Future[148] and the Millennium Development Goals.[149] According to the Brundtland report, “poverty is a major cause and effect of global environmental problems. It is therefore futile to attempt to deal with environmental problems without a broader perspective that encompasses the factors underlying world poverty and international inequality.”[150] Individuals living in poverty tend to rely heavily on their local ecosystem as a source

Sustainability 86

for basic needs (such as nutrition and medicine) and general well-being.[151] As population growth continues toincrease, increasing pressure is being placed on the local ecosystem to provide these basic essentials. According tothe UN Population Fund, high fertility and poverty have been strongly correlated, and the world’s poorest countriesalso have the highest fertility and population growth rates.[152] The word sustainability is also used widely bywestern country development agencies and international charities to focus their poverty alleviation efforts in waysthat can be sustained by the local populous and its environment. For example, teaching water treatment to the poorby boiling their water with charcoal, would not generally be considered a sustainable strategy, whereas usingPETsolar water disinfection would be. Also, sustainable best practices can involve the recycling of materials, such asthe use of recycled plastics for lumber where deforestation has devastated a countries timber base. Another exampleof sustainable practices in poverty alleviation is the use of exported recycled materials from developed to developingcountries, such as Bridges to Prosperity's use of wire rope from shipping container gantry cranes to act as thestructural wire rope for footbridges that cross rivers in poor rural areas in Asia and Africa.[153]

Human relationship to natureAccording to Murray Bookchin, the idea that humans must dominate nature is common in hierarchical societies.Bookchin contends that capitalism and market relationships, if unchecked, have the capacity to reduce the planet to amere resource to be exploited. Nature is thus treated as a commodity: “The plundering of the human spirit by themarket place is paralleled by the plundering of the earth by capital.”[154]

Klein argues that nature should not be alienated from man and vice versa. Hence, in order to build and maintain abalance between the two, conservation approaches need to adopt a bottom-up and community involvement approachas opposed to a top-down and Yellowstone approach which alienates man from nature based on the premise that manis harmful to nature.[155]

Still more basically, Bookchin argued that most of the activities that consume energy and destroy the environmentare senseless because they contribute little to quality of life and well being. The function of work is to legitimize,even create, hierarchy. For this reason understanding the transformation of organic into hierarchical societies iscrucial to finding a way forward.[156]

Social ecology, founded by Bookchin, is based on the conviction that nearly all of humanity's present ecologicalproblems originate in, indeed are mere symptoms of, dysfunctional social arrangements. Whereas most authorsproceed as if our ecological problems can be fixed by implementing recommendations which stem from physical,biological, economic etc., studies, Bookchin's claim is that these problems can only be resolved by understanding theunderlying social processes and intervening in those processes by applying the concepts and methods of the socialsciences.[157]

Deep ecology establishes principles for the well-being of all life on Earth and the richness and diversity of life forms.This requires a substantial decrease in human population and consumption along with the reduction of humaninterference with the nonhuman world. To achieve this, deep ecologists advocate policies for basic economic,technological, and ideological structures that will improve the quality of life rather than the standard of living. Thosewho subscribe to these principles are obliged to make the necessary change happen.[158]

Human settlementsSustainability principles

1. Reduce dependence upon fossil fuels,underground metals, and minerals2. Reduce dependence upon synthetic chemicalsand other unnatural substances3. Reduce encroachment upon nature4. Meet human needs fairly & efficiently[159]

Sustainability 87

One approach to sustainable living, exemplified by small-scale urban transition towns and rural ecovillages, seeks tocreate self-reliant communities based on principles of simple living, which maximise self-sufficiency particularly infood production. These principles, on a broader scale, underpin the concept of a bioregional economy.[160] Otherapproaches, loosely based around new urbanism, are successfully reducing environmental impacts by altering thebuilt environment to create and preserve sustainable cities which support sustainable transport. Residents in compacturban neighbourhoods drive fewer miles, and have significantly lower environmental impacts across a range ofmeasures, compared with those living in sprawling suburbs.[161]

Large scale social movements can influence both community choices and the built environment. Eco-municipalitiesmay be one such movement.[162] Eco-municipalities take a systems approach, based on sustainability principles. Theeco-municipality movement is participatory, involving community members in a bottom-up approach. In Sweden,more than 70 cities and towns—25 per cent of all municipalities in the country—have adopted a common set of"Sustainability Principles" and implemented these systematically throughout their municipal operations. There arenow twelve eco-municipalities in the United States and the American Planning Association has adoptedsustainability objectives based on the same principles.[159]

There is a wealth of advice available to individuals wishing to reduce their personal impact on the environmentthrough small, inexpensive and easily achievable steps.[163] [164] But the transition required to reduce global humanconsumption to within sustainable limits involves much larger changes, at all levels and contexts of society.[165] TheUnited Nations has recognised the central role of education, and have declared a decade of education for sustainabledevelopment, 2005–2014, which aims to "challenge us all to adopt new behaviours and practices to secure ourfuture".[166] The Worldwide Fund for Nature proposes a strategy for sustainability that goes beyond education totackle underlying individualistic and materialistic societal values head-on and strengthen people's connections withthe natural world.[167]

Notes[1] Scott Cato, M. (2009). Green Economics. London: Earthscan, pp. 36–37. ISBN 9781844075713.[2] http:/ / cmsdata. iucn. org/ downloads/ iucn_future_of_sustanability. pdf[3] Dictionary.com (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ sustain)[4] Onions, Charles, T. (ed) (1964). The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 2095.[5] United Nations General Assembly (1987) Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future (http:/ /

www. un-documents. net/ wced-ocf. htm). Transmitted to the General Assembly as an Annex to document A/42/427 - Development andInternational Co-operation: Environment. Retrieved on: 2009-02-15.

[6] United Nations General Assembly (March 20, 1987). "Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our CommonFuture; Transmitted to the General Assembly as an Annex to document A/42/427 - Development and International Co-operation:Environment; Our Common Future, Chapter 2: Towards Sustainable Development; Paragraph 1" (http:/ / www. un-documents. net/ ocf-02.htm). United Nations General Assembly. . Retrieved 1 March 2010.

[7] United Nations General Assembly (2005). 2005 World Summit Outcome (http:/ / data. unaids. org/ Topics/ UniversalAccess/worldsummitoutcome_resolution_24oct2005_en. pdf), Resolution A/60/1, adopted by the General Assembly on 15 September 2005. Retrievedon: 2009-02-17.

[8] Forestry Commission of Great Britain. Sustainability (http:/ / www. forestry. gov. uk/ forestry/ edik-59fmzf). Retrieved on: 2009-03-09[9] Manning, S., Boons, F., Von Hagen, O., Reinecke, J. (2011). "National Contexts Matter: The Co-Evolution of Sustainability Standards in

Global Value Chains." Ecological Economics, Forthcoming.[10] SAI Platform 2010. Sustainability Indicators (http:/ / www. saiplatform. org/ activities/ alias/ sustainability-indicators). Sustainable

Agricultural Initiative. Retrieved on: 2011-09-04.[11] Alvarez, G. [www.intracen.org/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=51770 Sustainable Agriculture and Value networks]. Lausanne,

Switzerland: Latitude. Retrieved on: 2011-10-04.[12] International Institute for Sustainable Development (2009). What is Sustainable Development? (http:/ / www. iisd. org/ sd/ ). Retrieved on:

2009-02-18.][13] EurActiv (2004). "Sustainable Development: Introduction." (http:/ / www. euractiv. com/ en/ sustainability/

sustainable-development-introduction/ article-117539) Retrieved on: 2009-02-24[14] Kates, R., Parris, T. & Leiserowitz, A. (2005). "What is Sustainable Development?" (http:/ / www. hks. harvard. edu/ sustsci/ ists/ docs/

whatisSD_env_kates_0504. pdf) Environment 47(3): 8–21. Retrieved on: 2009-04-14.

Sustainability 88

[15] Holling, C. S. (2000). "Theories for Sustainable Futures" (http:/ / dlc. dlib. indiana. edu/ archive/ 00003398/ 01/ csholling. pdf) ConservationEcology 4(2): 7. Retrieved on: 2009-02-24.

[16] Redclift, M. (2005). " Sustainable Development (http:/ / onlinelibrary. wiley. com/ doi/ 10. 1002/ sd. v13:4/ issuetoc) (1987–2005): anOxymoron Comes of Age." Sustainable Development 13(4): 212–227.

[17] Daly & Cobb (1989).[18] Porritt, J. (2006). Capitalism as if the world mattered. London: Earthscan. p. 46. ISBN 9781844071937.[19] IUCN/UNEP/WWF (1991). "Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living." (http:/ / coombs. anu. edu. au/ ~vern/ caring/ caring.

html) Gland, Switzerland. Retrieved on: 2009-03-29.[20] Markus J., Milne M.K., Kearins, K., & Walton, S. (2006). Creating Adventures in Wonderland: The Journey Metaphor and Environmental

Sustainability. (http:/ / org. sagepub. com/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 13/ 6/ 801) Organization 13(6): 801-839. Retrieved on 2009-09-23.[21] The Earth Charter Initiative (2000). "The Earth Charter." (http:/ / www. earthcharterinaction. org/ content/ pages/ Read-the-Charter. html)

Retrieved on: 2009-04-05.[22] Costanza, R. & Patten, B.C. (1995). "Defining and predicting sustainability." Ecological Economics 15 (3): 193–196.[23] Dunning, B. (2006). "Sustainable Sustainability." (http:/ / skeptoid. com/ episodes/ 4005) Skeptoid. Retrieved on: 2009-02-16.[24] Marshall, J.D. & Toffel, M.W. (2005). "Framing the Elusive Concept of Sustainability: A Sustainability Hierarchy." Environmental &

Scientific Technology 39(3): 673–682.[25] Blewitt, J. (2008). Understanding Sustainable Development. London: Earthscan. pp. 21-24. ISBN 9781844074549.[26] Ratner, B.D. (2004). "Sustainability as a Dialogue of Values: Challenges to the Sociology of Development." Sociological Inquiry 74(1):

50–69.[27] Agenda 21 for culture website (http:/ / agenda21culture. net/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article&

id=131:cultural-policies-and-sustainable-development-& catid=64& Itemid=58& lang=en).[28] Beddoea, R., Costanzaa, R., Farleya, J., Garza, E., Kent, J., Kubiszewski, I., Martinez, L., McCowen, T., Murphy, K., Myers, N., Ogden, Z.,

Stapleton, K., and Woodward, J. (February 24, 2009). "Overcoming systemic roadblocks to sustainability: The evolutionary redesign ofworldviews, institutions, and technologies." (http:/ / www. uvm. edu/ giee/ publications/ Beddoe et al 2009pnas. pdf) Proceedings of theNational Academy of Sciences. 106 8 2483–2489. Retrieved on: 2009-08-20.

[29] Wright, R. (2004). A Short History of Progress. Toronto: Anansi. ISBN 0887847064.[30] Scholars, R. (2003). Stories from the Stone Age (http:/ / video. google. de/ videoplay?docid=3383283943566412014& hl=de). Beyond

Productions in association with S4C and S4C International. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved on: 2009-04-16.[31] Clarke, W. C. (1977). "The Structure of Permanence: The Relevance of Self-Subsistence Communities for World Ecosystem Management,"

in Subsistence and Survival: Rural Ecology in the Pacific. Bayliss-Smith, T. and R. Feachem (eds). London: Academic Press, pp. 363–384.[32] Hilgenkamp, K. (2005). Environmental Health: Ecological Perspectives (http:/ / books. google. co. nz/ books?id=DuCNxKlDLogC&

pg=PA37& lpg=PA37& dq=sanitation+ systems+ medicine+ disease+ history& source=web& ots=EFQCzpdpHD&sig=fG96c9PgC6y6vUxG6-PGFDcjbNE& hl=en& sa=X& oi=book_result& resnum=4& ct=result#PPA41,M1). London: Jones & Bartlett.ISBN 9780763723774.

[33] Meadows, D.H., D.L. Meadows, J. Randers, and W. Behrens III. (1972). The Limits to Growth. New York: Universe Books. ISBN0876631650.

[34] World Wide Fund for Nature (2008). Living Planet Report 2008 (http:/ / assets. panda. org/ downloads/ living_planet_report_2008. pdf).Retrieved on: 2009-03-29.

[35] Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis. (http:/ / www.millenniumassessment. org/ documents/ document. 354. aspx. pdf) World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. pp. 1-85. Retrieved on:2009-07-08-01.

[36] Turner, G.M. (2008). " A Comparison of The Limits to Growth with 30 Years of Reality." (http:/ / www. csiro. au/ files/ files/ plje. pdf)Global Environmental Change 18: 397–411. Online version published by CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems. Retrieved on: 2009-01-03

[37] U.S. Department of Commerce. Carbon Cycle Science (http:/ / www. esrl. noaa. gov/ research/ themes/ carbon/ ). NOAA Earth SystemResearch Laboratory. Retrieved on: 2009-03-14

[38] BBC News (August 2008). In depth: "Climate Change." (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ in_depth/ sci_tech/ 2004/ climate_change/ default.stm) BBC News, UK. Retrieved on: 2009-03-14

[39] Kates, Robert W., ed. (2010). Readings in Sustainability Science and Technology - an introduction to the key literaturs of sustainabilityscience (http:/ / www. hks. harvard. edu/ var/ ezp_site/ storage/ fckeditor/ file/ pdfs/ centers-programs/ centers/ cid/ publications/ faculty/ wp/213. pdf) CID Working Paper No. 213. Center for International Development, Harvard University. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University,December 2010.

[40] William C. Clark, Nancy M. Dickson, "Sustainability science: The emerging research program", PNAS, Vol. 100, No. 14, June 6, 2003.(http:/ / www. pnas. org/ content/ 100/ 14/ 8059. full)

[41] Conceptual Framework Working Group of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2003). "Ecosystems and Human Well-being." London:Island Press. Chapter 5. "Dealing with Scale". pp. 107–124. ISBN 155634030.

[42] Botkin (1990).[43] Clark (2006).[44] Brower & Leon (1999).[45] Ehrlich, P.R. & Holden, J.P. (1974). "Human Population and the global environment." American Scientist 62(3): 282–292.

Sustainability 89

[46] "Sustainability Accounting in UK Local Government" (http:/ / www. accaglobal. com/ publicinterest/ activities/ research/ reports/sustainable_and_transparent/ rr-078). The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants. . Retrieved 2008-06-18.

[47] Dalal-Clayton, Barry and Sadler, Barry 2009. Sustainability Appraisal. A Sourcebook and Reference Guide to International Experience.London: Earthscan. ISBN 978-1-84407-357-3.

[48] Hak, T. et al. 2007. Sustainability Indicators, SCOPE 67. Island Press, London.[49] Bell, Simon and Morse, Stephen 2008. Sustainability Indicators. Measuring the Immeasurable? 2nd edn. London: Earthscan. ISBN

978-1-84407-299-6.[50] United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2009). "World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision."

(http:/ / www. un. org/ esa/ population/ publications/ wpp2008/ wpp2008_highlights. pdf) Highlights. Retrieved on: 2009-04-06.[51] Lutz et al. (2004).[52] " Booming nations 'threaten Earth' (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 4604556. stm)". BBC News. January 12, 2006.[53] Cohen, J.E. (2006). "Human Population: The Next Half Century." In Kennedy D. (Ed.) "Science Magazine's State of the Planet 2006-7".

London: Island Press, pp. 13–21. ISSN 15591158.[54] Garver G (2011) "A Framework for Novel and Adaptive Governance Approaches Based on Planetary Boundaries" (http:/ / cc2011.

earthsystemgovernance. org/ pdf/ 2011Colora_0110. pdf) Colorado State University, Colorado Conference on Earth System Governance,17-20 May 2011.

[55] Turner, Graham (2008) "A comparison of The Limits to Growth with thirty years of reality" (http:/ / www. csiro. au/ files/ files/ plje. pdf)Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Sustainable Ecosystems.

[56] Adams & Jeanrenaud (2008) p. 45.[57] UNEP Grid Arendal. (http:/ / www. grida. no/ soe/ ) A selection of global-scale reports. Retrieved on: 2009-3-12[58] Global Footprint Network. (2008). "Living Planet Report." (http:/ / www. footprintnetwork. org/ en/ index. php/ GFN/ page/

living_planet_report/ ) Retrieved on: 2008-10-01.[59] Krebs (2001) p. 513.[60] Smil (2000)[61] Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, pp. 6–19.[62] Daly H.E. (1990). "Toward some operational principles of sustainable development." Ecological Economics 2: 1–6.[63] "The Economics and Social Benefits of NOAA Ecosystems Data and Products Table of Contents Data Users" (http:/ / www. economics.

noaa. gov/ ?goal=ecosystems& file=users/ ). NOAA. . Retrieved 2009-10-13.[64] Buchenrieder, G., und A.R. Göltenboth: Sustainable freshwater resource management in the Tropics: The myth of effective indicators, 25th

International Conference of Agricultural Economists (IAAE) on “Reshaping Agriculture’s Contributions to Society” in Durban, South Africa,2003.

[65] University of Copenhagen (March 2009) "Key Messages from the Congress" (http:/ / climatecongress. ku. dk/ newsroom/congress_key_messages/ ) News item on Copenhagen Climate Congress in March 2009. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.

[66] Adams, D. (March 2009) "Stern attacks politicians over climate 'devastation'". (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ environment/ 2009/ mar/ 13/stern-attacks-politicians-climate-change) The Guardian. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.

[67] Hegerl, G.C. et al. (2007). "Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis." Chapter 9, "Understanding and Attributing ClimateChange." (http:/ / www. ipcc. ch/ pdf/ assessment-report/ ar4/ wg1/ ar4-wg1-chapter9. pdf) Contribution of Working Group 1 to the FourthAssessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. p. 676. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Full report at: (http:// www. ipcc. ch/ ipccreports/ ar4-wg1. htm) IPCC Report. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.

[68] Clarke & King (2006) pp. 20–21.[69] Hoekstra, A.Y. (2006). "The Global Dimension of Water Governance: Nine Reasons for Global Arrangements in Order to Cope with Local

Problems." (http:/ / www. waterfootprint. org/ Reports/ Report_20_Global_Water_Governance. pdf) Value of Water Research Report SeriesNo. 20 UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.

[70] Kerr, R.A. (2004). "A slowing cog in the North Atlantic ocean's climate machine." Science 304: 371–372. (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/cgi/ content/ summary/ 304/ 5669/ 371a) Retrieved on: 2009-04-19.

[71] Krebs (2001) pp. 560–582.[72] Organic Gardening Techniques (http:/ / extension. missouri. edu/ publications/ DisplayPub. aspx?P=G6220), Missouri University Extension.

October 2004. Retrieved June 17, 2009.[73] Sustainable Gardening & Food Production (http:/ / www. dbrl. org/ reference/ subject-guides/ sustainable-gardening-food-production),

Daniel Boone Regional Library. Retrieved June 17, 2009][74] World Resources Institute (1998). World Resources 1998–1999. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195214080.[75] Groombridge & Jenkins (2002).[76] Food and Agriculture Organization (June 2006). "Food and Agriculture Statistics Global Outlook." (http:/ / faostat. fao. org/ Portals/

_Faostat/ documents/ pdf/ world. pdf) Rome: FAO Statistics Division. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.[77] Imhoff, M.L. et al. (2004). "Global Patterns in Human Consumption of Net Primary Production." Nature 429: 870–873.[78] World Business Council for Sustainable Development (http:/ / www. wbcsd. org/ templates/ TemplateWBCSD5/ layout. asp?MenuID=1)

This web site has multiple articles on WBCSD contributions to sustainable development. Retrieved on: 2009-04-07.[79] Michaelis, L. & Lorek, S. (2004). “Consumption and the Environment in Europe: Trends and Futures.” Danish Environmental Protection

Agency. Environmental Project No. 904. (http:/ / www2. mst. dk/ udgiv/ publications/ 2004/ 87-7614-193-4/ pdf/ 87-7614-194-2. pdf)

Sustainability 90

[80] Jackson, T. & Michaelis, L. (2003). "Policies for Sustainable Consumption". The UK Sustainable Development Commission. (http:/ / www.sdcommission. gov. uk/ pubs/ suscon/ . )

[81] Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Consumption and Production: Priority Products and Materials (http:/ / www. unep. org/resourcepanel/ Publications/ tabid/ 54044/ Default. aspx) 2010, International Resource Panel, United Nations Environment Programme

[82] IPCC (2007). "Climate Change 2007: the Physical Science Basis. Summary for Policymakers." (http:/ / www. ipcc. ch/ ) Retrieved on:2009-03-18.

[83] UNFCC (2009). "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change." (http:/ / unfccc. int/ ) Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.[84] Goodall (2007).[85] U.S. Department of NOAA Research. "The Carbon Cycle." (http:/ / www. esrl. noaa. gov/ research/ themes/ carbon/ ) Retrieved on:

2009-03-18.[86] Fujixerox "Carbon Calculator Demonstration". (http:/ / www. fujixerox. com. au/ customer_sustainability/ carbon_calculator. jsp) One of

many carbon calculators readily accessible on the web. Retrieved on: 2009-04-07.[87] Shiklamov, I. (1998). "World Water Resources. A New Appraisal and Assessment for the 21st century." A Summary of the Monograph

World Water Resources prepared in the Framework of the International Hydrological Programme. (http:/ / unesdoc. unesco. org/ images/0011/ 001126/ 112671Eo. pdf) Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.

[88] Clarke & King (2006) pp. 22–23.[89] Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, pp. 51–53.[90] Hoekstra, A.Y. & Chapagain, A.K. (2007). "The Water Footprints of Nations: Water Use by People as a Function of their Consumption

Pattern." Water Resource Management 21(1): 35–48.[91] Feenstra, G. (2002). "Creating Space for Sustainable Food Systems: Lessons from the Field". Agriculture and Human Values 19 (2):

99–106. doi:10.1023/A:1016095421310.[92] Harmon A.H., Gerald B.L. (June, 2007). "Position of the American Dietetic Association: Food and Nutrition Professionals Can Implement

Practices to Conserve Natural Resources and Support Ecological Sustainabiility" (http:/ / www. eatright. org/ ada/ files/ Conservenp. pdf)(PDF). Journal of the American Dietetic Association 107 (6): 1033–43. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2007.05.138. PMID 17571455. . Retrieved on:2009-03-18.

[93] "Toward a Healthy, Sustainable Food System (Policy Number: 200712)" (http:/ / www. apha. org/ advocacy/ policy/ policysearch/ default.htm?id=1361). American Public Health Association. 2007-06-11. . Retrieved : 2008-08-18.

[94] Mason & Singer (2006).[95] McMichael A.J., Powles J.W., Butler C.D., Uauy R. (September 2007). "Food, Livestock Production, Energy, Climate change, and Health"

(http:/ / www. eurekalert. org/ images/ release_graphics/ pdf/ EH5. pdf) (PDF). Lancet 370 (9594): 1253–63.doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61256-2. PMID 17868818. . Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.

[96] Baroni L., Cenci L., Tettamanti M., Berati M. (February 2007). "Evaluating the Environmental Impact of Various Dietary PatternsCombined with Different Food Production Systems" (http:/ / www-personal. umich. edu/ ~choucc/environmental_impact_of_various_dietary_patterns. pdf) (PDF). Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 61 (2 ): 279–86. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522.PMID 17035955. . Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.

[97] Steinfeld H., Gerber P., Wassenaar T., Castel V., Rosales M., de Haan, C. (2006). "Livestock's Long Shadow - Environmental Issues andOptions" (http:/ / www. fao. org/ docrep/ 010/ a0701e/ a0701e00. htm) 390 pp. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.

[98] Heitschmidt R.K., Vermeire L.T., Grings E.E. (2004). "Is Rangeland Agriculture Sustainable?". Journal of Animal Science. 82 (E–Suppl):E138–146. PMID 15471792. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18.

[99] World Health Organisation (2004). "Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health." (http:/ / www. who. int/ gb/ ebwha/ pdf_files/WHA57/ A57_R17-en. pdf) Copy of the strategy endorsed by the World Health Assembly. Retrieved on: 2009-6-19.

[100] "Earth Stats." (http:/ / www. gardensofbabylon. com/ earthStats. php) Gardensofbabylon.com. Retrieved on: 2009-07-07.[101] Holmgren, D. (March 2005). "Retrofitting the suburbs for sustainability." (http:/ / www. sbpermaculture. org/ Suburbs_Holmgren. html)

CSIRO Sustainability Network. Retrieved on: 2009-07-07.[102] Bournay, E. et al. (2006). Vital waste graphics 2. (http:/ / www. vitalgraphics. net/ ) The Basel Convention, UNEP, GRID-Arendal. ISBN

8277010427.[103] Anderberg, S. (1998). "Industrial metabolism and linkages between economics, ethics, and the environment". Ecological Economics 24:

311–320.[104] Product Stewardship Council (US) (http:/ / www. productstewardship. us/ displaycommon. cfm?an=1& subarticlenbr=17). Retrieved on:

2009-04-05.[105] Emden & Peakall (1996).[106] Hassall (1990).[107] Database on Pesticides Consumption (http:/ / www. fao. org/ WAICENT/ FAOINFO/ economic/ pesticid. htm). Statistics for pesticide use

around the world. Retrieved on: 2009-3-10.[108] Fuad-Luke (2006).[109] Bromley, Daniel W. (2008). "sustainability," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract. (http:/ / www.

dictionaryofeconomics. com/ article?id=pde2008_S000482& edition=current& q=sustainability& topicid=& result_number=1)[110] Soederbaum (2008).

Sustainability 91

[111] Hasna, A.M., Sustainability and Economic Theory : an Organism in Premise. The International Journal of Knowledge, Culture and ChangeManagement,9(11): p. 1-12.

[112] Ruffing, K. (2007). "Indicators to Measure Decoupling of Environmental Pressure from Economic Growth." In: Hak et al. (2007) pp.211–222.

[113] United Nations Environmental Program (2011). Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and PovertyEradication – A Synthesis for Policy Makers. (http:/ / www. unep. org/ greeneconomy)

[114] Hawken et al. (1999).[115] Adams & Jeanrenaud (2008) p. 15.[116] Abbey, E. (1968). Desert Solitaire. New York: Ballantine Books, Random House. ISBN 0345326490. Actual quote from novel is: growth

for the sake of growth is the ideology of the cancer cell[117] Diamond, J. (2005).Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. New York: Viking Books. ISBN 1586638637.[118] Diamond (1997).[119] Daly & Farley (2004) p.xxvi.[120] Costanza et al. (2007). Ch. 1, pp. 1–4, Ch.3, p. 3.[121] WBCSD's 10 messages by which to operate (http:/ / www. wbcsd. org/ templates/ TemplateWBCSD5/ layout. asp?type=p&

MenuId=MTAyMQ& doOpen=1& ClickMenu=RightMenu) World Business Council for Sustainable Development. Retrieved 2009-04-06.[122] Cleveland, C.J. "Biophysical economics" (http:/ / www. eoearth. org/ article/ Biophysical_economics), Encyclopedia of Earth, Last

updated: 14 September 2006. Retrieved on: 2009-03-17.[123] Costanza et al. (2007).[124] Decoupling: natural resource use and environmental impacts of economic growth (http:/ / www. unep. org/ resourcepanel/ ). International

Resource Panel report, 2011[125] Daly, H. (1996). Beyond Growth: The Economics of Sustainable Development. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 0807047090.[126] Hardin, G. (December 1968). "The Tragedy of the Commons." (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 162/ 3859/ 1243) Science

162(3859), 1243–1248. Retrieved on: 2009-03-17.[127] Nemetz, P.N. (2003). "Basic Concepts of Sustainable Development for Business Students." Journal of International Business Education

1(1).[128] [[Robert Costanza (http:/ / www. elecan. net/ docs/ moned/ ccto. pdf)] et al., "Complementary Currencies as a Method to Improve Local

Sustainable Economic Welfare", University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, December 12th, 2003.][129] David Boyle, "Sustainability and social assets: the potential of time banks and co-production", Grassroots Initiatives for Sustainable

Development, June 10, 2005. (http:/ / www. uea. ac. uk/ env/ cserge/ events/ grassroots/ boyle. pdf)[130] Scott Cato, M. (2009). Green Economics. London: Earthscan, pp. 142–150. ISBN 9781844075713.[131] Black, Richard (21 September 2009). "Recession and policies cut carbon" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 8267475. stm). BBC. .

Retrieved 2009-10-13.[132] Kinsley, M. (1977). "Sustainable development: Prosperity without growth." (http:/ / www. mtnforum. org/ oldocs/ 407. pdf) Rocky

Mountain Institute, Snowmass, Colorado, USA. Retrieved on: 2009-06-17[133] Kinsley, M. and Lovins, L.H. (September 1997). "Paying for Growth, Prospering from Development." (http:/ / www. natcapsolutions. org/

publications_files/ PayingForGrowth_ChronPilot_Sep1997. pdf) Retrieved on: 2009-06-15.[134] Sustainable Shrinkage: Envisioning a Smaller, Stronger Economy (http:/ / www. thesolutionsjournal. com/ node/ 968)[135] Daly, H. (2007). Ecological economics: the concept of scale and its relation to allocation, distribution, and uneconomic growth. pp.

82–103. In H. Daly. Ecological Economics and Sustainable Development: Selected Essays of Herman Daly. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.[136] Daly, H. (1999). Uneconomic growth and the built environment: in theory and in fact. In C.J. Kibert (ed.). Reshaping the Built

Environment: Ecology, Ethics, and Economics. Washington DC: Island Press.[137] Jackson, T. (February 2008). Tim Jackson, Roland Clift, "Where's the Profit in Industrial Ecology?" (http:/ / www. esm. ucsb. edu/

academics/ courses/ 289/ Readings/ Jackson-Clift-1998. pdf) Journal of Industrial Ecology 2:(1): 3–5.[138] Hargroves, K. & Smith, M. (eds.) (2005). The Natural Advantage of Nations: Business Opportunities, Innovation and Governance in the

21st Century. London: Earthscan/James&James. ISBN 1844071219. (See the book's online companion (http:/ / www. thenaturaladvantage.info/ ))

[139] See, for example: Zhexembayeva, N. (May 2007). "Becoming Sustainable: Tools and Resources for Successful OrganizationalTransformation." (http:/ / worldbenefit. case. edu/ newsletter/ ?idNewsletter=143& idHeading=46& idNews=589) Case Western University,Center for Business as an Agent of World Benefit 3(2) and websites of The Sustainable Business Institute (http:/ / www. sustainablebusiness.org/ 2. html), and the WBCSD." (http:/ / www. wbcsd. ch/ templates/ TemplateWBCSD2/ layout. asp?type=p& MenuId=NDEx& doOpen=1&ClickMenu=LeftMenu) Retrieved on: 2009-04-01.

[140] Leadership in sustainability (http:/ / sloanreview. mit. edu/ the-magazine/ 2010-summer/ 51412/the-change-leadership-sustainability-demands) Retrieved on: 2009-04-01.

[141] Leadership competency model (http:/ / www. egonzehnder. com/ data/ files/ Phases_of_Organizational_Capability2. jpg) Retrieved on:2009-04-01

[142] Leo Hickman, "The future of work is green" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ environment/ 2009/ feb/ 12/ green-collar-jobs-environment)The Guardian, February, 2009.

[143] Agenda 21 "Declaration of the 1992 Rio Conference on Environment and Development." Retrieved on: 2009-03-16.

Sustainability 92

[144] Blewitt (2008) p. 96.[145] "Water and Political Conflicts" (http:/ / www. grida. no/ publications/ vg/ water2/ page/ 3260. aspx) from United Nations Environment

Programme 2008 "Vital Water Graphics" (http:/ / www. unep. org/ dewa/ vitalwater/ ) Retrieved on: 2009-03-16.[146] Billon, P. (ed.) (2005) The Geopolitics of Resource Wars (http:/ / openlibrary. org/ b/ OL7800613M/

The-Geopolitics-of-Resource-Wars-(Cass-Studies-in-Geopolitics)) Retrieved on: 2009-04-05.[147] Kobtzeff, O. (2000). “Environmental Security and Civil Society”. In Gardner, H. (ed.) Central and South-central Europe in Transition.

Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, pp. 219–296.[148] "Our Common Future, From One Earth to One World" (http:/ / www. un-documents. net/ ocf-ov. htm#I). UN Documents Gathering a body

of global agreements. .[149] "The Millennium Development Goals Report, 2009" (http:/ / www. un. org/ millenniumgoals/ pdf/ MDG_Report_2009_ENG. pdf). United

Nations. . Retrieved 4/2/2011.[150] "Our Common Future, From One Earth to One World" (http:/ / www. un-documents. net/ ocf-ov. htm#I). United Nations. . Retrieved

4/2/2011.[151] Lusigi, Angela. "Linking Poverty to Environmental Sustainability" (http:/ / www. povertyandconservation. info/ docs/

20080524-UNDP-UNEP_Poverty_Environment_Initiative. pdf). UNDP-UNEP Poverty - Environment Initiative. . Retrieved 4/2/2011.[152] "Are fewer children a route to prosperity?" (http:/ / www. unfpa. org/ public/ home/ factsheets/ pid/ 3856). FACT SHEET: Population

Growth and Poverty. United Nations Population Fund. . Retrieved 4/2/2011.[153] //www.bridgestoprosperity.org[154] Bookchin (2004) pp. 24–25.[155] Klein (2004) pp.1-21[156] Bookchin (2005)[157] Bookchin (2007) p. 19.[158] Devall & Sessions (1985) p. 70.[159] James, S. (2003). "Eco-municipalities: Sweden and the United States: A Systems Approach to Creating Communities" (http:/ / www.

knowledgetemplates. com/ sja/ ecomunic. htm). Retrieved on: 2009-03-16.[160] Sale, Kirkpatrick (24 February 2006). "Economics of Scale vs. the Scale of Economics - Towards Basic Principles of a Bioregional

Economy" (http:/ / www. vtcommons. org/ journal/ 2006/ 02/kirkpatrick-sale-economics-scale-vs-scale-economics-towards-basic-principles-bioregi). Vermont Commons. . Retrieved 2009-10-13.

[161] Ewing, R "Growing Cooler - the Evidence on Urban Development and Climate Change" (http:/ / www. smartgrowthamerica. org/ gcindex.html). Retrieved on: 2009-03-16.

[162] LaColla, T. "It’s Easy to be Green! Eco-Municipalities: Here to Stay" (http:/ / www. theplanningcommission. org/ newsletter/ year/issues2007/ summer-2007/ it2019s-easy-to-be-green-eco-municipalities-here-to-stay. html). theplanningcommission.org. Retrieved on:2009-03-16.

[163] Sustainable Environment for Quality of Life. "100 Ways to Save the Environment." (http:/ / www. seql. org/ 100ways. cfm) Retrieved on:2009-06-13.

[164] Suzuki, D. (2009). "Small Steps." (http:/ / www. davidsuzuki. org/ Small_Steps/ ) David Suzuki Foundation. Retrieved on: 2009-06-13.[165] Stockholm Environment Institute "Great Transitions". (http:/ / www. gtinitiative. org/ documents/ Great_Transitions. pdf) Retrieved on:

2009-04-12.[166] United Nations Environment Programme (2009). "United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development." (http:/ / portal.

unesco. org/ education/ en/ ev. php-URL_ID=23279& URL_DO=DO_TOPIC& URL_SECTION=201. html) Retrieved on: 2009-04-09.[167] WWF. (April, 2008). "Weathercocks and Signposts: The Environment Movement at a Crossroads" (http:/ / assets. wwf. org. uk/

downloads/ weathercocks_report2. pdf). Summary also available here (http:/ / wwf. org. uk/ strategiesforchange). Retrieved on: 2009-03-13.

References• Adams, W. M. and Jeanrenaud, S. J. (2008). Transition to Sustainability: Towards a Humane and Diverse World.

(http:/ / cmsdata. iucn. org/ downloads/ transition_to_sustainability__en__pdf_1. pdf) Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.108 pp. ISBN 9782831710723.

• Blewitt, J. (2008). Understanding Sustainable Development. London: Earthscan. ISBN 9781844074549.• Botkin, D.B. (1990). Discordant Harmonies, a New Ecology for the 21st century. New York: Oxford University

Press. ISBN 9780195074697.• Bookchin, M. (2004). Post Scarcity Anarchism. Oakland: AK Press, pp. 24–25. ISBN 9781904859062.• Bookchin, M. (2005). The Ecology of Freedom: the emergence and dissolution of hierarchy." Oakland: AK Press.

ISBN 1904859267.• Bookchin, M. (2007). Social Ecology and Communalism. Oakland: AK Press, p. 19. ISBN 9781904859499.

Sustainability 93

• Brower, M. & Leon, W. (1999). The Consumer's Guide to Effective Environmental Choices: Practical Advicefrom the Union of Concerned Scientists. New York: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 060980281X.

• Clark, D. (2006). A Rough Guide to Ethical Living. London: Penguin. ISBN 9781843537922• Clarke, R. & King, J. (2006). The Atlas of Water. London: Earthscan. ISBN 9781844071333.• Costanza, R. et al. (2007). An Introduction to Ecological Economics (http:/ / www. eoearth. org/ article/

An_Introduction_to_Ecological_Economics_(e-book)). This is an online editable text available at theEncyclopedia of Earth. First published in 1997 by St. Lucie Press and the International Society for EcologicalEconomics. ISBN 1884015727.

• Daly, H. & J. Cobb (1989). For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy Toward Community, theEnvironment and a Sustainable Future. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 0807047031.

• Daly, H.E. & Farley, J. (2004). Ecological economics: principles and applications. Washington: Island Press.ISBN 1559633123.

• Devall, W. and G. Sessions (1985). Deep Ecology: Living As If Nature Mattered. Layton, Utah: Gibbs Smith,p. 70. ISBN 9780879052478.

• Diamond, J. (1997). Guns, Germs and Steel: the Fates of Human Societies. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN0393061310.

• Emden, H.F. van & Peakall, D.B. (1996). Beyond Silent Spring. Berkeley: Springer. ISBN 9780412728105.• Fuad-Luke, A. (2006). The Eco-design Handbook. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 9780500285213.• Goodall, C. (2007). How to Live a Low-carbon Life. London: Earthscan. ISBN 9781844074266.• Groombridge, B. & Jenkins, M.D. (2002). World Atlas of Biodiversity. Berkeley: University of California Press.

ISBN 9780520236684.• Hak, T. et al. (2007). Sustainability Indicators, SCOPE 67. London: Island Press. ISBN 1597261319.• Hassall, K.A. (1990). The Biochemistry and Uses of Pesticides. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0333497899.• Hawken, P, Lovins, A.B. & L.H. (1999). Natural Capitalism: Creating the next Industrial Revolution. Snowmass,

USA: Rocky Mountain Institute. ISBN 0316353000.• Krebs, C.J. (2001). Ecology: the Experimental Analysis of Distribution and Abundance. Sydney: Benjamin

Cummings. ISBN 0321042891.• Leakey, R. & Lewin, R. (1995). The Sixth Extinction: Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind. New York:

Bantam Dell Publishing Group. ISBN 0385468091• Lutz W., Sanderson W.C., & Scherbov S. (2004). The End of World Population Growth in the 21st Century

London: Earthscan. ISBN 1844070891.• Macy, J. & Young Brown, M. (1998). Coming Back to Life: Practices to Reconnect Our Lives, Our World.

Gabriola Island: New Society Publishers, pp. 25–37. ISBN 086571391X.• Mason, J. & Singer, P. (2006). The Way We Eat: Why Our Food Choices Matter. London: Random House. ISBN

157954889X• Smil, V. (2000). Cycles of Life. New York: Scientific American Library. ISBN 9780716750796.• Soederbaum, P. (2008). Understanding Sustainability Economics. London: Earthscan. ISBN 9781844076277.• Visser, Wayne, Dirk Matten, Manfred Pohl, and Nick Tolhurst (Editors) (2007). The A to Z of Corporate Social

Responsibility. London, England; New York, NY: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-72395-1.• Wright, R. (2004). A Short History of Progress. Toronto: Anansi. ISBN 0887847064.• Wilson, E.O. (2002). The Future of Life. New York: Knopf. ISBN 0679450785.

Sustainability 94

Further reading• Atkinson, G., Dietz, S. & Neumayer, E. (2007). Handbook of Sustainable Development. Cheltenham: Edward

Elgar. ISBN 9781843765776.• Bartlett, A. (1998). Reflections on Sustainability, Population Growth, and the Environment—Revisited (http:/ /

www. hubbertpeak. com/ bartlett/ reflections. htm) revised version (January 1998) paper first published inPopulation & Environment 16(1): 5–35. Retrieved on: 2009-03-12.

• Benyus, J. (1997). Biomimicry: Innovations Inspired by Nature. New York: William Morrow. ISBN 0060533226.• Blackburn, W.R. (2007). The Sustainability Handbook. London: Earthscan. ISBN 9781844074952.• Costanza, R., Graumlich, L.J. & Steffen, W. (eds), (2007). Sustainability or Collapse? An Integrated History and

Future of People on Earth. Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262033664.• Kraines, Samuel Henry; H. Komiyama (2008). Vision 2050: Roadmap for a Sustainable Earth (http:/ / www.

springerlink. com/ content/ n1x671/ ?p=f493b0b03f4d4cc39facd89eecfea21e& pi=1). Berlin: Springer.ISBN 4-431-09430-X.

• Li, R.Y.M. (2011). Building Our Sustainable Cities. Illinois: Common Ground Publishing. ISBN9781863358347.

• Norton, B. (2005). Sustainability, A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management. Chicago: The University ofChicago Press. ISBN 9780226595214.

External links• Sustainability (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Science/ Environment/ Sustainability/ ) at the Open Directory Project• Compilation of Fact Sheets (http:/ / css. snre. umich. edu/ facts/ factsheets. html) published by the University of

Michigan's Center for Sustainable Systems• Elements of sustainability (http:/ / www. stanford. edu/ group/ microdocs/ elements. html) at Microdocs• Sustainability (http:/ / masonweb. wm. edu/ sustainability/ ) at The College of William and Mary• Center for Sustainable Enterprise and Regional Competitiveness (http:/ / www. umb. edu/ serc/ ) at University of

Massachusetts Boston

Conservation biology 95

Conservation biology

Efforts are being taken to preserve the natural characteristics of Hopetoun Falls,Australia while continuing to allow visitor access

Conservation biology is the scientific studyof the nature and status of Earth'sbiodiversity with the aim of protectingspecies, their habitats, and ecosystems fromexcessive rates of extinction.[1] [2] [3] It is aninterdisciplinary subject drawing onsciences, economics, and the practice ofnatural resource management.[4] [5] [6] [7]

History of term

The term conservation biology wasintroduced as the title of a conference heldat the University of California, San Diego inLa Jolla, California in 1978 organized bybiologists Bruce Wilcox and Michael E.Soulé. The meeting was prompted by the concern among scientists over tropical deforestation, disappearing species,eroding genetic diversity within species.[8] The conference and proceedings that resulted[2] sought to bridge a gapexisting at the time between theory in ecology and population biology on the one hand and conservation policy andpractice on the other.[9] Conservation biology and the concept of biological diversity (biodiversity) emerged together,helping crystallize the modern era of conservation science and policy.

DescriptionThe rapid decline of established biological systems around the world means that conservation biology is oftenreferred to as a "Discipline with a deadline".[10] Conservation biology is tied closely to ecology in researching thedispersal, migration, demographics, effective population size, inbreeding depression, and minimum populationviability of rare or endangered species.[11] To better understand the restoration ecology of native plant and animalcommunities, the conservation biologist closely studies both their polytypic and monotypic habitats[12] that areaffected by a wide range of benign and hostile factors. Conservation biology is concerned with phenomena thataffect the maintenance, loss, and restoration of biodiversity and the science of sustaining evolutionary processes thatengender genetic, population, species, and ecosystem diversity.[5] [6] [7] [11] The concern stems from estimatessuggesting that up to 50% of all species on the planet will disappear within the next 50 years,[13] which hascontributed to poverty, starvation, and will reset the course of evolution on this planet.[14] [15]

Conservation biologists research and educate on the trends and process of biodiversity loss, species extinctions, andthe negative effect these are having on our capabilities to sustain the well-being of human society. Conservationbiologists work in the field and office, in government, universities, non-profit organizations and industry. They arefunded to research, monitor, and catalog every angle of the earth and its relation to society. The topics are diverse,because this is an interdisciplinary network with professional alliances in the biological as well as social sciences.Those dedicated to the cause and profession advocate for a global response to the current biodiversity crisis based onmorals, ethics, and scientific reason. Organizations and citizens are responding to the biodiversity crisis throughconservation action plans that direct research, monitoring, and education programs that engage concerns at localthrough global scales.[4] [5] [6] [7]

Conservation biology 96

Context and trendsConservation biologists study trends and process from the paleontological past to the ecological present as they gainan understanding of the context related to species extinction.[1] It is generally accepted that there have been fivemajor global mass extinctions that register in Earth's history. These include: the Ordovician (440 mya), Devonian(370 mya), Permian–Triassic (245 mya), Triassic–Jurassic (200 mya), and Cretaceous (65 mya) extinction spasms.Within the last 10,000 years, human influence over the Earth's ecosystems has been so extensive that scientists havedifficulty estimating the number of species lost;[16] that is to say the rates of deforestation, reef destruction, wetlanddraining and other human acts are proceeding much faster than human assessment of species. The latest LivingPlanet Report by the World Wide Fund for Nature estimates that we have exceeded the bio-regenerative capacity ofthe planet, requiring 1.5 Earths to support the demands placed on our natural resources.[17]

Sixth extinction

An art scape image showing the relativeimportance of animals in a rain forest through a

summary of (a) child's perception compared with(b) a scientific estimate of the importance. The

size of the animal represents its importance. Thechild's mental image places importance on big

cats, birds, butterflies, and then reptiles versus theactual dominance of social insects (such as ants).

Conservation biologists are dealing with and have published evidencefrom all corners of the planet indicating that humanity may be causingthe sixth and greatest planetary extinction event.[18] [19] [20] It has beensuggested that we are living in an era of unprecedented numbers ofspecies extinctions, also known as the Holocene extinction event.[21]

The global extinction rate may be approximately 100,000 times higherthan the natural background extinction rate.[22] It is estimated thattwo-thirds of all mammal genera and one-half of all mammal speciesweighing at least 44 kilograms (97 lb) have gone extinct in the last50,000 years. It is speculated that this sixth extinction period is uniquebecause it would be the first major extinction to be caused by anotherbiotic agent over the course of the Earth's 4 billion year history.[23] [24]

[25] The Global Amphibian Assessment[26] reports that amphibians aredeclining on a global scale faster than any other vertebrate group, withover 32% of all surviving species being threatened with extinction. Thesurviving populations are in continual decline in 43% of those that arethreatened. Since the mid-1980s the actual rates of extinction haveexceeded 211 times rates measured from the fossil record.[27]

However, "The current amphibian extinction rate may range from25,039 to 45,474 times the background extinction rate foramphibians."[27] The global extinction trend occurs in every majorvertebrate group that is being monitored. For example, 23% of allmammals and 12% of all birds are Red Listed by the InternationalUnion for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), meaning they too are threatened with extinction.

Status of oceans and reefsGlobal assessments of coral reefs of the world continue to report drastic and rapid rates of decline. By 2000, 27% of the world's coral reef ecosystems had effectively collapsed. The largest period of decline occurred in a dramatic "bleaching" event in 1998, where approximately 16% of all the coral reefs in the world disappeared in less than a year. Coral bleaching is caused by a mixture of environmental stresses, including increases in ocean temperatures and acidity, causing both the release of symbiotic algae and death of corals.[28] Decline and extinction risk in coral reef biodiversity has risen dramatically in the past ten years. The loss of coral reefs, which are predicted to go extinct in the next century, will have huge economic impacts, threatens the balance of global biodiversity, and endangers

Conservation biology 97

food security for hundreds of millions of people.[29] Conservation biology plays an important role in internationalagreements covering the world's oceans[28] (and other issues pertaining to biodiversity, e.g. [30]).These predictions will undoubtedly appear extreme, but it is difficult to imagine how such changes will not come to pass

without fundamental changes in human behavior.

J.B. Jackson[15] :11463

The oceans are threatened by acidification due to an increase in CO2 levels. This is a most serious threat to societiesrelying heavily upon oceanic natural resources. A concern is that the majority of all marine species will not be ableto evolve or acclimate in response to the changes in the ocean chemistry.[31]

The prospects of averting mass extinction seems unlikely when "[...] 90% of all of the large (average approximately≥50 kg), open ocean tuna, billfishes, and sharks in the ocean"[15] are reportedly gone. Given the scientific review ofcurrent trends, the ocean is predicted to have few surviving multi-cellular organisms with only microbes left todominate marine ecosystems.[15]

Groups other than vertebratesSerious concerns also being raised about taxonomic groups that do not receive the same degree of social attention orattract funds as the vertebrates. These include fungal (including lichen-forming species)[32] , invertebrate(particularly insect[13] [33] [34] ) and plant communities where the vast majority of biodiversity is represented.Conservation of fungi and conservation of insects, in particular, are both of pivotal importance for conservationbiology. As mycorrhizal symbionts, and as decomposers and recyclers, fungi are essential for sustainability offorests.[32] The value of insects in the biosphere is enormous because they outnumber all other living groups inmeasure of species richness. The greatest bulk of biomass on land is found in plants, which is sustained by insectrelations. This great ecological value of insects is countered by a society that oftentimes reacts negatively towardthese aesthetically 'unpleasant' creatures.[35] [36]

One area of concern in the insect world that has caught the public eye is the mysterious case of missing honey bees(Apis mellifera). Honey bees provide an indispensable ecological services through their acts of pollination supportinga huge variety of agriculture crops. The sudden disappearance of bees leaving empty hives or colony collapsedisorder (CCD) is not uncommon. However, in 16-month period from 2006 through 2007, 29% of 577 beekeepersacross the United States reported CCD losses in up to 76% of their colonies. This sudden demographic loss in beenumbers is placing a strain on the agricultural sector. The cause behind the massive declines is puzzling scientists.Pests, pesticides, and global warming are all being considered as possible causes.[37]

Another highlight that links conservation biology to insects, forests, and climate change is the mountain pine beetle(Dendroctonus ponderosae) epidemic of British Columbia, Canada, which has infested 470000 km2 ( sq mi) offorested land since 1999.[38] An action plan has been prepared by the Government of British Columbia to addressthis problem.[39]

This impact [pine beetle epidemic] converted the forest from a small net carbon sink to a large net carbonsource both during and immediately after the outbreak. In the worst year, the impacts resulting from the beetleoutbreak in British Columbia were equivalent to 75% of the average annual direct forest fire emissions fromall of Canada during 1959–1999.—Kurz et al.[40]

Conservation biology 98

Conservation biology of parasitesA large proportion of parasite species are threatened by extinction. A few of them are being eradicated as pests ofhumans or domestic animals, however, most of them are harmless. Threats include the decline or fragmentation ofhost populations, or the extinction of host species.

Threats to biodiversityMany of the threats to biodiversity, including disease and climate change, are reaching inside borders of protectedareas, leaving them 'not-so protected' (e.g. Yellowstone National Park).[41] Climate change, for example, is oftencited as a serious threat in this regard, because there is a feedback loop between species extinction and the release ofcarbon dioxide into the atmosphere.[38] [40] Ecosystems store and cycle large amounts of carbon which regulatesglobal conditions.[42] The effects of global warming adds a catastrophic threat toward a mass extinction of globalbiological diversity. The extinction threat is estimated to range from 15 to 37 percent of all species by 2050,[43] [44]

or 50 percent of all species over the next 50 years.[13]

Some of the most significant and insidious threats to biodiversity and ecosystem processes include climate change,mass agriculture, deforestation, overgrazing, slash-and-burn agriculture, urban development, wildlife trade, lightpollution and pesticide use.[16] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] Habitat fragmentation poses one of the more difficult challenges,because the global network of protected areas only covers 11.5% of the Earth's surface.[50] A significantconsequence of fragmentation and lack of linked protected areas is the reduction of animal migration on a globalscale. Considering that billions of tonnes of biomass are responsible for nutrient cycling across the earth, thereduction of migration is a serious matter for conservation biology.[51]

Human activities are associated directly or indirectly with nearly every aspect of the current extinction spasm.

Wake and Vredenburg[18]

These figures do not imply, however, that human activities must necessarily cause irreparable harm to the biosphere.With conservation management and planning for biodiversity at all levels, from genes to ecosystems, there areexamples where humans mutually coexist in a sustainable way with nature.[52] However, it may be too late forhuman intervention to reverse the current mass extinction.[18]

Concepts and foundations

Measuring extinction rates

The five major extinction spasms measured byextinction levels in marine animal genera throughtime. Blue graph shows apparent percentage (notabsolute number) of extinctions during any given

time interval.

Extinction rates are measured in a variety of ways. Conservationbiologists measure and apply statistical measures of fossil records,[1]

[53] rates of habitat loss, and a multitude of other variables such as lossof biodiversity as a function of the rate of habitat loss and siteoccupancy[54] to obtain such estimates.[55] The Theory of IslandBiogeography[56] is possibly the most significant contribution towardthe scientific understanding of both the process and how to measure therate of species extinction. The current background extinction rate isestimated to be one species every few years.[57]

The measure of ongoing species loss is made more complex by the factthat most of the Earth's species have not been described or evaluated.Estimates vary greatly on how many species actually exist (estimatedrange: 3,600,000-111,700,000)[58] to how many have received a species binomial (estimated range: 1.5-8

million).[58] Less than 1% of all species that have been described have been studied beyond simply noting its existence.[58] From these figures, the IUCN reports that 23% of vertebrates, 5% of invertebrates and 70% of plants

Conservation biology 99

that have been evaluated are designated as endangered or threatened.[59] [60]

Systematic conservation planningSystematic conservation planning is an effective way to seek and identify efficient and effective types of reservedesign to capture or sustain the highest priority biodiversity values and to work with communities in support of localecosystems. Margules and Pressey identify six interlinked stages in the systematic planning approach:[61]

1. Compile data on the biodiversity of the planning region2. Identify conservation goals for the planning region3. Review existing conservation areas4. Select additional conservation areas5. Implement conservation actions6. Maintain the required values of conservation areasConservation biologists regularly prepare detailed conservation plans for grant proposals or to effectively coordinatetheir plan of action and to identify best management practices (e.g.[62] ). Systematic strategies generally employ theservices of Geographic Information Systems to assist in the decision making process.

Conservation biology as a professionThe Society for Conservation Biology is a global community of conservation professionals dedicated to advancingthe science and practice of conserving biodiversity. Conservation biology as a discipline reaches beyond biology,into subjects such as philosophy, law, economics, humanities, arts, anthropology, and education.[5] [6] Withinbiology, conservation genetics and evolution are immense fields unto themselves, but these disciplines are of primeimportance to the practice and profession of conservation biology.[...] there are advocates and there are sloppy or dishonest scientists, and these groups differ.

Chan[63]

Is conservation biology an objective science when biologists advocate for an inherent value in nature? Doconservationists introduce bias when they support policies using qualitative description, such as habitat degradation,or healthy ecosystems? As all scientists hold values, so do conservation biologists. Conservation biologists advocatefor reasoned and sensible management of natural resources and do so with a disclosed combination of science,reason, logic, and values in their conservation management plans.[5] This sort of advocacy is similar to the medicalprofession advocating for healthy lifestyle options, both are beneficial to human well-being yet remain scientific intheir approach. Many conservation biologists, in addition to having a Bachelors of Science (or extensive naturalexperience) often receive professional accreditation during their career (e.g. [64]).There is a movement in conservation biology suggesting a new form of leadership is needed to mobilizeconservation biology into a more effective discipline that is able to communicate the full scope of the problem tosociety at large.[65] The movement proposes an adaptive leadership approach that parallels an adaptive managementapproach. The concept is based on a new philosophy or leadership theory steering away from historical notions ofpower, authority, and dominance. Adaptive conservation leadership is reflective and more equitable as it applies toany member of society who can mobilize others toward meaningful change using communication techniques that areinspiring, purposeful, and collegial. Adaptive conservation leadership and mentoring programs are beingimplemented by conservation biologists through organizations such as the Aldo Leopold Leadership Program[66]

Conservation biology 100

ApproachesConservation may be classified as either in-situ conservation, which is protecting an endangered species in its naturalhabitat, or ex-situ conservation, which occurs outside the natural habitat. In-situ conservation involves protecting orcleaning up the habitat itself which may include a great deal of environmental preservation, or by defending thespecies from predators. Ex-situ conservation may be used on some or all of the population, when in-situ conservationis too difficult, or impossible.Also, non-interference may be used, which is termed a preservationist method. Preservationists advocate for givingareas of nature and species a protected existence that halts interference from the humans.[5] In this regard,conservationists differ from preservationists in the social dimension, as conservation biology engages society andseeks equitable solutions for both society and ecosystems.Some preservationists emphasize the potential of biodiversity in a world without humans

"Animals have not yet invaded 2/3 of Earth's habitats, and it could be that without human influence thediversity of tetrapods will continue to increase in an exponential fashion."—Sahney et al.[11]

Ethics and valuesConservation biologists are interdisciplinary researchers that practice ethics in the biological and social sciences.Chan states[63] that conservationists must advocate for biodiversity and can do so in a scientifically ethical mannerby not promoting simultaneous advocacy against other competing values. A conservationist researches biodiversityand reasons through a Resource Conservation Ethic [67], which identify what measures will deliver "the greatestgood for the greatest number of people for the longest time."[5] :13

Some conservation biologists argue that nature has an intrinsic value that is independent of anthropocentricusefulness or utilitarianism. Intrinsic value advocates that a gene, or species, be valued because they have a utility forthe ecosystems they sustain. Aldo Leopold was a classical thinker and writer on such conservation ethics whosephilosophy, ethics and writings are still valued and revisited by modern conservation biologists. His writing isoftentimes required reading for those in the profession.

Conservation priorities

A pie chart image showing the relative biomassrepresentation in a rain forest through a summary

of children's perceptions from drawings andartwork (left), through a scientific estimate ofactual biomass (middle), and by a measure ofbiodiversity (right). Notice that the biomass of

social insects (middle) far outweighs the numberof species (right).

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) hasorganized a global assortment of scientists and research stations acrossthe planet to monitor the changing state of nature in an effort to tacklethe extinction crisis. The IUCN provides annual updates on the statusof species conservation through its Red List.[68] The IUCN Red Listserves as an international conservation tool to identify those speciesmost in need of conservation attention and by providing a global indexon the status of biodiversity.[69] More than the dramatic rates of speciesloss, however, conservation scientists note that the sixth massextinction is a biodiversity crisis requiring far more action than apriority focus on rare, endemic or endangered species. Concerns forbiodiversity loss covers a broader conservation mandate that looks at ecological processes, such as migration, and aholistic examination of biodiversity at levels beyond the species, including genetic, population and ecosystemdiversity.[70] Extensive, systematic, and rapid rates of biodiversity loss threatens the sustained well-being ofhumanity by limiting supply of ecosystem services that are otherwise regenerated by the complex and evolving

holistic network of genetic and ecosystem diversity. While the conservation status of species is employed extensively in conservation management,[69] some scientists highlight that it is the common species that are the

Conservation biology 101

primary source of exploitation and habitat alteration by humanity. Moreover, common species are often undervalueddespite their role as the primary source of ecosystem services.[71] [72]

While most in the community of conservation science "stress the importance" of sustaining biodiversity,[73] there isdebate on how to prioritize genes, species, or ecosystems, which are all components of biodiversity (e.g. Bowen,1999). While the predominant approach to date has been to focus efforts on endangered species by conservingbiodiversity hotspots, some scientists (e.g)[74] and conservation organizations, such as the Nature Conservancy, arguethat it is more cost effective, logical, and socially relevant to invest in biodiversity coldspots.[75] The costs ofdiscovering, naming, and mapping out the distribution every species, they argue, is an ill advised conservationventure. They reason it is better to understand the significance of the ecological roles of species.[76]

Biodiversity hotspots and coldspots are a way of recognizing that the spatial concentration of genes, species, andecosystems is not uniformly distributed on the Earth's surface. For example, "[...] 44% of all species of vascularplants and 35% of all species in four vertebrate groups are confined to 25 hotspots comprising only 1.4% of the landsurface of the Earth."[77]

Those arguing in favor of setting priorities for coldspots point out that there are other measures to consider beyondbiodiversity. They point out that emphasizing hotspots downplays the importance of the social and ecologicalconnections to vast areas of the Earth's ecosystems where biomass, not biodiversity, reigns supreme.[78] It isestimated that 36% of the Earth's surface, encompassing 38.9% of the worlds vertebrates, lacks the endemic speciesto qualify as biodiversity hotspot.[79] Moreover, measures show that maximizing protections for biodiversity doesnot capture ecosystem services any better than targeting randomly chosen regions.[80] Population level biodiversity(i.e. coldspots) are disappearing at a rate that is ten times that at the species level.[74] [81] The level of importance inaddressing biomass versus endemism as a concern for conservation biology is highlighted in literature measuring thelevel of threat to global ecosystem carbon stocks that do not necessarily reside in areas of endemism.[38] [40] Ahotspot priority approach[82] would not invest so heavily in places such as steppes, the Serengeti, the Arctic, or taiga.These areas contribute a great abundance of population (not species) level biodiversity[81] and ecosystem services,including cultural value and planetary nutrient cycling.[83]

Summary of 2006 IUCN Red List categories.Those in favor of the hotspot approach point out that species are irreplaceable components of the global ecosystem,they are concentrated in places that are most threatened, and should therefore receive maximal strategicprotections.[84] The IUCN Red List categories, which appear on Wikipedia species articles, is an example of thehotspot conservation approach in action; species that are not rare or endemic are listed the least concern and theirwikipedia articles tend to be ranked low on the importance scale. This is a hotspot approach because the priority isset to target species level concerns over population level or biomass.[81] Species richness and genetic biodiversitycontributes to and engenders ecosystem stability, ecosystem processes, evolutionary adaptability, and biomass.[85]

Both sides agree, however, that conserving biodiversity is necessary to reduce the extinction rate and identify aninherent value in nature; the debate hinges on how to prioritize limited conservation resources in the most costeffective way.

Conservation biology 102

Economic values and natural capital

Tadrart Acacus desert in western Libya, part of the Sahara.

Conservation biologists have started to collaborate withleading global economists to determine how to measurethe wealth and services of nature and to make thesevalues apparent in global market transactions.[86] Thissystem of accounting is called natural capital andwould, for example, register the value of an ecosystembefore it is cleared to make way for development.[87]

The WWF publishes its Living Planet Report andprovides a global index of biodiversity by monitoringapproximately 5,000 populations in 1,686 species ofvertebrate (mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, andamphibians) and report on the trends in much the sameway that the stock market is tracked.[88]

This method of measuring the global economic benefit of nature has been endorsed by the G8+5 leaders and theEuropean Commission.[86] Nature sustains many ecosystem services[89] that benefit humanity.[90] Many of the earthsecosystem services are public goods without a market and therefore no price or value.[86] When the stock marketregisters a financial crisis, traders on Wall Street are not in the business of trading stocks for much of the planet'sliving natural capital stored in ecosystems. There is no natural stock market with investment portfolios into seahorses, amphibians, insects, and other creatures that provide a sustainable supply of ecosystem services that arevaluable to society.[90] The ecological footprint of society has exceeded the bio-regenerative capacity limits of theplanet's ecosystems by about 30 percent, which is the same percentage of vertebrate populations that have registereddecline from 1970 through 2005.[88]

The ecological credit crunch is a global challenge. The Living Planet Report 2008 tells us that more than three quarters of the world'speople live in nations that are ecological debtors – their national consumption has outstripped their country's biocapacity. Thus, mostof us are propping up our current lifestyles, and our economic growth, by drawing (and increasingly overdrawing) upon theecological capital of other parts of the world.

WWF Living Planet Report[88]

The inherent natural economy plays an essential role in sustaining humanity,[91] including the regulation of globalatmospheric chemistry, pollinating crops, pest control,[92] cycling soil nutrients, purifying our water supply,supplying medicines and health benefits,[93] and unquantifiable quality of life improvements. There is a relationship,a correlation, between markets and natural capital, and social income inequity and biodiversity loss. This means thatthere are greater rates of biodiversity loss in places where the inequity of wealth is greatest[94]

Although a direct market comparison of natural capital is likely insufficient in terms of human value, one measure ofecosystem services suggests the contribution amounts to trillions of dollars yearly.[95] [96] [97] [98] For example, onesegment of North American forests has been assigned an annual value of 250 billion dollars;[99] as another example,honey-bee pollination is estimated to provide between 10 and 18 billion dollars of value yearly.[100] The value ofecosystem services on one New Zealand island has been imputed to be as great as the GDP of that region.[101] Thisplanetary wealth is being lost at an incredible rate as the demands of human society is exceeding the bio-regenerativecapacity of the Earth. While biodiversity and ecosystems are resilient, the danger of losing them is that humanscannot recreate many ecosystem functions through technological innovation.

Conservation biology 103

Strategic species concepts

Keystone species

Some species, called a keystone species, form a central supporting hub in the ecosystem. The loss of such a speciesresults in a collapse in ecosystem function, as well as the loss of coexisting species.[5] The importance of a keystonespecies was shown by the extinction of the Steller's Sea Cow (Hydrodamalis gigas) through its interaction with seaotters, sea urchins, and kelp. Kelp beds grow and form nurseries in shallow waters to shelter creatures that supportthe food chain. Sea urchins feed on kelp, while sea otters feed on sea urchins. With the rapid decline of sea otters dueto overhunting, sea urchin populations grazed unrestricted on the kelp beds and the ecosystem collapsed. Leftunchecked, the urchins destroyed the shallow water kelp communities that supported the Steller's Sea Cow's diet andhastened their demise.[102] The sea otter is a keystone species because the coexistence of many ecological associatesin the kelp beds relied upon otters for their survival.

Indicator species

The NAMOS BC logo is an example of anecosystem umbrella concept (forests and

wetlands) combined with amphibians as indicatorand flagship species.

An indicator species has a narrow set of ecological requirements,therefore they become useful targets for observing the health of anecosystem. Some animals, such as amphibians with theirsemi-permeable skin and linkages to wetlands, have an acutesensitivity to environmental harm and thus may serve as a miner'scanary. Indicator species are monitored in an effort to captureenvironmental degradation through pollution or some other link toproximate human activities.[5] Monitoring an indicator species is ameasure to determine if there is a significant environmental impact thatcan serve to advise or modify practice, such as through differentforestsilviculture treatments and management scenarios, or to measurethe degree of harm that a pesticide may impart on the health of anecosystem.

Government regulators, consultants, or NGOs regularly monitorindicator species, however, there are limitations coupled with manypractical considerations that must be followed for the approach to be effective.[103] It is generally recommended thatmultiple indicators (genes, populations, species, communities, and landscape) be monitored for effectiveconservation measurement that prevents harm to the complex, and oftentimes unpredictable, response fromecosystem dynamics (Noss, 1997[22] :88-89).

Umbrella and flagship species

An example of an umbrella species is the Monarch butterfly, because of its lengthy migrations and aesthetic value.The Monarch migrates across North America, covering multiple ecosystems and so requires a large area to exist.Any protections afforded to the Monarch butterfly will at the same time umbrella many other species and habitats.An umbrella species is often used as flagship species, which are species, such as the Giant Panda, the Blue Whale,the tiger, the mountain gorilla and the Monarch butterfly, that capture the public's attention and attract support forconservation measures.[5]

Conservation biology 104

HistoryThe conservation of natural resources is the fundamental problem. Unless we solve that problem, it will avail us little to solve

all others.

Theodore Roosevelt[104]

Natural resource conservationEfforts to conserve and protect global biodiversity are a recent phenomenon.[7] Prior to the global conservation era,there was the coming of the age of conservation. Some historians have linked this with the 1916 National Parks Act,which included the 'use without impairment' clause, sought by John Muir. This eventually resulted in the removal ofa proposal to build a dam in Dinosaur National Monument in 1959.[105]

Natural resource conservation, however, has a history that extends prior to the age of conservation. Resource ethicsgrew out of necessity through direct relations with nature. Regulation or communal restraint became necessary toprevent selfish motives from taking more than could be locally sustained, therefore compromising the long-termsupply for the rest of the community.[7] This social dilemma with respect to natural resource management is oftencalled the "Tragedy of the Commons".[106] [107] From this principal, conservation biologists can trace communalresource based ethics throughout cultures as a solution to communal resource conflict.[7] For example, the AlaskanTlingit peoples and the Haida of the Pacific Northwest had resource boundaries, rules, and restrictions among clanswith respect to the fishing of Sockeye Salmon. These rules were guided by clan elders who knew life-long details ofeach river and stream they managed.[7] [108] There are numerous examples in history where cultures have followedrules, rituals, and organized practice with respect to communal natural resource management.[109]

Conservation ethics are also found in early religious and philosophical writings. There are examples in the Tao,Shinto, Hindu, Islamic and Buddhist traditions.[7] [110] In Greek philosophy, Plato lamented about pasture landdegradation: "What is left now is, so to say, the skeleton of a body wasted by disease; the rich, soft soil has beencarried off and only the bare framework of the district left."[111] In the bible, through Moses, God commanded to letthe land rest from cultivation every seventh year.[7] [112] Before the 18th century, however, much of Europeanculture considered it a pagan view to admire nature. Wilderness was denigrated while agricultural development waspraised.[113] However, as early as AD 680 a wildlife sanctuary was founded on the Farne Islands by St Cuthbert inresponse to his religious beliefs.[7]

Conservation biology 105

Early naturalists

White Gerfalcons drawn by JohnJames Audubon

Natural history was a major preoccupation in the 18th century, with grandexpeditions and the opening of popular public displays in Europe and NorthAmerica. By 1900 there were 150 natural history museums in Germany, 250 inGreat Britain, 250 in the United States, and 300 in France.[114] Preservationist orconservationist sentiments are a development in the late 18th to early 20thcentury. The 19th century fascination with natural history engendered a fervor tobe the first to collect rare specimens with the goal of doing so before theybecame extinct by other such collectors.[113] [114] Although his artistic works andromantic depiction of avian life inspired many bird enthusiasts and conservationorganizations, the writings of John James Audubon, by modern standards, showinsensitivity toward bird conservation as he shot and collected hundreds ofspecimens.[114] Inspired by him, however, the first chapter of the AudubonSociety started in 1905 for the purpose of protecting birds.[115]

Coming of the Age of Conservation

The modern concept of ecosystem services can be found in the late 19th century. "The utility of Natural History orits applicability to promote the material wealth of the State cannot be doubted. It was a great mistake to suppose thatthe subjects of Zoology, Botany, and Geology did not involve much that affects our comfort, convenience, healthand wealth."[116] However, the article continues and discusses the dread of agricultural pests and the utility ofunderstanding their natural history for the purpose of facilitating their destruction.

In the department of Woods and Forestry we should teach on the principals of conservation and teach on the lessons of economyrather than of waste in the natural resources of our country.

American Museum of Natural History, 1909[117]

By the early 19th century biogeography was ignited through efforts of Alexander von Humboldt, DeCandolle, Lyelland Darwin;[118] their efforts, while important in relating species to their environments, were part of the naturalisttradition and fell short of conservation biology proper. Darwin, for example, hunted and shot birds and kept naturalhistory cabinets in line with Victorian tradition.Modern roots of conservation biology can be found in the late 19th century Enlightenment period particularly inEngland and Scotland.[113] [119] A number of thinkers, among them notably Lord Monboddo,[119] described theimportance of "preserving nature"; much of this early emphasis had its origins in Christian theology.

Conservation biology 106

20th century conservation

Roosevelt and Muir on Glacier Point in YosemiteNational Park.

In the 20th century, actions in the United Kingdom, United States, andCanada emphasized the protection of habitat areas pursuant to visionsof such people as John Muir, Theodore Roosevelt, and Aldo Leopold.While the Canadian nor the United Kingdom governments did notpioneer the creation of National Parks as the United States did in thelate 19th century, there were many far-sighted civil servants who werededicated to wildlife conservation and of notable mention. Some ofthese historical figures include Charles Gordon Hewitt [120] and JamesHarkin.[121]

The term conservation came into use in the late 19th century andreferred to the management, mainly for economic reasons, of suchnatural resources as timber, fish, game, topsoil, pastureland, andminerals. In addition it referred to the preservation of forests (forestry),wildlife (wildlife refuge), parkland, wilderness, and watersheds.Western Europe was the source of much 19th century progress forconservation biology, particularly the British Empire with the SeaBirds Preservation Act 1869. However, the United States made contributions to this field starting with thinking ofThoreau and taking form with the Forest Act of 1891, John Muir's founding of the Sierra Club in 1892, the foundingof the New York Zoological Society in 1895 and establishment of a series of national forests and preserves byTheodore Roosevelt from 1901 to 1909.[122]

Not until the mid-20th century did efforts arise to target individual species for conservation, notably efforts in big catconservation in South America led by the New York Zoological Society.[123] In the early 20th century the New YorkZoological Society was instrumental in developing concepts of establishing preserves for particular species andconducting the necessary conservation studies to determine the suitability of locations that are most appropriate asconservation priorities; the work of Henry Fairfield Osborn Jr., Carl E. Akeley, Archie Carr and Archie Carr III isnotable in this era.[124] [125] Akeley for example, having led expeditions to the Virunga Mountains and observed themountain gorilla in the wild, became convinced that the species and the area were conservation priorities. He wasinstrumental in persuading Albert I of Belgium to act in defense of the mountain gorilla and establish AlbertNational Park (since renamed Virunga National Park) in what is now Democratic Republic of Congo.[126]

By the 1970s, led primarily by work in the United States under the Endangered Species Act[127] along with theSpecies at Risk Act (SARA) of Canada, Biodiversity Action Plans developed in Australia, Sweden, the UnitedKingdom, hundreds of species specific protection plans ensued. Notably the United Nations acted to conserve sitesof outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of mankind. The programme was adopted bythe General Conference of UNESCO in 1972. As of 2006, a total of 830 sites are listed: 644 cultural, 162 natural.The first country to pursue aggressive biological conservation through national legislation was the United States,which passed back to back legislation in the Endangered Species Act[128] (1966) and National Environmental PolicyAct (1970),[129] which together injected major funding and protection measures to large scale habitat protection andthreatened species research. Other conservation developments, however, have taken hold throughout the world.India, for example, passed the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 [130].In 1980 a significant development was the emergence of the urban conservation movement. A local organization was established in Birmingham, UK, a development followed in rapid succession in cities across the UK, then overseas. Although perceived as a grassroots movement, its early development was driven by academic research into urban wildlife. Initially perceived as radical, the movement's view of conservation being inextricably linked with other human activity has now become mainstream in conservation thought. Considerable research effort is now directed at

Conservation biology 107

urban conservation biology. The Society for Conservation Biology originated in 1985.[131]

By 1992 most of the countries of the world had become committed to the principles of conservation of biologicaldiversity with the Convention on Biological Diversity;[132] subsequently many countries began programmes ofBiodiversity Action Plans to identify and conserve threatened species within their borders, as well as protectassociated habitats. The late 1990s saw increasing professionalism in the sector, with the maturing of organisationssuch as the Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management and the Society for the Environment.Since 2000 the concept of landscape scale conservation has risen to prominence, with less emphasis being given tosingle-species or even single-habitat focused actions. Instead an ecosystem approach is advocated by mostmainstream conservationist, although concerns have been expressed by those working to protect some high-profilespecies.Ecology has clarified the workings of the biosphere; i.e., the complex interrelationships among humans, otherspecies, and the physical environment. The burgeoning human population and associated agriculture, industry, andthe ensuing pollution, have demonstrated how easily ecological relationships can be disrupted.[133]

“The last word in ignorance is the man who says of an animal or plant: "What good is it?" If the land mechanism as a whole is good, then everypart is good, whether we understand it or not. If the biota, in the course of aeons, has built something we like but do not understand, then whobut a fool would discard seemingly useless parts? To keep every cog and wheel is the first precaution of intelligent tinkering. ”

—Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac

References[1] Sahney, S. and Benton, M.J. (2008). "Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time" (http:/ / journals. royalsociety. org/

content/ qq5un1810k7605h5/ fulltext. pdf) (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society: Biological 275 (1636): 759–65.doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370. PMC 2596898. PMID 18198148. .

[2] Wilcox, Bruce A.; Soulé, Michael E.; Soulé, Michael E. (1980). Conservation biology: an evolutionary-ecological perspective. Sunderland,Mass: Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-800-1.

[3] Soule ME; Soule, Michael E. (1986). "What is Conservation Biology?" (http:/ / www. michaelsoule. com/ resource_files/ 85/85_resource_file1. pdf). BioScience (American Institute of Biological Sciences) 35 (11): 727–34. doi:10.2307/1310054. JSTOR 1310054. .

[4] Soule, Michael E. (1986). Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity. Sinauer Associates. pp. 584. ISBN 0878937951,9780878937950 (hc).

[5] Hunter, Malcolm L. (1996). Fundamentals of conservation biology. Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-86542-371-7.[6] Meffe, Gary K.; Martha J. Groom (2006). Principles of conservation biology (3rd ed.). Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates.

ISBN 0-87893-518-5.[7] van Dyke, Fred (2008). Conservation Biology: Foundations, Concepts, Applications, 2nd ed.. Springer Verlag. pp. 478.

ISBN 978-1-4020-6890-4 (hc).[8] J. Douglas. 1978. Biologists urge US endowment for conservation. Nature Vol. 275, 14 September 1978. Kat Williams . 1978. Natural

Sciences. Science News. September 30, 1978.[9] Organization of the meeting itself also entailed bridging a gap between genetics and ecology. Soulé, was an evolutionary geneticist working

with wheat geneticist Sir Otto Frankel to advance conservation genetics as a new field at the time. Jared Diamond, who suggested the idea fora conference to Wilcox was concerned with the application of community ecology and island biogeography theory to conservation. Wilcoxand Thomas Lovejoy, who together initiated planning for the conference in June 1977 when Lovejoy secured a commitment of seed funding atWorld Wildlife Fund, felt both genetics and ecology should be represented. Wilcox suggested use of a new term conservation biology toencompass the application of biological sciences in general to conservation. Subsequently, Soulé and Wilcox wrote in the program for themeeting they jointly convened on September 6–9, 1978, titled First International Conference on Resesarch in Conservation Biology, "Thepurpose of this conference is to accelerate and facilitate the development of a rigorous new discipline called conservation biology -- amultidisciplinary field drawing its insights and methodology mostly from population ecology, community ecology, sociobiology, populationgenetics, and reproductive biology." This inclusion of topics at the meeting related to animal breeding reflected participation and support ofthe zoo and captive breeding communities.

[10] Wilson, Edward Raymond (2002). The future of life. Boston: Little, Brown. ISBN 0-316-64853-1.[11] Sahney, S., Benton, M.J. and Ferry, P.A. (2010). "Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of

vertebrates on land" (http:/ / rsbl. royalsocietypublishing. org/ content/ 6/ 4/ 544. full. pdf+ html) (PDF). Biology Letters 6 (4): 544–547.doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024. PMC 2936204. PMID 20106856. .

[12] Theel Heather J., Dibble Eric D., Madsen John D. (1948). "Differential influence of a monotypic and diverse native aquatic plant bed on a macroinvertebrate assemblage; an experimental implication of exotic plant induced habitat" (http:/ / cat. inist. fr/ ?aModele=afficheN&

Conservation biology 108

cpsidt=20189959). Cat.Inist and Springer, Dordrecht, PAYS-BAS. . Retrieved April 17, 2011.[13] Koh LP, Dunn RR, Sodhi NS, Colwell RK, Proctor HC, Smith VS (September 2004). "Species coextinctions and the biodiversity crisis"

(http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=15361627). Science 305 (5690): 1632–4. Bibcode 2004Sci...305.1632K.doi:10.1126/science.1101101. PMID 15361627. .

[14] Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis. World Resources Institute,Washington, DC. (http:/ / www. millenniumassessment. org/ documents/ document. 354. aspx. pdf)

[15] Jackson JB (August 2008). "Ecological extinction and evolution in the brave new ocean" (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ cgi/pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=18695220). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105 (Suppl 1): 11458–65. Bibcode 2008PNAS..10511458J.doi:10.1073/pnas.0802812105. PMC 2556419. PMID 18695220. .

[16] Ehrlich, Anne H.; Ehrlich, Paul R. (1981). Extinction: the causes and consequences of the disappearance of species. New York: RandomHouse. ISBN 0-394-51312-6.

[17] http:/ / www. panda. org/ news_facts/ publications/ living_planet_report/[18] Wake DB, Vredenburg VT (August 2008). "Are we in the midst of the sixth mass extinction? A view from the world of amphibians" (http:/ /

www. pnas. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=18695221). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105 (Suppl 1): 11466–73.Bibcode 2008PNAS..10511466W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0801921105. PMC 2556420. PMID 18695221. .

[19] http:/ / www. millenniumassessment. org[20] National Survey Reveals Biodiversity Crisis - Scientific Experts Believe we are in the Midst of Fastest Mass Extinction in Earth's History

(http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070607101209/ http:/ / www. amnh. org/ museum/ press/ feature/ biofact. html) a "Biofact" from theAmerican Natural History Museum's website

[21] May, Robert Lewis; Lawton, John (1995). Extinction rates. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854829-X.[22] Carroll, C. Dennis; Meffe, Gary K. (1997). Principles of conservation biology. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer. ISBN 0-87893-521-5.[23] Avise JC, Hubbell SP, Ayala FJ (August 2008). "In the light of evolution II: Biodiversity and extinction" (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ cgi/

pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=18695213). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105 Suppl 1 (Supplement_1): 11453–7.Bibcode 2008PNAS..10511453A. doi:10.1073/pnas.0802504105. PMC 2556414. PMID 18695213. .

[24] Although controversial, small bands of hunters with primitive hunting technologies had the capability of driving Quaternary megafaunalextinctions: Turvey and Risley (2006) Modeling the extinction of Steller's sea cow. Biol. Lett. 2, 94–97. (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/20080425142618/ http:/ / www. zoo. cam. ac. uk/ ioz/ people/ Publications/ 2006+ Biology+ Letters+ 2_94-97. pdf)

[25] See also: (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 7808171. stm) to learn about space impacts wiping out mammothsKennett DJ, Kennett JP, West A, et al. (January 2009). "Nanodiamonds in the Younger Dryas boundary sediment layer" (http:/ / www.sciencemag. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=19119227). Science 323 (5910): 94. Bibcode 2009Sci...323...94K.doi:10.1126/science.1162819. PMID 19119227. .

[26] http:/ / www. iucnredlist. org/ amphibians[27] M. L. McCallum. (2007). Amphibian Decline or Extinction? Current Declines Dwarf Background Extinction Rate. Journal of Herpetology,

41(3): 483–491. https:/ / www. herpconbio. org/ ~herpconb/ McCallum/ amphibian%20extinctions. pdf[28] Australian State of the Environment Committee. (2001). Australia state of the environment 2001: independent report to the Commonwealth

Minister for the Environment and Heritage (http:/ / www. environment. gov. au/ soe/ 2001/ publications/ report/ pubs/ part03b. pdf).Collingwood, VIC, Australia: CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 0-643-06745-0. .

[29] Carpenter KE, Abrar M, Aeby G, et al. (July 2008). "One-third of reef-building corals face elevated extinction risk from climate change andlocal impacts" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=18653892). Science 321 (5888): 560–3.Bibcode 2008Sci...321..560C. doi:10.1126/science.1159196. PMID 18653892. .

[30] http:/ / laws. justice. gc. ca/ en/ showdoc/ cs/ M-7. 01/ / / en?page=1[31] The Royal Society. 2005. Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. Policy document 12/05. ISBN 0-85403-617-2

Download (http:/ / royalsociety. org/ displaypagedoc. asp?id=13539)[32] "Orphans of Rio" (http:/ / www. fungal-conservation. org/ blogs/ orphans-of-rio. pdf). fungal-conservation.org. . Retrieved 2011-07-09.[33] Thomas JA, Telfer MG, Roy DB, et al. (March 2004). "Comparative losses of British butterflies, birds, and plants and the global extinction

crisis" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=15031508). Science 303 (5665): 1879–81.Bibcode 2004Sci...303.1879T. doi:10.1126/science.1095046. PMID 15031508. .

[34] Dunn RR (2005). "Modern Insect Extinctions, the Neglected Majority" (http:/ / www4. ncsu. edu/ ~rrdunn/ InsectExtinctionPDF. pdf).Conserv. Biol. 19 (4): 1030–6. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00078.x. .

[35] Edward O. Wilson. 1987. The Little Things That Run the World (The Importance and Conservation of Invertebrates). Conservation Biology,1(4):pp. 344-346 (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 2386020)

[36] M. J. Samways. (1993). Insects in biodiversity conservation: some perspectives and directives. Biodiversity and Conservation, 2:258-282[37] Holden C (October 2006). "Ecology. Report warns of looming pollination crisis in North America" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/

pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=17053115). Science 314 (5798): 397. doi:10.1126/science.314.5798.397. PMID 17053115. .Stokstad E (May 2007). "Entomology. The case of the empty hives" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17510336). Science 316 (5827): 970–2. doi:10.1126/science.316.5827.970. PMID 17510336. .

[38] Running SW (August 2008). "Climate change. Ecosystem disturbance, carbon, and climate" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=18669853). Science 321 (5889): 652–3. doi:10.1126/science.1159607. PMID 18669853. .

[39] http:/ / www. for. gov. bc. ca/ hfp/ mountain_pine_beetle/ actionplan/ 2006/ Beetle_Action_Plan. pdf

Conservation biology 109

[40] Kurz WA, Dymond CC, Stinson G, et al. (April 2008). "Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change" (http:/ / www.cfr. washington. edu/ classes. esc. 401/ MtnPineBeetleClimChangeNature08. pdf). Nature 452 (7190): 987–90.Bibcode 2008Natur.452..987K. doi:10.1038/nature06777. PMID 18432244. .

[41] McMenamin SK, Hadly EA, Wright CK (November 2008). "Climatic change and wetland desiccation cause amphibian decline inYellowstone National Park" (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=18955700). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105 (44):16988–93. Bibcode 2008PNAS..10516988M. doi:10.1073/pnas.0809090105. PMC 2579365. PMID 18955700. .

[42] Wyman, Richard L. (1991). Global climate change and life on earth. New York: Routledge, Chapman and Hall. ISBN 0-412-02821-2.[43] Thomas CD, Cameron A, Green RE, et al. (January 2004). "Extinction risk from climate change" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/

journal/ v427/ n6970/ abs/ nature02121. html). Nature 427 (6970): 145–8. doi:10.1038/nature02121. PMID 14712274. .[44] By 2050 Warming to Doom Million Species, Study Says (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2004/ 01/ 0107_040107_extinction.

html)[45] Sodhi NS, Bickford D, Diesmos AC, et al. (2008). Freckleton, Rob. ed. "Measuring the Meltdown: Drivers of Global Amphibian Extinction

and Decline" (http:/ / dx. plos. org/ 10. 1371/ journal. pone. 0001636). PLoS ONE 3 (2): e1636. Bibcode 2008PLoSO...3.1636S.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001636. PMC 2238793. PMID 18286193. .

[46] T. Longcore and C. Rich. (2004). Ecological light pollution. Front Ecol Environ 2004; 2(4): 191–198. (http:/ / www. seaturtle. org/ PDF/Longcore_2004_FrontEcolEnviron. pdf)

[47] Delaney, Gumal, Bennett: Asia's biodiversity vanishing into the marketplace. Bio-Medicine, 2004 (http:/ / news. bio-medicine. org/biology-news-2/ Asias-biodiversity-vanishing-into-the-marketplace-2548-1/ )

[48] Sautner, Bennett: Greatest threat to Asia's wildlife is hunting, scientists say. Bio-Medicine, 2002 (http:/ / news. bio-medicine. org/biology-news-2/ Greatest-threat-to-Asias-wildlife-is-hunting--scientists-say-7889-1/ )

[49] Hance, J: Wildlife trade creating "empty forest syndrome" across the globe. Mongabay.com, January 19, 2009 (http:/ / news. mongabay.com/ 2009/ 0118-hance_hunting. html)

[50] Rodrigues AS, Andelman SJ, Bakarr MI, et al. (April 2004). "Effectiveness of the global protected area network in representing speciesdiversity" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v428/ n6983/ abs/ nature02422. html). Nature 428 (6983): 640–3.Bibcode 2004Natur.428..640R. doi:10.1038/nature02422. PMID 15071592. .

[51] Wilcove DS, Wikelski M (July 2008). "Going, Going, Gone: Is Animal Migration Disappearing" (http:/ / dx. plos. org/ 10. 1371/ journal.pbio. 0060188). PLoS Biol. 6 (7): e188. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060188. PMC 2486312. PMID 18666834. .See also, Becker CG, Fonseca CR, Haddad CF, Batista RF, Prado PI (December 2007). "Habitat split and the global decline of amphibians"(http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=18079402). Science 318 (5857): 1775–7. Bibcode 2007Sci...318.1775B.doi:10.1126/science.1149374. PMID 18079402. .

[52] G. Schmidt. 2005. Ecology & Anthropology: A Field Without Future? Ecological and Environmental Anthropology. 1(1): 13-15. (http:/ /eea. anthro. uga. edu/ index. php/ eea/ article/ viewFile/ 4/ 5) (http:/ / www. rhinoresourcecenter. com/ ref_files/ 1175860914. pdf)

[53] http:/ / www. bio. sdsu. edu/ pub/ regan/ Currencyandtempo. pdf[54] D. I. MacKenzie, J. D. Nichols, J. E. Hines, M. G. Knutson, and A. B. Franklin. (2003) Estimating site occupancy, colonization, and local

extinction when a species is detected imperfectly. Ecology, 84(8): 2200–2207 (http:/ / www. uvm. edu/ envnr/ vtcfwru/ spreadsheets/occupancy/ Occupancy Exercises/ Exercise13/ MacKenzie_et_al_2003. pdf)

[55] http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6VJ1-484SKSD-1& _user=699447& _rdoc=1& _fmt=&_orig=search& _sort=d& _docanchor=& view=c& _acct=C000039259& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=699447&md5=3d85353e94ab6da7ec8b2df07c0bdb92

[56] Wilson, Edward Raymond; MacArthur, Robert H. (2001). The theory of island biogeography (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=R8kN1PWQZM8C& dq=theory+ of+ island+ biogeography& printsec=frontcover). Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press.ISBN 0-691-08836-5. .

[57] Raup DM (1991). "A kill curve for Phanerozoic marine species". Paleobiology 17 (1): 37–48. PMID 11538288.[58] Wilson Edward O. (2000). "On the Future of Conservation Biology". Conservation Biology 14 (1): 1–3.

doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.00000-e1.x.[59] IUCN Red-list statistics (2006) (http:/ / www. iucnredlist. org/ info/ tables/ table1)[60] The IUCN does not disaggregate endangered from critically endangered or threatened for the purpose of these statistics.[61] Margules CR, Pressey RL (May 2000). "Systematic conservation planning" (http:/ / www. ecology. uq. edu. au/ docs/ SoC_Brazil_2005/

Papers/ Margules_and_Pressey_2000. pdf). Nature 405 (6783): 243–53. doi:10.1038/35012251. PMID 10821285. .[62] The Amphibian Conservation Action Plan is one example (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070704172505/ http:/ / www. amphibians. org/

newsletter/ ACAP. pdf).See also: Chan KM, Shaw MR, Cameron DR, Underwood EC, Daily GC (October 2006). "Conservation Planning for Ecosystem Services"(http:/ / dx. plos. org/ 10. 1371/ journal. pbio. 0040379). PLoS Biol. 4 (11): e379. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040379. PMC 1629036.PMID 17076586. .

[63] Chan KM (February 2008). "Value and advocacy in conservation biology: crisis discipline or discipline in crisis?" (http:/ / www3. botany.ubc. ca/ vellend/ Chan 2008. pdf). Conserv. Biol. 22 (1): 1–3. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00869.x. PMID 18254846. .

[64] http:/ / www. apbbc. bc. ca/[65] Manolis JC, Chan KM, Finkelstein ME, Stephens S, Nelson CR, Grant JB, Dombeck MP (2009). "Leadership: A new frontier in

conservation science". Conserv. Biol..

Conservation biology 110

[66] http:/ / leopoldleadership. org/ content/[67] http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?hl=en& lr=& id=Evh1UD3ZYWcC& oi=fnd& pg=PR9& dq=resource+ conservation+ ethic&

ots=pK3JljX-PI& sig=aUpm1AbsZ3BLC1l5X8ioas3qbaw#PPA15,M1[68] www.iucnredlist.org[69] Vié, J. C.; Hilton-Taylor, C.; Stuart, S.N. (2009). Wildlife in a Changing World – An Analysis of the 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened

Species (http:/ / data. iucn. org/ dbtw-wpd/ edocs/ RL-2009-001. pdf). Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. pp. 180. . Retrieved December 24, 2010"."[70] Molnar, J.; Marvier, M.; Kareiva, P. (2004). "The sum is greater than the parts" (http:/ / www. environmental-expert. com/

Files\8392\articles\9961\TheSumIsGreaterthantheParts. pdf). Conservation Biology 18 (6): 1670–1. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00l07.x. .[71] Gaston, K.J. (2010). "Valuing common species". Science 327 (5962): 154–155. Bibcode 2010Sci...327..154G. doi:10.1126/science.1182818.

ISBN 10.1126/science.1182818. PMID 20056880.[72] Kearns, C. (2010). "Conservation of Biodiversity" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ scitable/ knowledge/ library/

conservation-of-biodiversity-13235087). Nature Education Knowledge 1 (9): 7. .[73] Committee on Recently Extinct Organisms. " Why Care About Species That Have Gone Extinct? (http:/ / creo. amnh. org/ care. html)".

URL accessed July 30, 2006.[74] G. W. Luck, G. C. Daily and P. R. Ehrlich. (2003). Population diversity and ecosystem services. 18, (7): 331-336 (http:/ / www. montana.

edu/ ecology/ courses/ biol447/ lucketal. pdf)[75] In the paper referenced herein, the authors map biodiversity hotspots against ecosystem service values and show that published maps on

biodiversity priority have a disproportionate share of ecosystem service value. W. R. Turner, K. Brandon, T. M. Brooks, R. Costanza, G. A. B.Da Fonseca, and R. Portela. 2007. Global Conservation of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. BioScience, 57(10): 868-873. (http:/ / www.uvm. edu/ giee/ publications/ Turner et al. BioSci. 2007. pdf)

[76] Molnar J, Marvier M, Karieva P (2004). "The sum is greater than the parts". Conserv. Biol. 18 (6): 1670–1.doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00l07.x.

[77] Myers N, Mittermeier RA, Mittermeier CG, da Fonseca GA, Kent J (February 2000). "Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities".Nature 403 (6772): 853–8. Bibcode 2000Natur.403..853M. doi:10.1038/35002501. PMID 10706275.

[78] Underwood EC, Shaw MR, Wilson KA, et al. (2008). Somers, Michael. ed. "Protecting Biodiversity when Money Matters: MaximizingReturn on Investment" (http:/ / dx. plos. org/ 10. 1371/ journal. pone. 0001515). PLoS ONE 3 (1): e1515. Bibcode 2008PLoSO...3.1515U.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001515. PMC 2212107. PMID 18231601. .

[79] Leroux SJ, Schmiegelow FK (February 2007). "Biodiversity concordance and the importance of endemism". Conserv. Biol. 21 (1): 266–8;discussion 269–70. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00628.x. PMID 17298533.

[80] Naidoo R, Balmford A, Costanza R, et al. (July 2008). "Global mapping of ecosystem services and conservation priorities" (http:/ / www.pnas. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=18621701). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105 (28): 9495–500.Bibcode 2008PNAS..105.9495N. doi:10.1073/pnas.0707823105. PMC 2474481. PMID 18621701. .

[81] Wood CC, Gross MR (February 2008). "Elemental conservation units: communicating extinction risk without dictating targets forprotection" (http:/ / labs. eeb. utoronto. ca/ gross/ WoodandGross2008. pdf). Conserv. Biol. 22 (1): 36–47.doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00856.x. PMID 18254851. .

[82] The Global Conservation Fund is an example of funding organization that excludes biodiversity coldspots in its strategic campaign. (http:/ /web. conservation. org/ xp/ gcf)

[83] Kareiva P, Marvier M (2003). "Conserving biodiversity coldspots" (http:/ / www. bren. ucsb. edu/ academics/ courses/ 297-2S/ Readings/Coldspots. pdf). American Scientist 91: 344–51. .

[84] http:/ / www. biodiversityhotspots. org/ Pages/ default. aspx[85] The following papers are examples of research showing the relationship between biodiversity, biomass, and ecosystem stability: (http:/ /

nature. berkeley. edu/ genomicswg/ EE_twentyeight. pdf)Cardinale BJ, Wright JP, Cadotte MW, et al. (November 2007). "Impacts of plant diversity on biomass production increase through timebecause of species complementarity" (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=17991772). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.104 (46): 18123–8. Bibcode 2007PNAS..10418123C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0709069104. PMC 2084307. PMID 17991772. .

[86] European Communities (2008). The economics of ecosystems and biodiversity. Interim Report (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ environment/ nature/biodiversity/ economics/ pdf/ teeb_report. pdf). Wesseling, Germany: Welzel+Hardt. ISBN 978-92-79-08960-2. .

[87] R. Costanza, R. d'Arge, R. de Groot, S. Farberk, M. Grasso, B. Hannon, K. Limburg, S. Naeem, R. V. O'Neill, J. Paruelo, R. G. Raskin, P.Suttonkk and M. van den Belt. The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature, 387: 253-260 (http:/ / www. uvm. edu/giee/ publications/ Nature_Paper. pdf)

[88] WWF. "World Wildlife Fund" (http:/ / assets. wwf. ca/ downloads/ lpr_2008. pdf) (pdf). . Retrieved January 8, 2009.[89] http:/ / www. actionbioscience. org/ environment/ esa. html[90] Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis. World Resources Institute,

Washington, DC. (http:/ / www. millenniumassessment. org/ documents/ document. 354. aspx. pdf)[91] http:/ / www. millenniumassessment. org/[92] "Bees get plants' pests in a flap" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 7796138. stm). BBC News. 2008-12-22. . Retrieved

2010-04-01.[93] Mitchell R, Popham F (November 2008). "Effect of exposure to natural environment on health inequalities: an observational population

study" (http:/ / linkinghub. elsevier. com/ retrieve/ pii/ S0140-6736(08)61689-X). Lancet 372 (9650): 1655–60.

Conservation biology 111

doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61689-X. PMID 18994663. .[94] Mikkelson GM, Gonzalez A, Peterson GD (2007). Chave, Jerome. ed. "Economic Inequality Predicts Biodiversity Loss" (http:/ / dx. plos.

org/ 10. 1371/ journal. pone. 0000444). PLoS ONE 2 (5): e444. Bibcode 2007PLoSO...2..444M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000444.PMC 1864998. PMID 17505535. .

[95] Staff of World Resources Program. (1998). Valuing Ecosystem Services. World Resources 1998-99. (http:/ / earthtrends. wri. org/pdf_library/ feature/ eco_fea_value. pdf)

[96] Committee on Noneconomic and Economic Value of Biodiversity, Board on Biology, Commission on Life Sciences, National ResearchCouncil. (1999). Perspectives on biodiversity: valuing its role in an everchanging world (http:/ / books. nap. edu/ openbook.php?record_id=9589& page=114). Washington, D.C: National Academy Press. ISBN 0-309-06581-X. .

[97] Valuation of Ecosystem services : A Backgrounder (http:/ / www. ecotrust. org/ press/ katoomba_backgrounder. html)[98] Ecosystem Services: Estimated value in trillions (http:/ / essp. csumb. edu/ esse/ )[99] Canadian Forest Congress: Carbon capture, water filtration, other boreal forest ecoservices worth estimated $250 billion/year (http:/ /

www. eurekalert. org/ pub_releases/ 2006-09/ cfc-ccw091806. php)[100] APIS, Volume 10, Number 11, November 1992, M.T. Sanford: Estimated value of honey bee pollination (http:/ / apis. ifas. ufl. edu/

apis92/ apnov92. htm)[101] Regional council, Waikato: The hidden economy (http:/ / www. waikatoregion. govt. nz/ environmental-information/

About-the-Waikato-region/ Our-economy/ The-hidden-economy/ )[102] P. K. Anderson. (1996). Competition, predation, and the evolution and extinction of Steller's Sea Cow, Hydrodamalis gigas. Marine

Mammal Science, 11(3):391-394[103] Landres PB, Verner J, Thomas JW (1988). "Ecological Uses of Vertebrate Indicator Species: A Critique" (http:/ / www. fs. fed. us/ emc/

nfma/ includes/ 2007_rule/ 1988_12_Landres et al 1988. pdf). Conserv. Biol. 2 (4): 316–28. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.1988.tb00195.x. .[104] Theodore Roosevelt, Address to the Deep Waterway Convention Memphis, TN, October 4, 1907[105] Davis, Peter (1996). Museums and the natural environment: the role of natural history museums in biological conservation. London:

Leicester University Press. ISBN 0-7185-1548-X.[106] Hardin G (December 1968). "The Tragedy of the Commons" (http:/ / www. ldeo. columbia. edu/ edu/ dees/ V1003/ lectures/ population/

Tragedy of the Commons. pdf). Science 162 (3859): 1243–8. Bibcode 1968Sci...162.1243H. doi:10.1126/science.162.3859.1243.PMID 5699198. .

[107] Also considered to be a consequence of evolution, where individual selection is favored over group selection. For recent discussions, see:Kay CE (1997). "The Ultimate Tragedy of Commons". Conserv. Biol. 11 (6): 1447–8. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.97069.x.and Wilson DS, Wilson EO (December 2007). "Rethinking the theoretical foundation of sociobiology" (http:/ / evolution. binghamton. edu/dswilson/ resources/ publications_resources/ Rethinking sociobiology. pdf). Q Rev Biol 82 (4): 327–48. doi:10.1086/522809.PMID 18217526. .

[108] Mason, Rachel and Judith Ramos. (2004). Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Tlingit People concerning the Sockeye Salmon Fishery ofthe Dry Bay Area, A Cooperative Agreement Between Department of the Interior National Park Service and the Yakutat Tlingit Tribe, FinalReport (FIS) Project 01-091, Yakutat, Alaska. (http:/ / www. ser. org/ iprn/ pdf/ Elaine_Abraham. pdf)

[109] Wilson, David Alec (2002). Darwin's cathedral: evolution, religion, and the nature of society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.ISBN 0-226-90134-3.

[110] Primack, Richard B. (2004). A Primer of Conservation Biology, 3rd ed.. Sinauer Associates. pp. 320pp.. ISBN 0-87893-728-5 (pbk).[111] Hamilton, E., and H. Cairns (eds). 1961. Plato: the collected dialogues. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ[112] The Bible, Leviticus, 25:4-5[113] Evans, David (1997). A history of nature conservation in Britain. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-14491-4.[114] Farber, Paul Lawrence (2000). Finding order in nature: the naturalist tradition from Linnaeus to E. O. Wilson. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins

University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6390-2.[115] http:/ / www. audubon. org/ centennial/ timeline_intro. php#[116] Page 91, in C. D. Wilber. (1861). Transactions of the Illinois Natural History Society. Illinois Natural History Society. (http:/ / books.

google. ca/ books?id=NcQYAAAAYAAJ& printsec=titlepage& client=firefox-a)[117] page 26 in H. F. Osborn. The American Museum of Natural History, Its Origin, Its History: Its Origin, Its History, the Growth of Its

Departments to December 31, 1909. Irving Press[118] Short history of biogeography and conservation biology (http:/ / web2. uwindsor. ca/ courses/ biology/ macisaac/ 55-437/ intro. htm)[119] Cloyd, E. L. (1972). James Burnett, Lord Monboddo. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 196. ISBN 0198124376.[120] http:/ / people. wku. edu/ charles. smith/ chronob/ HEWI1885. htm[121] For an review and introduction to the history of wildlife conservation and preservation in Canada, see Foster, Janet (1997). Working for

wildlife: the beginning of preservation in Canada (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=8KLFOFGXvYQC& dq=Janet+ Foster+ working+ for+wildlife& printsec=frontcover) (2nd ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-7969-5. .

[122] (http:/ / www. runet. edu/ ~wkovarik/ envhist/ 5progressive. html) Environmental timeline 1890-1920[123] A.R. Rabinowitz, Jaguar: One Man's Battle to Establish the World's First Jaguar Preserve, Arbor House, New York, N.Y. (1986)[124] Carr, Marjorie Harris; Carr, Archie Fairly (1994). A naturalist in Florida: a celebration of Eden. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press.

ISBN 0-300-05589-7.[125] Henry Fairfield Osborn Jr. Biographical summary (http:/ / www. wku. edu/ ~smithch/ chronob/ OSBO1887. htm)

Conservation biology 112

[126] Akeley, C., 1923. In Brightest Africa New York, Doubleday. 188-249.[127] U.S. Endangered Species Act (7 U.S.C. § 136, 16 U.S.C. § 1531 et seq.) of 1973, Washington DC, U.S. Government Printing Office[128] U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1966 with subsequent amendments (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ html/ uscode16/

usc_sec_16_00001531----000-. html)[129] 42 USC 4321 National Environmental Policy Act (2000): full text of the law (http:/ / frwebgate. access. gpo. gov/ cgi-bin/ getdoc.

cgi?dbname=browse_usc& docid=Cite:+ 42USC4321)[130] http:/ / www. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0091-7648(199023)18%3A3%3C342%3ACAWEII%3E2. 0. CO%3B2-%23[131] Dyke, Fred Van (2008-04-07). Conservation biology: Foundations, concepts, applications (http:/ / books. google. com/

?id=Evh1UD3ZYWcC& pg=PA2& dq=Fred+ Van+ Dyke+ The+ History+ and+ Distinctions+ of+ Conservation+ Biology#PPA2,M1).ISBN 9781402068904. .

[132] Convention on Biological Diversity Official Page (http:/ / www. biodiv. org/ convention/ default. shtml)[133] Gore, Albert (1992). Earth in the balance: ecology and the human spirit. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-57821-3.

Further readingScientific literature

• B. W. Bowen, (1999). Preserving genes, species, or ecosystems? Healing the fractured foundations ofconservation policy. Molecular Ecology, 8:S5-S10. (http:/ / nature. berkeley. edu/ genomicswg/ EE_twentyeight.pdf)

• T. M. Brooks, R. A. Mittermeier, G. A. B. da Fonseca, J. Gerlach, M. Hoffmann, J. F. Lamoreux, C. G.Mittermeier, J. D. Pilgrim, and A. S. L. Rodrigues. (2006). Global Biodiversity Conservation Priorities. Science313 (5783), 58.

• P. Kareiva, M. Marvier. (2003) Conserving Biodiversity Coldspots. American Scientist 91(4):344-351. (http:/ /web. archive. org/ web/ 20060906162035/ http:/ / www. nau. edu/ ~envsci/ sisk/ courses/ env440/ readings/Kareiva+ et+ al+ 2003+ Am+ Sci. pdf)

• M. L. McCallum. (2008) Amphibian Decline or Extinction? Current Declines Dwarf Background Extinction Rate.Journal of Herpetology, 41(3): 483–491. (https:/ / www. herpconbio. org/ ~herpconb/ McCallum/ amphibianextinctions. pdf)

• N. Myers, R. A. Mittermeier, C. G. Mittermeier, G. A. B. da Fonseca and J. Kent. (2000). Biodiversity hotspotsfor conservation priorities. Nature 403, 853-858. (http:/ / planet. botany. uwc. ac. za/ nisl/ Gwen's Files/Biodiversity/ Chapters/ Ready to Upload/ Myerseta)

• B. W. Bowen, (1999). Preserving genes, species, or ecosystems? Healing the fractured foundations ofconservation policy. Molecular Ecology, 8:S5-S10. (http:/ / nature. berkeley. edu/ genomicswg/ EE_twentyeight.pdf)

• T. M. Brooks, R. A. Mittermeier, G. A. B. da Fonseca, J. Gerlach, M. Hoffmann, J. F. Lamoreux, C. G.Mittermeier, J. D. Pilgrim, and A. S. L. Rodrigues. (2006). Global Biodiversity Conservation Priorities. Science313 (5783), 58.

• P. Kareiva, M. Marvier. (2003) Conserving Biodiversity Coldspots. American Scientist 91(4):344-351. (http:/ /web. archive. org/ web/ 20060906162035/ http:/ / www. nau. edu/ ~envsci/ sisk/ courses/ env440/ readings/Kareiva+ et+ al+ 2003+ Am+ Sci. pdf)

• M. L. McCallum. (2008) Amphibian Decline or Extinction? Current Declines Dwarf Background Extinction Rate.Journal of Herpetology, 41(3): 483–491. (https:/ / www. herpconbio. org/ ~herpconb/ McCallum/ amphibianextinctions. pdf)

• N. Myers, R. A. Mittermeier, C. G. Mittermeier, G. A. B. da Fonseca and J. Kent. (2000). Biodiversity hotspotsfor conservation priorities. Nature 403, 853-858. (http:/ / planet. botany. uwc. ac. za/ nisl/ Gwen's Files/Biodiversity/ Chapters/ Ready to Upload/ Myersetal2000. pdf)

• D. B. Wake and V. T. Vredenburg. (2008). Are we in the midst of the sixth mass extinction? A view from theworld of amphibians. PNAS, 105(1): 11466-11473. (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ content/ 105/ suppl. 1/ 11466. full.pdf+ html)

Textbooks

Conservation biology 113

• Larry B. Crowder; Marine Conservation Biology Institute; Elliott A. Norse (2005). Marine conservation biology:the science of maintaining the sea's biodiversity. Washington, DC: Island Press. ISBN 1-55963-662-9.

• Primack, Richard B. (2004). A primer of Conservation Biology. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates.ISBN 0-87893-728-5.

• Primack, Richard B. (2006). Essentials of Conservation Biology. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates.ISBN 0-87893-720-X.

• Wilcox, Bruce A.; Soulé, Michael E.; Soulé, Michael E. (1980). Conservation Biology: anevolutionary-ecological perspective. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-800-1.

• Kleiman, Devra G.; Thompson, Katerina V.; Baer, Charlotte Kirk (2010). Wild Mammals in Captivity. Chicago,Illinois: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-44009-5.

• Scheldeman, X. & van Zonneveld, M. (2010). Training Manual on Spatial Analysis of Plant Diversity andDistribution (http:/ / www. bioversityinternational. org/ training/ training_materials/ gis_manual. html).Bioversity International.

General Non-fiction

• Christy, Bryan (2008). The Lizard King: The true crimes and passions of the world's greatest reptile smugglers.New York: Twelve. ISBN 0-446-58095-3.

Periodicals

• Conservation Biology, a peer-reviewed journal of the Society for Conservation Biology• Conservation (http:/ / www. conbio. org/ CIP/ ), a quarterly magazine published by the Society for Conservation

Biology• Conservation (http:/ / blackwellpublishing. com:443/ journal. asp?ref=1936-2145& site=1)• The Open Conservation Biology Journal (http:/ / www. bentham. org/ open/ toconsbj/ )• Ecology & Society (http:/ / www. ecologyandsociety. org/ )• Conservation & Society (http:/ / www. conservationandsociety. org/ )Training manuals

• White, James Emery; Kapoor-Vijay, Promila (1992). Conservation biology: a training manual for biologicaldiversity and genetic resources. London: Commonwealth Science Council, Commonwealth Secretariat.ISBN 0-85092-392-1.

External links• Conservation Biology Institute (CBI) (http:/ / www. consbio. org/ )• United Nations Environment Programme - World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) (http:/ /

www. unep-wcmc. org/ )• Conservation and Research for Endangered Species (CRES) (http:/ / www. conservationandscience. org)• The Center for Biodiversity and Conservation (http:/ / cbc. amnh. org/ ) - (American Museum of Natural History)• Conservation Biology (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ conservation-biology) entry by Sahotra Sarkar in the

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy• Dictionary of the History of Ideas (http:/ / etext. lib. virginia. edu/ cgi-local/ DHI/ dhi. cgi?id=dv1-59)• Conservation evidence.com (http:/ / www. conservationevidence. com) - Free access to conservation studies

114

Let´s show we do care!

Earth Song

"Earth Song"

Single by Michael Jackson

from the album HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I

Released November 27, 1995

Format CD single, 12"

Recorded 1994–1995

Genre Blues, gospel, operatic pop

Length 6:46 (album version)5:02 (radio edit)

Label Epic

Writer(s) Michael Jackson

Producer Michael JacksonDavid FosterBill Bottrell (co-producer)

Michael Jackson singles chronology

"You Are NotAlone"(1995)

"EarthSong"(1995)

"This TimeAround"(1995)

Earth Song 115

HIStory Continues track listing

"This TimeAround"

(4)

"EarthSong"

(5)

"D.S."(6)

This Is It track listing

"Black orWhite"

(11)

"EarthSong"(12)

"BillieJean"(13)

"Earth Song" is the third single from Michael Jackson's album HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I. It is thefifth song on the second disc of the album. It is a ballad that incorporates elements of blues, gospel and opera.Jackson had a long-standing history of releasing socially conscious material such as "We Are the World", "Man inthe Mirror" and "Heal the World". However, "Earth Song" was the first that overtly dealt with the environment andanimal welfare. The song was written and composed by Jackson; the task of production was split between Jackson,David Foster and Bill Bottrell. Reviews were generally favorable, but some charged that the song sounded pompous."Earth Song" was accompanied by a lavish music video shot on four geographical regions. It centered around thedestruction and rebirth of Earth and went on to receive a Grammy nomination in 1997. The song was a top five hit inmost European countries. In the United Kingdom, it remains Jackson's best-selling single and was the country's 1995Christmas number-one single. "Earth Song" was not released as a single in the United States. Jackson went on toreceive recognition from various animal and environmental organizations.

BackgroundJackson already had a long-standing history of writing charitable or socially conscious material. As an adult Jacksonused his fame and wealth to promote various causes. In 1985, he co-wrote the charity single "We Are the World"with Lionel Richie, which was released worldwide to aid the poor in Africa and the US. The single became one ofthe best-selling singles of all time, with nearly 20 million copies sold and millions of dollars donated to famine relief.It was also the first time Jackson was seen as a humanitarian.[1] All of the profits from his single "Man in the Mirror"went to charity.[2] [3] Jackson founded the "Heal the World Foundation" in 1992, inspired by his charity single of thesame name.[4] [5]

Following the illness and death of Ryan White, Jackson helped draw public attention to HIV/AIDS, something thatwas still controversial at the time. He publicly pleaded with the Clinton Administration at Bill Clinton's InauguralGala to give more money to HIV/AIDS charities and research. He would go on to perform the song "Gone TooSoon" for White and other victims of the illness.[6] [7]

Production and music"Earth Song" was written and composed by Jackson in a hotel in Austria; production of the song was a collaborativeeffort between Jackson, David Foster and Bill Bottrell.[8] Andrae Crouch's Choir and Jackson engage in a back andforth chant as the song reaches its climatic finale.[9] Jackson's intent was to create a song that was lyrically deep yetmelodically simple, so the whole world, particularly non-English-speaking fans, could sing along. He conceptualizeda song that had an emotional message.[10] "Earth Song" is a ballad that incorporates elements of blues, gospel andopera. In the socially conscious track, Jackson issues a plea to God about problems ranging from war to endangeredanimals.[11] [12] [13] [14]

Earth Song 116

Reception

Critical responseJames Hunter of Rolling Stone stated, "The slow blues-operatic 'Earth Song' for all its noble sentiments, soundsprimarily like a showpiece".[12] Deepika Reddy of The Daily Collegian expressed the opinion that someone otherthan Jackson pushed to have "Earth Song" in the final album selection for commercial appeal.[15] A San JoseMercury News review called it "flat" and "whiny", believing Jackson had already experimented with these conceptsearlier in his career.[16]

The Philadelphia Inquirer described the track as "a healing, rhythmic ballad that evokes religious imagery".[14] Areview in The Sacramento Bee was favorable, describing Jackson's vocal performance as "cool".[17] Michael Mehleof Rocky Mountain News described the finale as "anthemic" and a "powerful gospel opus".[13] A Ledger-Enquirerreview observed of "Earth Song", "[it] enjoys the same kind of subtlety, building to a dramatic call-and-responsefinish with the Andrae Crouch Choir".[9] Contra Costa Times's review called it "a bit sappy and overblown" but alsoacknowledged that it was "epic" and destined to be a "massive smash hit".[18]

Commercial performance"Earth Song" remains Jackson's best selling single in the UK, where it sold more than one million copies. It debutedat number one, where it remained for six weeks throughout December 1995—beating the U2/Brian Eno projectPassengers in competition to win the Christmas number one spot—and into the new year.[19] [20] During its stay atnumber one, "Earth Song" kept the first single released by The Beatles in 25 years, "Free as a Bird", off the numberone position. In early December, bookmakers correctly predicted that Jackson would keep The Beatles off the topposition and go on to attain the Christmas number-one single.[21] [22]

The song also took the number one position in Spain and Switzerland, peaking within the top five in almost everyEuropean state.[23] In Germany, it was Jackson's first single to reach No. 1 of the German Singles Chart and bystaying on the pole position for 5 consecutive weeks, it's also his most successful single there.[24] Thanks to this, thesong is the 10th most successful pop hymn ever in that country[25]

The song was only released to radio in the U.S., appearing on the Hot Dance Music/Club Play chart.[26] In 2006,"Earth Song" reached number 55 on the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles chart, following the Visionary: The Video Singlescampaign, whereby 20 of Jackson's hit singles from the 1980s–1990s were reissued in several Europeancountries.[27]

Earth Song 117

Environmental recognitionJackson received the Genesis Award: 1995 Doris Day Music Award, given each year for animal sensitivity.[19] In2008, a writer for the Nigeria Exchange noted, "'Earth Song' drew the world's attention to the degradation andbastardization of the earth as a fall out of various human activities".[28]

Music video

Jackson walking in a burnt down forest. Thissection of the music video was simulated in a

corn field.

The music video for "Earth Song", directed by fine art photographerNick Brandt, was expensive and well-received; it gained a Le FilmFantastique: Best Video Award in 1996, the 1995 Doris Day MusicAward at the Genesis Awards and a Grammy nomination for BestMusic Video, Short Form in 1997. The production had anenvironmental theme, showing images of animal cruelty, deforestation,pollution and war. Jackson and the world's people unite in a spiritualchant—"Earth Song"—which summons a force that heals the world.Using special effects, time is reversed so that life returns, war ends andthe forests regrow. The video closes with a request for donations toJackson's Heal the World Foundation.[19] [29] The clip was showninfrequently in the United States.[30]

The video was filmed in four geographic regions. The first location was the Amazon Rainforest, where a large partwas destroyed a week after the video's completion. Natives of the region appeared in the video and were not actors.The second scene was a war zone in Croatia, with famous Serbian-born Croatian actor Slobodan Dimitrijević and theresidents of the area. The third location was Tanzania, which incorporated scenes of illegal poaching and huntinginto the video. No animals were harmed in the making of the "Earth Song", as the footage came from documentaryarchives. However, a poacher killed an elephant within a mile of the shot. The final location was in Warwick, NewYork, where a safe forest fire was simulated in a corn field.[29]

The music video of the song also included on the video albums: HIStory on Film, Volume II, Number Ones andMichael Jackson's Vision.

BRIT awards

Jackson during a performance of "Earth Song" at theHIStory Tour in 1997. The singer dangled from the

edge of a crane in a similar manner at the Brit Awards.

In 1996, Jackson performed "Earth Song" at the BRIT Awards inthe United Kingdom; he was there to collect a special "Artist of aGeneration" award. Jackson sang while dangling off the edge of ahigh rise crane lift, which he had used the year before whileperforming it on the German TV show Wetten Dass. Below, achorus of backing performers joined in and many of them began tophysically embrace Jackson upon his descent. In response to theperformance, an intoxicated Jarvis Cocker ran onto the stagewithout permission, lifted his shirt and pretended to break wind,before giving Jackson the insulting V-sign.[19] [31] [32] The Pulpfrontman had been there with his band, who had been nominatedfor three Brit awards.[33] Cocker was subsequently questioned bypolice over claims he had assaulted some of the child performers, but he was later released without charge.[33] [34]

The singer explained that he found the performance offensive, claiming that Jackson had portrayed himself as Christ-like and could do as he pleased because of his immense wealth and power.[19] [31] [32] Jackson condemned

Earth Song 118

Cocker's behaviour as "disgusting and cowardly".[33] The incident is referred to in the book Politics and PopularCulture by John Street, Professor of Politics at the University of East Anglia. He says:

"But to read popular culture as a straight forward text is to take a very narrow view of its meaning, andhence of its political message. As we have noted, the text's meaning will depend on how it is heard andread. Michael Jackson may have intended his 'Earth Song' to be an exercise in compassion; others–likeJarvis Cocker–saw it quite differently. One reason these alternative readings emerge is because of theway the performance of popular culture engages more than a literal text, it employs gestures andsymbols, tones of voice, looks and glances, all of which might tell a different story".[35]

CoversThe song has been covered by Russian signer Sergey Lazarev for his 2005 album Don't Be Fake. The song wascovered by Haley Reinhart in the tenth installement of American IdolCharice & Ne-Yo performed Earth Song During David Foster's "Hitman Returns: David Foster and Friends" Tour.

2010 Grammy PerformanceThe song, along with a 3-D short film that was to be featured in Jackson's series of comeback concerts This Is It, wasperformed as a tribute to Jackson. Jennifer Hudson, Carrie Underwood, Smokey Robinson, Celine Dion, and Usherall sang the song together, while the video played in the background. The film was shown in its original 3-D formatduring the broadcast. Target provided free 3-D glasses to customers a week before the Grammy Awards. Paris andPrince Jackson, Michael's oldest children, appeared shortly after to accept Jackson's Lifetime Achievement Award,where they both gave a short speech. This was the first time the children had spoken publicly since the memorialservice that was held for Jackson on July 7, 2009.

Charts and certifications

Charts

Chart (1995) Peakposition

Australian ARIA Singles Chart[23] 1

Austrian Singles Chart[23] 1

Belgian (Flanders) Singles Chart[23] 1

Belgian (Wallonia) Singles Chart[23] 1

Dutch Singles Chart[23] 1

Eurochart Hot 100 Singles[27] 1

Finnish Singles Chart[23] 1

French Singles Chart[23] 1

German Singles Chart 1

Italian Singles Chart[23] 15

New Zealand RIANZ Singles Chart[23] 1

Norwegian Singles Chart[23] 1

Earth Song 119

Spanish Singles Chart[23] 1

Swedish Singles Chart[23] 1

Swiss Singles Chart[36] 1

UK Singles Chart[23] 1

U.S. Billboard Hot Dance Music/Club Play[26] 11

Chart (2009) Peakposition

Danish Singles Chart[23] 1

European Hot 100 Singles[37] 1

French Digital Singles Chart[38] 20

Swedish Singles Chart[39] 44

Swiss Singles Chart[36] 4

UK Singles Chart[40] 33

Certifications

Country Certification Sales

Germany 2x Platinum 1,000,000+[41]

Switzerland Platinum 50,000+[42]

United Kingdom Platinum [43] 1,000,000+ [44]

Chart procession and succession

Track listing

Visionary Single

• CD Side:

1. Earth Song (Radio Edit) - 5:022. Earth Song (Hani's Club Experience) - 7:55

• DVD Side:

1. Earth Song (Music Video) - 7:29

Austria CD Single

1. Earth Song (Album Version) - 6:462. Earth Song (Hani's Radio Experience) - 3:333. Earth Song (Hani's Around The World Experience) - 14:284. You Are Not Alone (Knuckluv Dub Version) - 9:405. MJ Megaremix - 10:33

LP Version

• A#.Earth Song (Hani's Around The World Experience) - 14:28• B#.Wanna Be Startin Something (Brothers in Rhytym Mix) - 7:36• B#.Wanna Be Startin Something (Tommy D's Main Mix) - 7:41

UK CD #1

1. Earth Song (Radio Edit) - 5:022. Earth Song (Hani's Club Experience) - 7:553. MJ DMC Megamix - 11:18

UK CD #2

1. Earth Song (Radio Edit) - 5:022. Earth Song (Hani's Radio Experience) - 3:333. Wanna Be Startin Something (Brothers in Rhytym Mix) - 7:364. Wanna Be Startin Something (Tommy D's Main Mix) - 7:41

Spain Promo CD

1. Earth Song (Radio Edit) - 5:022. Greatest Hits Classic Megamix - 4:32

Earth Song 120

Personnel• Written, composed and lead and background vocals by Michael Jackson• Produced by Michael Jackson and David Foster• Co-Produced by Bill Bottrell• Choir performance by the Andrae Crouch Choir• Keyboards: David Paich• Bass guitar: Guy Pratt• Synthesizer programming: Steve Porcaro• Co-performance by London Philharmonic Orchestra (Orchestral Mix only)• Orchestral arrangement by James Horner (Orchestral Mix only)

References[1] Taraborrelli, p. 340–344[2] "Blacks who give back" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m1077/ is_n5_v45/ ai_8540117). Ebony. March 1990. . Retrieved July 23,

2008.[3] Taraborrelli, p. 382[4] George, p. 45–46[5] Harrington, Richard (February 5, 1992). "Jackson to Tour Overseas". The Washington Post.[6] "Stars line up for Clinton celebration". Daily News of Los Angeles. January 19, 1993.[7] Smith, Patricia (January 20, 1992). "Facing the music and the masses at the presidential gala". The Boston Globe.[8] Jackson, Michael. HIStory booklet. Sony BMG. p 36[9] "Jackson disappoints with HIStory" (http:/ / nl. newsbank. com/ nl-search/ we/ Archives?p_product=CL& s_site=ledgerenquirer&

p_multi=CL& p_theme=realcities& p_action=search& p_maxdocs=200& p_topdoc=1& p_text_direct-0=0EB5949FD7B32721&p_field_direct-0=document_id& p_perpage=10& p_sort=YMD_date:D& s_trackval=GooglePM). Ledger Enquirer. June 23, 1995. . RetrievedNovember 13, 2008.

[10] Grant, Adrian (1998). Michael Jackson : Making History. Omnibus Press. ISBN 0711967237.[11] Pareles, Jon (June 18, 1995). "Pop View; Michael Jackson Is Angry, Understand?" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.

html?res=990CE0DD123DF93BA25755C0A963958260& scp=4& sq=HIStory+ album+ michael+ jackson+ review& st=nyt). The New YorkTimes. . Retrieved December 05, 2008.

[12] Hunter, James (August 10, 1995). "Michael Jackson HIStory" (http:/ / www. rollingstone. com/ artists/ michaeljackson/ albums/ album/312830/ review/ 5943497/ history_past_present_and_future_book_1). Rolling Stone. . Retrieved July 23, 2008.

[13] Mehle, Michael (June 20, 1995). "Can Michael Jackson make a comeback?" (http:/ / nl. newsbank. com/ nl-search/ we/Archives?p_product=RM& p_theme=rm& p_action=search& p_maxdocs=200& p_topdoc=1& p_text_direct-0=0EB4E301A9DE74D4&p_field_direct-0=document_id& p_perpage=10& p_sort=YMD_date:D& s_trackval=GooglePM). Rocky Mountain News. . RetrievedNovember 13, 2008.

[14] "Jackson promises new CD in spring" (http:/ / nl. newsbank. com/ nl-search/ we/ Archives?p_product=PI& s_site=philly& p_multi=PI&p_theme=realcities& p_action=search& p_maxdocs=200& p_topdoc=1& p_text_direct-0=0EB32BA81BF1BFE6&p_field_direct-0=document_id& p_perpage=10& p_sort=YMD_date:D& s_trackval=GooglePM). The Philadelphia Inquirer. February 25,1995. . Retrieved 2008-08-18.

[15] Reddy, Deepika (June 23, 1995). "Jackson's latest lives up to his character" (http:/ / www. collegian. psu. edu/ archive/ 1995/ 06/06-23-95tdc/ 06-23-95darts-1. asp). The Daily Collegian. . Retrieved December 5, 2008.

[16] "Is Michael Jackson HIStory?" (http:/ / nl. newsbank. com/ nl-search/ we/ Archives?p_product=SJ& s_site=mercurynews& p_multi=SJ&p_theme=realcities& p_action=search& p_maxdocs=200& p_topdoc=1& p_text_direct-0=0EB71E88D7E5A476&p_field_direct-0=document_id& p_perpage=10& p_sort=YMD_date:D& s_trackval=GooglePM). San Jose Mercury News. June 19, 1995. .Retrieved December 5, 2008.

[17] "Michael Jackson back from Neverland..." (http:/ / nl. newsbank. com/ nl-search/ we/ Archives?p_product=SB& p_theme=sb&p_action=search& p_maxdocs=200& p_topdoc=1& p_text_direct-0=0EB0DB3A79B9F9CA& p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10& p_sort=YMD_date:D& s_trackval=GooglePM). The Sacramento Bee. June 20, 1995. . Retrieved November 13, 2008.

[18] "HIStory's a Thriller" (http:/ / nl. newsbank. com/ nl-search/ we/ Archives?p_product=CC& s_site=contracostatimes& p_multi=CC&p_theme=realcities& p_action=search& p_maxdocs=200& p_topdoc=1& p_text_direct-0=1063F909E5710288&p_field_direct-0=document_id& p_perpage=10& p_sort=YMD_date:D& s_trackval=GooglePM). Contra Costa Times. June 18, 1995. .Retrieved November 13, 2008.

[19] George, p. 48–50[20] "MJ visionary" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080408061311/ http:/ / www. mjvisionary. com/ mjvisionary. html). Sony BMG.

Archived from the original (http:/ / www. mjvisionary. com/ mjvisionary. html) on April 8, 2008. . Retrieved November 5, 2008.

Earth Song 121

[21] Hinckley, Davis (December 5, 1995). "Extra! Extra!" (http:/ / www. nydailynews. com/ archives/ entertainment/ 1995/ 12/ 05/1995-12-05_extra__extra__late-breaking_. html). New York Daily News. . Retrieved November 15, 2008.

[22] British Hit Singles and Albums. Guinness World Records. 2006. p. 49. ISBN 1-904994-10-5.[23] "M. Jackson - Earth Song (nummer)" (http:/ / www. ultratop. be/ nl/ showitem. asp?interpret=Michael+ Jackson& titel=Earth+ Song&

cat=s). www.ultratop.be. . Retrieved November 09, 2008.[24] http:/ / musicline. de/ de/ chartverfolgung_summary/ artist/ Jackson%2CMichael/ single[25] http:/ / www. rtl. de/ cms/ unterhaltung/ tv-programm/ show/ die-ultimative-chartshow/ ergebnis_pophymnen. html[26] "Artist Chart History - Michael Jackson" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080506130502/ http:/ / www. billboard. com/ bbcom/

retrieve_chart_history. do?model. vnuArtistId=4902& model. vnuAlbumId=497792). Billboard. Nielsen Business Media. Archived from theoriginal (http:/ / www. billboard. com/ bbcom/ retrieve_chart_history. do?model. vnuArtistId=4902& model. vnuAlbumId=497792) on May 6,2008. . Retrieved November 11, 2008.

[27] "European Hot 100 Singles - Earth Song - Michael Jackson" (http:/ / www. billboard. com/ bbcom/ esearch/ chart_display. jsp?cfi=349&cfgn=Singles& cfn=European+ Hot+ 100+ Singles& ci=3067083& cdi=8640669& cid=06/ 24/ 2006). Billboard. Nielsen Business Media. .Retrieved December 05, 2008.

[28] Sylva, Ifedigbo (October 27, 2008). "Scammers New Anthem; "Mugu Don Pay !!!" (http:/ / www. ngex. com/ news/ public/ article.php?ArticleID=1103). Nigeria Exchange. . Retrieved December 05, 2008.

[29] Michael Jackson HIStory on Film volume II VHS/DVD[30] "History on Film, Vol. 2" (http:/ / www. billboard. com/ bbcom/ discography/ index. jsp?pid=4902& aid=367132#review). Billboard.

Nielsen Business Media. . Retrieved September 15, 2008.[31] Pinkerton, Lee (1997). The Many Faces of Michael Jackson. Music Sales Distribution. p. 55. ISBN 0711967830.[32] "Brits behaving badly" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ in_depth/ entertainment/ 2000/ brit_awards/ 665776. stm). BBC. March 4, 2003. .

Retrieved December 5, 2008.[33] McKie, John (February 21, 1996). "Brits brawl as Cocker 'pulps' Jackson chorus" (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ news/

brits-brawl-as-cocker-pulps-jackson-chorus-1320077. html). The Independent (London). . Retrieved May 1, 2010.[34] Pryor, Fiona (February 14, 2007). "Bad behaviour at the Brit Awards" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ entertainment/ 6354975. stm). BBC

News. . Retrieved May 1, 2010.[35] Street, John (1997). Politics and Popular Culture. Temple University Press. p. 36. ISBN 1566396034.[36] "Swiss Singles Chart Archives" (http:/ / hitparade. ch/ showitem. asp?interpret=Michael+ Jackson& titel=Earth+ Song& cat=s).

hitparade.ch. . Retrieved July 18, 2009.[37] http:/ / www. billboard. com/ charts/ hot-100#/ artist/ michael-jackson/ chart-history/ 4902?f=349& g=Singles[38] "Download French Single Top 50" (http:/ / lescharts. com/ weekchart. asp?cat=si& year=2009& date=20090627). LesCharts.com. Hung

Medien. . Retrieved 2010-05-17.[39] "Michael Jackson - Earth Song (song)" (http:/ / www. swedishcharts. com/ showitem. asp?interpret=Michael+ Jackson& titel=Earth+ Song&

cat=s). SwedishCharts.com. Hung Medien. . Retrieved 2010-05-17.[40] "UK Singles Chart" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080730131136/ http:/ / www. theofficialcharts. com/ top40_singles. php). The

Official Charts Company. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. theofficialcharts. com/ top40_singles. php) on July 30, 2008. . Retrieved2010-05-17.

[41] "German certifications" (http:/ / www. musikindustrie. de/ gold_platin_datenbank/ ) (in German). Bundesverband Musikindustrie. .[42] (http:/ / hitparade. ch/ awards. asp?year=1996)[43] (http:/ / www. bpi. co. uk/ certifiedawards/ search. aspx)[44] (http:/ / www. everyhit. com/ awardmill. html)

Bibliography• George, Nelson (2004). Michael Jackson: The Ultimate Collection booklet. Sony BMG.• Taraborrelli, J. Randy (2004). The Magic and the Madness. Terra Alta, WV: Headline. ISBN 0-330-42005-4.

Wikipedia:Spoken articles 122

Wikipedia:Spoken articlesThis page lists articles for which a spoken word version of the article has been created as part of the SpokenWikipedia Project. Articles under each subject heading are listed alphabetically (by surname for people).For help playing Ogg audio, see: Media help. To request an article to be spoken, see Requests. For all otherinformation, see the project page.Articles are marked in the following ways:• Articles marked with link= were featured articles at the time of recording.• Bolded articles have been featured, with an audio link, on the Main Page.• Grayed out articles have computer generated audio.There are '' spoken articles in English.

Art, architecture and archaeologyArchitecture  · link= Baden-Powell House  · Bidet  · link= Matthew Brettingham  · Capsule hotel  · link= JohnDouglas (architect)  · Adam Elsheimer  · link= Ima Hogg  · I-35W Mississippi River bridge  · link= Museum of BadArt  · Opaline glass  · link= Palladian architecture  · link= Portrait of a Lady  · link= Francis Petre  · Theory ofColours  · VJing  · Western (genre)  · Westminster Abbey  · link= Xanadu House

Biology and medicinelink= Action potential  · link= American Black Vulture  · link= American Goldfinch  · link= Antarctic krill  · link=Amanita Phalloides  · Apophallation  · link= Arctic Tern  · Australian Ringneck  · link= Baby Gender Mentor  · BankMyna  · Bird (Intro)  · Bird (Anatomy)  · link= Blue Whale  · link= Bobcat  · Breanna Lynn Bartlett-Stewart  · link=Cane Toad  · Cat (Part 1) (Part 2)  · link= Cattle Egret  · link= Chiffchaff  · Cicada  · link= Cladistics  · Cleavage(breasts)  · link= Coconut crab  · link= Cougar  · David After Dentist  · Deinosuchus  · link= Dinosaur  · link= DNA · link= DNA repair  · link= Elfin-woods Warbler  · link= Emu  · link= Evolution  · link= Fauna of Australia  · link=Gene  · Glasses  · link= Green and Golden Bell Frog  · Guide dog  · link= Island Fox  · link= Jaguar  · Mammaryintercourse  · link= Mourning Dove  · link= Mitochondrial Eve  · link= Northern Pintail  · Pegging (sexual practice)  ·link= Short-beaked Echidna  · link= Synapse  · link= Tasmanian Devil  · link= Tawny Owl  · link= Turkey Vulture · link= White's Tree Frog

Medicinelink= AIDS  · link= Alzheimer's Disease  · Blindness  · Death erection  · Gaucher's Disease  · link= Helicobacterpylori  · Hickey (injury)  · Pathogenic bacteria  · Retinitis pigmentosa  · link= Subarachnoid hemorrhage  · link=Treatment of Multiple Sclerosis  · Fetal trimethadione syndrome

BusinessAndrew Carnegie (Part 1) (Part 2)  · The Dilbert Principle  · Display Advertising  · link= Elderly Instruments  ·Howard Hughes  · Kenneth Lay  · Vector Marketing

Wikipedia:Spoken articles 123

Chemistrylink= Caesium  · link= Helium  · link= Hydrochloric acid  · link= Hydrogen (Part 1) (Part 2)  · link= Raney Nickel  ·link= Oxygen (Intro)  · link= Plutonium  · Soap Rebatching  · link= Titanium  · link= Yttrium

Culture and societyAccessibility  · link= Aggie Bonfire  · Arctic Boosh  · Audio description  · Autoboosh  · BDSM (Part 1) (Part 2)  ·link= Beijing opera  · Brfxxccxxmnpcccclllmmnprxvclmnckssqlbb11116  · Child  · Bukkake  · Clitoral Erection  ·Cock and ball torture  · Culture of Aruba  · link= Eagle Scout (Boy Scouts of America)  · link= D. B. Cooper  · link=Daylight saving time  · Dirty Sanchez (sexual act)  · Edinburgh Fringe  · Erotic spanking  · link= Exploding whale  ·link= Flag of the Republic of China  · Furry fandom  · Handjob  · Hook 'em Horns  · link= Indigenous people of theEverglades region  · Islamic feminism  · James Bulger  · Jim Henson  · link= Japanese toilet  · Kimono  · KiraBuckland  · link=Mantra-Rock Dance  · Microwave-related injury  · The Mighty Boosh (1998 stage show)  · link=Monty Hall problem  · Oral stimulation of nipples  · Priapus  · Project Gutenberg  · Royal Order of Scotland  · link=Same-sex marriage in Spain  · link= The Simpsons  · link= Soggy biscuit . Suspension (body modification)  ·Tupperware  · Ubuntu (ideology)  · Vanilla sex  · Whuppity Scoorie Day  · link= Wood Badge

Earth SciencesClimate change  · Fossil fuel

EducationAcharya Jagadish Chandra Bose College  · Annandale High School  · George Mason University  · link= The Green(Dartmouth College)  · Hunter College High School  · Lee University  · Monifieth High School  · Peer review  · link=Some Thoughts Concerning Education  · link= Stuyvesant High School  · University of Rhode Island  · WesternReserve Academy  · Wymondham College

EconomicsBoukaseff Scale  · Christopher Cox  · Gold Standard  · McJob  · Quantity theory of money

Food and drinkBerliner (pastry)  · link= Beverage can stove  · Birthday cake  · Butter knife  · Chai  · link= Cheese  · Dim sum  ·link= Durian  · Fork  · Ice cube  · Lard  · Ribena  · Spoo

Geography and placesAfrican Union  · link= Altrincham  · Aruba  · Aviano Air Base  · Azerbaijan (Intro)  · link= Birchington-on-Sea  · link= Brownhills  · link= Canada  · Chicago  · link= Dorset  · Elworth  · link= Exmoor  · link= Germany (Part 1) (Part 2)  · link= Herne Bay, Kent  · link= Hong Kong  · Jamaica (Part 1) (Part 2)  · Julesburg, Colorado  · Hundertwasserhaus  · Košice  · La Paz  · List of Manhattan neighborhoods  · Lithia Park  · link= Manchester (Part 1) (Part 2)  · Middle East  · Mill Ends Park  · link= Minneapolis  · Montreal  · link= Mount Pinatubo  · Namibia  · link= New York State Route 174  · Old Man of the Mountain  · link= Oldham  · link= Oriel College  · Parks of Chicago  · link= Peterborough  · RAF Daws Hill  · RAF Northolt  · Pittsfield Charter Township, Michigan  · Reykjavik (Intro)  · Ruthin  · Saint Petersburg  · Sanford (Amtrak Station)  · link= Sarajevo  · link= Scout Moor Wind Farm  · Shahreza  · link= Shaw and Crompton  · link= Sheerness  · link= Sheffield  · link= Stephens City, Virginia  · Stoneham,_Massachusetts  · link= Stretford  · Sydney (Part 1) (Part 2)  · Tallinn  · Trincomalee  · Tompkins County, New York  · Torcello  · link= Trafford  · link= Urbanization  · Vaughan, Ontario  · link= Waterfall Gully, South

Wikipedia:Spoken articles 124

Australia  · link= Westgate-on-Sea  · link= Weymouth  · Ys

Geology, geophysics, and mineralogylink= 1755 Lisbon earthquake  · link= 1968_Illinois_earthquake  · link= 2005 Atlantic hurricane season  · link= 2006Atlantic hurricane season  · Cyclone Tracy  · link= Diamond  · link= Ediacara biota  · link= Effects of Hurricane Ivanin the Lesser Antilles and South America  · link= Galveston Hurricane of 1900  · Hong Kong Observatory  · link=Hurricane Dog (1950)  · link= Hurricane Grace (1991)''  · link= Hurricane Ismael  · Jurassic  · link= Meteorologicalhistory of Hurricane Katrina  · link= Oil shale  · link= Tropical Depression Ten (2005)

Historylink= 1991 Hamlet chicken processing plant fire  · Aztalan State Park  · link= Beauchamp-Sharp Tragedy  · link=Black Seminoles  · Calcutta Flag  · link= California Gold Rush (Part 1) , (Part 2)  · link= Confederate governmentof Kentucky . link= Edward Low  · link= England expects that every man will do his duty  · link= Eureka Stockade · Angelo Fabroni  · Fourth Crusade  · link= Helen Gandy  · link= History of New Jersey (Part 1) (Part 2)  · Historyof Jordan  · History of Lebanon (Part 1) (Part 2) (Part 3)  · History of Saudi Arabia  · History of Syria  · link=History of the Grand Canyon area (Part 1) (Part 2)  · History of the Middle East  · History of the State of Israel (Part1) (Part 2)  · History of the world  · Julius Caesar (Part 1) (Part 2) (Part 3)  · link= Jersey Shore shark attacks of1916  · Mayflower  · Nazi Germany  · Ottoman Empire (Part 1) (Part 2)  · link= Peterloo Massacre  · Renaissance  ·Rosa Parks  · Russian History (Part 1) (Part 2)  · link= Samantha Smith  · Siege of Antioch  · Space Race (Part 1)(Part 2)  · link= Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster (Part 1) (Part 2) (Part 3) (Part 4)  · Spanish Armada  · link=Treaty of Devol  · link= United States Marine Corps  · Wang Jingwei  · George Washington (Part 1) (Part 2)  · link=Washington's crossing of the Delaware River  · Wilmington Insurrection of 1898  · Yen Hsi-shan

Internetlink= Acid2  · Adam Curry  · The Angry Video Game Nerd  · Facebook  · 4chan  · Godwin's law  · Golden ShieldProject  · Homestar Runner  · Richard Kyanka  · Lolcat  · Quality of Service  · Redbana Corporation  · link= Red vs.Blue (Part 1) (Part 2)  · link= Search engine optimization  · HTTP cookie  · link= Storm botnet  · Jimmy Wales  ·Wiki  · link= Youtube

Language and linguisticslink= Alliterative verse ∙ Braille ∙ Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo.  · Consonant  ·Esperanto  · Gemination  · Hànyǔ Shǔipíng Kǎoshì (Chinese Proficiency Test)  · link= Hindi (Part 1) (Part 2)  ·Intonation (linguistics)  · Language  · Longest word in English  · Milanese  · Nigga  · Rosetta Project  · Sogdianlanguage  · Split infinitive  · link= Stuttering (Part 1) (Part 2) (Part 3)  · Three men make a tiger  · Transliteration  ·link= Truthiness  · link= Vowel  · Welsh language  · William Labov  · Wolfe+585, Senior

Law and crimeAmericans with Disabilities Act of 1990  · link= Article One of the United States Constitution (Part 1) (Part 2) (Part3)  · David Berkowitz  · link= Copyright  · Creative Commons  · link= Crushing by elephant  · link= ElizabethNeedham  · link= First Amendment to the US Constitution  · Federalist No. 42  · link= Equal Protection Clause (Part1) (Part 2)  · Paul Kirk  · Law Reform (Year and a Day Rule) Act 1996  · Mootness  · Mumia Abu-Jamal (Part 1)(Part 2) (Part 3)  · Leonard Padilla  · link= Parliament Acts  · link= Robert Garran  · Rinderkennzeichnungs- undRindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz  · link= Roe vs. Wade  · Signature  · TerritorialClause  · link= United States Constitution

Wikipedia:Spoken articles 125

Literaturelink= Douglas Adams (Part 1) (Part 2)  · link= The Adventures of Tintin  · link= John Day (printer)  · Down to aSunless Sea  · link= Zelda Fitzgerald  · Forty winks  · link= The Giver  · The Gruffalo  · link= Hamlet  · link= TheHitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (Part 1) (Part 2)  · Holly Short  · link= Hrafnkels saga  · link= The Illuminatus!Trilogy  · C. S. Lewis  · Literary criticism  · Maus (graphic novel)  · William Topaz McGonagall  · Politics and theEnglish Language  · Robert Muchamore  · link= Edgar Allen Poe  · link= Poetry  · link= Thomas Pynchon (Part 1)(Part 2)  · link= William Shakespeare  · link= To Kill a Mockingbird (Part 1) (Part 2)  · link= J. R. R. Tolkien  ·link= Watchmen (Part 1) (Part 2) (Part 3)  · link= The World Without Us  · link= The Three Laws of Robotics  ·link= Mary Wollstonecraft  · The Wonderful Wizard of Oz

Mathematicslink= 0.999...  · Cube  · Fractal  · Julia Set  · Logical disjunction  · Median test  · link= Prisoner's Dilemma

Medialink= 300 (film)  · Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje  · Kate Austen  · Nick Bakay  · Julian Barratt  · Bitch (Magazine)  ·Dave Brown (comedian)  · Boone Carlyle  · link= But I'm a Cheerleader  · Ana Lucia Cortez  · Annabel Chong  · AliG  · All your base are belong to us  · Al'kesh  · Mackenzie Allen  · An Inconvenient Truth  · Bart the Genius  · link=Billboard (advertising)  · Tom Bosley  · Julie Brown  · Bubbles the Clown  · Chansey  · Chattanooga Times FreePress  · CKSY-FM  · Coronation Street  · link= Countdown (game show)  · link= Dalek (Part 1) (Part 2) (Part 3)  ·Doctor Who  · The Economist  · Gail Edwards  · Michael Fielding  · Noel Fielding  · Film4  · Rich Fulcher  · link=Greatest Hits (Lost)  · Green Wing (Series 1)  · Jean Grey  · link= Jake Gyllenhaal  · link= Flood (Halo)  · HarryPotter  · Harry Potter (film series)  · link= Hell Is Other Robots  · The Hitcher (character)  · Homer's Odyssey (TheSimpsons)  · link= Homer's Phobia (episode of The Simpsons)  · link= Hong Kong action cinema  · Desmond Hume  ·Katherine Jackson  · link= Peter Jennings (Part 1) (Part 2)  · Jin-Soo Kwon  · Sarah Lane  · Claire Littleton  · Libby(Lost) . LibriVox . List of The Mighty Boosh episodes  · link= Lost (TV series) (Part 1) (Part 2)  · Love Actually  ·Mary Elizabeth McGlynn  · link= Pilot (House)  · link= Troy McClure  · The Mighty Boosh  · The Mighty Boosh(radio series)  · link= Not the Nine O'Clock News  · Old Gregg  · Charlie Pace  · Podcasting  · Pre-production  ·Pulitzer Prize  · link= The Quatermass Experiment  · Hugo "Hurley" Reyes  · SFM Holiday Network  · JackShephard  · Simpsons Roasting on an open fire  · Some Enchanted Evening (The Simpsons)  · SpongeBobSquarePants  · Star Trek  · link= Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace  · link= Star Wars Episode II: Attack ofthe Clones  · link= Julia Stiles  · Sweet (film)  · There's No Disgrace Like Home  · This is Wonderland  · link=Through the Looking Glass (Lost)  · link= Uma Thurman  · Tommy Wiseau  · link= Trapped in the Closet (SouthPark)  · Unnatural Acts (TV series)  · The West Wing (television)  · V'ger

MusicAvril Lavigne  · Baba O'Riley  · Bandits of the Acoustic Revolution  · Michelle Branch . Caravan (band)  · VanessaCarlton  · Choir  · link= Phil Collins  · Pete Doherty  · Drum  · Kerry Ellis  · link= Fightin' Texas Aggie Band  ·Flanders and Swann  · Flanging  · link= Freak Out!  · Dizzy Gillespie  · Guido of Arezzo  · link= Heavy MetalUmlaut  · link= Charles Ives  · Kid Cudi  · Peter Maffay  · link= Mantra-Rock Dance  · link= Monkey Gone toHeaven  · Nightwish  · Christopher O'Riley  · Oasis  · link= Roy Orbison  · Henry Purcell  · Roland RE-201  · Reggae · link= Rush (band)  · Bud Shank  · link= The Smashing Pumpkins  · Subterranean Homesick Blues  · TaliesinOrchestra  · (I Can't Get No) Satisfaction  · Static X  · Timpani  · link= U2  · Hayley Westenra  · Who Wants to LiveForever  · Vampire Weekend  · Yes (band)  · WOW Gospel 2000

Wikipedia:Spoken articles 126

Philosophylink= Free Will  · Immortality  · Paradox  · Ayn Rand (Part 1) (Part 2)

Physics and astronomyAegaeon (moon)  · Anthe (moon)  · link= Archimedes  · Atlas (moon)  · Babinet's_principle  · link= Binary star(Part 1) (Part 2)  · Black (color)  · Calypso (moon)  · link= Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9  · Daphnis (moon)  · Dione(moon)  · link= Enceladus (moon)  · Epimetheus (moon)  · link= Extrasolar planet  · link= Fermi paradox (Part1) (Part 2) (Part 3)  · link= GRB 970508  · Helene (moon)  · link= Hubble Space Telescope  · Hyperion (moon)  ·Iapetus (moon)  · Ijiraq (moon)  · Janus (moon)  · Michio Kaku  · Kiviuq (moon)  · Light year  · link= Mercury(planet)  · Methone (moon)  · Mimas (moon)  · Night  · link= Oberon (moon)  · link= Oort cloud  · link= Opencluster  · link= Robert Oppenheimer  · Paaliaq (moon)  · Pallene (moon)  · Pan (moon)  · Pandora (moon)  · Phoebe(moon)  · link= Planetary habitability  · Polydeuces (moon)  · Prometheus (moon)  · Quantum optics  · Rhea (moon) · link= Shen Kuo  · link= Saturn  · Siarnaq (moon)  · link= Louis Slotin  · link= Solar eclipse (Part 1) (Part 2)  ·link= Space Elevator  · Tarqeq (moon)  · Telesto (moon)  · Tethys (moon)  · link= Titan (moon)  · Universe  ·Zero-point energy

Politics and governmentPierre Trudeau  · Frédéric Bastiat  · Coat of arms of Aruba  · Derbyshire Constabulary  · Winston Churchill (Part 1)(Part 2) (Part 3)  · First Spanish Republic  · link= Flag of Canada  · George Washington's Farewell Address  ·Hammer and sickle  · Thomas Jefferson (Part 1) (Part 2) (Part 3)  · Harry Jenkins, Sr.  · link= Harvey Milk  ·McGillicuddy Serious Party  · link= Barack Obama  · Florida Highway Patrol  · Old City Hall (Toronto) . link=Parliament of the United Kingdom (Part 1) (Part 2)  · Plaid Cymru  · link= Read my lips: no new taxes  · Edmund G.Ross  · link= Supreme Court of the United States  · link= United States Congress  · United States Declaration ofIndependence (Part 1) (Part 2)  · link= United States House of Representatives  · link= United States Senate  ·Universal suffrage  · Special administrative region (People's Republic of China)  · George Washington (Part 1) (Part2)  · link= Ralph Yarborough  · You forgot Poland

PsychologyAnxiety Disorder  · Autism (Part 1) (Part 2)  · Biological Psychology  · Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of MentalDisorders  · Global Assessment of Functioning  · Hypochondria  · Learned helplessness  · Limerence  · Mental illness · link= Milgram experiment  · Psychologist  · Shyness  · Social anxiety

Recreation and leisureSandpit

Religion and beliefsAntidisestablishmentarianism  · Brother André  · The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints  · Demetrius ofAlexandria  · God  · link= Greek mythology  · link= Hinduism (Part 1) (Part 2) (Part 3) (Part 4)  · Latter Day SaintMovement  · Martin Luther  · link= Royal Maundy (Part 1) (Part 2)  · Saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki  · Sola gratia · link= Transhumanism  · link= Twelve Imams  · Week of Prayer for Christian Unity  · Wyvern

Wikipedia:Spoken articles 127

Royalty, nobility and chivalryAlexandra of Denmark  · link= Anne of Great Britain  · Princess Elizabeth of Clarence  · Victor Emmanuel, Prince ofNaples  · Grace (Style)  · Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden  · Henry IV of England  · link= Hereditary peer  · House ofHanover  · House of Lancaster  · House of Windsor  · House of York  · John of Ibelin, the Old Lord of Beirut  ·Prince John of the United Kingdom  · link= Mary II of England  · link= Order of the Bath  · link= Order of theGarter  · Lady Louise Windsor

Sport and gameslink= 1994 San Marino Grand Prix  · link= 1995 Japanese Grand Prix  · link= 1995 Pacific Grand Prix  ·AFGNCAAP  · link= Age of Empires  · link= All Blacks  · link= Alleyway  · Dennis Anderson  · link= Arsenal F.C. · link= Aston Villa F.C.  · Atari video game burial  · Barbie: Game Girl  · Backgammon  · link= Moe Berg  ·Bobsleigh  · Buzkashi  · link= Chelsea F.C.  · link= Chess  · link= Civilization II  · College football  · link= A. E. J.Collins  · link= Copa Libertadores  · link= Cricket  · WWE Cruiserweight Championship  · Dreamcast  · link=Dungeons and Dragons  · link= Dover Athletic F.C.  · WWE European Championship  · link= Everton F.C.  · E.V.O.:Search for Eden  · link= FIFA World Cup link= Final Fantasy VI  · link= Football (soccer)  · Four-minute mile  ·link= Gilberto Silva  · link= Gillingham F.C.  · Glicko rating system  · link= Golden Age of Arcade Games  · link=Grim Fandango  · link= Guitar Hero (video game)  · link= Half-Life 2  · link= Hockey Hall of Fame  · Hungary atthe 1988 Winter Olympics  · link= Ipswich Town F.C.  · link= Leek Town F.C.  · Lego  · Lemmings (video game)  ·link= Luton Town F.C.  · link= Manchester City F.C.  · link= Margate F.C.  · Megan Timpf  · link= Metal Gear Solid · MicroProse  · Million Dollar Championship  · Monkey Island series  · Monster truck  · Multi Theft Auto  · link=Myst  · link= Myst III: Exile  · link= Norwich City F.C.  · Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit (2010 video game) link= Overthe Edge (1999)  · link= Perfect Dark  · link= Premier League  · Richard Scarry's Busytown  · Rick Rude  · link=Riven  · Rodent's Revenge  · Rynearson Stadium  · Alexi Salamone  · link= Sheffield Wednesday F.C.  · Solid Snake · link= SummerSlam (2003)  · link= Super Mario 64  · link= York City F.C.  · The Game (mind game)  · link=ToeJam & Earl  · Undercover Cops  · Vectrex  · Wii Play: Motion

TechnologyAgile software development  · Astroturf  · link= Automatic number plate recognition  · Bob Parsons  · link= Caesarcipher  · link= Central Processing Unit (Part 1) (Part 2)  · Common Language Runtime  · Computer accessibility  ·Everybody Votes Channel  · FriendFeed  · Functional programming  · gedit  · IBM WebSphere MQ  · Interactivevoice response  · Java (software platform)  · JavaScript  · Ray Kurzweil  · Logitech  · link= Markup language  ·Microwave radio relay  · link= NeXT  · NonVisual Desktop Access  · link= Parallel computing  · Patrick Norton  ·PHP  · link= OpenBSD  · Read-only memory  · Representational State Transfer  · Dennis Ritchie  · Science News  ·Service-oriented architecture (SOA)  · link= Louis Slotin  · Technological singularity  · Teledildonics  · KenThompson  · link= Ubuntu (Linux distribution)  · Windows "Vienna"  · VoiceXML  · Larry Wall  · Zalman

Transportlink= Air-tractor sledge  · Austin-Bergstrom International Airport  · Bicycle  · Bicycle lighting  · Camden Town tube station  · Center High-Mounted Stop Lamp  · link= Civil Air Patrol  · Docklands Light Railway  · East Finchley tube station  · Eurotunnel  · Finchley Central tube station  · Fleet Vehicle  · link= Hellingly Hospital Railway  · High Barnet tube station  · link= Interstate 15 in Arizona  · Interstate 35  · link= Indian Railways  · Kent Station (Cork)  · link= M62 motorway  · link= Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal  · link= Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore)  · link= Montréal-Mirabel International Airport  · Mornington Crescent tube station  · NightRide  · Oval tube station  · link= S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897 (Part 1) (Part 2)  · Sound Transit  · link= SS Ohioan (1914)  · Submarine  · Tay Bridge Disaster  · Totteridge and Whetstone tube station  · Transport in Andorra  · Tulskaya

Wikipedia:Spoken articles 128

(Metro)  · West Finchley tube station  · link= Winter service vehicle  · Woodside Park tube station

Warlink= Attack on Pearl Harbor (Part 1) (Part 2)  · link= Battle of Aljubarrota  · Battle of the Somme  · Battle of VimyRidge  · Blackbeard  · Duck and cover  · Felix von Luckner  · Harry Aubrey de Maclean  · John Hines  · link= KargilWar  · link= Poison gas in World War I  · Chesty Puller  · Revolt of the Admirals  · Ship commissioning  · Shipnaming and launching  · Tank  · War elephant  · War of the Stray Dog  · World War I (Part 1) (Part 2) (Part 3)  ·Yan Xishan

Wikipedia-relatedWikipedia  · Wikipedia:Assume good faith  · Wikipedia:Be bold in updating pages  · Wikipedia:Etiquette  ·Wikipedia:Ignore all rules  · WP:STUPID  · Wikipedia:Neutral point of view (Part 1) (Part 2) (Part 3)  ·Wikipedia:No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man  · Wikipedia:No Legal Threats  · Wikipedia:Nopersonal attacks  · Wikipedia:No original research  · Wikipedia:No self attacks  · Wikipedia:Snowball clause  ·Wikipedia:Sockpuppetry  · Wikipedia:There's no common sense  · Wikipedia:Three-revert rule  · Wikipedia:Usecommon sense  · Wikipedia:Vanispamcruftisement  · Wikipedia:Verifiability  · Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not  ·Wikipedia:WikiProject Spoken Wikipedia

External links• Spoken Wikipedia torrent: isoHunt [1], Legit Torrents [2]

Content listingsLists

Featured content · Overviews · Portals · Lists · Outlines · Glossaries · IndexesReference · Culture · Geography · Health · History · Mathematics · Nature · People · Philosophy · Religion · Society ·

TechnologyAcademic disciplines · Anniversaries (today) · Countries and territories · Current events · People (deaths this year) ·

Timelines (centuries · decades)

IndicesA–Z index · Categories · Dewey Decimal classes · Library of Congress Classification · Roget's Thesaurus · Spoken

articles · Wikipedia books

References[1] http:/ / ca. isohunt. com/ release/ 704733/ ?poster=& cat=2[2] http:/ / www. legittorrents. info/ index. php?page=torrent-details& id=99fa1b710c8542b334960c2ee57b171870d6fc21

Article Sources and Contributors 129

Article Sources and ContributorsWater  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=458240752  Contributors: -Majestic-, 11nniuq, 1qaz!QAZ, 334a, 5 albert square, A Softer Answer, A.b.s, A8UDI, ABlake, AEMoreira042281, AWeishaupt, Abarton777, Abdullais4u, Absolwent, Acalamari, Acatkiller, Acceptable, Aceofhearts157, Achristl, Acroterion, Acs4b, Acspsg, Adambiswanger1, Adampantha, Adashiel, AdjustShift, Adsomvilay, Afluent Rider, Ahoerstemeier, Ahruman, Aillema, Airplanedude550, Ajayupai95, Aksi great, Al Adriance, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alegoo92, Alesnormales, Alex earlier account, Alexandria, AlexiusHoratius, Alexultima, Alhutch, Aliendude5300, Aligalal, Alight, Alison, Alistair b, Aljohnson2000, Alloquep, AmandaFraser, AmiDaniel, Amiruka, Amkozmo10, Anastrophe, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andrewjlockley, Andrewpmk, Android79, Andy M. Wang, Andy Marchbanks, Andypandy.UK, AngelOfSadness, Angela, Angelatheaven, Angelclown3, Angelofdeath275, Anger22, Animum, Anlace, Ann Stouter, Anna Lincoln, AnneDELS, Anonymous Dissident, Anonymous editor, Anqdrew, Antandrus, Antelopotamus, Anthony Appleyard, Antilived, Antipode, AntonioMartin, Aoi, Aquillion, Aqwis, Aranherunar, Aranmore, Aravindk editing, Arbitrarily0, Archanamiya, Argon233, Arjun01, Arkuat, Arnesh, Arnomane, Art LaPella, Arush79, Asdofindia, Asephei, Ashenai, Ashley Y, Ashlopedia, Ashmoo, Ashton1983, Ashtonrocksmysox, Ashvidia, Ashwatham, Asmah01, Astral, Astronautics, Asweni, Ataleh, Athomsfere, Attack 2400, Attys, Audriusa, Augustus Rookwood, Auntof6, Aushulz, Autiger, Avatar, AvatarNavi, Avenue, Avicennasis, Avigdor6, AwamerT, Awesomeman7788, Awesomeness37, Awickert, AxelBoldt, Ayumbhara, Az1568, AzaToth, B00P, BDasher, BW52, Backtothemacman32, BadCRC, Badger Drink, Bahahs, Ballajames33, Banaticus, Banes, Barliner, Baronnet, BarretBonden, Basicdesign, Bbatsell, Bcnof, Bdesham, Beddowve, Bedrupsbaneman, Beefball, Beetstra, Before My Ken, Begoon, Beland, Belovedfreak, Ben Ben, Ben-Zin, BenFrantzDale, Bender235, Bendzh, Bennelliott, BennyD, Berethor222, Bergsten, Berkleejean, Berserkerz Crit, Beryish mourner, Bhadani, Bigbluefish, Bigbobc293, Bill Thayer, Binary TSO, Birkett, Bjarki S, Bladechampion, Bladesofblood112, Blah63, Blanchardb, Blindman shady, BlogforHealth, BlueEarth, Bmicomp, Bob Palin, Bob billydoe joe, Bob the ducq, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bogey97, Bolivian Unicyclist, Bongwarrior, Bonnie91, BookSquirrel, Boonezoore, Boothy443, Booyabazooka, Bornhj, Bowei Huang 1, BozMo, BrainyBabe, Brandmeister (old), Bratch, Brian Laishes, Brian0918, BrianGV, BrianHansen, Brianga, Brighterorange, Brisvegas, BrokenSegue, Brownings, Bryan Derksen, Bullybum1, Burntsauce, C.Fred, CPAScott, CSWarren, CW, Cacahueten, Cactus Guru, Cacycle, Cadwaladr, Calabe1992, Calliopejen1, Calltech, Caltas, Calypso, CambridgeBayWeather, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canadian-Bacon, Canaima, Candyisdandy, CanisRufus, Canley, Canned Fruit, CaptainFire, Carabinieri, Carinemily, Carl.bunderson, CaseyPenk, Casperdc, Catalyst37, CattleGirl, Causa sui, Cburnett, Cdc, Celestianpower, Cenarium, CesarB, Cgs, Cha ching24, Chad okere, Chamal N, Champ wwe johncena, Chanting Fox, Charles Matthews, Charlie MacKenzie, CharlotteWebb, Cherry blossom tree, Cherylyoung, Chewy1993, ChiSoxFan93, Chicco3, ChildSurvival, Childzy, Cholmes75, Chris 73, Chris Rocen, Chris.matt, Chrislk02, Christainthomas, Chriswaterguy, Chuck Simmons, Cimon Avaro, Cincydude55, Circumspice, Civil Engineer III, Ckatz, ClarkKent13, Closenplay, Cm3942, Cocacolaisthebest, Codairem, Coffee Atoms, ColinFine, Collins.mc, Colocomp, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Comrade Tux, Connorh90803, Conscious, Conversion script, Cool chic 101, CoolNew, Coolio1125, Coredesat, Corneliusdenali, Correogsk, Counterfit, Courcelles, Crash nitro cart, CrazyChemGuy, Crazynas, Creidieki, Cremepuff222, Cromas, CrowzRSA, Cry baby99, CryptoDerk, Crystallina, Csavoia, Cubbi, Cullen12, Curps, Cutesybuttons295, Cutler, Cxz111, Cyberninja49, D. Recorder, D0t, D6, DAJF, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DDerby, DGJM, DKEdwards, DLand, DMacks, DV8 2XL, DVD R W, DaL33T, DabMachine, Dabomb87, Dalcanale, Damian Yerrick, Dan100, Dane13, Danger, Daniel Case, Daniel Collins, Daniel Olsen, DanielCohen, Danno uk, Danny Rathjens, DarkThunder42069, DarkTurtle, Darkjudah, Darkwolf2230, DarrenBaker, Darrien, Dashboardy, Davelane, David Woodward, DavidK93, DavidWBrooks, Davidm617617, Davken1102, Db099221, Dbtfz, Dcoetzee, Deadgnome, Debresser, Declan Clam, Deeper Black, DeerKiller54321, Deewiant, Defeater982, Deglr6328, Deipnosopher, Dekimasu, Delgadoj33, Deli nk, Delldot, Delta G, Denelson83, DennyColt, Denverjeffrey, DerHexer, Derek.cashman, DerekSmalls, Deryck Chan, Destroyer000, Dfrg.msc, Dgaubin, Dgies, Dhaluza, Diannaa, Digitalme, Dikaiopolis, Dilcoe, Diliff, Disavian, Disconformist, Djramone, Doc glasgow, Don4of4, Donarreiskoffer, Doradus, Dp462090, Dpen2000, Dr.frog, DragonDance, Drahcir, Drbogdan, Drewster1829, DroEsperanto, Drumguy8800, Drunken Pirate, Dschwen, Dsdhall, Dsmdgold, Duk, Dwmyers, Dysepsion, Dysprosia, Dziewa, EA Kok, EJVargas, ESkog, Eagle479, Eastlaw, Ebyabe, Echofloripa, Ed g2s, Edaelon, Edgar181, Edward, Edward Blaze, Eequor, Egil, EgonWillighagen, Ejhoekstra, El C, ElPeste, Elagatis, Elaragirl, Elayne123, Eleassar777, Electron9, Elementx03, Elf, Elfguy, Eliz81, Elpaw, Emerson7, Empoor, Enix150, Enochlau, Enviroboy, Ephemeronium, Epic ninja, Eran of Arcadia, Eregli bob, Eric Harris-Braun, Eric Kvaalen, Eric119, Eric567, Ericstoesser, ErikDunsing, Escheffel, Estrieluv, Ettrig, EventHorizon, Evercat, Everybeaned, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Evil saltine, Ewen, Ewlyahoocom, Exarion, Exhummerdude, ExpatEgghead, Extra999, FCYTravis, FF2010, Fagopyrum, Falcon8765, Falconkhe, Fallen angel88, Fallingwaffl3z, Farbror Erik, FayssalF, Fbffe, Fdp, Fdt, Feline1, Fences and windows, Ferkelparade, Ffransoo, Fgasber, Fiber-optics, Fieldday-sunday, Fiet Nam, Fillupboy, Finlay McWalter, Fir0002, Fires64, Flauto Dolce, FlavrSavr, Flipping Mackerel, FlowRate, Fnfd, Foobaz, Fordmadoxfraud, Fram, FrancoGG, FrankCostanza, Freakofnurture, Fred Bauder, Fredrik, FreplySpang, Fsafnmoisbnacj, Furrykef, Fvw, Fæ, G3pro, GCRaya, GHe, GSGSGSG, Gaius Cornelius, Gak, Galactor213, Galanskov, Galaxiaad, Galmicmi, Galoubet, Gamerider, Gamescreator, Gavrilis, Gblaz, Gearspring, GeeJo, Geeoharee, Gene Nygaard, Geni, Gentgeen, GeorgeBills, GeraldH, Gerrit, Getcrunk, Gettingcrossnow, Gfoley4, Giftlite, Gil mo, Gilliam, Gillyweed, Gilmiciak, Ginkgo100, Givegains, Glamourgirl33, Glane23, Glen, Glengarry, Gmaxwell, GnuDoyng, GoGi, Gogo Dodo, Gogored, GoingBatty, GomersallT, Goodbye Galaxy, Gopal81, GorillaWarfare, Gracenotes, GraemeL, Grafen, Graham87, Greenrd, GregBenson, GregorB, Gregorof, Grm wnr, GroovySandwich, Guanaco, Guild2, Gungaden, Gurch, Gus Polly, Gwen Gale, Gwernol, Gzkn, H2O, H2g2bob, HKT, Hadal, Hagnat, Haha169, Haham hanuka, HalfShadow, Hallenrm, Hallows AG, Hallred, Hamiltondaniel, HappyCamper, Harryboyles, Harrypotter90, Hawkhockey, Hdt83, HeikoEvermann, Heimstern, Hellbus, Hello32020, Hemmingsen, Herbee, HereToHelp, Heron, Herr Mlinka, Heshelm, Hibernian, Higbvuyb, Highfields, Hl540511, Hmains, Hobbes3k, Hodja Nasreddin, Hohum, Homestarmy, Honorkell, HorsePunchKid, Howard scott, Hu, Hu12, Huangcjz, Hugh2414, Hurricanefan24, Husond, Huw Powell, Hwaqar, Hydrargyrum, Hyper Ferret, Hyper year, I B Wright, I42, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, IVAN3MAN, Iamred0, Ianleow7, Icarus, Icestorm815, Icey, IdahoEv, Idleguy, Ifnord, Igordebraga, Ihcoyc, Illegal, Ilmari Karonen, Ilovefuckingeverything, Ilovemarcusfarnham, Iluvcapra, Immanuel goldstein, ImperfectlyInformed, Indosauros, Info bunny, Informatus, Infrogmation, Inkington, InvaderJim42, Invincible Ninja, Ionut Cojocaru, Irfanazam7, Iris92, IrisKawling, IronGargoyle, Ironboy11, Isam, Isilanes, Istartfires, Itub, Ixfd64, J, J Di, J.delanoy, J04n, JEBrown87544, JForget, JJ Harrison, JMiall, JTN, JaGa, Jacek Kendysz, Jackfrondas74, Jacob Lundberg, Jahangard, Jakob Russian, Jakohn, James Kanjo, James086, Jamesm199, Jamesmusik, Janke, Japaa, Jaranda, Jarood, Jarry1250, Java7837, Jaxl, Jdforrester, Jdpipe, Jebba, Jedawson2000, Jedidan747, Jeepday, Jeffrey Mall, Jeftrokat, Jelani94, Jengelh, Jerem43, JeremyA, JeremyBiggs, JetLover, Jh51681, Jidanni, Jimjamjak, Jimp, Jiu9, Jketola, Jleon, Jlove13, Jmehu.123, Jnc, Jncheese, JoanneB, JodyB, Johann Wolfgang, John, John Holmes II, John Mack, John Reaves, John254, Johnflux, Johnfn, Johnteslade, Johntex, Jojit fb, Jon Nevill, Jonathan de Boyne Pollard, JonathanFish, Jonemerson, Jookie444, Joplin127, Jose77, Josephlee94, Josh Du Toit, Joshua, Jossi, Joyous!, Jpgordon, Jrmarsico, Jrockley, JuJube, Julesd, Julian Mendez, Jupiter849, Justiceleegealiancejla, Justinarmas2009, JzG, K.lee, K193, KJS77, Kaarthick, Kabri, Kalidasa 777, Karlhahn, Katalaveno, Katydidit, Kbdank71, Kbh3rd, Kbrose, Keegan, Keeper76, Kelly elf, Kenyon, Kevin B12, Kevin Kidd, Kevs, Khobler, Khoikhoi, Killdevil, Killiondude, Kinkwan, Kjhf, Kkcoolz, Kkmd, Kku, Klparrot, Knoma Tsujmai, KnowledgeOfSelf, KnowledgeRequire, Knucmo2, Konstable, Kopid03, Korg, Kpjas, Kranix, Krich, Kristinwt, Kthxhax, Kukini, Kungfuadam, Kuru, Kuru500, Kusunose, Kwh, KyleCon, Kzollman, L Kensington, L'Aquatique, L33tminion, LARS, LLroxsox, La goutte de pluie, Lambiam, Lampshade7, Landart222, Lankiveil, Lars Washington, Launchballer, Laurence35, Leafyplant, LedgendGamer, Leefatting, Leithp, Leszek Jańczuk, Lexor, Liftarn, Lightdarkness, Lightmouse, Lights, Ligulem, Lilreefer420, Lincoln187, Liop666, Lir, LittleOldMe, Littleghostboo, Lloydwatkins, Llywrch, Lol, Lolilikecats, Lolilikecats123, Lolololol020863, Loonitreefrog, Looxix, Lophoole, Lord Of The Crayons, LorenzoB, Lovebugeater, Lowellian, Lowetta, Lswinger, Luebuwei, Luis731, Luk, Luna Santin, Lviatour, M.nelson, M.suresh, MD.Brian, MER-C, MKoltnow, MONGO, MPF, MR.Nicholson, Mac, Mac Davis, Mace, Madchester, Madwhizzer, Maelor, Magasjukur, Magister Mathematicae, MagneticFlux, Majorly, Makemi, Malcolm Farmer, Malinaccier, Malleus Fatuorum, Malo, Mamtapednekar, Man vyi, Mangojuice, Manu bcn, Manway, Marco Alfarrobinha, MarcoTolo, Mareino, Marek69, Marekzp, Marj Tiefert, Markan, Markmichaelh, Marlajim, Marnanel, Marons34, MarsRover, Marshman, Martin Chaplin, Martin451, MartinDK, Maryilang, MarylandArtLover, Master 999uk, Master of the Oríchalcos, MasterXiam, Materialscientist, Matt Deres, Matt Yeager, Mattabat, Mattcordle, Mattguzy, Matthew Stannard, Matttttttador, Matwilko, Mav, Max Schwarz, Mayumashu, Mbell, Mbimmler, Mboverload, Mbz1, Mc2000, Mdd4696, Meegs, Megaman en m, Meganerdtron, Meleeboy, MeltBanana, Mergim321, Merope, Metallicradiation428, Mets501, Meursault2004, Micah2012, Michael Hardy, Michael Stangeland, MichaelMaggs, Michiavelli, Midgrid, Midnightcomm, Miguelaaron, Mikael Häggström, Mike Rosoft, Mike2vil, MikeJR0509, Mikenorton, Mikeshk, Mikespedia, Miller17CU94, Mimihitam, MimirZero, Minghong, Mintchocolatebear, MinuteHand, Mion, Miranda, MisterSheik, Mistercow, Misza13, Mmelgar, Moeron, Monkey.choker, Monsoon Waves, Monsterboy, Montrealais, Monty845, Moondigger, Moonriddengirl, Morrrrrrrada, Morwen, Mousomer, Moyogo, Mr. Anon515, Mr. Billion, MrBell, MrFish, MrOllie, Mrdice, Mredheffer, Mrguy753, Mryakima, Mschiffler, MuZemike, Muchclag, Murmurr, Muro de Aguas, Murphy ernsdorff, Muzza2, Muéro, Mwazzap, Mxn, Myanw, Mypooster, Mysid, Mzuo, N5iln, NGMan62, NHRHS2010, NJA, Nach0king, Naddy, Nakon, Nancygirl199, Narayanan20092009, Nasnema, Natalie Erin, Nathan J. Hamilton, Nathan Johnson, NathanHurst, Nathanww, NawlinWiki, Nbowers10, Nehrams2020, NeilN, NeoJustin, NeonMerlin, Neutrality, Nev1, Nevit, NewEnglandYankee, Newbyguesses, Newportm, Nibios, Nicholasphilipov, Nick, Nick123, Nick245, Nihiltres, Nikai, Nitrogenx, Nivix, Njd11, No Guru, Nonagonal Spider, Nopetro, Nor-dakota, NormalAsylum, Nscott.odi, Nssbm117, Nubiatech, Nunquam Dormio, Nwbeeson, Nyourhead, ONUnicorn, Oberiko, Ocatecir, Oda Mari, Oddtail, Ohdam, Ohnoitsjamie, Old Moonraker, Oliver Pereira, Olleicua, Omnijohn, Onco p53, Onesilentlight, Onewhohelps, Opelio, Ospalh, Ouishoebean, Ouro, OwenX, Oxymoron83, P.B. Pilhet, P99am, PDH, PGleick, PS2pcGAMER, Pakada, Pakaran, Pan Dan, Pantallica00, Paranoid, Patchiemoo, Patrick, Patrick ns, Paul venter, Paul24112, Pavel Vozenilek, Paxsimius, Pb30, Pcarbonn, Pcj, PeanutMeh, Pediainsight, Pedro, Pengo, Penikett, Pentasyllabic, Penubag, Pepper, Per Abrahamsen, Peripitus, Peruvianllama, Peter Horn, Peter Isotalo, Peterlewis, Petersam, Pethr, Petri Krohn, Pflodo, Pgh2738, Pgk, Phantomsteve, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Phasertype3, Phenz, Philip Stevens, Philip Trueman, PhilipO, Phrozenfire, PierreAbbat, Pigwig, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pilotguy, PinchasC, Pinethicket, Piolinfax, Pizza Puzzle, Plasmaroo, Plasmic Physics, Plmnbvc, Pmcm, Poccil, Poip2, Pokrajac, Polyamorph, Polymerbringer, Pooky199610, Poor Yorick, Popithelf, Postglock, Ppntori, Prerna.pooja, PrestonH, Proficient, Proton, Proxima Centauri, Ps07swt, Pseudomonas, Pstudier, Psy guy, Psyche825, Psychofox, Publicenemy, Pursanova, Pzone, Qarel, Qooth, Qrc2006, Quadell, Quasidan, Quiddity, Quinsareth, Qurq, Qyt, R'n'B, R. fiend, RC-0722, RadarCzar, RadioKirk, Railcgun, Raivein, RajbirParmar, Rajkiandris, Rama, Randy Johnston, Ranveig, Rct36, Rd232, Rdsmith4, Realitytvlover, Realm of Shadows, RedWolf, Reddi, Rednblu, ReinforcedReinforcements, Renaissancee, Rettetast, RevolverOcelot, Revth, Rex the first, RexNL, Reyndeer, Rhinoracer, Rhydon, Riana, Rich Farmbrough, Rich257, Richard001, RichardF, Richhoncho, Richmond96, Rickyrab, Rifleman 82, Riley vb, Rishabhgupta, Ritujith, Rmhermen, Rmo13, Roadrunner, Rob Shanahan, RobertAustin, RobertG, Roberto Fiadone, Robowurmz, Rock pillow, Rodeosmurf, Roentgenium111, Rolphing, Ronz, Roodog2k, Rory096, Ross ucowr, Rounddot5827, RoyBoy, Royalguard11, Royote, Rracecarr, Rsrikanth05, Ruakh, RuudVisser, Rv3016, RyJones, Ryanscool55, SBKT, SEWilco, SHARU(ja), SJP, SS, SWAdair, Sabertooth, Safewater, Saforrest, Saintbobbyvinton, Saintbobdylan, Sakkura, Sam giles2001, Sambostock, Samdawg84, Samir, Samjohn95, Samsara, Samsw2, Samuella99, Sanbeg, Sander123, Sandos, Sandstein, Sanfy, Sango123, Sanjay517, Sanshore, Santa Sangre, Santabunny, Sarahmann2009, Sardanaphalus, Saros136, Savant13, Savh, Savidan, Sceptre, SchnitzelMannGreek, Schutz, Scientific29, Scohoust, ScottyBerg, Screetchy cello, Scud12343219, Sean William, Seaphoto, Selva, Semperf, Sengkang, Senthryl, Serendipodous, Sethant, Shaddack, Shadow grunt, Shadow2598, Shadowjams, Shahzeb1119, Shanes, Sharkboyjake, Shawnee6677, Shellreef, Sherool, Shinjiman, Shizhao, Shoefly, Shoessss, Sholtar, Short Brigade Harvester Boris, Shyland, Siddhant, Sietse Snel, Sikkema, Silenius, SilkTork, Silverjonny, Silverxxx, Simesa, SineWave, Singmarlasing, SinisterLemon, SiobhanHansa, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, SivaKumar, Skatebiker, Sky Attacker, SkyWalker, Slakr, Slayerhk47, Slightsmile, Sludtke42, Smetje, Smicke, Smokizzy, Snakehr3, Snek01, Snigbrook, Snowfalcon, So9q, SoCalSuperEagle, Sodium, Some Guy !@$, Someguy1221, Sonjaaa, Sources said, South Bay, SpLoT, Spartan-James, Spatel333, Special-T, Speedreed,

Article Sources and Contributors 130

Spencer195, Splash, SpookyMulder, Springnuts, SpuriousQ, SqueakBox, Squids and Chips, Star Trek enthusiast, Star trooper man, Stealth500, Stefan, Stefo, Stephan Leeds, Stephen, StephenGilbert, Stephen MUFC, Stephenb, Steve Zissou, Stevey7788, Stifynsemons, Stormcloud51090, Stradiot, StradivariusTV, Strait, Strangerer, Strayan, Striowski, StuGeiger, StuRat, Stupid Corn,Sum0, Sundar, Suomi Finland 2009, SupaStarGirl, Super-Magician, Supertigerman, Surfman23, Susvolans, Sverdrup, Sweetness46, Symode09, Syvanen, T weiss9910, Ta bu shi da yu, Tabletop,Tacceber, Talizadeh, Tangotango, Tannin, Taquito1, Tarndt, Tarquin, Tatortats21, Tazmaniacs, Tbhotch, TeaDrinker, Teklund, Telecineguy, Terence, Terrancommander, TerriersFan,TexasAndroid, Texture, That Guy, From That Show!, Thaurisil, The Anome, The Enslaver, The Hemp Necktie, The Letter J, The Lizard Wizard, The Rambling Man, The Thing That Should NotBe, The Tutor, The Wookieepedian, The zoro, TheCollectorz, TheEgyptian, TheFreeloader, TheKMan, TheMandarin, Thecanadiankid, Thefloogadooga, Thejazzcaveman, There are unused iconson your desktop, Theultimatejoeshmo, Thiagoreis leon, Think outside the box, Thirdeyeavatar, Thomas Larsen, Thunderbird2, Tiddlywinks, Tide rolls, Tiger swimmer09, TigerShark, Tigerlisa,Tim Starling, Timrollpickering, Timwi, Titoxd, Tizio, Tj84, Toasters34, Tobyk777, Tom Sponheim, TomGreen, TomPreuss, Tomertomer, Tommy2010, Tony Fox, TonySt, Tos, Totakeke423,TouN, Tpbradbury, Traroth, Tregoweth, Trevor MacInnis, Trisar, Trismc, Tsuite, Tuor, Turtle123, Twooars, Type-R-Avatar, Tysto, UberScienceNerd, Ucanlookitup, Ultra-Loser, Ultravioletscissor flame, Umbrah, Unessacary cencorship, Unholydoom99, Unionhawk, Universalss, Unrulyevil, Urhixidur, Uruiamme, User27091, UtherSRG, Vandaliz3, Vanderz, Vanished 6551232,Vanished User 3388458, Vanished user 03, VanishedUser314159, Vary, Velella, Verbal, Verne Equinox, VernoWhitney, Vernon39, Victor.reznov, Vilcxjo, Vinmax, Vinty, Violabiola, Viridian,Viriditas, Virtualphtn, Visor, Vkap, Voltronladiesman, Vortexrealm, Vpendse, Vsmith, Vssun, Vuo, W guice, WCFrancis, WCar1930, WadeSimMiser, Waggers, Wahrmund, Walkerma, Walshfamily, Walton One, Waqqasd, Warrior4321, Wars, Warut, Watcharakorn, WaterCommunicator, Waterairfirearth, Waterjuice, WatermelonPotion, Waterwise, Wavelength, Wayne Hardman,Wayne Slam, Wayward, Wdfarmer, Weasel5i2, Wereon, Wesley, Weyes, Whatnotwhat, Whatnwas, White Wolf, White.matthew.09, Whomp, Wiggdaddy, Wik, Wiki alf, Wikify567,Wikimann132, Wikimol, WikipedianMarlith, Wikipelli, Wikiwhoodi, Wiktionary4Prez!, Will Beback, Willard, William Ashe, William Avery, William M. Connolley, Wimt, Windsor Help Desk,Winston365, Wizard191, Wknight94, WojPob, Wolf ODonnell, Woodcore, Woohookitty, WordyGirl90, Wtshymanski, Wuebker04, Wyroba, X2Xnorris, XJamRastafire, Xaosflux, Xavier13,Xcryoftheafflictedx, Xerxesnine, Xezlec, Xfinnegan3x, Xiahou, Xiutwel, Xompanthy, Xrchz, Xyzaxis, Xyzzyplugh, Yagagakhee, Yamaguchi先生, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yandman, Yath,YellowMonkey, Yonatan, Youssef1110, Yvwv, Yzmo, Zachalope, Zachnobob, Zaheermerali, Zeosurfer, Zeromaru, Zhen Lin, ZimZalaBim, Zinnmann, Zombie621, Zondor, Zotel, Zpop101,Zurishaddai, Zven, Zzuuzz, Zé da Silva, Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, Александър, 百家姓之四, 2540 anonymous edits

Biodiversity  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=458315195  Contributors: 6tate, AFA, Aaker, AaronRoe, Adam Cherson, Addielvega, Adriaan, Af0001, Ahoerstemeier,Ajraddatz, AkiBlast16, Akyoyo94, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alexbwilcox, AlexiusHoratius, Allthingstoallpeople, Alnokta, Altenmann, Amaltheus, Anaxial, Anclation, Andrea105, Anetode,Angusparker, Anlace, Anna Frodesiak, Annehardon, AnonyeC, Antandrus, Anthere, Antonio Lopez, Arakunem, Arctic Night, Armando07, Armbrust, Arnon Chaffin, Arthena, Arthur A CTreuherz, Arthur Rubin, AshLin, Asm76, Asoltys, Astropithicus, Astroview120mm, Asvestomix, Athene cunicularia, Atulsnischal, Aua, Auró, Avoided, AxelBoldt, Axussriddare, Ayworld,Azuris, BabzR, Ballista, Barron64, Bart133, Barticus88, Basawala, Basketballa 23, Beetstra, Belligero, Ben Hateva, BendersGame, Benhocking, Bfigura's puppy, Bicanashy, BigFatBuddha,Bill37212, Binary TSO, Biological Diversity, Bkurl, BlankVerse, Blankfaze, Blathnaid, Blehfu, Blinkb1077, Bluezy, BobCMU76, Bolling1, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Bonus Onus, BoomerAB,BostonMA, Boveeboi13, Bped1985, Brambleshire, Brighterorange, BrotherGeorge, Bsadowski1, BullRangifer, Burlywood, Butko, Bzeide, C.Fred, CALR, CIreland, CWenger, Calltech, Caltas,Camw, CanadianLinuxUser, CanisRufus, Carl.bunderson, Cassianie, Causa sui, Cavrdg, Cdcdoc, Cfrydj, Cgingold, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Chill doubt, Chris huh, Chzz, Cinik, Circeus,Ckatz, Clarince63, Classical geographer, Closedmouth, Cmdrjameson, Cobi, Codman, Coffinfly, Colincbn, CommonsDelinker, Computerjoe, Computermatt, Connor.carey, Controlfreak0, Cool3,Cooper owns you, Coppertwig, Courcelles, Covalent, Cowme, Crookshankz227, Crusoe8181, Csepel21, Cwgannon, D climacus, DVD R W, DabMachine, DaisukeVulgar, Danger, Daniel, DanielCollins, Daniel e17, Darkwind, Darth Panda, Darthgriz98, Dawn Bard, Ddove, Decltype, Deipnosophista, Dekimasu, Der Golem, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Diannaa, Discospinster, Dj Capricorn,Dkastner, Doctoroxenbriery, Dogg1243, Dr.K., DrDisco, Dragons flight, Drew R. Smith, Drmaik, Drunken Pirate, Dsr86, Duncharris, Dyanega, Dysmorodrepanis, Dystopos, Dzacdha, E. Wayne,ESkog, ETCGroup, Edcolins, Edward, Ekologkonsult, El C, Enzo Aquarius, Epbr123, Epipelagic, Erauch, Escape Orbit, Eva Ekeblad, Evolauxia, Excelsior f, Excirial, Extra999, Ezadarque,FAYZ X, FaEu, Face, Faradayplank, FayssalF, Fconaway, Finalius, Flewis, Flit, Fluri, FlyingToaster, Foober, FrankCostanza, Frankenpuppy, Frosted14, Frutoseco, Funeral, Fuxya bxl, Fyrael,Fæ, G. Völcker, Gaia 612, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Galoubet, Gatetrekker05, Gaudete, GerardM, Germaine01, Gertie, Ghajini504, Giants27, Gil Gamesh, Gimboid13, Gioto, Glenmin, Gob Lofa,Gogo Dodo, Goodvac, Graham87, GrahamN, GrahamP, Gsp8181, Guettarda, GuillaumeTell, Gurch, Gyrokanth, Gzkn, Hamamelis, Hardyplants, Hardyw, Hare the Hatter, Harland1,Hassanahmed14, Headbomb, Hectorguinness, Hhj1501, Highfly3442, HippoGirl, Hmains, Hobartimus, Hu12, Husond, Hut 8.5, Hybridknowledge, IGeMiNix, IRP, Idnarbbrandi, Igiffin, Igoldste,IlBeDanged, Ilya, Imc, Immunize, Io Katai, IonutC, Iridescent, Ishartedmyself, Isiaunia, Iucncanada, IvanLanin, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JForget, JHunterJ, JNW, JRR Trollkien, JaGa, Jaardon, Jabo,Jac16888, Jackhynes, Jaijake1, Jaked122, Jamesalbert1234, Jan1nad, Janus01, Jauerback, Jdforrester, Jeannie kendrick, Jecar, JeremyR, Jeremyb, Jguk, Jheald, Jigsaws, Jimpscott, Jmeppley, JoaoXavier, JoeSmack, Joelr31, John of Reading, JohnKunich, Johnfos, Jojhutton, Jonpro, Jose Ramos, Jsc83, Jthebooknerd87, Jujee100, Jéské Couriano, Jóna Þórunn, KAM, KVDP, Kalense, KarenSchousboe, Karmosin, Kaushik twin, Kavoral12, Kbdank71, Khoikhoi, Kingofmischief, Kingpin13, Kintetsubuffalo, Kku, Kleinzach, Kneale, Knowledge Seeker, Koavf, KoenVanMuylem,Koyos, Kpjas, Krich, Krohde, Kubigula, Kungfuadam, Kuyabribri, L Kensington, Lamiot, Latebird, Leevanjackson, Legendavey, Legis, Lentisco, Leupi, Lfstevens, Lhoward, LittleJerry,Lolololol12345678, Look2See1, Looxix, Lord Hawk, Lotje, Lova Falk, Lowda123, Luk, M3suka, M7, MCTales, MER-C, MONGO, Madden NFL 21, Madewokherd, Madhero88, Madkayaker,Maelstrom58, Magioladitis, Mahlum, Mailseth, Malcolm Farmer, Malkinann, Mandarax, Mandy Henshall, Mangomaster501, Marcelcorso, Marek69, Mario777Zelda, Marj Tiefert, MarkBolton,Markhurd, Marleelawless, Marshman, Martha p, Martin TB, Mat2010tam, Matt-eee, Mausy5043, Mav, Maxis ftw, Maziotis, McSly, MegaSloth, Mejor Los Indios, Merbabu, Mercurywoodrose,Metricopolus, Michael Hardy, Mike Christie, Mike Rosoft, Mike6271, Mikenorton, Mikez, Mindmatrix, Minghong, Minimac, Minna Sora no Shita, Miranche, Misslaverack, Misxz zhell, Moink,Molerat, Mr.Z-man, MrOllie, Mscitizen, Mudpuddles1418, Munci, Musashiwashi, Muu-karhu, Muxxa, Mvanzonneveld, Myopic Bookworm, Myrin1, MysteriousGary, Mystylplx, N5iln, N93k,NSR, Naddy, Nadinebrinson, Namazu-tron, Nasnema, NatureA16, NawlinWiki, Nehrams2020, NickCT, NickGBSOD, Nicmila, Nielg, Nixeagle, Nn123645, Noclevername, Nocompost,Noctibus, Nopetro, Northamerica1000, Nrum, NuclearWarfare, Nurg, Octo1, Oda Mari, Oikoschile, Olegmeister, OnePt618, Oneiros, Orange Suede Sofa, Orphan Wiki, PDH, Paleorthid,Paranoidfish, Pavel Vozenilek, Paxsimius, Pbroks13, Pdcook, PeaceNT, Pengo, Peter Wallack, Petrb, Phasechange, Philip Trueman, Philip.t.day, Philistus, Phrontiste, Piano non troppo, Pietrosperoni, Pigsonthewing, Pinethicket, Pinky sl, Piotrus, Pjoef, Pmulvany, Pol430, Pollinator, Polyphony001, Populus, Prabinepali, PraktiRed, PrezMcFinny2.0, Primacag, Prodego, Protonk, Puffin,QueenCake, Quercus basaseachicensis, Qxz, R'n'B, Rainwind2010, Random User 937494, Ranveig, Raven in Orbit, Reach Out to the Truth, Reaper Eternal, Redfarmer, Regancy42, Rewster,RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Richard001, Richhoncho, Rinaku, Rjwilmsi, RobertG, Robina Fox, Robinh, RodC, RoyBoy, Rrburke, Rstafursky, Rurom,RyanGerbil10, Ryulong, SD5, SDGOB, SWAdair, Sabine's Sunbird, Sagredo, Sander123, Sanju388, Sasata, Savant13, Sbridge, Schlüggell, Schuetzm, Sci3nce, Sciencenews, Scoops, Scott AHerbert, Seaphoto, Sekolov, SewerCat, Sexyman2086, Sfogarty, Shadowjams, Shamhat456, Shawnc, Shinhan, Shirtwaist, Shrimp wong, Sid389, Siddiq ahmed, Signalhead, SilentWings,SimonPQ, Simple Bob, Singularity, SiobhanHansa, Sjö, Skizzik, Sluzzelin, Slysplace, Smith609, So God created Manchester, Solipsist, Solitude, Sophia, Sperrfeuer, Spiff, SqueakBox, Sross(Public Policy), Steel, Stemonitis, StephanieM, Stephenb, Steverapaport, Stevietheman, Stickee, Stinkypie, Storm Rider, Sunray, Susurrus, Svetovid, Synchronism, TKD, Tabletop, Tallusman,Tannin, Tbhotch, Teinesavaii, Teles, Tellyaddict, Terrykwon, Tgohome, Tgv8925, The Claw, The Interior, The Ostrich, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheaterMarine, Thehelpfulone, Theo F,Thompsma, Thunderboltz, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Timios, Timwi, Tkn20, Tobby72, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tom4216697, TomD22, Tomkench, Tommy2010, Tony1212, Tpbradbury, Trakesht,Trevor MacInnis, Triona, Tsomerville, Turgan, Turkish van, Tuxedo junction, Ukexpat, Uncle G, User2004, Van helsing, Vanished User 4517, Venex, Vengeful Cynic, Vildricianus, Vipinhari,Viriditas, Vkil, Vladsinger, Vrenator, Vsmith, WODUP, Waggers, WalkerMW, Waterbender kara, Wavelength, Wayne Slam, Weser, Wetman, Wgors, Wijnja, WikiLaurent, Wikilibrarian,WikipedianMarlith, Wikipelli, Wilddotorg, Wildhimalayas, Will Beback, William Avery, Willking1979, Windharp, WolfmanSF, Woohookitty, XL2D, XN, Yamamoto Ichiro, Ytiugibma,Zikiodotte, Zoney, 1730 ,ماني anonymous edits

Deforestation  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=457320490  Contributors: -jmac-, 10ryan10, 12george1, 21655, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, A3RO, ABF, AVand, Aaronl13, Abcdefghif2, Acather96, Access Denied, Addihockey10, Addshore, Adi4094, AdultSwim, Agatam0102, Ahoerstemeier, Ahuskay, Airconswitch, Aitias, Aiyda, Ajraddatz, Aka042, Akamad, Akshayrangasai, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alex Rio Brazil, Alexius08, AlexiusHoratius, Allstarecho, Alphachimp, Amagase, Amalthea, Amaltheus, Amazins490, Amazon10x, Ambarish, Amcbride, Amibaba, Amorymeltzer, Amplitude101, Anastrophe, Andonic, Andreaphill, Andrewlp1991, Andrewpmk, Andycjp, Andypandy.UK, Ankur470, Anlace, Anonymous editor, Antandrus, Anthere, Antiuser, Aprock, Aquaregia27, Arakunem, Archanamiya, Aremith, Arthena, Ashleyr57, Asidemes, AtikuX, Atomicdor, AtticusX, Aude, Augi 06, Autocracy, Avenged Eightfold, Average Earthman, Avoided, Avono, Awickert, AxelBoldt, Axlq, Axyjo, Ayla, BD2412, Badagnani, Badgernet, Barkeep, Barrylb, Bart133, Barticus88, Basement12, Basicdesign, Bassbonerocks, Bastin, Beaumont, Bebemui912, Belligero, Bendover, Bendzh, Bexer, Bibliophylax, Billgunyon, Bingbang97, Biopresto, Blanchardb, Blendus, Blue520, BlueDevil, Bmk, Bobblewik, Bobo The Ninja, Bobo192, Boing! said Zebedee, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Bornslippy, Bradford52, Brainyiscool, Brendon1721, Brian0918, Brianga, Brianlucas, Brusegadi, Bryan Derksen, Bryantenge, Bubba hotep, Bucephalus, Buchanan-Hermit, Bushsux, Bushytails, C toney, C.lettingaAV, CIreland, CSWarren, Calabe1992, Caltas, CalumH93, Calvinkarpenko, CambridgeBayWeather, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Canderson7, CanisRufus, Canterbury Tail, Canthusus, Capricorn42, Captainbirk, Carbonrodney, CardinalDan, Caroline9546, Caster23, Cataclysm, Cause of death, Celarnor, Cewvero, Ceyockey, Cflm001, Chariblock, Chaujie328, Chet1234567, Chihanghanh, Chiliwilo, Chodorkovskiy, Chovain, Chris the speller, Christinexuelian, CinchBug, Citizen Premier, ClaudioMB, Clementoni, Clovis Sangrail, Cmich6430, Coasterlover1994, Cogswobble, Colcsc, Colonies Chris, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Computerjoe, Conversion script, Corpx, Cozykid9654, Craigy144, Creidieki, Cremepuff222, CrimsonFlash, Crohnie, Crowquills, Cryonic07, Cst17, Ctbolt, Cut1664, Cygnis insignis, Czolgolz, D, D. Recorder, D99figge, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DASonnenfeld, DCEdwards1966, DHN, DSRH, DVD R W, Damirgraffiti, Dandood333, Dandv, Dane 1981, Daniel Collins, DanielCD, Darkfight, DarkfireInferno, Darklilac, Darkwind, Daron48813, Dave6, David Eppstein, Dead671fish, Delldot, Deor, DerHexer, Dev1n, Dfrg.msc, Dina, Discospinster, DisillusionedBitterAndKnackered, Dittaeva, Dj Capricorn, Djangalaang, Dolovis, Donreed, Doubleplusjeff, Dppowell, Dr. Blofeld, Dr. Zaret, Draicone, Drmarkmulligan, Drmies, Drono, Dust Filter, Dwdaddio, Dyrliv, E. Ripley, ERcheck, ESkog, Econo67a, Editore99, Edward, Eeekster, El C, Elb2000, Elekhh, Elipongo, Emarsee, Emersoni, Endangered11, Engineman, EnglishEfternamn, Enviro2009, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Epeefleche, Epipelagic, Eric-Wester, Esanchez7587, Escapepea, Escientist, Ethel Aardvark, Eumolpo, Everyking, Evilgrug, Evilhairyhamster, Excirial, Explicit, Extra999, Extransit, FF2010, Fakrur, Falcon8765, Farken, Fastifex, FatalError, Favonian, Femto, Fennec, Ffransoo, Fiddleswith, Fieldday-sunday, Fig wright, Fir0002, Flewis, Flymeoutofhere, Fmoolten, Fnlayson, France3470, Francs2000, FrankTobia, Frankie0607, Free Bear, FreplySpang, Friday, Func, Fusionmix, Fyyer, Fæ, Gadfium, Gaijin42, Gail, Galorr, GaryColemanFan, Gaudete, Gcm, Ged UK, Gekedo, Ghirlandajo, Giftlite, Gilliam, Ginsengbomb, Glane23, GlassCobra, GoPlanet, Gogo Dodo, Goodnightmush, Graeme56, Graham87, Gralo, Grayshi, Greatwalk, Green Cardamom, Greentopia, Gregandjude, Gromlakh, Grundle2600, Guanaco, Guettarda, Gugilymugily, Guoguo12, Gurch, Gzkn, Hadal, Haderer, Hagerman, Halaqah, Halmstad, Hanacy, Hard Raspy Sci, HarryHenryGebel, Harshanth, Haukurth, Hazes12345, Hcheney, Hdt83, Heavyweight Gamer, Heimstern, Henklaak, Hephaestos, Hi878, Hibernian, Hipocrite, Hmains, Hoo man, Hpausch, Hseaym, Htdefiant, Hugh12345, Husond, Hut 8.5, Hydrogen Iodide, Hyunjee5, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, IW.HG, Ian Pitchford, Ibsinc, Ice Cold Beer, IceKarma, Iddri, Iluminados, Imcraigs, Indon, Inmybutt69, Insanity Incarnate, Interlect, Iowninfantasy, Ipstenu, Iridescent, Irishguy, IronGargoyle, Isiaunia, Isolani, Istanbuljohnm, Ixfd64, Izvora, J.delanoy, JCarriker, JEdlund, JForget, JNW, JRR Trollkien, JYi, Ja 62, JaGa, Jackelfive, Jackfork, Jaffa42, Jagun, Jahiegel, James086, Jamesooders, Jamidwyer, Jamirabastos, Jauerback,

Article Sources and Contributors 131

Jaxsonjo, Jbergquist, Jeberlie, Jeff G., JeffryJohnston, Jeffthejiff, Jessi1989, Jj137, Jmonica001, Jmundo, Jni, JoJan, Joan-of-arc, JoanneB, Joe2k9, Joel Russ, John254, Johndburger, Johnmnb,Johnpseudo, Jojit fb, JonHarder, Joostvandeputte, JoseAlcoy, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jossi, Jpalacios120, Jrtayloriv, Jsmith86, Jtneill, Juliancolton, Junglecat, Jusdafax, Justin, Jwoodger, KAM,KFP, KVDP, Kaisershatner, Kaiwhakahaere, Karl2620, Karlhahn, Kelly Martin, Kelseypedia, Kenrick95, Kf4bdy, Kikithemad93, Kill, Kimberlyanne567, Kingpin13, Kirrages, Kiwi128, Kmg90,KnowledgeOfSelf, Koavf, Koksila23, Kozuch, Krasss, Kriplozoik, Kudret abi, Kukini, Kumar Appaiah, Kungfuadam, Kuru, Kurykh, Kylu, Kzollman, LA2, Landen1, Ld100, Leafyplant,LeaveSleaves, Leejeongwoo, Leoadec, Leobrien, LightCMM, Lightmouse, Lights, Ligulem, LilHelpa, LittleOldMe, LittleSmall, LittleT889, Littleghostboo, Littlezas, Loc119, Lokiloki,Loonymonkey, Lord Pistachio, Loren.wilton, Lothar von Richthofen, Luna Santin, MC MasterChef, MER-C, MLRainforest, MONGO, MPF, Mace, Made in the U.S., Madhero88, Maias,Mangostar, Marek69, Marsian, Martarius, MartinDK, Masterofnocrack, Materialscientist, Matthew21995, MauroVan, Mav, Maxis ftw, Maziotis, Mboverload, McSly, Meaghan, MearsMan,Megan thomas 123, Megan1967, Melamed katz, MeltBanana, Mendaliv, Mentifisto, Mercury, Merlino14, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Mervyn, Mgiganteus1, Michael Hardy, Michael.pham12,Michaelorgan, Mihoshi, Mikael Häggström, Mikeo, Mild Bill Hiccup, Millere08, Mindcry, Mini-Geek, Minna Sora no Shita, Missionary, Mister Flash, MithrandirAgain, Mjpieters, Mkamensek,Mlouns, Mmcdougall, Modulatum, Monfornot, Moonriddengirl, Mr Stephen, MrBell, Ms2ger, Mschel, Mtrack81, MuZemike, Murder1, Myanw, Mygerardromance, Mysdaao, NAHID,NHRHS2010, NTK, Nagy, Namazu-tron, Nathan Johnson, NawlinWiki, Nazroon, Ncmvocalist, Nebarnix, Neverquick, New England, NewEnglandYankee, Newlol1, Nick, Nick Garvey,NickW557, Nicolaiwallace, Nightmist, Nixeagle, Noaa, Noah Salzman, Nolacho, Nolelover, Norm mit, Notedgrant, Notheruser, Nsaa, Nthep, Nuttycoconut, O Wise 1, Occuli, Ohnoitsjamie,Okiefromokla (old), OllieFury, Omicronpersei8, Omnimalevolent, One-world-generation, Only, Onorem, Opcassio, Opelio, Opl332, Orcawhale, OregonD00d, Orphan Wiki, Oscarthecat,Ouedbirdwatcher, OwenX, Oxymoron83, PAntoni, PDH, PL290, Paisano flaco, Paleorthid, PandaSaver, Parkwells, PatrickJ83, Paul Erik, Pb30, Pearle, Peer V, Pembers, Penubag, Penwhale,Peprochazka, Persian Poet Gal, Peter Karlsen, Peter.potapov, Peterlewis, Petkows, Petrb, Pfly, PhilMacD, Philip Trueman, Piano non troppo, Pieisfail, Pilotguy, Pinethicket, Pingveno,Pinkadelica, PizzaBox, Plumpurple, Poetaris, Poopyboy, Possum, Prairiekerry, Procrastinator supreme, Prodego, Prolog, Proofreader77, Purple Paint, Purt077, Pycnopodia, QWERTYcat,Qaddosh, Qst, Quadell, Quadpus, QuadrivialMind, Quantpole, Queenmomcat, Quintote, Qxz, RaCha'ar, Rabo3, Rajah, Random account 47, RandomAct, RandomStringOfCharacters, Raven4x4x,Raz1el, Rdsmith4, Reach Out to the Truth, Rebecca, RedHillian, RedSox2008, Redthoreau, Reedy, ReinforcedReinforcements, Reinyday, Resist2die, Retiono Virginian, Rettetast, RexNL,Rhiannon09, Rich Farmbrough, Richard001, Rjwilmsi, Rknasc, RockMFR, Rofltobyiscool, Roleplayer, Ronhjones, Roonaldo10, Rory096, Roryowns, Roundhouse0, Roux-HG, RoyBoy, Rror,Rstafursky, RxS, Ryan gallup, Ryan9664, SJP, Salix alba, Samfamgamhamjamkam, Sampi, Saranga17, Sarregouset, Sceptre, Schcambo, SchfiftyThree, Scientizzle, Scilit, ScottyBerg, SeanWilliam, Seb az86556, Sekolov, Seth Ilys, Shadimekage, Shadowjams, Shakinglord, Shanes, Shawn in Montreal, Shimeru, Shimmeringvibes, Signalhead, SimonP, SineWave, Sir Nicholas deMimsy-Porpington, Sitenl, Sjl11687, Skomorokh, Slakr, Sleptrip, Slon02, Sluzzelin, Slyguy, Smalljim, Smallman12q, Smartse, Snake man797, Snowmanradio, Snowolf, SoGonzo, Soap,Sockettome, Sodium, Sokhal, Solarunity2, Sole Soul, Some jerk on the Internet, Someguy1221, Sonelle, Sonett72, SparsityProblem, Spartan-James, Spiffy sperry, Splash, Sportslover7355,Squishtopher, Ssjdemonfox, Starshadow, StaticGull, Steel, Steven Zhang, Stevewithmpa, Stor stark7, Storm Rider, Strdst grl, Stupidude3.14159, Subsume, Suchthekaitlin, Sufer1000, Summerbby, Sunray, Super-Magician, SuperTycoon, SusanneRockwell, Svetovid, Sweetheart1212121, T4hm1d, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tad Lincoln, Tagommagy, Talking.kerbau, Tangotango,Tannin, Tardigrade, Tavrian, Tbhotch, Tbjornstad, Tcarignan, Teffill, Tennis Dynamite, Terjepetersen, Terraguy, Terrorhobo, Thatguyflint, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Utahraptor, Thebellman, The wub, TheCoffee, ThePaper, Thelemonzip, Theo Pardilla, Theodorson, Therrp, Thingg, Think outside the box, Thrindel, Thue, Thunderboltz, Thunderwing, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls,TigerShark, Tiptoety, Tiramisoo, Tj rocks 4eva, Todd661, Toke107, Tom-, Tom.k, Tombarrister, Tommy2010, Tony Fox, Tony Sidaway, Tonyfaull, Tonyrex, Toohool, Topper46231, Trasman,TravisTX, Traxs7, Treygdor, Trisar, Triwbe, Trnj2000, Tuxraider reloaded, UberScienceNerd, Ulric1313, Uncle Dick, User A1, User27091, Utcursch, Ute Rathmann, Van helsing, Vanished user39948282, Vanished user 47736712, Velella, Versus22, Vidioman, Vinny Burgoo, Viriditas, Volker89, Voyagerfan5761, Vsmith, Vtderise, WadeSimMiser, Waggers, Walor, Warut, Wavelength,Waycool27, Wayne Slam, Wayward, Wescbell, West Brom 4ever, Wetman, Who then was a gentleman?, Why Not A Duck, WikHead, Wiki alf, WikiDao, WikiLaurent, Wikiisdog, Wikipediacrusader, WikipedianMarlith, Wikipelli, Wikiqueen2, Wikiwide, Wiknerd, Will Beback, Willking1979, Wimt, Winayak1410, Winchelsea, Winhunter, Wiplar, Wireless Keyboard, Wizzard2k,Woer$, WojPob, Woody, Woohookitty, Wrenelhai, Xezbeth, Xiahou, Xiakanahan, Xnuala, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yatinap, YechezkelZilber, Yeomansplowchris1, Yerpo, Yintan, Yodaat,Youmuppet, Youssefsan, Yummywiki, Yysh12, Zahid Abdassabur, Zanotam, Zappernapper, Zarniwoot, ZenerV, Zidonuke, Zimm0who0net, Ziusudra, Zotel, Zzorse, とある白い猫, 3237anonymous edits

1924 Cuba hurricane  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=446689618  Contributors: CrazyC83, Cyclonebiskit, E. Brown, Hurricanehink, Hurricanekiller1994, Jaredtheking,Juliancolton, Potapych, RattleMan, Rich Farmbrough, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Thegreatdr, 1 anonymous edits

2006 Nova Scotia tropical storm  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=445170329  Contributors: Alfabettyblue, Chacor, Coredesat, Golbez, HERB, Hurricanehink, J JMesserly,Jason Rees, Jdorje, Juliancolton, Mausy5043, Prosfilaes, Ramisses, Rich Farmbrough, Slysplace, WillC, 3 anonymous edits

Biomass  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=457937063  Contributors: 06donkey, 1exec1, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 4twenty42o, 5 albert square, A strolling player, ABF, Ace ofSpades, Acschwim, Adambro, Addihockey10, Adrian J. Hunter, Aetheling, Ahalo23, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Ajmlnz, Ajzozulin, Al Wiseman, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Ale jrb, AlexGWU,Alexfeinstein, Alfie66, American Eagle, Andreaphill, Andreworkney, AnimaMage, Anton1234, Antonio Lopez, Anturiaethwr, Appeltree1, Archfalhwyl, Arthena, Asparagus, Asterion, AzaToth,B Shefchik, BMWROCKZ, BVBede, Balaclener, Barticus88, Beagel, Beetstra, Behradsorousheh, Behun, Benandorsqueaks, BendersGame, Bentogoa, Betterusername, Bigtophat,Biomassucks21, Bisi77, BlueCanoe, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, BozMo, Brian Everlasting, BrianBrechner, Brougham96, Brusegadi, Btdurant, Burbaum, Burntsauce, Burzmali, Bus stop, CWY2190,Cacuija, Cadwallader, Caknuck, Caltas, Calvin 1998, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Canoekiller1, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Carter, Catgut, Centonup, Cflm001,ChangChienFu, Changerofthings, Chaosdruid, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, ChemGardener, Chmee2, Chris is me, Chrisdafish, Christopherjohnw, Clematisbanyan, Closedmouth, Cntras,Coastwise, Cometstyles, Connormah, Cornstoves, Courcelles, Coxt001, CrazyChemGuy, Crazynas, Crownjewel82, Cubs Fan, Cyberphysics, CyrilB, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DC, DMacks, DVdm,Dagvidur, Damicatz, Dan Gluck, Dancter, Danthelad12, Dark Lord of the Sith, Darth Panda, Dashafer, David Woodward, Debresser, Decltype, Deewhite, Deli nk, Delldot, Delusion23,Denisarona, Dennis Brown, DerHexer, Dfrg.msc, Diagonalfish, Diddyp1 LiiD, Diskz, Djhyperman, Doc Tropics, Doubleg, Dougofborg, Dpanda, Drmies, Drpickem, Dsantos688, Dvansch,Dysepsion, E8, ESkog, EWikist, Edcolins, Edderso, Edgar181, Egmontaz, El C, Eldiablo420, Eleassar, Elekhh, Energee5, Enerjiturk, Engineman, Epbr123, Epipelagic, Espoo, Ethancbceps,Ethancbceps1, Evelyne V, Evercat, Excirial, Falcon8765, Farmercarlos, Favonian, Felipekovacic, FellGleaming, Femto, Ffkpoubelle, Fieldday-sunday, Fiftytwo thirty, Figma, Foobaz, ForeverDusk, Fortdj33, Frgglefraggle, Frymaster, Gabbe, Galoubet, Gamaliel, Ganjaa, Ganjaa2890, Gary King, GateKeeper, Ged UK, Gensanders, Geologyguy, George The Dragon,George.vanbommel, Gfoley4, Gharbeia, Giftlite, Gilliam, Gioto, Gjd001, GraemeL, Gralo, Grantrowe, Greentopia, Grey Matter, Gscshoyru, Gurch, Gurchzilla, HaeB, Hakuin, Hammer1980,Hammersoft, Hanacy, Harland1, Hdt83, Headbomb, Hertz1888, Hinger, Hmrox, Hobartimus, Hobo 9244, Hu12, Humus sapiens, Hydrogen Iodide, Hydrox, IANMOORELOVESWIKI, IRP,Ike9898, Ilikeeggsandpeas, Immunize, Imroy, Incrediblehunk, Indon, Inertiatic076, Innoshare, Insanity Incarnate, Inter16, Iridescent, Irok77, IronGargoyle, Isiaunia, IvanLanin, Iyenweyel,J.delanoy, JForget, JPJASPER, Ja 62, JaGa, Jackfork, Jamesrnorwood, Jauhienij, Jaydeep96, Jclemens, Jebba, Jeepday, Jeffrey Mall, Jersey emt, Jimokay, Jm411, JoanneB, Joel7687, Joepearson,John, John Vandenberg, Johnfos, Johnfravolda, Johnpseudo, Jonspreadborough, Jorfer, Jorjulio, Jpoelma13, Jusdafax, Jwanders, Jwoodger, KGasso, KVDP, Kase hexe, KatrinBerlin, Kbdank71,Keegscee, Kehrbykid, Keilana, Keny+Reny, Kerotan, Kier07, Kiler12321, Kimmi1996, Kingpin13, Kirachinmoku, Kpjas, Krawi, Kristen Eriksen, Kukini, Kungfuadam, Kupirijo, Kyng, LKensington, LFaraone, LadyofShalott, Lawrencekhoo, Lesnail, Leuko, Lilac Soul, Lilbee1994, Liverpoolsciencepark, Llywelyn, Lmatt, Logan, Lolcol5, Lova Falk, Ludoman, Luigi Ferrari,LuigiManiac, Luna Santin, Lupin, MER-C, MLauba, MPF, Mac, Makeemlighter, Mana Excalibur, Marblewonder, Marek69, Marekzp, Martial75, Matmom, Mattcguy, Max klein666, Maxí,Mazzanet, Mbc362, McSly, Mcciara, Mdebets, Meekywiki, Melaen, Melsaran, Mentifisto, Mercury, Mervyn, Metricopolus, Miagirljmw14, Microcell, Mike Rosoft, Mindmatrix, Mion, Mjquinnid, Mlynn hartwell, Momo san, Monty845, Mordgier, Moreschi, Morrotom, MrOllie, Mrfireworkman, Mtrentvander, N5iln, NAHID, Nabiul2, Nakon, Nasqueron1, Naturespace, NawlinWiki,NeilN, NiN, Nikkimaria, Ninja Wizard, Nistra, Nnoell, NonNobisSolum, Noodley, Nsaa, Ntpds, Nukeless, Octahedron80, Octavos, Ohnoitsjamie, Oore, Originalwana, Orphan Wiki, Oscarthecat,Osceolasean, Outriggr, Oxymoron83, Ozarknature, PM800, Paiev, Paleorthid, ParisianBlade, Parthian Scribe, Pat604, Paul1943, Pax85, Pekiro, Pengo, Persian Poet Gal, Peter, Petiatil,Phantomsteve, Philip Trueman, Phillip.northfield, Piano non troppo, Pierson's Puppeteer, Pikapika17, Pinethicket, Pip2andahalf, Piratebaron, Porqin, Postofficebox, Prettyboy14, Prolog, Prpiño,PseudoOne, Pumeleon, Pumpica, Qiliho, Quaeler, RB972, RadiantRay, Radon210, RainbowOfLight, Rajend8, Rambo forever, Rankiri, Raymondwinn, Rdoued, Reach Out to the Truth,RedKiteUK, RegentsPark, Rehman, Res2216firestar, Rettetast, Rguadm, Rich Farmbrough, Richard New Forest, Rickyrab, Rifleman 82, Rnb, Ronhjones, Rprpr, Rrburke, Rstafursky, Rtdrury,Ryoung122, Ryryrules100, SHADY5, SJP, SPNic, Salamurai, Salix alba, Sam Korn, Samwb123, Saranghae honey, SarcasticDwarf, Saros136, SchfiftyThree, SchnitzelMannGreek, ScottyBerg,SeaValeYen, Seba5618, Sephiroth BCR, Sewings, Sfahey, Shell Kinney, Shirulashem, Shoefly, Shotwell, Silvcomp, Simesa, Sionus, Sjö, Sk9459, Skarebo, Skier Dude, Skubeska,Smartlypretty7, Smile4Chomsky, Smilers, Snowmanradio, Snowolf, Some jerk on the Internet, SouthernNights, Specs112, Spidern, Spitfire, Spongefrog, Starkiller88, Stephenb, SteveBaker,Stupersyn, Stupidplonker, Sunderland06, Superstevegs, Taggard, Tanthalas39, Tbhotch, TeH nOmInAtOr, Techfast50, Teles, Teratornis, Thameshead, Thatguyflint, The High Fin Sperm Whale,The Rambling Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheEnergyPeople, TheNewPhobia, Thedjatclubrock, Thehelpfulone, Theofilus127, Thingg, Think outside the box, Thomasbuch, Tiddly Tom,Tide rolls, Tiffanylovesbarney, Tim downey1996, Tiptoety, Tkila345, Tobyfountain, TreeBread, Trusilver, Tuatar, Tunheim, Twang, Tyw7, Uirauna, Ukexpat, Unconcerned, Unknown1321,Unscintillating, User A1, V8rik, VQuakr, Vanished user 39948282, Vary, VasilievVV, Velella, Versus22, Vinsfan368, Virtualjedi, Vonilan, Vortexrealm, Vrenator, Vsmith, Vyxx, Wackywace,Walter1975, WarthogDemon, Wavelength, Wayne Slam, Wikipelli, Will Beback, Wingman4l7, Wongm, Woudloper, Wperdue, Wtmitchell, Wutsje, Wvu86, Wwoods, X!, Xaosflux, Xcrunner07,Xenophon777, Xsanda, XxrhianxX, Yoyoyowhatsup, Zabubu1, Zac wise, ZooFari, Zzuuzz, 1613 ,دوستدار زرتشت anonymous edits

Sustainability  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=458136126  Contributors: (jarbarf), 128.104.truth, A8UDI, Aaroncrick, AbendigoReebs, Abendigoreebs, Aboalbiss, Acschwim, AdenR, Adi4094, Agenda21culture, Aixime, Akerans, Akradecki, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alex Rio Brazil, AlexHorovitz, Alexblainelayder, All Is One, Alpha Quadrant, Amh1000, Andersabrahamsson, Andrewa, AndriuZ, Andy Marchbanks, Angela, Angela.mcclowry, Angr, Animum, Anlace, Anna Lincoln, Annie Warmke, Anthearowe, Anthony Appleyard, Apapadop, AppleJuggler, Apteva, Aptw01, Arawn, Arkuat, Armontfort, Arneschulzhh, AroundLAin80Days, Arthur Rubin, Ash, Astudent, Auntof6, Avala, Avogadro94, BGlassman, Baa, Bclavier, Beddowve, Beetstra, Behun, Belligero, Benandorsqueaks, Bethyboots, Bgpaulus, Bhanumurthykv, Bigorganicnetwork, Bill.albing, Billtubbs, Bkermath, Black Mamba, Blake999, Bluemoose, Bluemosquito, Bluenijin, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, Bonjour68, Boofox, Boyd Reimer, Breathejustice, Brian Crawford, Brimba, Brosi, Buddy budster123, Bumpoh, C mon, CL, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Carbenium, Cassbeth, Catgut, Causa sui, Cazort, Cfrayne, Charliebrown, Chas martin, Chemingway, ChildofMidnight, Chopchopwhitey, Chrism, Chrismacrae, Christopher Parham, Chriswaterguy, Chriswiki, Chuflip, Ckatz, Cleugh, Cometstyles, Corvus cornix, Courcelles, CrazyChemGuy, Crim010, Crohnie, Crosstemplejay, Csracademic, CulArtsTeacher, Cyberbrook, Cybercobra, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DVD R W, DaFreak, Daarznieks, DagErlingSmørgrav, Daniadania, Daniel Collins, DanielCD, Danielcollins1, Danleary25, David Biddulph, Dawn Bard, Dcarli, Ddelcourt, DerHexer, Dhritirose, Dialectic, Discospinster, Discus2000, Djhyperman, Donal Lang, Douglas Earth87, Download, Doyley, Dr.enh,

Article Sources and Contributors 132

DrTanNguyen, Dragons flight, Drbreznjev, Drmies, DuncanHill, Durnthalerk, Dyname42, E Wing, E2eamon, ENeville, Earthdenizen, EazieCheeze, Ebbatten, Ecologic Solutions, El C, Ellipsis,Encycl wiki 01, Endangered11, Epbr123, EphemeralKnowlege, Epipelagic, Ericbritton, Ericeze, Erkan Yilmaz, Esven, EurekaLott, Evan, Evercat, Excesses, Faiwiki, Farnell starfinder, Fastifex,Favonian, Fba2605, Feministo, Fernagut, Filipw, Finetooth, Flybmr, Fmuratozdemir, Fortdj33, Fortenium, Frankavery, Free25, Freechild, Fruits, Frymaster, Gabriel Kielland, Gaius Cornelius,Geniac, Geojacob, Georgekao, Giftlite, Ginsengbomb, Givemoregetless, Glenn, Glst2, Gobonobo, Gogo Dodo, Goinggreen, Gomm, GorillaWarfare, Gracenotes, Gralo, Granitethighs, Grantrowe,Greenman2011, Gregalton, GregorB, Grubber, Gurch, Guðsþegn, Gwen Gale, H0339637, HJ Mitchell, Halrhp, Hankwang, Hawstom, Hazel77, Hdante, Hearthstone, Heroeswithmetaphors,Heron, Hfcom, Hintswen, Hosking40, Hu12, IRP, Iacchus, Iceman3132, Ifca, Illustria, Im dead- not really, Immunize, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Intelligentsium, Ireactionz, Iridescent, IsaacDupree, Isiaunia, Iwillseetheworld, J.delanoy, J04n, JForget, JLMadrigal, JPRenaut, JRR Trollkien, JTURI, Jack Harich, Jackalus, Jaknouse, Jbarber, Jcwandemberg, Jenniferperryuk,Jerseyan111, Jespinos, Jfurr1981, Jharkins101, Jhujsak, JoanneB, JodyB, Joel Russ, John D. Croft, JohnKunich, Johnfos, Johnpseudo, JonahSmiles, Jonathan Kovaciny, Jonesey95, Jorfer,Jprovino, Jscpowser, Julianker, Jvreeswijk, Jwanders, JzG, KFP, Ka5nom, Kaihsu, Kathdalmeny, Katieh5584, Kenao, Kenstandfield, Khanya-aicdd, Kieran sseed, Kill bills balls, Killiondude,Kinaro, King of Hearts, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kofiannansrevenge, Kotar, Koyoto123, Kozuch, Krfrantz, Kristen Eriksen, Kuru, Kznf, LFaraone, LRR44, La Pianista, Landon1980, Laurel Bush,Lawrencekhoo, Ld100, Lekriner, Letranova, Leventozler, Levineps, Lightlowemon, Lights of zenthor, Lil miss serena, LindsayH, Lispp, Lmastny, Lombarch, Lredman, Luna Santin, MER-C,MONGO, Mac, Mahlum, Mailseth, Makeemlighter, Malcolm Farmer, Marcelo1229, Marcos, Mark K. Jensen, Markisgreen, Markxuereb, Matt Gerber, Matt Mellen, Mauricevdkooij,Maurizio.Cattaneo, Maxfrisch, Mcha6677, Mcsbozeman, Mdd, Meaningmaker, Meno25, Menwith, Mereda, Mesoderm, Mevertz, Michael Devore, Michael Hardy, Michael Johnson,MichaelBillington, Mietchen, MikeWren, Mikeramz1, Mikes1807, Mion, Mjvande, Mkdriscoll, Mnemeson, Moe Epsilon, Mokiethecat, Monsoon Waves, MoxRox, Mpwrmnt, Mr3641, MrGF,MrOllie, MrValkyrie175, Mwanner, Mwomersley, NJGW, Narendra.lsu, Nathan Johnson, Natkeeran, Naught101, NawlinWiki, Nbarth, Neelix, New England, Nick Number, Nick carson,Nickenge, Nono64, Northamerica1000, Notedgrant, Nsaa, Ntmoe, Numbersinstitute, Nurg, OStewart, Ocaasi, Ofrahod, OhanaUnited, Omnist, On2Leggs, Onebravemonkey, Onorem, OrangeSuede Sofa, Orion11M87, OrionK, Otwguy, Oxbox, PChalmer, POLIS Project, Panleek, Parhamr, ParticleMan, PaulGarner, Paultx, Pea73, Pengo, Perklund, Peruvianllama, Peter Campbell,Peter.heffron, Pfhenshaw, Phantomsteve, Phenylalanine, Phil Boswell, PhilKnight, Philip Sutton, Philip Trueman, Philralph, Piano non troppo, Pinethicket, Pkgx, Pkrecker, Planet108, Pmrich,Pnastu, Ppe42, Prakash021, Pratyushs1, Princess Tiswas, Psreilly, Pstudier, Publunch, Quester67, R Lowry, RCX, RPH, Radiofreebc, Rastebbins, Rbohlen, Reaper Eternal, Reasonsjester,Rebbing, Reconsider the static, Reinyday, Reubster1, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Richard001, RichardF, Riley124, Rjbo, Rjtedge, Rjwilmsi, Rkitko, Rmhermen, Robcarol, RodC, Ruralface,RyanGerbil10, Ryulong, SDC, SSDconsult, Salix alba, Salty!, Sam Hocevar, San Saba, Saperaud, Sardanaphalus, SarekOfVulcan, Sasata, Sava chankov, Sbandrews, Sbridge, SchfiftyThree, Schi,Sciencesquared, Scjessey, Scoopczar, Sdm24, Sean Whitton, Sentience, Serious Business, Shadesofx, Shadowhunter360, Shadowjams, Sheogorath, Shera99, Shoefly, Shoeofdeath, Sholto Maud,Shoreline, Shoreranger, Shoumyo.m, Silkox, Singhalawap, SiobhanHansa, Sirtin, Sjakkalle, Skier Dude, Skipsievert, Smappy, Solipsist, Sossie7, SpK, SpikeToronto, Spl tu 60, Spuddy2010,Stathisgould, Stephenb, Sting au, Storm Rider, SunCreator, Sunray, Sustainability, Sustainability rocks, Swikid, Switpi84, Syra987, T griffen, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tangerines, Tarquin,TastyPoutine, Taticchipaolo, Techman224, Tedder, Tedichi, Temanning, Tempodivalse, The Teleosis Institute, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Transhumanist, The Way, TheBlackAvenger,TheKMan, TheOtherBob, Thecheesykid, Thedharmahouse, Themfromspace, Thermoproteus, Thingg, Thomasmeeks, Thrissel, Tide rolls, Timbouctou, Time4this, Tiniet, Tkn20, Tobby72,Tobeycranston, Tom Worthington, Tommy2010, Tony Sidaway, Torchwood5, Tractor, Travelplanner, Travis.Thurston, Trebuchi, Trevor1332, Tsavage, Tsunade, Tyrol5, Uirauna, UltraMagnus,Ultramarine, Ultrogothe, Uncle Dick, Uncle G, UrbanRePlanner, Uruhu, V.B., Valentinian, Vanished user 05, Versus22, Verthomme, Vicenarian, Victorjwilli, Voiceofreason01, Voila-pourquoi,Vrenator, Vsmith, WAS 4.250, WalkerMW, Wavelength, Wbcsd snv, Weiners, Wesley, Wesplan3rs, WhatamIdoing, WikHead, Wikibofh, William Pietri, Willow4, Wimt, Wintonian,Wittyname, Wmahan, Woohookitty, Wtb2001, Wæng, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yamla, Yerocdiamond, Yifengsy, ZabMilenko, Zen611, Zenedinho, Zeno Gantner, Ziggurat, Zodon, 1357 anonymousedits

Conservation biology  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=457525944  Contributors: 7&6=thirteen, AManWithNoPlan, Acstbandit, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Aldux, AlphaCentaury, Althaea, Animum, Anlace, Anthere, AppleJuggler, Arguer, Arpingstone, Arthur Rubin, Ashton1983, Atulsnischal, Auntof6, Awickert, Bachrach44, Bagworm, BigFatBuddha,BobCMU76, Brettgfraser, Burlywood, CSWarren, Cavrdg, Closedmouth, Cmdrjameson, Colincbn, CommonsDelinker, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Dackerts, Dailyrecord9, Daniel Collins,Darwin's Teapot, David D., Dawn Bard, Definition12, Dick Bos, Diyforlife, Drbreznjev, Dysmorodrepanis, EagleOne, Endangered11, Epbr123, Epipelagic, Erianna, Espoo, Fagopyrum,Finetooth, Floor Anthoni, Frankie816, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Gnomon Kelemen, Goinggreen, Gokulmadhavan, Grantus4504, Grendelkhan, Ground Zero, Guettarda, Hard Raspy Sci, Headbomb,Hectorguinness, HexaChord, Hmains, INkwazi Eco Training, Isiaunia, Ivirivi00, J04n, Jeljen, Jesanj, Jllm06, Joel Russ, Jonuti, Kbdank71, Khoikhoi, Kingpin13, L Kensington, Lalexander2002,Leolaursen, Liznichols, Look2See1, Looktothisday, M1ss1ontomars2k4, MKoltnow, Macropneuma, Madmedea, Magioladitis, Mailseth, Margareta, Matt-eee, Meaghan, Methcub, Michael Hardy,Mikael Häggström, Mjgroom, MovieImage, Mr pand, MrOllie, Mvanzonneveld, Mytilus, N96, Natubico, Nichols@amnh.org, Nicolae Coman, Nskillen, Oikoschile, Oxymoron83, Pablosinovas,Paine Ellsworth, Pengo, Pennester, Philip Trueman, Philippe, Pikiwyn, Pinky sl, Prkapoorvijay, Probio, Punchi, Quadell, R'n'B, RDBrown, Ragesoss, Restorer, Rich Farmbrough, Rich257,Richard New Forest, Richard001, Rjwilmsi, Robinh, Rror, Samsara, Schlüggell, Sebastian scha., Shadowjams, Shrumster, Shyamal, Sigismondo, SiobhanHansa, Sj, Smartse, Soccer4noel,Soniadeyoung, Squids and Chips, Stealth mountain lion, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, The Cunctator, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thenudist, Thompsma, Tomaxer, Vanished user, Vclaw,Vespristiano, Viridiflavus, Viriditas, Wavelength, WhatamIdoing, WikiDan61, Woohookitty, Xuz, Zotel, Zuman, ΓιάννηςΚαραμήτρος, 223 anonymous edits

Earth Song  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=457122919  Contributors: 'Splodey Star, 19870119, Ableadded, Allysqp, Aphasia83, ArielGold, Arteyu, Ashadeofgrey, Aspects,Betacommand, BillyH, BobThePirate, Bosoni, C777, COMPFUNK2, CalvinNelson4, Caponer, CardinalDan, Carmaker1, Cekli829, Chepetoño, Christmas Island92, Chubby the bink, Compic,Conquistador2k6, Crystal Clear x3, D bovair1988, D666D, David Eppstein, David.Monniaux, DavidFarmbrough, DeadEyeArrow, DepartedUser4, Eaalkaline, Elockid, Ericorbit, Europe22,Explicit, FMAFan1990, Falcon8765, Firsfron, Flávio Bros, Gakusha, Galileo4, Gilliam, GoingBatty, GreekStar12, Grue, Harry Potter S, Hobartimus, Holiday56, Human4321, I'll bring the food,Iridescent, J 1982, J.smith, Jacko2007, Jake Wartenberg, Jamcib, Jeff3000, JenG24, Jjmcspooh, Joelster, John Cardinal, John of Reading, Jonathannew7, Journalist, Jusdafax, KanzlerKreuz,Kbdank71, Ken Gallager, King kong922, KingdomHearts25, Koavf, Kralizec!, KuduIO, Kww, Lat0212, Leena, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Louis Taylor, Luminifer, Luminoth187, MaJic, Macphisto,Magioladitis, Mahdiislam, MakiR, Malpass93, MatteusH, Mel Etitis, Michael Devore, Mousalam, Mrmackerel, Muddyb Blast Producer, Muhandes, Mutante96, Neverland4ever, Nick Number,Numsound, Pawnkingthree, Philip Stevens, Philip Trueman, PieterM197, Pisapisa, Pokemonisaiah, Pyrrhus16, Q10Ml, QuasyBoy, Rawisrob, Realist2, Reqluce, Rharmon, Riverstepstonegirl,Rjwilmsi, RobinCarmody, RxS, Scanlan, Sickpuppy8721, Smartie2thaMaxXx, Smmurphy, Snailwalker, SnapSnap, Ss112, Statmo1921, Street walker, Suddenly There Is a Valley, Superior1,Tacitus,swift&yahweh, Tangerines, Tangerines Aux Fleur, Tbhotch, TehRandomPerson, TenPoundHammer, Terrasidius, The Evil IP address, The flying pasty, Thestreamer, Thingg,Thisandthem, Thorpe, Timclare, TimothyHorrigan, Trivialist, TubularWorld, Tvfan01nine, Two Hearted River, Vrisko, WikHead, Wikichap33, Woohookitty, Yandman, 349 anonymous edits

Wikipedia:Spoken articles  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=457617718  Contributors: .V., 1904.CC, 2, 99of9, ACBest, AKA MBG, AP1787, Abacatabacaxi, Abby,Abc27400, Acather96, Adaru, Afghana, Afrocatz, Airconswitch, Airplaneman, Alabaster Constantine III, Alan Liefting, Alanasings, Ale jrb, Alekjds, Alex Douglas, Alexkillby, Allstarecho,Anaxial, Andmott, Andrew D White, Animeshadows, Arbero, Arbitrarily0, Arsia Mons, AshLin, Audioman, Axl, Baconpork, BarkingFish, Beck162, Bencmq, Benjamin Nicholas Johnston,Beno1000, Bensin, Bernstein2291, Besselfunctions, BlueArctos, Boogaman801, Bowie Media, Breno, Brian0918, Brinticus, CBDroege, Cameltrader, Caninedoubletake, Casito, Cat1205123,Chadley99, CharCoal, CharlieRCD, Charonn0, Chemgarcia, Cinosaur, Cintoli, Coffee, Cognate247, ConCompS, CupOBeans, Dachannien, Dajes13, Dalahäst, Daniel913, Darrenhusted, Davhorn,Davumaya, Dbradzit, Dbrouse, Demi, Derfel73, Dev920, DollieLlama, Donbert, Donnyj, DreamsReign, Drkencarter, Dukeruckley, EhJJ, El7r, Eleaverton, Enochlau, Enormator, Enviroboy,Eric-Wester, Esteffect, Eubulides, Falconilla Red Foreman, Fang Aili, Ferkelparade, Filelakeshoe, Finlay McWalter, Fitzwilliam, FleetCommand, Fliry Vorru, FlyingToaster, Fumitol, GVOLTT,Gallen89, Garion96, Gary King, Gatewaycat, Genjix, GentlemanGhost, Gerolsteiner91, Gigs, GilbertoSilvaFan, Glennobrien, Goh wz, GorillaWarfare, Gracenotes, GreenReaper,GreenpeaceUbuntuMan, GwanMumiaBfree, HOUZI, Hajenso, Hans Dunkelberg, Hassocks5489, Hekerui, Hi878, HisSpaceResearch, Hkeely, Howcheng, Icey, Iketsi, J36miles, Jaesonli, JakeWasdin, JasonLamarche, JasonWoof, JavaDog, JayGatsby, JebJoya, Johnrpenner, Johntex, Jsharpminor, Jtneill, Ka-Ping Yee, Karltalk, KenKuhl, Kevin F. Story, Kewpid, Khokha001, Koavf,Kseferovic, Laganojunior, LeadSongDog, Leolisa1997, Leotohill, Lethaniol, Lgsoltek, LiamKeaneDotCom, Liface, Linfocito B, Lionrotterdam, LiteratPJ, Londonsista, Lord Hilder Arenas Maxi,Luna Santin, Lunpy&pooh, M4th5, MacGyverMagic, Macropode, Mangst, Mantisian, MassimoAr, MasterDirk, Matthewedwards, Mayooresan, Mdebets, Mikael Häggström, Mjquinn id,Moulder, MykReeve, Naccy51, NeoSuperBlissey, NeonMerlin, Nick-D, Nunh-huh, Nzseries1, Okso, Omaryak, Orthorhombic, P.B. Pilhet, Panser Born, Pasi, Patrickjoel, Paulcmnt, Peppage,Persian Poet Gal, Pharos, Phearson, Philip.t.day, PhoenixOwl, Pjf, Pokrajac, PopularOutcast, Pordaria, Ppntori, Quas NaArt, Quixada, Rahzel, Random2502, Reason turns rancid, Redbeanpaste,Rfc1394, RichardF, Richardhanstock, Rob T Firefly, Robert Skyhawk, RockMFR, Rsskill, Rybupsp, S Whistler, SCEhardt, Scepia, Scorcher117, Sedola, Seraphim, SergeantBolt, Shivaji Mitra,Simonxag, Skiasaurus, Skybon, Sloant, Slovakjoe, Smith609, Snowboy83, Sophie, Sophus Bie, Soundoflolllermania, SpeakThings:Mellerbeck, Spike Wilbury, SpongeSebastian, Ssnseawolf,Steinsky, Stepleton, Storkk, Supa6661, Surloc, Sylosin, Szyslak, TKD, Taestell, TarzanASG, Tbonespop, Temporal Fugitive, Tgies, The Fwanksta, The Jacobin, The seraphim, TheLoverofLove,Thecyberwasp, Theroachyjay, Tizio, Tlogmer, Tommy2010, Tonyle, Triacylglyceride, UK-Logician-2006, Ulric1313, Unigolyn, User2004, User99671, VR-Land, Valerieinto, Vanished user 01,Vonfraginoff, WAZAAAA, WODUP, WOSlinker, Warrior4321, Will Beback, Willsax, Wrcmills, Wtkwhite, Y2kcrazyjoker4, YLSS, Yarnbarndarn, 64 ,یوشیمیتسو anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 133

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Iceberg with hole near sanderson hope 2007-07-28 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iceberg_with_hole_near_sanderson_hope_2007-07-28_2.jpg  License:Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: Kim HansenFile:3D model hydrogen bonds in water.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:3D_model_hydrogen_bonds_in_water.svg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User Qwerter at Czech wikipedia: Qwerter. Transferred from cs.wikipedia; Transfer was stated to be made by User:sevela.p. Translated to english by byMichal Maňas (User:snek01). Vectorized by Magasjukur2File:Water droplet blue bg05.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Water_droplet_blue_bg05.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Fir0002File:SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wilson BentleyFile:Spider web Luc Viatour.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spider_web_Luc_Viatour.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:Luc ViatourFile:Capillarity.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Capillarity.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: MesserWolandFile:Label for dangerous goods - class 4.3.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Label_for_dangerous_goods_-_class_4.3.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:w:User:MysidMysidFile:Earth's water distribution.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Earth's_water_distribution.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: USGSFile:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA. Phototaken by either Harrison Schmitt or Ron Evans (of the Apollo 17 crew).File:Water cycle.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Water_cycle.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: USGSFile:Bay of Fundy High Tide.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bay_of_Fundy_High_Tide.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Antaya,Before My Ken, GeorgHH, Sam, Sanao, ShizhaoFile:Bay of Fundy Low Tide.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bay_of_Fundy_Low_Tide.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Antaya,Before My Ken, GeorgHH, Sam, Sanao, Shizhao, SpiritiaFile:Oasis in Lybia.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oasis_in_Lybia.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: -File:Auto-and heterotrophs.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Auto-and_heterotrophs.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Mikael HäggströmFile:Blue Linckia Starfish.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:Richard LingFile:Diatoms through the microscope.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Prof. Gordon T.Taylor, Stony Brook UniversityFile:Longwood Gardens-Italian Garden.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Longwood_Gardens-Italian_Garden.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Original uploader was MikeParker at en.wikipediaFile:Field Trip- water sampling.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Field_Trip-_water_sampling.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Originaluploader was Alloquep at en.wikipediaFile:SiphonTubes.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SiphonTubes.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: H2O-C, Honeplus, 1 anonymous editsFile:Humanitarian aid OCPA-2005-10-28-090517a.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Humanitarian_aid_OCPA-2005-10-28-090517a.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Technical Sergeant Mike Buytas of the United States Air ForceFile:Water quality.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Water_quality.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Ionut CojocaruFile:D-P005 Kein Trinkwasser.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:D-P005_Kein_Trinkwasser.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Torsten HenningFile:MH-60S Helicopter dumps water onto Fire.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MH-60S_Helicopter_dumps_water_onto_Fire.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Chris Fahey, U.S. NavyFile:Grand Anse Beach Grenada.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grand_Anse_Beach_Grenada.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:Varun Kapoor / VkapFile:Water carrier.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Water_carrier.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Alan Liefting, Idleguy, Magog the Ogre, SiddhantFile:TapWater-china.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TapWater-china.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 1.0 Generic  Contributors:User:ShizhaoFile:Usine Bret MG 1648.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Usine_Bret_MG_1648.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:User:RamaFile:200407-sandouping-sanxiadaba-4.med.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:200407-sandouping-sanxiadaba-4.med.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Rehman, Saperaud, Shizhao, TomPreussFile:Magnify-clip.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnify-clip.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Erasoft24File:Cuisson des pates.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cuisson_des_pates.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Antoinel, Catfisheye, ManvyiFile:Access to drinking water in third world.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Access_to_drinking_water_in_third_world.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:EphemeroniumImage:Blue Linckia Starfish.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:Richard LingImage:River gambia Niokolokoba National Park.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:River_gambia_Niokolokoba_National_Park.gif  License: Public Domain Contributors: United States governmentImage:Fungi of Saskatchewan.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fungi_of_Saskatchewan.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:SasataImage:Swiss National Park 131.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Swiss_National_Park_131.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Hansueli KrapfImage:Phanerozoic Biodiversity.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phanerozoic_Biodiversity.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:User:Dragons flightImage:Field Hamois Belgium Luc Viatour.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Field_Hamois_Belgium_Luc_Viatour.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Luc ViatourImage:Amazon Manaus forest.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Amazon_Manaus_forest.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:Phil P Harris.Image:Forest fruits from Barro Colorado.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Forest_fruits_from_Barro_Colorado.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Photos courtesy of Christian Ziegler.Image:Ueberladewagen (jha).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ueberladewagen_(jha).jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:HinrichImage:Eaglecreek-28July2006.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eaglecreek-28July2006.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Originaluploader was Kkmd at en.wikipediaImage:Undiscovered species chart.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Undiscovered_species_chart.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: KVDPImage:Amazonie deforestation.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Amazonie_deforestation.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Apdency, Dake

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 134

Image:Male Silver Pheasant.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Male_Silver_Pheasant.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Originally uploaded by Harrybalais aten.wikipedia overwriting another file (now Image:Common Pheasant on paving.jpg) that has been uploaded by Jimfbleak Later version(s) were uploaded by.Image:Wheat selection k10183-1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wheat_selection_k10183-1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: PDHImage:Polar bears near north pole.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polar_bears_near_north_pole.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Chief YeomanAlphonso Braggs, US-NavyImage:MEAConservationStrategies.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MEAConservationStrategies.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC.Image:Gletscherschmelze.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gletscherschmelze.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Saperaud, W!B:,ZorkNika, 1 anonymous editsFile:Hopetoun falls.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hopetoun_falls.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: DiliffFile:Lacanja burn.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lacanja_burn.JPG  License: Public domain  Contributors: Jami DwyerFile:ParaguayChaco Clearings for cattle grazing .jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ParaguayChaco_Clearings_for_cattle_grazing_.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Peer VFile:Amazonie deforestation.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Amazonie_deforestation.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Apdency, DakeFile:DEFORASTATION RAIN FOREST RIO DE JANEIRO BRAZIL.JPG  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DEFORASTATION_RAIN_FOREST_RIO_DE_JANEIRO_BRAZIL.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alex Rio BrazilFile:forest transition theory.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Forest_transition_theory.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AngelsenFile:Néolithique 0001.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Néolithique_0001.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Hohum,Koba-chan, Manchot, Winterkind, 1 anonymous editsFile:Bolivia-Deforestation-EO.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bolivia-Deforestation-EO.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA, (originally uploadedto en:Wikipedia by http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Seth_Ilys )File:Attack on bloody ridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Attack_on_bloody_ridge.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:W.wolnyfile:1924 Atlantic hurricane 10 track.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1924_Atlantic_hurricane_10_track.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Juliancolton,Potapychfile:Unnamed Tropical Storm 17 july 1706Z.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Unnamed_Tropical_Storm_17_july_1706Z.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:NOAA / Satellite and Information ServiceImage:2006 Atlantic tropical storm 2 track.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2006_Atlantic_tropical_storm_2_track.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Ajm81,Hurricanehink, JuliancoltonImage:2006 unnamed.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2006_unnamed.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA MODIS SatelliteFile:Špalek na štípání.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Špalek_na_štípání.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:Chmee2File:Microbial electrolysis cell.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Microbial_electrolysis_cell.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Zina Deretsky, NationalScience Foundation (NSF), User:KVDPFile:BlueMarble-2001-2002.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BlueMarble-2001-2002.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Apoc2400File:Nested sustainability-v2.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nested_sustainability-v2.gif  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Iacchus, SunrayImage:Sustainable development.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sustainable_development.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:User:Nojhan, User:Pro_bug_catcherFile:Population curve.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Population_curve.svg  License: Public domain  Contributors: w:Cser:El TEl TFile:Human welfare and ecological footprint sustainability.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Human_welfare_and_ecological_footprint_sustainability.jpg  License:Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Travelplanner based on data from UN Development Programme and Global Footprint NetworkFile:Rice Field.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rice_Field.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Hydriz, OhanaUnited, SF007, Takeaway, 2 anonymous editsFile:Helix of sustainability.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Helix_of_sustainability.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Design: LynnTucker, Graphic art: Astrid ErasmusonFile:Genomics GTL Program Payoffs.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Genomics_GTL_Program_Payoffs.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MddFile:Feijoada 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Feijoada_01.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Jurema Oliveira, Kintetsubuffalo, Ras67,Zephynelsson VonImage:Eletrice wire reel reused in like a furniture ecodesign.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eletrice_wire_reel_reused_in_like_a_furniture_ecodesign.JPG License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alex Rio BrazilFile:Waste hierarchy.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Waste_hierarchy.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: en:user:Drstuey,User:StanneredFile:An Brueghel the Elder-Great Fish market.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:An_Brueghel_the_Elder-Great_Fish_market.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Bukk, Jan Arkesteijn, Man vyi, Mattes, Myrabella, Vincent Steenberg, 1 anonymous editsImage:ChildrenPerceptionBiomass.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ChildrenPerceptionBiomass.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: JakeL. Snaddon, Edgar C. Turner, William A. Foster. (2008). Children's Perceptions of Rainforest Biodiversity: Which Animals Have the Lion's Share of Environmental Awareness? PLoS ONE 3(7):e2579. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002579Image:Extinction intensity.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Extinction_intensity.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Beland, Dragonsflight, Geoffrey.landis, Patrick, Smith609, TomCatX, Wst, 1 anonymous editsImage:BiomassCharts.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BiomassCharts.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Jake L. Snaddon, Edgar C.Turner, William A. Foster. (2008). Children's Perceptions of Rainforest Biodiversity: Which Animals Have the Lion's Share of Environmental Awareness? PLoS ONE 3(7): e2579.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002579Image:Status iucn3.1.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Status_iucn3.1.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: PengoImage:Libya 4985 Tadrart Acacus Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Libya_4985_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Luca Galuzzi (Lucag)Image:NAMOSBC.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NAMOSBC.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ThompsmaImage:White Gerfalcons.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:White_Gerfalcons.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Holger Thölking, Kilom691Image:Muir and Roosevelt restored.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Muir_and_Roosevelt_restored.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Underwood &UnderwoodFile:Earth Song cover.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Earth_Song_cover.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: AvicAWB, Pyrrhus16, Realist2File:Michael Jackson Earth Song screenshot.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Michael_Jackson_Earth_Song_screenshot.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors:Aphasia83, Pyrrhus16, Realist2Image:Michael Jackson Lausanne 20 juin 1997.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Michael_Jackson_Lausanne_20_juin_1997.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Share Alike  Contributors: user:Jamcib

License 135

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/